THE

POLISH

PEASANT

AND

AMERICA

VOLUME

PRIMARY-GROUP

IN

ORGANIZATION

EUROPE

T/'
THE
N

PEASANT

POLISH
EUROPE

AMERICA

and

:ONOGRAPH

OF

AN

IMMIGRANT

GROUP

V
WILLIAM

I. THOMAS
and

FLORIAN

ZNANIECKI

VOLUME

PRIMARY-GROUP

ORGANIZATION

.2.
1.1 "??:'"

BOSTON

RICHARD
THE

G.
GORHAM

BADGER
PRESS

1918

COPYRIGHT

RICHARD

BY
:

All Rights

"

G.

"

BADGER
i

Reserved

T5
v.

ORHAM

PRESS.

BOSTON,

U.

S. A

GRATEFULLY

DEDICATED

TO

HELEN

CULVER

PREFACE

unformulated

field

logical order)

are:

assimilation;

the

and

races

and

social

of

anti-social

of

the

difference

about

brought

and

values

and

and,

particular

introduction

of

laws

of

social

resulting

from

the

and

of

social

of

study

social

common

desirable
tion;
of revolu-

way

of the

most

reality,preliminary
satisfactory,or
of

control

our

of

and

the

to

social

reflective

new

control'as

is

increasingly satisfactory,as

possible withouM

determination

the

rela-

containing Sr

selection

recourse

generally,

more

and

without

of

and

the

unreflective

rational

introduction

the

means;

of

framework

between

by

worth

vagabondage,

functions

by tradition,

about

cultural

nationalism

of individualization

rate

co-operation brought

world,

moral

to

ciency
class-hierarchization; effi-

social

the

to

the

disorganization;

the

and

happiness, particularly as

bis activities;

to

and

reference

prejudice;

behavior;

democracy

tionjof the individual

general

racial

relatively

yet

as

(without

mental

comparative

forms

and

attitudes

the

science

immigration;

internationalism;

ends

in

nationalities; crime, alcoholism,

other

cohesion

included

questions

the

Among

the

material

the

of

laws

as

physical

reality.
Now

but
these
and

are

we

and

we

of

and

primarily

convinced
social

studying them,

of the

an

expression
selection

first,in the

then

immigration

and

necessity

totality of

comparatively.

of interest

of this

in these

interested

of

exclusively or
in the

society
by

The

other

was

their

societies

objective

present

study

primarily

even

Polish

peasant

influenced

by

considerations

lems,
prob-

approaching

problems by isolating given

not, in fact, undertaken

was

our

are

other

complexity,

as

ourselves

the

named

(although

question
below,

PREFACE

Vlll

best

study will be

the

as

standpoint
methodological note forming
a

The

present volume.

of the

first pages

the

in

outlined

method

selected rather

was

of
exemplification

the

object for

convenient
and

Polish peasant

the

but
ff.),

74

pp.

scope

of

this

fact

appreciated by having

our

in

mind.
consists of five

work

The

Volumes

in their character.
the

organizationof

and

community),and
organizationunder

of

of

system

and

Volume

III is the

nf

a.n

volumes, largelydocumentary

the

I and

the

comprise a study

primary

peasant

of the

II

influence

immigration

to

of the

of this system
industrial

new

America

and

Germany.

(with critical treatment)

autobiography

of peasant originbut belongingby occupairnmigrq.nt

tion
illustrates the tendency to
to the lower cityclass,and

disorganizationof
in

volved

individual

the

under

from one
rapidj:ransition

Volume
tion_tp_another.
primary group and the

IV

the

conditions

in-

type of social organizathe dissolution

treats

social and

of the

political
reorganization

unification of peasant communities

and

(family

groups

evolution
partial.

of

in Poland

on

the

of rational

V is based
co-operation. Volume
studies of the Polish immigrant in America
and shows
on
the degrees and
forms of disorganization
associated with
a
too-rapid and inadequatelymediated
individualization,
with a sketch of the beginningsof reorganization.

ground

new

We

unable

are

of
recognition
many

sources,

the

to

courts,

record

the generous

but

wish

here

in

assistance

we

detailed

have

way

our

received from

particularappreciation
following individuals,societies,periodicals,
to

express

etc.:

Professor
Stefan

to

Fr.

Bujak, University of Cracow;

Surzycki,University of Cracow;

Cracow;

Mr.

Roman

Grabski,Warsaw;

Dmowski,
Mr.

Dr.

Warsaw; Mr.
Jerzy Goscicki,Warsaw;

Professor

Hupka,
Wladysiaw
S.

Priest

Jan

ix

PREFACE

Starawies;

Gralewski,
Eileen

for

Society

the

(Berlin:

Institut
Gazeta

Stanislawa

the

R.

Dr.

A.

Gol^biowski)

S.

Chief

Cracow

two
(TowarzysLand-

Mary

Hunter,

and

the

officials of the

Stanislaw

Tygodnik

Mr.

Rutkowski,

(Posen:

Gospodarski
(Posen);

the

Juvenile

Charities

the

Court;

Coroner's

the

keepers
the

Judge

Chief

probation

of the

Municipal

Pinckney,

W.

District;

Chicago;

the

Olson,

United

Northwest

County

Miss

(Warsaw:

Narod

Poznanski

Bartelme,

records

Criminal

Mrs.

Malinowski,

Poradnik

Dziennik

Bertling).

O.

Kosmowska)

(Mr.

Amerika

Proszynski,

M.

M.

Zgoda

Chicagoski (Chicago).

Judge

probation

Cook

Warsaw

Women

Karl

Dr.

Simon);

Merritt

Judge

of

Mrs.

Krakowie)

Country

United

of

Irene

Zorza

Dziennik

the

County

Miss

Justice Harry

Chicago;

Society

the

Tadeusz

(Mr.

Gustaw

Brownsford);

K.

the

of

(Warsaw:

Domanski);

Stanislaw

(Chicago);

of

Umiejqtnosci

Drechsler,

W.

Malinowska,

(Warsaw:

D.

the

Society

Zaranie

Polski

Joel

Wychodzcami};

Knowledge

Swiqteczna

Burtnowska);

Arnold,

of

(Towarzystwo ZjednoczonychZiemianek);

Residents

Mr.

Vilna;

Association

(Akademia

Krajoznawcze);

Mr.

nod

Opieki

of Sciences

Academy
the

Protective

Emigrants'

(Towarzystwo

Kulikowski,

Chicago.

Znaniecka,

The

A.

Mr.

Court

the

keepers

Victor

P.

and

Officer

keepers

of Cook

of

County;

Chicago, particularly

officials
of

of

Probation

officers

of

Court

of

the

records
of

the

Legal
of the

records

Aid
Cook

of the

Office.
W.

I. T.
F.

Z.

CONTENTS

PAGE

METHODOLOGICAL

NOTE

INTRODUCTION

*The

:......

VOLUMES

TO

AND

II

87

Family

Peasant

87

'

........

yMarriage

106
"

in

Class-System

^The

^Social

128

Environment

^Economic

Religious

Society

Polish

140

Life

and

Attitudes

Magical

205
.

Theoretic

FORM

AND

and

Aesthetic

FUNCTION

Specimen

OF

Peasant

CORRESPONDENCE

156

288

Interests

THE

PEASANT

LETTER

303

Letters

BETWEEN

308

MEMBERS

OF

FAMILY-GROUPS

.316
.

Borek

Series

317
.

Wroblewski

Stelmach

Osinski

Gosciak

Markiewicz

Series

Series

Series

325

379

394

Series

451

Series

455

NOTE

METHODOLOGICAL

One
is the

of the

tends

ready

active

to

let

to

and

individual

or

social

moral

religious,or
marvelous

The
the

analogous

be

procedure

Our

able

actual

gives

While

but

reason,

attitude

objective

realization

our

of

our

in

"legislation"

will

or

is not

world.

of

an

Our

in

shall eventually
same

not

simply

some

success

we

in the

due,

technique

apply

to

us

toward

This

measure.

to

historical

the

to

mental
funda-

any

reality is

social

the

of

is four
in

"moral

tendency
constitutes

at

old,

suasion"
with

rational

to

immediate

any

centuries

shows

control

the

to

is

this

that

social
in

growing

insistent

an

act

confidence

our

regard

present

controlled

be

can

demand

social sciences.
demand

for

so

the

far

as

whole
this

rational

of

based

were

stabilityof
in

nature

independent

as

and

increasing rapidity
control

that

yet generally realized

But

the

it

reason

this field also and

only

our

rational

that

this line is

only by treating

on

whim

acquisition.

recent

idea

confidence

us

inefficiencyin
of

our

dissatisfied

mere

reality.

social world

the

that

social

the

limitation
fact

by

reality invite

to

control

to

without

preconceived philosophical,

upon

attained

material

controlling nature

less and

generalizations.

results

of

sphere

or

are

more
a

upon

rational

on

and

evolution

and

We

go

more

based

body,

life.

processes

feel

we

interference

active

any

social

any

of social

conscious

in social

assume

interference

with

in

which

growing importance

technique
less

significantfeatures

most

social

upon

evolution.

the

social

results

control

The
of

assumption

framework

stabilitywas

real.

old

and
In

an

were
a

the

from
forms

of

essential
effective

stable

social

PRIMARY-GROUP

ORGANIZATION

organizationthere is time enough to develop in a purely

through innumerable
empirical way,
experiments and
of control with
failures,approximately sufficient means
regard to the ordinary and frequent social phenomena,
while

the

made

errors

phenomena
imperil the

in

treating the

affect social life in such

seldom

of

existence

the

if

group;

and

uncommon
a

manner

they do,

has

"

to

take

an

"

developed during

of beliefs and

the Polish

example

centuries

many

rules of behavior

to

as

then

the

inevitable.

catastrophe is accepted as incomprehensibleand

Thus

rare

peasant community

complicated systems
social

sufficient to control

life under

ordinary circumstances, and the cohesion of

of its membership are strong
the group
and the persistence
enough to withstand
passivelythe influence of eventual
extraordinaryoccurrences,
although there is no adequate
method
And
of meeting them.
if the crisis is too serious
and the old unity or prosperityof the group
breaks down,
this is usuallytreated at first as a result of superior forces
against which no fightis possible.
But
group

the

when, owing
and

its contact

social evolution

the breakdown

to

with

more

becomes

more

frequent and varied, there

gradual, empirical,unmethodical
more

of the isolation of the

complex and
rapid and
is

no

time

elaboration

of control, and
adequate means
be
passivelyborne, but every one must

no

met

fluid

world,

the

crises

for the
of

mately
approxi-

crisis
hi

same

can

more

be
or

adequate way, for they are too various and frequentnot

The substitution
to imperilsocial lifeunless controlled in time.
of a conscious
technique for a half-conscious routine
dent
has become, therefore,a social necessity,
though it is evithat the development of this technique could be only
find in it many
now
we
implicitor
gradual,and that even
ideas and methods
correspondingto stages of human
explicit

less

thought passed hundreds

or

even

thousands

of years

ago.

METHODOLOGICAL

of

that

is

crisisby

an

most

"

"

"

of the undesirable

decree.
Dhase

of natural

bringinga

of

thought
s

of the desirable

the appearance

or

using arbitraryphysical action to

This
method
correspondsexactly to

and

na,

form of social technique

persistent
that is, meeting a
orbidding
ordering-and-f
arbitraryact of will decreeingthe disappearance

oldest but

The

NOTE

to

decreed

technique.

determined

desirable

both,

effect is

enforce
the

more

less

or

of which

and

the

magical

the essential

means

consciously

of will itself by which

reside in the act

as

In

phenom-

the action

the effect
is

merely

vehicle or instrument; in both, the process

indispensable
which
the cause
(act of will and physical action)is

an

supposed to bring its effect to realization remains out

if the result is
in both, finally,
reach of investigation;
attained, some
is

act

new

of will with

introduced, instead

of

material

new

trying to

find and

of
not

sories
accesremove

he

A
good instance of this in the
perturbing causes.
social field is the typicallegislative
procedure of today.
It frequentlyhappens both in magic and in the orderingand-forbiddingtechnique that the means
by which the act
of will is helped are reallyeffective,
and thus the result is
attained,but, as the process of causation,being unknown,
be controlled,the success
is always more
less
cannot
or
the stabilityof general
accidental
and
dependent upon

enditions; when

these

changed, the intended

are

effect

for the
subject is unable to account
reaiBlrof the failure and can only try by guesswork some
)ther means.
And
this accidental
even
more
frequenttl^an
is the result that the action bringssome
but
iuccess
effect,

appear,
ailjig^h

ot

the desired

There
md-f

the

one.

is,indeed,

one

difference between

orbidding technique

xpressed act
the person

or

of will may

body

from

and

magic.

be sometimes
which

it emanates

In
a

the

ordering-

social

real cause,
has

life

an

when

particular

ORGANIZA1

PRIMARY-GROUP

authorityin the eyes

applies. But

of those

techniqueas such.
was
a
legislators

the
and

under

efficient cause

not

the

order

change the

or

hibition
pro-

of

nature

prestigeof rulers,ecclesiastics,

The

condition
old

the

whom

to

this does

ION

making

of will

act

an

an

it loses its value

regimes,but

in the modern

partlyor completelyrepublicanorganizations.
based upon
"common
sense"
A more
effective technique,
and
representedby "practical" sociology,has naturally
originatedin those lines of social action in which there was
in which
the hoc
either no place for legislative
measures
or
volo,sic jubeo proved too evidentlyinefficient in business,
in charity and
philanthropy,in diplomacy, in personal
etc.
association,
Here, indeed, the act of will having been
recognizedas inefficient in directingthe causal process, real
"

for every

phenomenon, and an endeavor

is made
the causes,
to control the effects by acting upon
fallacies are
and, though it is often partlysuccessful,
many
implicitlyinvolved in this technique; it has still many
characters of a planlessempiricism,trying to get at the
causes

are

real

cause

sought

by

rather

directed
possibilities,

haphazard selection of various

only by a rough and popular reflection,

and

its deficiencies have

and

more

to be shown

efficient method

of action is

first of these fallacies has

The

is the latent

manifest

or
we

live in it,and

relations

as

certain

acquaintance with
same

world
have

as

because
the

them.

in the ancient
we

on

The

that

the

attitude

act

in

mere

it,and

common

of

sense

know

know

It

social

things

assume

empirical

our

is here

about

the

the

physical

that therefore

we

specialand thorough

basis of "common

history of physical science gives us

of the results to which

we

new

exposed.

we

can

basis

assumption that

live and

the

we

be introduced.

often been

rightof generalizingwithout

investigation,
on

to

if

removed

suppositionthat

realitybecause
and

and

many
can

sense."

The

good examples
lead, such as the

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

adaptationof

degrees of

are

is to

appliedin

success

in

exercised

elements

Two

errors.

many

the

over

success

in

is the

one

other

the

environment;

of

reallyarea

large

very

denotes

found

are

adaptation;

every

for

of which

partialfailures,each

of

number

and

"

allowance

they make

low, because

very

be

societymay

human

of

that all the standards

subjective,and

large extent

standard

the

proof

forget that

thoroughly,we
that

success,

is

his environment

to

this environment

that he knows
there

the individual

or

one

varying

portions
pro-

control

actual

claims

is the

satisfy. The adaptationmay be

successful and wide
perfect,either because of particularly
limited claims.
Whenever
control or because of particularly
which

the

this control

control

to

serves

within

the

given

the individual

better control

the group

or

limit the claims.

or

of claims

range

proves

either

can

in

And,

sufficie
in-

develop a

fact,in

every

activitythe second method, of adaptationby failures,

plays
a

important

very

of his environment

in

absolutelysuccessful.
is due
practicalsuccess
limited
truths

number

of the

in which
In

this way

and

always
in

the

does
far

so

or

the individual

how

and

of

much

this

luck, even

doubtful.

Finally,the
practiceare always

of individual
as
singular,

are

the situations

finds himself.

acquaintance with

of social relations which

more

only in the
actually control it;
as
they are perfectly,

chance

mere

knowledge

real

as

remember

we

becomes

we

social data

comes

during his life is incommunicable

everyone

must

the

in number

the well-known

part of practicalwisdom

general terms;

and

acquire in practice

less subjective,limited both

generality. Thence

in

he

if

and

concrete

the really valuable

stated

to

individual's

considered

And

test

the individual

knowledge
are

the

the

only in

of truths

that stand

schemes

be
which

be true

can

Thus

can

particularmatters
his schemes

role.

fact that

acquired7by
"

cannot

acquire it

be

afresh

METHODOLOGICAL

by

of

kind

personalityand

sense

social theory and

both

and
insignificant

sociologythat

to

remain

in the

for his

own

of

he

based

individual

on

own

particular

use

which

his

encounters.
common-

experienceare

subject to innumerable
exceptions.
condemns
itself
necessarily
accepts them
same
methodologicalstage, and a practice

them

be

must

activityof

is the

demands

learningto

constituting the
generalizations

Thus, all the

upon

the

situations

concrete

that is,by

"

construct

to

of the

schemes

as

life

apprenticeshipto

experiencesaccording to

select

based

NOTE

as

every

insecure and

full of failures

as

individual.

an
"practical" sociologymakes
the level of popular generalizations
effort to get above
vidual
by the study of social realityinstead of relyingupon indi-

Whenever,

this

now,

it stillpreserves
the same
method
the
as
experience,
individual in his personal reflection;
^investigationalways
reference to practical
aims, and
g^es on with an immediate
the

standards

ground
This
the

of

which

upon

is the

second

results of work

been

theoretic

and

undesirable

problems

efforts that

enormous

social reforms.

to

The

have

example

techniqueshould

have

science and

material

that

scientific investigation,
which

only a

the

are

put forth in the collection and elaboration

preparatory

are

approached.
fallacyof the practicalsociology,and
this standpoint are
proportion
from
quite dis-

the

to

desirable

the

recently

of materials
of

shown

physical
long ago

is

quitefree from
useful
practically

dependence on practice,can become

in its applications.Of course
this does not mean
that the
scientist should not select for investigation
problems whose
solution has actual practical
importance; the sociologist
may
any

study crime
from

war

the method
must

And

or

as

of the

be excluded

this has

not

the chemist

studies

dyestuffs. But
tions
study itself all practicalconsideraif

we

want

the results

to

*"

be valid.

sociology. !
yet been realized by practical

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

realityshould

with which

norm
implicit

be intrinsic to the

may

is that

standpoint here

usual

The

things is normal;

be

it may

or

explicitor

an

comply.

The

norm

it is presumed

reality,as when

actuallyprevailingtraditional

the

of

state

customary

or

when

extrinsic,as

that
of

moral,

aesthetic standards are appliedto social reality

or
religious,
state of thingsis found in disaccord with
and the prevailing
in

and

the norm,

far abnormal.

so

this difference has

But

importance. In both cases the normal, agreeing

is supposed to be known
either by practical
with the norm,
particularkind of rational or
acquaintance or by some
irrational evidence; the problem is supposed to lie in the
no

essential

the

abnormal,

abnormal

the

case

is the

with

disharmony
is the

the

in
exceptional,

usual,while the normal

the

constitutes

an

the

In

norm.

second

case

first

it

exception,but

of

generalmethod

remains the same.

investigation
that the applicationof norms
There
is no
doubt
to
was
realityhad a historical merit; investigation
provoked
in this way
and the "abnormal"
became
the first objectof
the

empiricalstudies.

morally indignant observer of

vice and crime and the political
idealist-reformer who start
the investigation
as
positiveinvestigations.But as soon
is started both indignation
and idealism should be put aside.
For in treatinga certain body of material as representing
the normal, another
body of material as standing for the
abnormal,

introduce

we

for
artificial;
determined

It is the

at

if these

only

on

terms

the

criterion of

normalitymust
normal, not only a

in the
life and

limited class of

different stages

through

whole

social

of

varietyof
group

once

division that is necessarily

have

basis

of

be such

as

to

allow

certain determined

facts,but also
which

we

us

to

are

be
the

include

stage of social

the whole

social life passes,

phenomena.

of facts that

meaning it can
and
investigation,
a

^ The

definition

going

to

series of
and

the

priori
investigateas
a

METHODOLOGICAL

abnormal

has

immediate

two

attention is turned

NOTE

to

First,our
important

consequences.

such facts

as

the

seem

most

as
conspicuouslycontrary to the
practically,
being most
for reform.
and
But
the
norm
insistently
callingmost
important may be quite insigthings that are practically
nificant

theoreticallyand,
have

to

seem

view

The scientificvalue of
other

the

contrary, those

fact

depends

in this connection

facts,and

which

importance from the practicalpoint of

of important scientific discoveries.
source

no

be the

may

on

its connection

on

the

most

with

commonplace

valuable
while
preciselythe most
ones,
stirs the moral feeling
a fact that strikes the imaginationor
be reallyeither isolated or exceptional,
so
or
simple as
may
facts

often

are

hardly any problems. Again, by separatingthe

abnormal
from
the normal
we
deprive ourselves of the
opportunityof studying them in their connection with each
other,while only in this connection can their study be fully
to

involve

fruitful.
normal
any

There

and

only with
But
the

the

the
continuity between
life that would permit
concrete

correspondingbodies

of the normal

theoretic abstraction

and

the abnormal

can

be

of material,

perfectlyunderstood

of this

fallacy. When
of the investigation,
starting-point

other consequences

are

is not

result but

it is in this case,

practicalcustom
moral, political,
religious
view, claims to be

as

every

abnormal

and

to

The

result is harmful

treat

as

suppress

all the

contrary

to

the

every

whatever

both

practice,as historyshows
a social technique based

social

mined
deter-

as

help of comparison.

the

there

norm

in

the abnormal

the nature

by

in

break

no

separationof

exact

and

is

in
and

does

not

practiceand
as

we

see

at

agree
in

habit,

or

the

norm

with

theory.

every

it.
In

moment,

tends to
norms
pre-existing
social energieswhich seem
to act in a way
demands
of the norm,
and to ignoreall the

energiesnot

upon

included

in the

sphere embraced

by

the

ORGANIZATION

limits still more

the

practicalimportance of
it simply harmful instead of
the techniqueand often makes
its basis
useful. In theory, a sociologyusing norms
as
deprives itself of the possibilityof understanding and
This

norm.

PRIMARY-GROUP

Indeed,
controlling
any important facts of social evolution.
social process of real importance always includes a
every
of the

change

by the

embraced

themselves, not alone

norms

undergo
religion,

and

Traditions

norms.
an

evolution

and

of the

activity
customs, morality

that is

and

more

more

rapid,and it is evident that a sociologyproceeding on the

is valid and that whatever
assumption that a certain norm
finds itself absolutely
does not comply with it is abnormal
has lost
helplesswhen it suddenly realizes that this norm
all social significance
and that some
other norm
has appeared
in its place. This helplessness
is particularly
strikingin
of great

moments

when
social^crisis

the evolution

of

norms

becomes

exceptionallyrapid. We notice it,for example,

vividness during the present war, when
the
particular
individualistic system of norms
elaborated during the

with
whole
last

centuries

two

which

system,

begins to
be

may

before

retreat

socialism

state

quite different
or
something

quite new.
Thev third fallacyof the

sociologyis

common-sense

the

implicitassumption that any group of social facts can be

treated theoretically
and practically
in an arbitrary
isolation
from the rest of the life of the given society. This assumption
is

of

perhaps unconsciouslydrawn
social organization,
in which the

groups

of facts is

In

line of organized human

any

certain

kind

individuals
as

are

are

not

used, and

the general form

real isolation of certain

result of the demands

will take

able and

they will

from

of

practicallife.

activityonly

it is assumed

part in this

actions of

that

only such
particularorganization

willingto perform these actions,and that

bringinto this sphere of activity
any tendencies

METHODOLOGICAL

that

may

army

corps

NOTE

destroy the organization. The factoryand

are
typicalexamples of such organizations.

isolation of

of facts from

group

the
The

the rest of social lifeis here

reallyand

practicallyperformed. But exactly in so far

such a system functions in a perfectmanner
there is no
as
place at all for social science or social practice;the only
thing required is a material division and organizationof
isolated human

these
and

social

actions.

The

task

of social

theory
of these systems; it begins,
tendencies not harmonizing

techniquelies outside

example, whenever external

with the organizedactivities are

for

introduced

into the system,

factorystart a strike or the soldiers

of the army
the isolation disappears;
corps a mutiny. Then
the system enters, through the individuals who
its
are
members, into relation with the whole complexity of social
life. And
this lack of real isolation,
which
characterizes
when

in the

the workmen

system of organizedactivityonly

is a permanent

at

of

moments

crisis,

feature of all the

artificial,
abstractlyformed
of facts such as "prostitution,"
tion,"
"crime," "educagroups
"war," etc. Every singlefact included under these
is connected
ties with an
generalizations
by innumerable
indefinite number
of other facts belongingto various groups,
and
If

these relations
start

we

to

give to

study

every

these facts

as

fact
a

different character.

whole, without

heeding

their connection

with

come
necessarily

quite arbitrarygeneralizations.If we
these facts in a uniform way simply because

start

to act

we

must

to

upon

their abstract

the rest of the social world,

essence

seems

to be the same,

we

must

sarily
neces-

tions
produce quitedifferent results,varying with the relaof every particular
to the rest of the social world.
case
This

possibleto isolate such

of facts for theoretic investigation
activity,
or
practical
groups
but simply that the isolation must
not
a priori,
come,
but

does

not

mean

that it is not

posteriori,in

the

same

way

as

the

distinction

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

12

between

the

normal

first be taken

belong, and

the abnormal.

and

in connection
the

which

problem

the whole

with

question of

The

in

must

which

to

later isolation is

shall treat

we

facts

they

ological
method-

later part of

this note.
There

fallacies involved

other

two

are

certain extent

to a

in social

practice,although practicalsociologyhas already

for their persistencein
reason
repudiated^them. The
of the old assumppracticeis that,even if the erroneousness
tions
has been recognized,
no
new
working ideas have been
(i) that men
put in their place. These assumptions are:
in the

react

same

their individual

to

external

profitin

and

that

(2) that

The

assumption

influences is found

them

given conditions,
favorable

create
to

give birth

of

identical

in the most

reactions

or

to

or

various

identical

to

lines of traditional

activity;the examples of legalpracticeand

sufficient

are

assumptions

about

all the
parties,

to

illustrate it.

the

this

"motives"

rules and forms

all the decisions

upon

in order

enable

given tendencies.

suppress

social

conditions

which

from

way

it is sufficient to

unfavorable

remove

in various individuals

influence,tendencies

therefore

it is

therefore

that

develop spontaneously,

men

uniform

regardlessof

influences

same

identical behavior

full and

the

social past, and

or

possibleto provoke
by identical means;
without

to

way

of the

In

of education

the former

of the

behavior

all the
of the

of

and examination,
investigation
based
courts, are essentially

principle. Considerations

traditions,habits,temperaments,

of

etc., enter

the

variety of

only

tally
inciden-

and usuallyin doubtful cases, by the

secondarily,
initiative of the lawyers; they are
the result of commonsense
observations,but find littleif any place
psychological
and

in the

objectivesystem

in the American

of laws

juvenilecourts,

and
an

rules.

And

where,

attempt is made

to

as

base

aristocratic class do

has

Poland

all

understand

alone, without

And

of the

innumerable

departments

Polish

pay

of

people than

the

to

to

the material

psychology of

who

live in these conditions; for the conditions

and

and
tangible,
and

we

know

realize almost

how

the material
And

ascribe

to

of

which

objectiveprincipleson
tends

to grasp

perfectplans of

in the absence

while

it is easy

science of behavior

attention

more

could

examples

of social life. But

in the absence

that

social reformers

not

Polish

with

universities.

be cited from

no

the

association,
only a privatephilosophical
literature
than twice as much
originalphilosophical
been published recentlyas in Russia with her eleven

endowed

to

in

decay of family life. In

enness
Italy there is less drunkthe prohibitionstates
of

in

than

Russian

In

conditions

Northern

the saloon

universityand
more

hinder

not

and

France

America.

external

favorable

uncommonly

with

in

peasant community

probably be considered in America

of crime and pauperism, while
breeding-place

necessary

Southern

Polish

would

which

conditions
a

exist in

life may

family
as

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

the

and

material

people

concrete

are

them

ditions
con-

to

ceive
con-

ments,
improve-

science the reformer

has

sciously
rely,and unconpreponderating importance to

he

can

side of social life.

these fallacies of the

always due

to

attitude
scientific

a
on

lack of theoretic
the part of the

the unavoidable

They are
meeting

actual

without

interruptionand
The

at

who

men

to

be

do

serious

the work.

of the necessity of
Social

once.

has

of

abilityor

consequence

situations

business

sociologyare

common-sense

life goes

controlled

at

on

every

the educator or
politician,
charity-worker,finds himself continually confronted
by
social problems which he must
new
solve,however imperfect
moment.

and
v-

of

provisionalhe knows
evolution does

not

man

or

his solutions

wait

for him.

to

He

be, for
must

the stream

have

imme-

V
METHODOLOGICAL

and
diate results,

it is

reconcile the claims

NOTE

merit

15

his part if he tries to

with those of scientific
of actuality
a

on

and endeavors
they can be reconciled,
well as he can
the social reality
before
as
to understand
such a
acting. Certainlysocial life is improved by even
is able to give;certainly
control as common-sense
sociology
for the ultimate balance
effort should be discouraged,
no
favorable.
But in social activity,
even
more
proves usually
the common-sense
method
is the
than in material activity,
wasteful method, and to replaceit graduallyby a
most
efficientone will be a good investment.
more
as far
objectivity,

as

While, then, there is

no

doubt

that actual situations

immediately,we see that they cannot be

solved adequatelyas long as theoretical reflection has their
But
there is evidentlyone
immediate solution in view.
must

be handled

issue from

this dilemma, and

it is the

techniqueand physicalscience.
future situations and
in stock

prepare

We

same

must

as

in material

be able to foresee

for them, and

we

must

have

and objective
knowledge
largebody of secure
whether foreseen
capableof beingappliedto any situation,
that we must have an empirical J
or unexpected. This means
and exact-, social science ready for eventual application.
And such a science can
be constituted only if we treat it
and
end in itself,
not
to something else,
as
an
as
a means
if we give it time and opportunityto developalong all the
lines of investigation
if we do not see what
even
possible,
of one
be the eventual applications
another of its
or
may
V^
results. The example of physicalscience and its applications shew
of
economical
that the only practically
way
pendent
creatingan efficient techniqueis to create a science indea

of any

one

be
to

technical limitations and then to take every

of its results and try where and in what way they can

practically
applied. The contrary attitude,the refusal
recognize
any science that does not work to solve practical

problems,in
science and
a

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

curious

addition

the future

what

may

horizon.

applied; we

of
applications
do

do

know

not

its discoveries before

will be

what

know

not

We

the

both

shows

it is constituted

science will be before

be the

of
inefficiency

analyzed above,

have

we

of mental

narrowness

that

leading to

practicewhich

what

are

to

and

they

future

of

arise demanding
problems may
attitude toward
solution.
The
justifiable
only practically
and disinterested help.^
science is absolute liberty

society and

Of

social

what

this does

course

not

that

mean

techniqueshould wait until the science

it is,it is incomparably better than
as
in material
at

hand

technique,as
effort should

an

and
application,
field

if it

soon

be

can

technique should

new

actual

is constituted

social
; such

But, just as

none.

discovery is
it a practical

scientific

to

find for

as

be made

the

applied in some
particular
take the place of the old in

this field.
if no

aims should be introduced beforehand

practical
into scientific investigation,
social practicehas, nevertheless,
the right to demand
from social theory that at least some
of its results shall be applicahle_a^once,
and that the number
and importance of such results shalL continuallyincrease.
But

As
can

of the

one

and

must

science must

greater the

pragmatistshas expressed it,practicallife

later
or
give credit to science,but sooner
her debts, and the longer the delay the
pay

interest

of
required. This demand
is as important for science
practicalapplicability
for

practice;it is a test,not only of

value
theoretical,

of the science.

be

appliedproves
experience,that it is
can

that
test

of

its method

assume

able to grasp
is

reallyexact'
a

in her

itself

but
practical,

science
it is

thereby that

applicabilityis

science must

the

ultimate

whose

reallybased

as

of the
results
upon

lems,
great varietyof prob-

a
"

that it is valid.

The

which
salutary responsibility
own

interest.

METHODOLOGICAL

If

attempt

we

determine

to

now

NOTE

of

object-matterand the method

the demands
be able to satisfy
its main

that

is evident

in every

material

the

would

social practice,it

comparison freely,in

all its

of the

endeavors

complexity

actual

civilized

of rational practice.

science,a determined

other

its full

assumes

be

theory that

with

and

control

is sought in most

here, as

social

should

object should be the actual civilized

of situations,for it is the

But

what

of modern

society in its full development

societythat

17

significance
only

we

can

of
use

distinguishthe essential
the complex, the
the accidental, the simple from
from
And
fortunately social life
primary from the derived.
gives us favorable conditions for comparative studies,
in the coexistat the present stage of evolution,
ence
particularly
of
alike

certain

in

order

if

body

of civilized societies

number

fundamental

their

societies

fruitful.
should

we

like
societies,
differ

And

by

social

to

reconcile

no

own

this

is, ethnography
"

have

has
of

scientist to understand
own

which

been

done

up

both

us

have

we

to the

primitive societies

relation

help
cultural problems only to
their

attitudes

study of the various^present

along which most of the purely

sejcondary,
though by

importance. Their
mediate; they can

and

civilized

interest

situations with

as

work
scientific sociological

history

but which

make

non-white

organizationand

own,

civilized societies,
the lines

"that

those

their

future.

with

contrast

exclude

means

our

experimentsand
our

the list of these

from

Chinese, whose

profoundly from

as

In

the

in
differingsufficiently
general national spiritto

and

traditions,customs,

sufficiently
problems to make

cultural

comparison possible,and
comparison

to

the
the

actual

to

no

social

and

present
social

negligible,
practice is only

means

to_soJYe actuaL j
practitioner
degree that they help the
cultural life; they are auxiliary,

scientific value

will increase with

the

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

studies.

In all the endeavors

interpret the past

and

understand

to

sphereof

of the main

progress

and

the

savage

we

civilized
our
knowle.dge_Qf
remains
always a basis of comparison,
present life,which
conceived
the past and the primitiveare
ogous
analwhether
as
must

use,

or
not,
consciously

with, or

as

different from, the present and

and
less objective

The
the

more

of the

critical our

knowledge

subjectiveand unmethodical
past and the primitive;unable

is

to

unconsciouslybend

the civilized.

of the

present,

interpretation

our
see

of the culture within

limited character

and

our

the relative

which

we

live,

unfamiliar

phenomenon to the
social personality.A really
limitations of our own
objective
therefore
understanding of history and ethnography can
be expected only as a result of a methodical
knowledge of
we

every

present cultural societies.

emphasized with regard to the

of social theoryis the necessity
questionof the object-matter
of taking into account
the^jvhole__life-oL_a_givfin
society
(instead of arbitrarily
selectingand isolatingbeforehand
^een already
certain particular
have
of Tacts. We
groups
Another

that

the contrary

of the

common-sense

committed
"

point

to

be

procedure constitutes one

sociology. It is also

by the observers

of their

own

of the fallacies
a

or

fallacyusually
of other

ties
socie-

litterateurs,
travelers,popular psychologists,
journalists,
In

describinga given societythey pick out the

most
evident
the most
prominent situations,
problems,
thinkingto characterize thereby the life of the given group.
etc.

Still

harmful

development of science is this

used
in the comparative sociology which
fallacywhen
studies an
an
institution,
idea,a myth, a legalor moral
of art, etc.,by simply comparing its content
a form
norm,
in various societies without studyingit in the whole meaning
which it has in a particularsocietyand then comparing this
with the whole meaning which it has in the various societies.
more

for the

METHODOLOGICAL

We

all more

are

or

less

to

attribute it

mainly

**

In

order

avoid

to

NOTE

guiltyof

to

Herbert

19

this

fault,but it pleasesus
Spencer.

arbitrarylimitations and subjective

are
only two possiblecourses
open.

there
interpretations
societies
We
can
study monographically whole concrete
with the total complexity of problems and situations which

their cultural

constitute
social

life; or

we

can

problems,followingthe problem

number

social groups

of concrete

group

with

regard

under

the

influence

the

to

of

and

in

on

special

certain limited

studying it

particularform
the

work

which

it

in every
assumes

conditions

prevailingin this
complex meaning which a

the
society,taking into account
cultural phenomenon has in a determined
cultural
concrete
In studying the society we
environment.
t
go from
in studying the
to the problem, and
whole
social context
problem we go from the problem to the whole social context.
is to start
And in both types of work the only safe method
with the assumption that we know
absolutelynothing about
the group
the problem we
to investigate
are
or
except such
materials
purely formal criteria as enable us to distinguish
belongingto our sphere of interest from those which do not
But
this attitude of indiscriminate
belong there./
tivity
receptoward
data should mark
only the first
any concrete
stage of investigation that of limitingthe field. As soon
become
as
we
acquainted with the materials we begin to
select them
with the help of criteria which involve certain
and
scientific hypotheses.
methodological generalizations
This must
be done, since the whole empiricalconcreteness
be introduced
into science,cannot
cannot
be described or
cally
explained. We have to limit ourselves to certain theoretiimportant data, but we must know how to distinguish
,

"

important. And every further step of

the investigation
will bring with
it new
methodological
into
data
problems analysis of the complete concrete
the data

which

"

are

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

20

elements, systematizationof these elements, definition of

All these stages of
social facts,establishingof social laws.
scientific
if social

procedure

the

with

case

able

and

methods

become

is to

theory

exactly and

be

must

and

mature

more

conscious

with

them

apply

to

science

carefullydefined
of its

is the

precision,as

advanced

own

physical and

it is always the question of

biologicalsciences. And
ultimate
practicalapplicabilitywhich, according to
constitute

previous discussion,will

intrinsic criterion

and

secure

there

Now

| practice

two

fundamental

the

center

are

constituted

have

organizationand

culture upon

the first

is

problem

produce with

the

the

social

of the

the

social group

help

of the

individual
social

of

organization and

include

kinds

the

of data

that
1

the
Of

course

attempt,

the

kinds
concrete

by appealing

which
attitudes.

two

of

will be

so

to

desirable

the basis of social

the

of the

of

type

that it must

involved

namely,

in them

of social life and

members

of
must

practicaltask

may

the
be

as

to

produce

or

"

the

both

as

the

subjective

social group

taken

include

existingattitudes,to

organized

technique

it is evident
really,

of data

the

produce, with

characteristics
the

group,

in the

the second

And

we

moral

become

objective cultural elements

characteristics

we

culture P1

theory is to

both

shall

characteristics

shall

and

solve these problems

to

moral

practice,How

members

If social
and

constitutingthe
existingmental

Practically,

existingsocial organizationand

individuals

in

social

of

question,How

and

means

organizationand

dependence

culture the desirable mental

problem

of the

problem

the individual.

expressedin

help of

of reflective social

Ji}^the

upon

(2^the problem

culture, and

only

which

practicalproblems

are

of the individual

dependence

the

"

our

science.

of attention

These

all times.

in

of

"

the criterion

an

and

"

correlated.

problems, as

establish educational

when

we

tions
institu-

generalize certain desirable

have

many

kinds

of

consumption
the

the

determines

real

of individual

process
or

con

possibleactivityof

th

"

Thus, hunger that compel i

decisio:
foodstuff; the workman's

of the

to spend th
tool; the tendency of the spendthrift

poet'sfeelingsand ideas expressedin the poer

the reader's sympathy and admiration ; the needs whic
institution tries to satisfyand
the response
it prc

coin;
and

understand

we

in the social world.

individual

to use

differen

activity.

sciousness which

the

refer to many

for it may

meanings,

By attitude

the

vokes; the fear and

divinity;the
ing a

devotion

manifested

in the

cult of th

interest in

creating,
understanding,or appl)
scientifictheory and the ways of thinkingimpliedin ?"

allthese

"

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

22

are

attitudes.

The

attitude is thus the individu.

"

"^

--.--

in
counterpart of the social value; activity,
is

the

bond

between

them.

By

whatever

its reference

lorn

activit

to

thereby to individual consciousness the value is distil'

guished from the natural thing. By its reference to activit
and thereby to the social world the attitude is distinguishe
In the examples quoted abo^
from the psychicalstate.
we
were
obligedto use with reference to ideas and volitioi
that have
words
become
of individual psycholog
terms
by being abstracted from the objectivesocial realityi
which
they apply, but originallythey were
designed 1
A psych
attitudes,not psychologicalprocesses.
express
logicalprocess is an attitude treated as an objectin itse
and

isolated by

in connection
attitude is a

reflective act of attention,and

with

other states

of the

psychological
process

fested in its reference

all in connection

with

to

the social world

some

social value.

first of

individual.

same

treated

taken

as

"

primarilymar

and

taken

first

Individual

ps

t
chology may later re-establish the connection between
psychologicalprocess and the objectiverealitywhich h
been
severed
by reflection;it may
study psychologic.

METHODOLOGICAL

conditioned

as

processes

world.

the

In

various

attitudes

social character.

the facts

by

same

NOTE

social

way

of

and

the

tive
objec-

later

nect
con-

determine

his

original(usuallyunconsciously

it is the

But

going on in
theory may

individual

an

23

occupied)standpointswhich determine at once the

of these two
sciences.
The
subsequent methods
psycho
logicalprocess remains always fundamentally a state oj
somebody; the attitude remains always fundamentally ai
attitude

toward

account,

we

attitudes

the

used for
the

something.

this fundamental

Taking

continue

may

to

use

which

terms

same

distinction of

psychological
processes,

for

standpointinto

different classes

individual

of

psychology has

since these terms

property of all reflection about

common

"

constituti

conscious

life

meaning of all these terms from the standpoin

of social theory must
be established during the process o
that every term
shall be defined in viev
so
investigation,
The

exact

of its

applicationand

actual

It would

use.

its
be

methodologicalvaliditytested
therefore impractical
to attempt

establish in advance

the whole

when

that the

But

we

say

ir
t(

terminologyof attitudes.
tudes
data of social theory are atti-

values,this is not yet a sufficient determination of

the object of this science,for the field thus defined would
and

embrace

the whole
of

matter

philologyand

science,etc.
in order

to

established

include the

object-

economics, theory of art, theory of

exact

more

culture and

definition is therefore necessary

distinguishsocial theory from these sciences,

long ago and having their own methods and their
*/'

aims.

own

This

limitation

naturallyfrom
or

of human

values

as

will
There

are

the

of the field of social theory arises

necessityof choosingbetween

fundamental
serve

numerous

as

data
basis

values

"

attitudes

that is,as data whose

for scientific

correspondingto

quite
acters
char-

generalization:
every

attitude,

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

24

and

correspondingto

attitudes

numerous

therefore,we

we

produced by these actions and which

etc.
scientific,
or
economical,religious
the values produced by
we
compare
form,

which

attitudes

of its data

the contrary,

If,on

different actions

as

of attitudes

and

There

is therefore

no

of human

culture like

is the attitudes which

which

actions

from

are

the standpoint
in them

of giving to
possibility
a

its

methodical

as

tudes
atti-

tific
scien-

be subordinated

must

to

results

from
necessarily

values.

For

of aesthetic

or

is taken

itself in
economic

changes

objectivedata

study

theorician of

important and
it manifests

subordinated

are

sciences in the
a

"

deal with separate domains

language,art, science,economics,

of these

these

to

the contrary.

in all the sciences which

Now

such

essential

interested

are

attitudes

investigation
; either
or

we

importance in

same

itself upon

of human
them

treat

we

when

and

and values the

values

base

be considered

can

when

completely different
values.

always

the essential characters

purposes, and

by

or
political

manifested in these actions.

are

generalizationmust

characters

as

are

gious
example, the generalconcepts of economic or relithat we have neglected the whole
values, this means

Scientific

is

be

may

which

for

.varietyof

"

to

that

means

values

variety of

neglected the whole

have

this
solidarity,

of the attitude of

general concept

regard

form, for example, the

and

in them

the attitudes manifested

with

actions

different

compare

value; if,

every

that

art

to

values

the very

"

it

point
stand-

specialization

of certain classes of cultural

or

an

economist

into consideration

changes introduced
values, and

an

only

attitude
in

so

far

into the

is defined

sphere
exclusively

is,by the pre-existing

complex of

which

it acted

and

the

objective
results of this activity. But unless there is a specialclass
of cultural values which
the object-matter of any
not
are
other science,
and unless there are specialreasons
for assignupon

by

NOTE

METHODOLOGICAL

ing

this class to social theory

"

be,

as

shall see,

we

phenomena
the
no

doubt

economics

in the field of social

be

theory

or

may
of

groups

for

special

should

or

and

literature,art

technique,are alreadymore
and,
respectivedisciplines

and

There

distinct sciences; but

language and

that

point
stand-

same

such

morality should

object-matterof

shall

we

values, for this would

whether

doubts

some

religionor

as

included

reasons

to

the

duplicationof existingsciences.

fr useless

mean

attitudes

subordinate

and

take

latter cannot

the

presently

discuss

which

problem

"

25

stitute
con-

there is

science,

less adequately

while

needing perhaps
internal reforms, do not call for a supplementary
by sociologyor "folk-psychology"(Wundt).

treated by the
some

treatment

study of the social world

from the oppositestandpoint that is,taking attitudes as
is
specialobject-matterand subordinatingvalues to them
and that an exact methodology of such a study is
necessary,
there is also

But

doubt

no

that

"

"

have an
lacking. Ethics,psychology,ethnology,sociology,
interest in this fieldand each has occupiedit in a fragmentary
But in ethics the study of attitudes
and unmethodical
way.
of
has been subordinated
to the problem of ideal norms
treated

behavior, not
conditions

valuable

be

worked

data for the

in the various

but

social

its work

is

out.

of

in itself,
and

under

gation
purely theoretic investiEthnology has contributed

study of attitudes and values as

the "lower"
groups, particularly
of the term

sense

these

mainly descriptive.Of

in the exact

method

end

an

adequate method

no

can

as

we

the

found
races,

sociological

shall

speak presently.

Psychology is,however, the science which has been'

identified with the study of consciousness,and the
definitely
main
or

questionat this pointis how far psychologyhas

is capable of covering the field of attitudes.
As

we

have

indicated

datum

in the

above, the

sei.se

given to

attitude

is not

this term

by

covered

chological
psy-

individual

26

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

of the differences between

regardless
psychologicalschools. Concretely speaking, any

psychology,and
^\ ps
method

this is true

of research

entityand

isolates him

the individual

takes

which
from

his social

as

distinct

environment, whether

analysisthe content
by introspective
and form of his conscious processes, or in order to investigate
the organic facts accompanying these processes, or, finally,
his behavior as reaction to
in order to study experimentally
certain stimuli,finds necessarily
only psychical,
physical,or
connected
with
and indissolubly
facts essentially
biological
in order

to

determine

psychical,
physical,or generallybiological
such
reality. In order to reach scientificgeneralizations,
method
the assumption of the universal
work
must
a
on
and identityof human
nature
as far as expressed
permanence
in these facts; that is,its fundamental
be
concepts must
the individual

such
-

all

as

of them
beings,some
apply to all human
conscious
beings, and individual differences
as

to

reconstructed
of the

with

the

state

as

be

variations

sities,
background, due to varying intencombinations
of essentially
the same
fact is
Indeed, as every psychological

and
qualities,

these concepts

must

to

fundamental

same

universal

help of

even

processes.

of the individual

of these facts

as

fundamental

depends on

of such individual

the

the uniformity
reality,
and uniformity
permanence

realities. The

central field of individual

psychology is therefore constituted by the most

conscious phenomena, which are the only ones
adequately treated
beings; phenomena
individuals

either

as

identical
essentially

which

must

are

limited to

be treated

into

elementary
that

can

be

in all conscious

certain number

of

complex and analyzed

be
elements,or, if this cannot
as

elementary and universal

done, then their content, varying with the variation of social
milieu,must be omitted and only the form of their occurrence
reconstructed

presumably
they happen.
as

the

same

wherever

and

ever
when-

METHODOLOGICAL

find

numerous

studying conscious
have

their

monographs

listed

phenomena

which

in

source

of these conditions

as

stillbe

states

of individual
without

in

beings,but

with
to

common
are

supposed
general, but

not

are

vary

conditions,and which

same

mere

and

can

but
psychological,

as

nature"

"human

specialsocial conditions,which
in the

27

individual psychology.
psychologyis not exclusively

But
We

NOTE

in

the variation
all individuals

therefore
as

to

treated,not

self-sufficientdata

assumptions about the

constitution of the
or biological
physiological,
psychological,
To
this sphere of psyindividuals composing the group.
chology
that concern
conscious
belong all investigations
phenomena particular to races, nationalities,religious,
to be studied

necessary

any

pations
occupolitical,
professional
groups, correspondingto special
and interests,
provoked by specialinfluences of a
activities and legal
social milieu,developed by educational

The

for

current

social from

"social

psychology" has become

this type of investigations.The distinction of
individual psychology and the methodological

etc.

measures,

term

psychology as a separate science have not

been sufficiently
discussed,but we shall attempt to show \
the science of attitudes and
that social psychologyis precisely
different from the
that, while its methods
are
essentially
methods
of individual psychology, its field is as wide as
unity

of social

conscious

life.

Indeed,

every

manifestation

of conscious

life,however

be treated as
can
simple or complex, generalor particular,
anattitude,because every one involves a tendency to action,

whether

this action is

physicalchanges
to

in the

of

mechanical-activity
ducing
promaterial world, or anjittempt

process

influence the attitudes of others by speech and gesture, or

mental

social

which
ar.tivity
or
expression,

And

does not

even

mere

find
given moment
jsensualapperprocess,of
ception.

at the

all the objects of these actions

can

be treated

28

as

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

saoaZ-^alues, for they all have

be

may

"idea"

they

reasons

of such

phenomena

attitude when

constitute

artistic works

of

has

certain class

others;

festation
mani-

any

member

of the group

in connection

with

the values which

this group,

environment

and
as

relations

well

as

as

in social

scientific theories.

psychology

is

this

well

beliefs,technical products
religious

or

no

lifeof any

of the natural

data

the

study

social group,

given

the exclusion

to

meaning by
to

force it to limit itself to

taken

monographs
such

and

"

or

personal

it undertakes

sphere of experienceof

the

sphere includes
economic

in

found

of the conscious
an

even

"

is

objectsof the activityof others.

psychology,when

phenomena
prioriwhich

others

to

the

become

may

thus social

conscious

individuals

other

to

be communicated

can

which

And

accessible

which

content

some

as

and

fore,
If, there-

limit themselves

to

as, for

example, the study of general

conscious phenomena produced in a social group by certain
mon
economic, political
influences,by comphysical,biological,
specialproblems

tion
beliefs,etc., the limitaoccupation,common
religious
be justified
by the social importance of these
may
phenomena or even
by only a particularinterest of the
of social
author, but it is not necessitated by the nature
the conscious phenompsychology,which can study among
ena
occurring within the given social group, not only such
as are
peculiarto this group as a whole, but also,on the one

hand, such

as

to all conscious

be

peculiarto
But

life of

of
a

individual

the

course

all the attitudes found

not

social group

have

hand, the

the
generalizing

the

psychology at

general purposes
one

to

be

common

beings,and, on the other hand, such as

of the group.
only one individual member

of social
its

psychology assumes

as

task

data

in the conscious

importance for

same

given moment,

or

the purposes
even

science of the social world.

of every

is to reduce

science in
as

far

as

may

for
On

describingand
possiblethe limit-

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

30

be found

can

between

them

sensual

example, it can be shown that

organicattitude of disgustvaries

for

of
possibility

the cultural and

^between

attitudes have
their

and

actual

an

the natural

remains
investigation

words, those

other

In

the

to

there is

as

co-ordination

or

for social

as

psychology,

task of individual

conscious

physicalworld

no

attitudes,the natural

interest

immediate

no

the

perceptionor

long

As

subordination

if,

"

certain limits with

within

of social conditions.

variation

the

cultural attitudes

the

and

can

ogy.
psychol-

phenomena

responding
cor-

introduced

be

into

that they are

psychology only if it can be shown
independent of social conditions"
purely "natural"
cultural
influenced
also in some
measure
by social

social
not

"

but

"

values.

Thus, the field of social psychologypractically

comprises
first of all the
found

attitudes
the members

among

which
of

are
a

more

less

or

social group,

generally

have

real

of the individuals who

importance in the life-organization
have developed them, and manifest
themselves
in social
activities of these individuals.
This field can be indefinitely

enlarged in

directions if the

two

problems

concrete

of social

it. It may
include attitudes which
psychology demand
of the social group
are
particularto certain members
or
in the group
only on rare occasions,as soon as they
appear
social importance; thus, some
reason
a
acquire for some
personalsexual idiosyncrasywill interest social psychology

only
to

if it becomes

other members
of

hand,

social,but
for

objectof

of the group

manifest

as

to

the

imitation
or

if it

or

psychology may
themselves

with

physical,environment

of indignation

helps to

general sexual attitudes.

the field of social

attitudes

as

more

an

On

standing
under-

an

other

the

be extended

regard, not

to
to

such
the

of the individual,

they show themselves affected by social culture;

example, the perceptionof colors would become a socio-

soon

as

METHODOLOGICAL

NOTE
vy

if it

problem
psychological

Jogy

or

thus

has

to

subjectiveside

usuallyascribed
"psychology in general."

of consciousness

evolved

perform

to

heretofore

have

science

of the

generalscience
we

psychology

have

to

during

the influence of decorative

under

the cultural evolution

Social

proved

as

the

arts.

part of

of social culture which

individual

to

claim to be the

It may

in

manifested

psychol-

and
culture,,

"

its

generalauxiliaryscience,
to all the specialsciences dealing with various spheres of
that social psychology
This does not mean
social values.
ever
can
supplant individual psychology; the methods and
is to render

function

standpointsof
not

for both

sciences

these two

are

to fulfilthe function

either of them
were

service,as

for the traditional

difference

of the term

use

by

permit
other,and, if it

of the

types of research,it would

emphasize this

different to

too

be

distinct

"psychology"
advisable

even

to

terminology.

study the life of a concrete social group we

find a certain very important side of this life which social
adequately take into account, which
psychology cannot
of the specialsciences of culture treats as its proper
none
and which during the last fifty
stituted
object-matter,
years has conwhen

But

we

searches
sphere of interest of the various rethe attitudes prevailing
called sociology.Among
within a group
some
only in individual
express themselves
but
uniform
actions
multiform, isolated or combined
or
usually,
only in actions. But there are other attitudes
which, besides
though not always, the most generalones
in actions,find f\
like the first,
expressingthemselves directly,
and /
also an indirect manifestation
in more
less explicit
or

central

the

"

"

"

"

formal

of behavior
r.ules

tain,to regulate,and

by
to

which

make

the group

more

tends to main-

generaland

quent the correspondingtype of actions among

These
norms,

rules

"

customs

and

obligatorybeliefs

and

rituals,legal and
aims,

etc.

"

arouse

more

fre-

its members.

educational
a

twofold

/j"
\

32

interest.

We

demands

supposed

to

those who

existence

with
the

of

and

rule.

rule shows

But,

there

that

group

which

is

all

by

are

do not

if

even

some,

only

fullyharmonize

expressedin the rule,and that the group feels

necessityof preventingthese attitudes from passing into
the

one

certain

the rule is

as

members

of the group

individual

an

individual,or

by

even

the rule,becomes

forms.

the attitudes

values

"

value

is

value.

byHieT
in reflection,

himself

to which

appreciationor depreciationis
In this way

attitudes

also

whom

individual

viewed

with regard to this action's agreement

of

from

and

content^and a_certainmeaning

by another

group,

consciouslyrealized

certain adaptation, it has for every

Furthermore, the action of

to

the

the other hand, the very

on

isolated,attitudes which

Preciselyas far
binding by individual

with

tions
manifesta-

actions is shared

itself in these

manifest

uphold the

it demands
a

actions,as

actions,the attitude

of

certain kind

'action.
as

like

attitudes,as indices showing that, since

of

weak

them,

treat

may

disagreement

or
a

certain attitude
in various

attached

rules and actions,taken, not

with

regard

expressedin them, but with regard

prgvokedjpythem,

are

quiteanalogous to

to

other

any

etc.
economic, artistic,
scientific,
religious,

be many

various

the

There

correspondingto a rule or
action as objectsof individual reflection and appreciation,
and a certain attitude
such as, for example, the desire for
personalfreedom or the feelingof social righteousness may
bear positively
rules and actions,
or
negativelyupon many
vidual.
varying from group to group and from individual to indimay

attitudes

"

"

These

values

therefore, be

the

objectof social psychology; they constitute a special

matter
group
of objective cultural data alongsidethe specialdomains
of
other cultural sciences like economics, theory of art, philology,
The
etc.
rules of behavior,and
the actions viewed
as conforming or not
conforming with these rules,constitute
cannot,

METHODOLOGICAL

-ith
f

a certain number
regard to their objectivesignificance

more

'

less connected

or

generallycalled

be

in

and

social

in

institutions found

organizationof

social

organizationas

values

to

as

is,attitudes

ing rules

such

far

for

of behavior

and

us

the
5

this fincommon

with

organization,is

social

draw

laence

human

life,from

)ressed

or

to

under

concerned

social attitudes

are

if the individual

largelydetermined by the rules prevailit is certainlydue neither to the

group,

these rules

to

nor

the

physicalconsequences
have, but

to

if he follows

or

breaks

his

con-

of his group

will

which

the rules.

there-

And

psychology and sociologycan be embraced

general term of social theory,as they are both

with

the relation between

social group,
are

the individual

values

attitudes.

while
"

toward

all cultural

sociologycan

social rules

"

com

their fields

study only

one

to

ar

attitude

of the

values

in their relation

the,

and
this

though their standpointson

quiteopposite,and though

individual

social group,
these

to

power

which

equallywide, social psychologycomprisingthe

the

it

the values

alTtEeir
reality,

followingor breaking may

ground

mon

the

time

same

social

the

concrete

the

psychology: that

all their

is

general science

his realization of the social consequences

both

at

is so

for him

"ue

the

that these rules represent attitudes

Dusness

But

thus

and
philology,

supposedlyexpressedin them;

ionalityof
ich their

or

psychology as

ich it studies

in his social

of

social

subjectiveside of culture.

his behavior

not

to

atti-

social institutions.

of social

theory

opposed

studying

specialcultural sciences;
and modionly as influencing

scial science of culture like economics

so

when

subordinate

must

we

constitutes

do in other

we

count

Sociology^as

And

/
totality

the

social group

which

systems

and
institutions,

this group.

social

des

harmonious

concrete

ic

at

NOTE

given

type of
individual

have

We

of interest

includingthe

there

manner

is

which

concern

and

rules,indeed, manifested

these

as

same

It includes

of the group

as

whole.

It is

laws, and

mores,

the

the
especially

members

the group

tural
cul-

constitutes

more

individual

member

each

which

field

In the

interest.
sociological

of

relations between

between

societies.

domain

certain

rules of behavior

active

most

within concrete

methodologicalcenter
those

psychology has a central

generaland fundamental

that social

seen

attitudes found

and

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

34

group-

systematizedin such institutions as the family,

the state,etc.,
tribe,the community, the free association,

ideals and
the

which

constitute

the central part of social

organizationand

provide through this organizationthe essential conditions

of the existence of

as

group

distinct cultural

entityand

agglomeration of individuals; and hence all

other rules which a given group
develop and treat as
may
obligatory have a secondary sociologicalimportance\ as
that sociology
compared with these. But this does not mean
should not extend its field of investigation
beyond this
of interest. Every social group,
methodological center
lower stages of cultural evolution,is inclined
on
particularly
not

mere

to control

attain

all individual

alone

not
activities,

directlyits fundamental

those

institutions. Thus

whicih
we

find

social

artistic
regulationsof economic, religious,
scientific,
of technique and speech,and the break of
activities,
even
these

regulationsis often treated

of the group.

effect of these
than

more

to

the

doubtful,they do

unity of the

the fundamental
exist has
which

must

we

regulationson

association which

cannot

And

group,

concede

very

ence
exist-

that, though the

productivityis often
contribute as long as they last
cultural

while,on

has been

the
affecting

as

formed

the other

hand,

between

these

social institutions without

often the consequence

destroys the influence of

which

that
these

the close

rules and
the group

cultural evolution

secondary regula-

METHODOLOGICAL

are

these

above-determined

in the

which

35

actuallydisorganizethe group.
Preciselyas far
social rules concerning specialcultural activities

tions may
as

NOTE

bear

social relations

on

sociology. Of

it can

course

connected

way

with

the rules

they acquirean interest fop

determined
only a posteriori

be

extended beyond
sociologysjifl^lnbe
fundamental
social institutions,
and

far the field of

how

investigationof
situation

varies from

to

group

In all civilized societies

period.

from

and

group

the

period to

part of every

some

the

cultural

etc.
economic, scientific,
artistic,
activity religious,
left outside of social regulation,
and another, perhaps even
"

"

is

larger,part, though still subjected to social rules,is no

longersupposed to affect directlythe existence or coherence
of societyand actuallydoes not affect it. It is^thereforeT
rave
methodologicalerror to attempt to include generally
in the field of sociologysuch cultural domains
as
religion
or

economics

the ground

on

economic

or
religious

that

norms

in certain
considered

are

"

social groups
and

in

some

for
a part of social organization,
reallyare
there the respective
values have a content
which cannot
even
be completelyreduced to social rules of behavior, and their
be very small or
importance for social organizationmay
measure

even

even

and

fundamental

attempt

originand

we

at

other

periodsof

clearlywhen

we

social
undertake

evolution.

psychology
the

parative
com-

for
study of specialproblems in various societies,
problems naturallydivide themselves into two classes.

may

under

or

distinction between

sociologyappears

these
We

in other societies

none

The

"

to

explaincertain

tryingto

various

determine

social

investigatesexual

bashfulness
aesthetic

or

amateur

attitudes by tracingtheir

the laws of their appearance

circumstances,as,
love

example, when
group-solidarity,

for

feelingof
showing off, the mystical emotion
Or we may
etc.
attitude,
attempt
or

or

the

to

give

36

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

social institutions and

explanationof

an

laws

their

various

under

appearance

try

to

subjectto

socio-psychological

as when
our
object-matteris marriage or family,
conditions,
tarism
criminal legislation
or
censorshipof scientific opinions,miliBut when
etc.
we
or parliamentarism,
study mono"

graphicallya

all its fundamental

with

social group

concrete

values,it is difficult to make

and
separation of socio-psychological

thoroughgoing
sociological
problems,

for any

contains

attitudes and

body

concrete

of

material

both.

sequently
Con-

its first
particularly

since the present work, and

preciselya monograph of a concrete social

cal
group, we cannot
go into a detailed analysisof methodologithe socio-psychological
questionsconcerningexclusively
volumes,

two

is

limit
in particular,
but must
sociological
investigation
ourselves
to such
general methodological indications as
both.
concern
Later, in connection with problems treated
in subsequent volumes, more
cussions
specialmethodological disor

be necessary

may

place.
chief problems of
explanation. The

proper
The

causal

tion of data
If

must

and

attempt

to

way

becoming, must

understand

to

and

cannot

control

to

technique,it
the

process

this task, and

avoid

of

there

it. Social becoming, like natural

fulfilling
be analyzed into a plurality
of facts,each
a

succession

of

and

cause

theory is the analysisof

becoming into such causal

permittingus to understand
No

of

of

represents

idea of social

processes

the

and

effect.

The

of social
totality
systematization

the connections

between

these

prioritrying to demonstrate
of causality
of application
of the principle
impossibility

processes.
the

problems of
systematiza-

are

and

determination

lay the foundation

becoming. Social theory

of which

science

modern

is only the first step in scientific investigation.

science wishes

is only one

in their

will be introduced

to conscious

arguments

human

life in general can

or

should

halt social

38

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

And

happen again.

never

may

in

if social

only

determining causal laws

it become

can

technique,for technique demands

social

theory

basis

is realizable

social facts in

of their subordination
possibility
or
explicit
assumption was that

elements, a

two
or

individual

an

act

the

or

example

find the

one

act, and

social phenomenon.

social

and

theory
account

another

which
reality,

practice have

is the

tend

to

to

necessarv

soci
in

take

soci

physicaland

physicalphenor
of th
objectivenature

the

calculated

phenomenon and can be

latter's empiricalcontent,

vidual
indi-

an

always

forgotten

is that,while the effect of

depends exclusivelyon

enon

the

composed of
phenomenon

phenomenon,

essential difference between

one

sciously,
uncon-

Following uncritically

physicalsciences,which
determined
phenomenon which
of

social

implicit

is either

of the

sufficient condition

and

social

effect which

an

is

fact
sociaj.

is either

which

cause

The

laws.

to any

causes

in advance

excluded

which

way

and

causes,

only if we know that certain

will always and everywhere produce certain effects.
of both social practiceand
Now, the chief error
theoryhas been that they determined, consciouslyor
this demand

of

of
possibility

the

calculatingthe effects of given

foreseeingand

ceeds
suc-

the ground of tl

on

the effect of

social

phenomenc
depends in addition on the subjectivestandpointtaken b
toward
the individual or the group
this phenomenon an
be calculated only if we
can
know, not only the objectrv

*^S content
has

of the assumed

the

given moment
simple consideration

at

This

both

physicalcause,

but

an

attitude.

objectiveand
Otherwise

because
incalculable,

also the meaning which

the

should

that

or

but

for

technician

theorist
like

cause,

have

social

shown

is compound,

and

the effect will appear

we

shall have

to

be
must

subjectiveelement, a

socis

the

to

cannot

cause

beingi

conscious

given

value

simple
includ*
and

accidental

search in every

ai
am

par

METHODOLOGICAL

ticular
or

for the

case

in this way

and

of the group,
of

produces a

them;

various

If

cause

we

are

suppose

means

individual at

same

causes

social

and
of

"

of this causal

statement

our

that

necessary

"insufficient"

no

the

every

uniformly. The
And
such
a typicalexample.
for they are
quiteirrelevant,

are

once

which

"

then

be

exist here

as

individual members

influence him

not

of art is

work

absolute.

for there

can

given phenomenon

less different effect on

or

acting upon

it does

uniformities

the

the

other way.

more

when

even

moments

influence of

is the

to

fact,a social value, acting upon

In

not

in any

not

39

this particularindividual

why

reasons

particularsocietyreacted

this

one

NOTE

phenomenon

sufficient cause,
an

individual

dependence

action,
re-

has

logicalclaim of being a scientific law from which there

be no exceptions;that is,every seeming exceptionmust
other cause, an action
explainedby the action of some
formulation

whose

in

explainwhy

becomes
concrete

another
case

which, accordingto

scientific law.

work

of art

or

But

to

legalprescription

supposed law, should provoke

in the individual a certain reaction A provokes instead
the whole past
a reaction
B, we should have to investigate
of this individual and repeat this investigation
in every case,
with

regard

without

law, for

to

individual

every

whose

reaction

is not

A,

hoping ever to subordinate those exceptionsto a new

of every individual is different. Consequently
the life-history
social theory tries to avoid this methodological

absurdityby closingits
either

our

satisfied with

eyes

to

statements

the

problem

itself. It is

of causal influences

which

a
majority of cases"
flat self-contradiction,
for,if something is a cause, it must
the same
have by its very definition,
always and necessarily
otherwise it is not a cause
at all. Or it tries to analyze
effect,

hold

"on

true

phenomena
to

them

the

average," "in

actingupon

into

the

individuals and

simpler elements, hoping

"

individual reactions
thus

to

find

simple

PRIMARY-GROUP

40

ORGANIZATION

facts,while the trouble is

but with
act

the

complexityof

in which

or

they

personality. Thus,

far

as

complexity of data,

the context

embodied

are

the

with

not

these

data

that is,of the human

"

complexity of

the

as

which

on

social data

principleof gravitationand the smile of

Mona
Lisa are simple in their objectivecontent, while their
influence on human
attitudes has been indefinitely
varied;
is concerned, the

the

of

complex system
pictureof a talentless
uniform

reactions.

attitude

of anger

of social

graphomaniac or the elaborate

skilless man
provokes much more

and

And,
be

can

the individual

on

provoked by

while

phenomena,

side,the simple

indefinite

an

variety

the very

complicated attitude
usuallyonly in very definite

of militant patriotism appears

social conditions.
But

than

more

this.

Far from

obviatingthe problem

individual

variations,such uniformities

influences

as

For

be found

can

with

constitute

exceptionof

the

of reaction

problem

the

of

social

to

in themselves.

elementary reactions

purelyphysicalstimuli,which may be treated as identical

because
of the identityof "human
nature"
and as such
belong to individual psychology,all uniformities with which
to

social

to

deal

members

of

psychology has
If the

identical way

to

sociallytrained
of behavior

to

with

group

less

he meets

react

given

group

in

an

been

impose upon
solving the

in his life. But

very

than

ditions.
con-

the traditional rules

the very

fact that individual

definitions and

problem

social

they have

of defining and

the
training,

do accept such

them, is no

in the

ways

which

of this social

members

certain

thus, because

react

certain

situations
practical
success

product of

certain values,it is because

predominant

member

every

the

are

act

in accordance

fact
opposite

the

"

the

frequent insuccess of the training,the growing assertion of

the growing variation of reaction to social
the personality,
rules,the search for personaldefinitions which character"

METHODOLOGICAL

izes civilized societies.

of

the members

is the

of this

cause

And

41

if

thus, even

social group

]certain value, stillwe

{

NOTE

cannot

react

find that all

we

in the

same

that this value

assume

to

way

alone

reaction,for the latter is also conditioned

1by the uniformityof attitudes prevailingin the group ; and

be taken
this uniformity itself cannot
as
granted and
omitted

uniformityof environingconditions
in a physicalfact
because it is the particular
effect of certain
of the group who,
social rules actingupon the members
have accepted these rules,
because of certain predispositions,
as

"

omit the

we

"

.and

by

this effect may

the action

be

at

of different causes,
and

more

counterbalanced

moment

any

and

is in fact counterbalanced

frequentlywith

more

the

progress

of

civilization.
In

value

short,when

is of itself the

it is then

that

assumes
spcjaj_theory

certain social

of.a certain individual

cause

reaction,

why did this value produce

this particulareffect when
vidual
acting on this particularindi?
at this particular
moment
or group
Certainlyno
scientific answer
since in order
to such a questionis possible,
should have to know
the whole
to explainthis "why"
we
and of the universe.
past of the individual,of the society,
Analogous methodologicaldifficulties arise when social
forced

to ask:

"But

"

theory attempts to explaina change in

of the members
a result of the activity
\ treat individual

change
I

appears

activityas
as

sense

existed before
of the

If

of the group.

of social

new

features.

we

changes, every
it is

Necessarilythis

ity
product of individual activvalue and in so far original
as it has not
a new
the importhis activity,
but in certain cases
tance
every

change brought by the individual makes

culable
itsincal-

character particularly
striking.We
inexplicable
therefore almost despairedof extending consistently
and

have

cause

as
organization

inexplicable,/!
particularlywhen

"original,"
presents many
point is one of degree,for
is in

social

PRIMARY-GROUP

42

the

ORGANIZATION

principleof causalityto

while it stillseems

to us

that

productive activityof the

the "masses."

From

it isneither

changesbrought into
a Napoleon, a Marx,
change brought by
his relatives
The
s

work

or

of the

social

an

peasant who

starts

of small

creative process

into

his farm.

the

and

which

makes

certain

produce

new

the

The
may

be thus

few months
a

or

therefore the
and
an

is

more

generationsthan when
days, or that by dividing

million small parts

the

cause

of

in

By

infinite task whenever

destroy its
by a proper

machine

we

can

the social results

the action itself,

in which

social change

social elements.

we

conceptionthat

elements

the social conditions

and

ganization
or-

equivalent

creative process

produce a perpetuum mobile.

fact is that
The simple and well-known
of individual activitydepend, not only on
also

in social

change

lasts for several

of mechanical

but

are

changes brought by millions of

idea that

is equivalentto
irrationality,

theory faces

against

ordinary man,
existing
conditions,

his social environment

the

individual

lawsuit

increase

to

small

explaina

object
nature, importance,complexity,of the

accumulation

on

the Great,

like that of the

in the
activity,
problems put and solved.
produced by a great man

combination

Charles

difference is in the values which

The

of

or

explainthe greatest
to

tendency to modify

toward

everyday

individual

than

land

piece of

ordinary men, but

explicablewhen it
it is performed in a
a

by

Bismarck

rejectcertain existingvalues

values.

to

of the great man,

of his attitude

him

or

the

ever,
methodological standpoint,how-

the social world

buys

the result of his

human

less difficultto

nor

"great men,"

do understand

we

average

the

more

the activities of

it is
must

performed;

include both

ignoring this, social

it wants

to

explainthe

action in different
simplest social change. For the same
social conditions produces quitedifferent results. It is true
stable the results of
that if social conditions are sufficiently

METHODOLOGICAL

certain individual
least in

actions

sufficient

NOTE

are

more

majority of

product,that the
againsta member
bonds

result of the
of his

him

between

judge'sactivityin
incarceration

and

this holds

know

of

case

allowed to

which

or

of

set

not

as

lawsuit

dissolution of

family

that the result of

will be the condemnation

case

of the offender ifhe is convicted.

conditions

remain

But

all

stable.

In

will

be

idea of

not

family

suit
prevailin a peasant group, the lawprovoke moral indignation
; if the action upon
ceased

judge has
a

technical

peasant'sstartinga

to

this verdict

to pronounce

crime because

of

method

which

ceases

to

be

conditions
change of political
if convicted,will be

publicopinion,the offender,even

free.

certain

factory,the workman
finish his product; assuming that the

the

treated

will be

strike in the

has
solidarity
will

criminal

determinable,at
permit an approximate

that the result of the

this member,

only if social

true

to

familywill be

and
a

less

or

cases

We
calculation.
practical
activityof a factory-workman

43

permits

us

to

determine

only

stereotypedactivityand leaves us helplessin face

of changed conditions is not a scientific method
at all,and
less and less practically
useful with the conbecomes
tinual
even
in modern
increase of fluidity
social life.
Moreover, social theory forgetsaiso that the uniformity
cases

of

of results of certain actions is itself a

problem

and

demands

explanationexactlyas much as do the variations. For the

of social conditions upon
which the uniformityof
stability
results of individual activitydepends is itself a product of
former activities,
natural status which might
not an original
be assumed
vary

as

from

group

action
effects in
have

may

granted.

Both

to group

and

have

indeed

certain societyand

its character
from

to

determined
at

completely-^different effects

other periods.

epoch

certain

in other

and

its

epoch.
and

degree
A

tain
cer-

calculable

period,but
societies and

will
at

PRIMARY-GROUP

44

And

thus

ORGANIZATION

social

theory is again confronted by a

question. Assuming that individual

absurd

in itself is the

of social

cause

it
effects,

tifically
scienity
activ-

then

must

ask:

produce this particulareffect

in this particular
The
at this particular
moment
society?
to this questionwould
demand
answer
a complete explanation
of the whole status of the given societyat the given
the entire past of
and thus force us to investigate
moment,
does

"Why

certain action

"

The

fundamental

psychologyand

of both social
methodologicalprinciple
without which they
sociology the principle
scientific explanation is therefore the following
"

reach

never

^an

Qu^CCo

"wv\,V"t^^"W"^

the universe.

"

one:

The
another

cause

of a

social

or

combination

Or, in
The
or

of a

social

social and

value alone,but

is

never

alone,but always a

individual phenomenon.

an

terms:

value

of a

cause

phenomenon

individual phenomenon

exact

more

individual

or

attitude is

of an

or

always a

combination

never

attitude

an

attitude and

of an

value.1
It is only by the

of
application

the difficultieswith

remove

practicehave struggled. If
of
whole

group

know

we

"

the

group,

It may
to which
1

but

cause

of

but exclusivelyin another

are

we

call

phenomenon

a
as

value.

also that

social phenomenon

boER^alues

sequence
con-

the individual

(Durkheim).

attitudes,a fact

constitute

fact.

itself

course

phenomenon.

opposed

to the "state of consciousness"

An

to

attitude

all members

much
be

may

of

an
a

individual,
criticism of

of social theory.

include both, and

must

Of

in

But

previousdiscussion of the data

and

if common

this influence

"social"

but it is individual,even
it to

social value upon

in

or

appeared as

social phenomenon is to be sought, not

of values alone cannot

what

individual

one

have neglectedto criticizethe conceptionaccording

we

this conception is implie^Sithe

As these data

know

we

be objected that
the

in

that this attitude

of the influence of
or

that we can
principle
which social theory and social
wish to explainthe appearwe
ance

attitude^" whether

new

this

cession
suc-

depends also

treated

a.

on

social

of individual psychology;
a

group,

when

we

oppose

46

PRIMARY-GROUP

in

their

One

fathers, develop completely different attitudes.

shows

submission, the other

If the father's

of these

ORGANIZATION

tyranny is supposed

opposite attitudes,we

of these individuals

tyranny is not the sole

element

mon,

( ent

into the

enters

We

causes.

acter
char-

past in order

to

realize that the

we

facts,but only a

compositionof

com-

differ-

two

will be to find the other elements

simpletask

our

causes,

of these

which

of both

cause

if

But

cause

the whole

their whole

and

ment.
resent-

be the

to

know

must

difference of effect.

explainthe

revolt and

secret

them, if

find

can

materials

our

are

in certain persisting
attitudes of these individuals
sufficient,

expressed in
which acquiremore

words

as

similar
element

and

of the

actions.

we

the conclusion

is,in the

cause

form

We

certaintyas

more

thus reach

We

cases.

or

first case,

hypotheses

compare
that

the

many

the other
of

attitude

in the second
solidarity,
case, the individualistic
personal desires. We have
tendency to assert one's own
thus two completelydifferent facts,and we
do not need to
difference of effects is obviously exsearch farther.
The
plained
what
and is necessarily
by the difference of causes

familial

it is.

The

is the attitude

of the attitude of submission

cause

of familial

solidarity
plusthe tyranny of the father;the cause
attitude of revolt is the tendency to self-assertion

of the

plus
As

the

another
the

take

tyranny

case

communities
there

"

work

Polish

of the
who

as

desire
hard

work

same

individual

during the

as

refuse

pretexts. We

should

do

they

as

much

certain

same

we

western

and

piece-work as

communities

they stay

the Polish

piece-workunder
be inclined

"

show
sible
pos-

in order to increase their

can

of these

on

mass-phenomenon

for season-work

peasants when

season

day-work and

to

peasants from

Germany

go to

earnings,while peasants
the

father.
this time

example

uniformly a
and

of the

to

and

at

estates

the most

home

even

and

accept only
ridiculous

ascribe this difference

METHODOLOGICAL

of attitudes

the Polish estate-owners

differ

though they
in Poland

peasants in

the

that

intimidated

because

the

by

of

of

The

causes.

piece-work are

less

Germany; the estate-owners

laborious
Germany are more
estatedespotism of German

farm-managers. Both contentions are wrong.

conditions of piece-work as compared with day-work
and

owners

The

less favorable

not
certainly

are

in

than

in fact both

give this explanation,

the nature

to

as

conditions

the

that

peasants say
claim

47

the difference of conditions,and

to

the peasants and

favorable

NOTE

and

the peasants

are

in Poland

laborious

more

in

they find
whole

there.

be sure, the conditions

To

differs. The

social environment
is not

that the
desire of

the sufficient cause

Germany,

Germany

real

account, regardlessof the very

own

in

than

their

on

despotism which
different ; the

are

ever,
environment, how-

of the attitudes.

The

pointis
peasant who goes to Germany is led there by the
economic
advance, and this attitude predominates
of the

during the

whole

conditions

themselves, but through the feelingof being in

definite

periodof

by piece-work.
home

preserves

work

as

on

an

account

on

to earn

the contrary, the peasant who

On

for the time

being his

more

stays at
toward

old attitude

this attitude,under

"necessary evil,"and

of traditional ideas about

the

the

of work

conditions

work.
estate, produces the unwillingnessto accept pieceboth

Here

attitude

value-idea

and

of the

components
"

cause

"

pre-existing

evidently the

and
differ,

effects

be different.

must

If

now

value, we
of

not

conditions,and produces the desire

new

influence

work,

season-

an

know

individual

dependent on
But

unless

have

we

we

to

is

this value

that
or

explain the

number

of

the attitude of which

we

take

know

also

that

into consideration

appearance

product of

of

the

individuals,and

the

social

activity
in

so

far

is the expresactivity
sion.
result is inexplicable
value (orcomplex of

this
this

48

PRIMARY-GROUP

values)which
of

was

activityand

the

ORGANIZATION

and
starting-point

which

has conditioned

did the attitude itself.

solution of

problem

(The new

set

by

The

as

of

reality
only when
objectof the attitudes
can

of the

understand

and

the

effect of both

common

an

of

"

it enters

into social life,

becomes

of the group,

this

effect,only if

when

is the result of the

"

social

we

as

of a mechanical
activity even
manufactured
thing acquiresits full

product

activity,such

much

as

value
pre-existing

active attitude together; it is the

them.'

the result

value

the

the social material

is socially
valued.

meaning, which
know

we

what

is
was

an

the
And/

essential part

the social situation

activitystarted,what was the social value

which
the individual (or individuals)
speciallyacted
upon
and which might have been quitedifferent from the one upon
which he intended
If
to act and imagined that he acted.
introduce this pre-existing
value into the fact as the
we
once
necessary
value

the

component

of

the

the

cause,

effect

the

"

new

will be

completely explicableand we shall not be

forced to ask: "Why
is it that this activity
has brought in
these conditions this particulareffect instead of the effect
it was
intended to bring?" any more
than physicsis forced
is it that an elastic body struck by another
to ask: "Why
elastic body changes the direction and rapidityof its movement
instead of changing merely its rapidityor merelyits
"

direction?"
tutions
examples,the American social instiand interference,
to
try, by a continuous supervision
the
develop a strong marriage-group organizationamong
Polish immigrants who begin to show certain signsof decay
the relation between
of family life or among
whom
husband
To

and

take

some

wife and

standards

further

children

does

not

in certain respects. The

quite baffling.Far from

values,the interference proves
are

come

up

to

the American

results of this

being

of

constructive

rather destructive

activity

in

new

great

METHODOLOGICAL

NOTE

49

majority of cases, in spiteof the best efforts of the most

In a few cases
social workers.
it does not seem
intelligent
the existingstate of things; sometimes, indeed,
to affect much
though very seldom, it does bring good results. This
the problem stillmore
complicatedand
very variation makes
the social workers
difficult. To explain the effects,
try to
consideration

the

of the individuals

with

into

take

social coherence,are
constitute

scattered

In

new

conditions

we

shall

not

it.

changing

losingmost
but

as

yet, in

some

communities

institutions,

family institution.

graduallydissolve,and

in later volumes.

process
or

the

of their

of this coherence

these

that

these institutions

sudden

standing
misunder-

universal,and

thus

But

lution
the disso-

the American

it,a
activitymeets, without realizing
of social values which
are
completely strange to him,
which his activitydirectlyaffects without his knowing

social worker

and

and

important is

the most

study this

is

whole

the old country several social

brought from
which

The

devoid
entirely

and

vague

among

set

stillnot

real communities, and

measure,

have

whom

the lack of realization that the Polish

from

immigrants here, though

and

and character
life-history
they deal, but without

in their efforts.

progressingmuch
comes

whole

in his

ference
is concerned, any interfamilyorganization
social authorities
of external powers
or
political
mental
act dissolvingly
it,because it affects the fundaupon

As far

as

the

"

"

must

principleof the family as a social institution the

principleof solidarity.An individual who accepts external
interference in his favor againsta familymember
sins against
be
this principle,
and
break
of family relations must
a
"

thus

the

natural

consequence

of the

well-intentioned but

insufficiently
enlightenedexternal activities. The effect is
tion
brought,not by these activities alone, but by the combinaof these activities and the pre-existing
peasant family
organization. Of course, if the family organization is

PRIMARY-GROUP

50

different
has

ORGANIZATION

if,for example,in

"

already taken

the

place of

will be different because

instead

of

trie

the total

of the

different attitude

marriage-group
large family the effect

the

protectiveand

attitude

the

given case

"

is different.

cause

the

for

if

Or,

hensible
peasant incompre-

social worker

court

or

is

officer

brought into action if,^forexample,

the familyis surrounded
by a strong and solidarycommunity
of equalswho, from the standpointof communal
solidarity,
interfere with family relations,just as they do hi the old
again the effect will be different because the other
country
"

"

of the

component
"

is no

cause

longerthe

the attitude

"

as

expressedin

action

same.

interesting
example is the result of the national
persecutionof the Poles in Prussia,the aim of which was to
Folio whig all the efforts
destroy Polish national cohesion.
Another

which

the

powerful Prussian

Poles, national
and
elements
national
lower

as

cohesion

has

the national

problems

the

city classes.

The

"

the existence

and

could

in

very

Prussian

such

the peasants and

had

government

strengthof

to

of the

not

ized
real-

the communal

in
principle

the lower classes of Polish

certain

vital interests of these

more

included

persecutionquite indifferent

majority of

economic, it contributed

bring againstthe
creased,
inlarge measure

organizationhas

before the

were

state

than

solidarity
ing
and by attacksociety,
classes,religiousand
the positiveefforts of

the

Polish class could have done to the developintelligent

ment
of this principleand to its extension over
the whole
and West
Polish societyin Posen, Silesia,
Prussia.
These
examples of the result of the violation of our
from the
methodologicalrule could be multipliedindefinitely
field of social reform.
is to construct

they wish
an

to

ideal

common

rational scheme

a
see

The

produced

plan

or

tendency
of the

of reformers

social institution

abolished,and then

of social activities which

would

to

late
formu-

perhaps

METHODOLOGICAL

lead
a

realization of their scheme

to a

of individual

sum

NOTE

51

if social lifewere

actions, every

of

one

regardfor tradition,every
exclusivelyin the psychologicalnature

afresh without
source

and

any

merely
them
starting
one
having its
of the individual

capable of being completelydirected,by

selected motives, toward

definite social aims.

IJutas

wellsocial

realitycontains, not only individual acts, but also social

not
institutions,
only attitudes,but also values fixed by
tradition and conditioningthe attitudes,these values cooperate
productionof the final effect quiteindependently,
often in spite of the intentions of the social
Thus
the socialist,
if he presupposes
that a solidary

in the
and
reformer.

and

well-directed

action of the

will realize the

masses

pletely
perfectsocialistic organization,ignorescomthe influence of the whole existing
social organization
will co-operate with the revolutionaryattitudes of
which
in producing the new
and this,not
the masses
organization,
only because of the oppositionof those who will hold to the

scheme

of

traditional values,but also because

sanctioned
socially
to

condition

will thus be
Of

course

rules for

many
an
we

attitudes

not

social facts is never

social

practice. On

values,as

will continue
definingsituations,

integralpart
do

of those

many

assert

of the
of the

themselves

masses

of the final effect.

causes

that the proper

used

by

social

the contrary,

we

and

way

theory or

very

of formulating

reflective

frequentlyfind

appliedin the study of particularcases, and it is naively

used in everyday business and personalrelations. We
use
it in all cases involvingargument and persuasion. The business

it

man,

the

shopkeeper, and

the

use
politician

it very

subtly. We have been compelled in the case of our juvenile

delinquentsto allow the judges to waive^the formal and
incorrect conceptionof social facts and to substitute in the
But the point is that
of the child the proper formula.
case
this formula
has never
been applied with any consistency

PRIMARY-GROUP

52

and

ORGANIZATION

systematicdevelopment, while

been

used

the wrong

formula

has

thoroughly and has led to such imposing

the whole enormous
and
systems as, in reflective practice,
continuallygrowing complexity of positivelaw, and in
social theory to the more
and limited,but rapidly
recent
of works on political
science,philosgrowing,accumulation
ophy
of

very

to enforce

certain attitudes upon

consider

stopping to

their

generalor
at every

step we

taking into

our

upon

The
whose

what

try

to

the values which

intention
source

various

and

the

at

produce certain

the result of

chief

their dominant

are

try

we

without

attitudes

in

given moment;

social values without

are

efforts will

our

step

other individuals

prevailingattitudes

account

which

upon

sociology.{At every

law, ethics,and

already there

and

much

as

depend

as

persistence^

of this great

consequences

we

methodologicalmistake,

have

shown

in the first part

lay probably in the fact that social theory and

reflective practicestarted with problems of political
and
legalorganization.Having thus to deal with the relatively
uniform attitudes and relatively
permanent conditions which
of this note,

characterized

civilized societies several thousand

relyingbesides

and

instrument

upon

for the

years

ago,

lible
physicalforce as a supposedlyinfalproduction of social uniformityand

the desirable attitudes were

absent,
stabilitywhenever
social theory and reflective practicehave been capable of
holdingand of developing,without remarking its absurdity,

standpointwhich
only if
justifiable
universallyuniform
a

would
human
and

be

and
scientifically
technically
attitudes were
absolutelyand
social conditions absolutelyand

universallystable.
A

systematic application and

methodologicalrules stated above

in a completely different direction.

development
would

of

the

necessarilylead

Its final result would

PRIMARY-GROUP

54

be assumed

ORGANIZATION

be permanent

to

and

respect it is stilla problem whether

much

prove

less

analyze its data

complex

than

the social world

world

if only we

its facts

proper

methods.

of complexityis due
prepossession
treatingthe social reality. If it

The
of

social world

has

be treated

will not

the natural

determine

and

in this

And

necessary.

by

the naturalistic way

is maintained
that the
to

expressionor a product
of the psychological,
of
nature
or
physiological,
biological
human
beings,then, of course, it appears as incomparably
more
complex than the natural world, because to the already
to

inexhaustiblycomplex
of nature

is added

numerous

and

various

an

conscious

human

the fact that in

various human
if

But

ways.

as

organism
social group

as

part

there

in
beingsinteracting

are

the most

study the social world, without

we

naturalistic

prepossessions,
simply as a pluralityof
ing,
data, causallyinterconnected in a process of becomspecific
the questionof complexity is no more
for social
baffling
any

theory, and

even

may

prove

less so, than

it is for

science.

"""1

search for laws does

The

difficulties if
When

we

our

have

certain cause,

follow.

found

that

But

of

is

determin^.
acjequajrely

certain effecTis produced by

of this causal

only one
example, that

that

assume

repeats itselfthe effect will necessarily

cause

further need is

to

For

when

determined

we

know

when
that

when
effect,

the attitude A

plus the

the attitude C, then if the presumed

the

dependence has

law; that is,we

contrary, a factor of progress

employed.

have

of

special

any

explainapparent exceptions.
this need of explanation,
which is the stumbling-block
theory that has defined its facts inadequately,becomes,

the

on

actuallypresent

been

the formulation

this
The

not

facts have

in itself the character

whenever

physical

expectedeffect C

does

not

the proper
a

we

have

cause

assumed,

value B is the

cause

appear,

certain

this

method

cause

can

for

of

A -\-B is there and

means

either that

METHODOLOGICAL

have been mistaken

we

of C,

assuming that

that the action of A -\-B

or

action of

some

first case

the

our

in

NOTE

other

-f-Y

second

A +B

X-\-B

the

cause

by

X-\- Y.

or

the

In the

of correcting
possibility

it permits

case

the

was

interfered with

was
or

exceptiongives us

in the

error;

cause

55

extend

to

us

our

ing
knowledge by findinga new causal connection,by determinthe partly or totallyunknown
A-\-Y or X-\-B or
cause
which

X-\-Y

has

A -\-B and

case

of the
becomes

interfered with

brought

the action
effect D

complex

of

known

our

C-\-Z, instead

expected C. And thus the exception from

for the discoveryof a new
the starting-point

law

law.

This

explanationof apparent exceptionsbeing the only

demand
that can be put upon a law, it is evident that
logical
the difference between
particularand generallaws is only a
difference of the fieldof

Suppose
the

we

social
is

value

B, another

value

ne^v value
are

nowhere

an

is the effect.

If the

there is

whenever

or

appears,

by

an

attitude
and

A+B

causes

E,

D-\-E

the social life of the Polish peasants and

values involved

of course,

one

activitydirected

else,because

or

then,

and

attitude

only in

found

of

logical
validity.
laws concerning
find in the present work some
life of Polish peasants showing that whenever
attitude A and the influence of a
pre-existing

there

not
application,

of their

some
are

"

the laws

components

tudes
the atti-

the Polish peasants,

peculiarto

A-\-B

"

and

D-\-E=F

will be

laws applicable
particular
only to the Polish peasant society,
but within these limits as objectively
valid as others which
ity
social theory may
to humaneventuallyfind of applicability
them
in general. We
extend
cannot
beyond these
limits and

do

not

need

them.

to extend

will be different if the attitudes A

and
thus

are

the

not

causes

societies.

Then

peculiarto

the

+B

can
=

the situation

and

the values

and
peasant society,

Polish

A-\-B and D+E

the laws A

and

But

also in other

be found

C and

D-\-E

F, based

on

56

PRIMARY-GROUP

facts discovered

valid for other

But

other
the

these

values

societies until

character

of

be

produce the

since

and

F.

and

attitudes will be found

laws

our

are

same

know

cannot

we

hi

not

or

investigatedthese societies,

have

we

they

that in other

found

D-\-E

And

quite a

whether

sure

have

we

and

A-\-B

causes

peasants, will have

cannot

we

societies until

respectiveeffects
whether

Polish

among

different meaning.

societies the

ORGANIZATION

remain

must

until then

termined;
unde-

whether
lutely
definitely
they are absovalid though applicableonly to the Polish peasants
only hypotheticallyvalid although applicableto all
cannot

we

or

say

societies.
The

problem

methodology,

of laws

mechanism
Let

important

The

do

we

we

in these illustrations

use

is to

purpose

take

us

second

described

as

thoroughly social
of
quantification

does not

determine

of facts

only

second

system

tendency
are

found
we

to

subsumed

advance

can

"

even

volumes

if

the

of this work.

to

social fact;

advance, and

the formula

individualistic

generallyamong
assume

obtain

we

nomic
eco-

thus

The

expresses

as

such

the formula
the

this attitude

is the

empiricalfacts

our

same

"

tendency
facts

Polish peasants of various

that this formula

of

constructs

that

familial system

system.

We

organization

This succession

of the first. Now,

economic

nomic
eco-

individualistic system

an

find the attitude

we

out

by

the values.

any

of the

character
qualitative

and

social values,succeeded
a

already

hi the introduction

find there,first,
a system of familial economic

with

are

insightinto

give an

the first example the evolution

as

the first and

to

that the

of the research.

life of the Polish peasant

with

crete
con-

stillhypotheses,others

are

of

one

two

reallyassert

not

course

of them

some

fictions.

mere

the most

shall illustrate it in detail from

we

examples. Of
supposed laws which
established ;

being

to

being

localities,

law, but whether

METHODOLOGICAL

it is

law

applicableonly

NOTE

57

the Polish peasants

to

to all

or

societies

such
familial economic
a
depends on whether
organizationassociated with a tendency to advance results
always and everywhere in an individualistic system. We

that if

further determine

may

but

instead

attitude

in

power

of the tendency to economic

for

"

the

"

economic

These

for

"

other

political

concentrate

will

be

different

hereditaryestate.

"

Or

for
we

"

individualism

formation

another

advance
acts
tendency to economic
for example, a fullydeveloped
system

different

upon

of

system

advance

if the

find that

may

result

the

family
feudal

desire to

the

example,

the

example,

find the familial system,

we

it will also lead to

"

example,

the

to

classes of facts may

different social

constitution

of

in turn

become

trusts.

the bases

of social

hypotheses if they prove sufficiently

generaland
uniform.
But
whether
the law is particular
or
certainly,
general,we must always be able to explainevery seeming
exception. For example, we find the familial system and
the

tendency

but

no

to

in

advance

formation

tends to advance

Polish peasant

of the individualistic
as

that the evolution

a'

whole.

has been

In this

hindered

change the expected results.

a

family group,
the family
system

case

by

There

"

we
some

must

suppose

factors which

be, for example,

may

strong attitude of familypridedevelopedtraditionally

very

in all the

members,

in families of

as

peasant nobilitywho

particularprivilegesduring the period of Poland's

with
independence. In this case familial prideco-operating
had

the

tendency

economic
without

range

advance

individualism.
we

have

to

particularlaw

could

if

our

law

it.

But

even

was

too

And

drop

that its formulation

of facts covered

by
be

system of

produce a mixed
of
quantification

will

organization,with

these tests
suppose

to

then

not
we

general,that

these concepts
discovered

does

values

"

for

more

stand
may

but
all
still

within the

limited and

example, that

the

58

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

of "work

system

tendency

for

living," under

advance, becomes

to

the

influence
of

system

of the

"work

for

wages."
another

As

type of example

select

we

of

legalpracticeand attempt to show what

implicitlyinvolved in it,what social laws
assumed, and
of

common

if science

the assumptions

way

could be verified,
modified,complemented,

sense

rejected,so

or

in what

to indicate

try

particularcase
assumptions are
are
uncritically

make

to

as

objectivelyvalid.

them

For,

is

only developed, systematized,and perfected

common
sense
requiredto rectifycommon
sense, the work
before it becomes
science is incomparably greater than is
usuallysupposed.
The case
is simple. A Polish woman
(K) has loaned to
(T) $300

another
claims
to

her money

various

times.

After

back; the other refuses

some

of

social law, is: "A

witness

who

be

law

such

might be

(2) an

where

law

if

individual

nobody
with

lias determined

It is

supposed that

It is the formal

that

is important.

say,

"The

bearing

on

witness
the

and

explainedcausally.

attitude

true

how

which,

put

sworn

reasons

the necessary

attitude

we

admit

few

or

[or sometimes] tells the

of method.
statement

There
and

is

(3) a
lacking;

is

in connection

testimony,and
produce

both

may

are

element

to

Whether
often

ined.
exam-

be determined;

second

side of this assumption, not

problem

of this statement,

the

the

knows

nobody

$, still to

here

But

the oath, results in

course,

we

attitude

testimony.

true

goes

according to our definition there can

only two elements are given. There
had
(i) the oath (a social value);

exception."1 But
no

are

has

tell the truth will tell the truth, unless there

for

to pay.

The witnesses
bring witnesses.
which we
assumption of legalpractice,

into the form

she

years

Both

court.

First

to

at

such
"

therefore,of
attitude.

an

whatever

it is"

the sphere of its application,

exceptions, whether

many

truth," has

general statement

limitation

are

not

we

the slightest

and

groundless
"

limitation
cannot

be

METHODOLOGICAL

automaticallywhen

appears

in the

if not

in many,

it

case

the

defense,but

lying.

false.

explanation

if

knew

we

what

testimony, determine
influences
have

simply to

use

the

supposition

is

We

there

or

But,

of

could, of
for true

what

the

were

knowing it,

not

tion,
generaliza-

common-sense

lying in spiteof the

interest involved
oath, there is some
personal,familial,
in
the generalization
admitted
friendly." And this was
this case, and it has no validitywhatever
because it cannot
such

"If the witnesses

In

were
plaintiff,

is necessary

not

other

some

of the

possible?

it was

why.

only the witnesses

its action.

hindered

that

Not

attitude

why

Naturally

true, nobody knows

What

course,

is taken.

of the witnesses

some

59

of cases,

majority

proved mainly

our

the oath

if it proves

false,and

proves

we

NOTE

as:

are

"

be converted

law;

tertium

"

to

produce

lie.

be the result of other

attitudes,and
we

because

they bring

are

the suit is

honesty or
only problem

in

altruism
is
"

court

are

the lawsuit

"

explainedby

influences

lawsuit

or

the

essence

of

most

lawsuit; the peasant

the lawsuit

lie

certain preexisting
in

case

the

considerations

fightwhere
any

Here

Once

weight,and
we

the

have, indeed,

if

changing either
Thus,

testimonies
was

logical
a socioverified,
sufficiently
attitude result
and a radical fighting
Apparent exceptions will then be

attitude.

namely, the claim

act

hand,

fightingattitude.

longerof

no

the

Polish peasants lie in court

become,

false testimonies.

started

was

to be beaten.

not

that may

law

into

the other

on

acting upon
preciselythe

started,it becomes

of

formula

this

again

the interest must

factors

discussing. The

example

have

must

which

And,

that interest is the

say

we

the attitude upon

quid

in order

cannot

we

making people lie,but

cause

can

into

real.

the

for

the

But

the

would

woman

without

in

the situation of the

actual

case,

the

was
true,
plaintiff
ctaim preceded the

probably

just claim, for

as

have

not

long

as

the

60

PRIMARY-GROUP

suit
were

accepted as

been

considered

precedingthe

binding, and
the worst

suit was,

in

false claim

solidarity
would

possibleoffense. The
short : law permittingthe

that the debtor

of money

of communal

started considerations

not

was

ORGANIZATION

refused

have

situation
recovery

creditor's

feeling
of being wronged and
desire of redress
legalcomplaint.
for the
There
was
no
cause
making a false claim possible,
for the peasant, can
be here only a means
law, subjectively
to

pay

"

"

of redress,not

of redress

only attitude
solidarity.

It would

lead

us

too

far if we

by legalpracticein

made
mention

other.

one

absurd

the

without

money

have

it in

is the

communal

invested

The

claim

it at

wrong

way,

offset

not

by

not

and

the desire

the

feelingof

analyzedall the assumptions

particularcase,

but

we

attorney for the defense

treated

had

loaned

of the

good

this

that
plaintiff

determined

any

since he does

of illicitwrong,

means

it sufficiently
to use

master

as

she

interest,while

interest and

in

more

she
secure

could
way.

assumption was that, being given various possibilities

the subjectwill always select the one
of investingmoney,
that is most
economicallyprofitable.We see here again
of statinga law of two
The law
the formal error
terms.
is inserted,
be binding only if the third missing term
can
namely, an attitude of the subjectwhich we can express
Now,
approximately:desire to increase fortune or income.
offset
in the actual case, this attitude,if existing
at all,was
and among
the
solidarity,
by the attitude of communal
of investingmoney,
the one
that
various possibilities
not
but the one
that gave satisfaction
was
economicallyprofitable,
selected?.
to the attitude of solidarity
was
is typicalfor all generalThe form of legalgeneralization
izations
instead of two
which
assume
as
only one datum
The

sufficient to determine
to

add

as

many

the effect.
new

It then

of
generalizations

becomes
the

same

sary
neces-

type

62

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

sociologyin searching for laws is rather to overestimate

the generalityof the laws which
it
than to underestimate

of

discover.

may

We

remember

therefore

must

that there

is

assuming that a certain law appliesexclusively

given social conditions than in supposing that it may

less risk in
in the

be extended
The

all societies.

over

ideal

social

of

/\theticscience,is

of

theory, as

other

every

nomo-

facts as possibleby
interpretas many
that is,not only to explaincausally
few laws as possible,
as
societies at particular
the life of particular
periods,but to
these particular
laws to general laws applicable
subordinate
the historical
to all societies at all times
takinginto account
evolution of mankind
which
data
continuallybrings new
to

"

and

addition
social

thus forces

facts and

new

to

already discovered.

those

such cannot

theoryas

method, but

search

to

us

test

for

But

its results

new

the

laws

in

fact that

by the laboratory

the

logicalperfectionof
its abstract analysisand synthesis,makes
the problem of
control of the validityof its generalizationsparticularly
important. The insufficient realization of the character
rely entirelyon

must

of this control
works
sociological

between

have

nomothetic

social
'

chief

science

above

science and

be

must

the
fulfilling

realityor

evolution.

This
reach

to

outline

tions.

Every scientific law bears

themselves

in

common

domain

their

whole

essence,

which

of

problem

upon

hence

it embraces

the

unique process of
becomes
particularly
testingthe generaliza-

variety,not
and

determine

the

distinction
the

to

attempts

when

we

social

theory as
from
clearlydistinguished
any

social life which

of social

the fact that

marked

in the

why so many
mediary
compositions,inter-

reason

of

character

philosophy and

mentioned

philosophy of
essence

bear

the

of neither.

demands
We

been

has

the

empiricalfacts
lying
their under-

upon

every

new

discovery

affects it directlv and

METHODOLOGICAL

NOTE

63

immediately,either by corroboratingit
it.

And,

scientific laws

as

facts

concern

themselves, they automaticallyapply

as

by

to

the past, and

the

law

happenings in

new

be

must

taken

into

by invalidating

or

which

the future

to

the domain

consideration

repeat
as

well

embraced
as

either

justifyingor contradicting the generalizationbased upon

past happenings,or demanding that this generalizationbe
supplemented by a new one.
And

essential criterion

the

thus

of

social

science

as

against social philosophy is the direct dependence of its!

discoveries and
on
new
new
generalizations
happenings.|
is not permanently qualified
If a social generalization
by
the assumption that at any moment
a single
new
experience
may

contradict

it,forcingus either

it by other
no

placein

rejectit or

to

to

ment
supple-

it is not scientific and has

generalizations,
theory,unless as a generalprinciple
helping

social

systematizethe properly scientific generalizations.The

the chemist, and the biologist
have learned by the
physicist,
of experiment that their generalizations
are
use
scientifically
fruitful only if they are subjectto the check of a possible
to

experimentalfailure,and
helped them
to

to pass

the modern

from

natural

thus

the

naturalis
philosophic,

the mediaeval

science.

The

experiment has

of

use

social theorician must

example an4 methodicallysearch only for such

as
are
generalizations
subject to the check of a possible
contradiction by new
facts and should leave the empirically

follow their

unapproachable essences

and

meanings

they have a real though

validity in philosophy.

belong, and where

and
The

they properly

where

different

tance
impor-

"

ultimate

test of social

throughout the

theory,as

present note, will be

we

have

;cs

emphasized

applicationin

will be also subject in

generalizations
the last resort to the check of a possiblefailure. However,
practicalapplicationis not experimentation. The results

and
practice,

thus

its

64

PRIMARY-GROUP

ORGANIZATION

of the

physicalsciences are
in industry,
but
application
the

is made

also

ultimatelytested by

their

alter the fact that

this does not

basis of

the

laboratoryexperiments.
The
difference between
experiment and applicationis
twofold:
(i)yfheproblems themselves usually differ in
complexity./The experiment by which we test a scientific
in view of the specialtheoretic
law is artificially
simplified
problem, whereas in applying scientific results to attain a
practicalpurpose we have a much more
complex situation
the use of several scientific laws
to deal with, necessitating
and the calculation of their interference.
This is a question
shall deal presently. (2)^0.laboratory
with which
we
value
experiments the questionof the immediate'practical
failure is essentially
of success
excluded for the sake of
or
their theoretical value.
Whether
the chemist in trying a
combination will spoilhis materials and have to buy
new
will be worth
combination
a new
supply,whether the new
test

more

less money

or

standpointof
even

will be

science

valuable

more

more

the elements

of

chemist

success

asked

soap

in

and

risk the

used,

from

are

the

completelyirrelevant questions;and
than

on

practicewe

have

or

failure in view*

to

direct the

factoryshould

test

destruction

the trail of

new

law

ifit merely corroborates

success

old and well-established

an

scientificresults in
value

than

failure if it puts the scientist

once

on

law.

But

in

the
essentially

applying
practical

It is unthinkable

that

kind of
production of a new
his theory by direct application

of

hundred

thousand

dollars

material,instead of testingit previouslyon a small

scale by laboratory experiments. Now
in all so-called
social experiments,on however
small a scale,the question
value is involved,because the objectsof these
of practical
worth

of

experiments
the

are

question of

the

men;

the

future of those who

social scientist cannot

bearing of

his

"experiments"

affected

by

them.

are

He

exclude
on

the

is therefore

METHODOLOGICAL

seldom

or

in riskinga
justified

never

testinghis theory. Of
not

as

but
scientist,

applicationof

of harm

the

take

can

risks,

that

is,he is

harm

if there

to those

whom

on

practicalrisk involved in
the specialtheoretic risk

idea, not

an

and

practicalman;
of bringing some

His risk is then

he operates.
every

of benefit than

chances

rriore

as

65

failure for the sake of

he does

course

risk

the

in taking
justified
are

NOTE

testingof the idea. And, in order to

diminish this practical
risk,he must try to make his theory
certain and applicableas possiblebefore tryingto apply
as
in the

involved

it in

he

fact,and

the social

mere

can

this result and

secure

at
practitioner
generalizations

hand

to

over

least

approximately
as those of physicalscience,
as applicable
only if he uses the
check
of contradiction
by new
experience. This means
that besides using only such generalizations
be
as
can
contradicted

by

experienceshe

new

themselves

experiencesimpose
search

must

for

form

probabilityhas

to

to

corroborate

may

fullytested
search
those

must

him

institute

not

wait

hypothesisand
search

first of

has

scientist

of
amount
give it some
all for such experiences
-as
to

it, his hypothesis cannot

until he

tillnew

by accident, but
systematicmethod

And, while it is only natural that

of observation.
in order

them,

on

must

be

considered

made

subsequently a systematic
for such experiences
contradict it,and proved
as may
contradictions
to be only seeming, explicable
by the

interference

of definite factors.

Assuming
and

now

that

goes

on

social

theory

discovering new

applied to regulatesocial becoming,

fulfils its task

laws

what

which

factorily
satiscan

be

will be the effect

practice? First of all,tlie limitations with

which
social practicehas struggledup to the present will
be graduallyremoved.
Since it is theoretically
possibleto
social influences should be applied to certain
find what

of this

on

social

66

PRIMARY-GROUP

ORGANIZATION

in order

already existingattitudes
attitudes,and

attitudes

what

to

should

produce certain
be developed

new

with

already existingsocial values in order to

make
the individual or the group produce certain new
social
values, there is not a singlephenomenon within the whole
life that conscious control cannot
reach
sphere of human
later. There
sooner
or
no
are
objectiveobstacles in the
certain

regard

to

nature

of the social world

which

or

in the nature

of the human

mind

would

ing
essentially
prevent social practicefrom attaintrial
that of indusas
degree of efficiency
graduallythe same
practice. The only obstacles are of a subjectivekind.

There

indeed, be

some

regarded

as

meritorious,the standards
to

cease

be

by

of merit

matter

necessity. If the theorician

is asked

and

to

anything done
which

be

to

be

is

the results

Social

astonishinglylow.

appreciated are

must

social

results in order

the good intentions count, but, since

make

are

must,

appreciationof

for the sake of its intentions

in itself,

meritorious

activityas
alone.

traditional

is, first,the

There

practice

treated

as

of his

sure

hi practice,
before trying to apply them
it
generalizations
of merely good will are
is at least strange that persons
and irresponsibly
permittedto try out on societyindefinitely
their vague
and perhaps sentimental ideas.
second
obstacle to the development of a perfect
The
social practice is the well-known
unwillingnessof the
common-sense

to

man

technique. Against
weapon

"

success.

this

This

common

sense

of the
man

that

laughed at

and

is what

of

scientific
one

the

history of industrial
is perhaps not a singlecase
where
to

any

tradition did not

practitioner.It

the old farmer

control

unwillingness there is only

There
techniqueshows.
the first applicationof science

by

the

accept

practiceheld
provoke the opposition

is still within

with

the idea that the

field of

his

the memory

common-sense

citychap

could teach

of

methods
him

any-

METHODOLOGICAL

NOTE

$7

than skeptical
about the
thingabout farming, and was more
to the growing of
applicationof the results of soil-analysis
The fear of new
things is still strong even
crops.
among
cultivated
that

he

persons,

will meet

hostilityof

common

the social technician

and
at

almost

sense

to

has to expect

step this old typical

every

science.

He

it and

only accept
of his
superiority
can

it as a demand
the
to show
interpret
methods
by their results.
which social practice
But the most
important difficulty
has to overcome
before reaching a level of efficiency
parable
comlies in the difficulty
of
to that of industrial practice
applying scientific generalizations.The laws of science are
abstract,while the practicalsituations are concrete, and
it requiresa specialintellectual activityto find what
are
the practical
questionswhich a given law may help to solve,
or

what

are

the scientific laws

which

may

be used

to

solve

given practicalquestion. In the physical sphere this

in technology,and
intellectual activityhas been embodied
it is only since the technologist
has intervened between
the
a

scientist and

practitionerthat material practicehas

acquired definitelythe character of a self-conscious and
planfullydevelopingtechniqueand ceased to be dependent
on

the

irrational

and

often

unreasonable

traditional

rules.

practiceneeds"a technologyin spiteof the

fact that the generalizations
which
physicalscience hands
to it have been alreadyexperimentally
over
tested,this need
is much
more
urgent in social practicewhere the application
of scientific generalizations
is their first and only experimental
if material

And

test.

We

cannot

enter

here into detailed

social

indications

technologyshould be, but we must take

the generalform
the chief point of its method
concrete
problem of social technique assumes.
be the aim of social practice modification
may
"

"

of what

into account

which

every

Whatever
of individual

68

PRIMARY-GROUP

attitudes
aim

we

of social institutions

or

find the elements

never

modify
always

ORGANIZATION

in

"

attain this

trying to

which

want

we

to

use

or

to

isolated and

but
passivelywaiting for our activity,
in active practical
embodied
which have
situations,
been
formed
independently of us and with which our
activityhas to comply.
The
the

situation is the set of values and attitudes with which

individual

the

or

has

group

with

regardto which
appreciated. Every

and
activity

its results
solution of

situation.

in

deal

to

is planned and
activity
concrete
activity is the

this

situation involves

The

of

process

three kinds

(i) The

of data:

objectiveconditions under which the

individual or societyhas to act, that is, the totalityof
values
economic, social, religious,intellectual,etc.
"

"

which

at the

conscious

attitudes
pre-existing
the given moment
at

more

or

(3)The

less clear

conditions

have

pluralityof
hi

combined
tion

of

these

becomes

with

attitudes

happens, indeed, that

an

and

expresses

itself

these cases,

whose

In

reflex and

and

way
is

and
a

are

which

upon

his

as

instinctive

soon

ness
and conscious-

an

indefinite

definite action

one

can

and
selected,interpreted,
if a certain
that

so

subordinates

certain value

as

will,for in given

attitudes

reached,

and
unreflectively

that

of the

act

any

conditions

determined

attitude

influence

the conditions

given set of
and
possible,

predominant
and

the group

the definition of the situation

/And

actions is

actual

an

conceptionof

only if these

appear

or

definition of the situation,that is,the

preliminaryto

and

the
directlyor indirectly
the group.
or
(2) The

of the individual

of the attitudes.

is a necessary

individual

of the

status

behavior.

affect

given moment

one

the

imposes

leads at

it appears

systematiza-

once

others.

It

itself immediately

to

excludes

of them

action, or
the others

unhesitatinglyin an active process.

radical examples are found in
most
actions,the definition is alreadygiven

70

PRIMARY-GROUP

components

by

the

reflective schemes

ORGANIZATION

whole

which

set

of values, attitudes,and

the situation included.

When

situation is solved,the result of the

element

of

in

new

cases

social institution
chief element

becomes
an
activity
denced
situation,and this is most
clearlyeviwhere
the activitybrings a change of a
the
whose unsatisfactory
was
functioning

of the firstsituation.

Now, while the task of science is

parative
analyzeby a cominto elementary
study the whole process of activity
therefore ignorethe varietyof concrete
facts,and it must
situations in order to be able to find laws of causal dependence
of abstractlyisolated attitudes or values on
other
attitudes and values,the task of techniqueis tf^proyide
"hj^
means

of

situation

rational control

to

of concrete

situations.

The

evidentlybe controlled either by a change of

conditions or by a change of attitudes^
or
by both, and in
this respect the role of techniqueas application
of science
is easily characterized.
By comparing situations of a
can

certain type, the social technician

predominant values
determine

the

or

situation

the

must

find what

predominant

more

than

are

attitudes

others, and

the

which

then

the

questionis to modify these values or these attitudes in the

desired way
by using the knowledge of social causation
of the
givenby social theory. Thus, we may find that some
situations among
ing
resultthe Polish immigrants in America
in the husband's
determined
desertion are chiefly
by the
wife's infidelity,
others by her quarrelsomeness,
others by
economic
bad
conditions,still others by the husband's
desire for freedom, etc.

And,

if in

given

case

we

know

apply in order to modify these dominating

we
can
factors,
modify the situation accordingly,and ideally
we
can
provoke in the individual a behavior in conformity
of attitudes and values.
with any given scheme
To be sure, it may
happen that,in spiteof an adequate
scientific knowledge of the social laws permitting the
what

influences to

METHODOLOGICAL

modification

NOTE

of those factors which

71

want

we

efforts will fail to influence the situation

situation

is,either

That
,

fault is then

The

avoid.

"

undesirable

more

the

of
kffl^tance

with

various

change,our

will produce

or

one

wished

we

technical

our

have

we

to

knowledge.

determiningthe

factors,or

foresee the influence of other

produce
activity,

the

failed in

have

we

than

to

relative
failed to

with
which, interfering

causes

quite unexpected and undesired

effect. And
since it is impossibleto expect from every
a
complete scientific trainingand still more
practitioner
and
impossibleto have him work out a scientifically
justified
in particular,
detailed plan of action for every concrete
case
task of the social technician is to prepare, with
the special
the help of both science and practical
observation,thorough
and plans of action for all the various types of
schemes
be found in a given line of social
situations which
may
and leave to the practitioner
the subordination
activity,
situation to its proper type. This is
of the given concrete
tions
actuallythe role which all the organizersof social institubecome
have played, but the technique itself must
conscious and methodicallyperfect,
and every field of
more
social activityshould
technicians.
have
its professional
our

evolution

The

modifications
we

can

and

hope
put

of

social life makes

developments

that the evolution

new

and

technique,and

of social
of social

theory will

in permanent

theory, and
than

we

this

touch

with

requiresa

both

must

therefore

social life and

social

far-goingspecialization

more

actuallyfind.

But, however

efficientthft type of social

techniquemay

become, its applicationwill always have certain

beyond which a different type of techniquewill be
useful.

tinually
con-

within
useful scientificgeneralizations

the reach of the social technician;the latter

remain

continual

necessary

Indeed, the

presupposes

form

of social control outlined

that the individual

"

or

the group

"

limits
more

above

is treated

as

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

72

passiveobjectof

situations for

plans and
becomes

him, from
and

and

both

from

indeed,

And,

the

as

moral

the

and

with

the
our

this method

situations

unexpected from

by the individual's

influenced

more

and

new

change

we

applicationof

difficult

more

complex, more

more

the

But

that

in accordance

to case,

case

intentions.
more

activityand

our

grow

to

case

case,

reflection.

own

the

hedonistic

standpointsand also from the standpoint of the level of

of the individual and of the group, it is desirable
efficiency
to control spontaneto developin the individuals the ability
ously
activities by conscious reflection. To use
their own
a
biologicalcomparison, the type of control where the
of
practitionerprescribesfor the individual a scheme
activityappropriateto every crisis as it arises corresponds
to the tropicor reflex type of control in animal
life,where
the

activityof

stimulations

the individual

from

is controlled

mechanicallyby

without, while the reflective

ualistic
individ-

and

control
of the
exercised

istic
correspondsto the type of activitycharacterhigher conscious organism,where the control is

from

within

by

the

selective mechanism

of the

While, in the

early tribal,communal,
and
in the
to a large extent
kinship,and religious
groups,
historic state, the society itse\fprovided a rigoristic
and
set of definitions in the form of "customs"
or
particularistic
system.

nervous

"mores," the tendency

libertyof

the individual

to
to

is associated

advance

make

his

own

with

the

definitions.

throughout this argument that if

an
adequate techniqueis developed it is possibleto produce
desirable attitudes and values, but this assumption is
any
justified
practically
only if we find in the individual attitudes
We

which
which

have

cannot

assumed

avoid

response

to

the

class of stimulations

And apparently we
societyis able to apply to him.
do find this disposition.Every individual
has a vast
varietyof wishes which can be satisfied onlyby his incorpora-

METHODOLOGICAL

NOTE

73

I.

tion in
we

(i) the

enumerate:

may

his

society. Among

general patterns

desire for

new

of wishes

experience,for

fresh stimulations; (2)the desire for

for
and

recognition,
including,
example, sexual response and generalsocial appreciation,
secured by devices ranging from the display of ornament
of worth
the demonstration
to
through scientific

(3) the desire for mastery, or the "will to

power," exemplified by ownership, domestic
tyrai
politicaldespotism, based on the^instinct of hjite/but
capable of being sublimated to laudable ambition;^)the
based on the instinct of fear and exemdesire for security,
plified
of the individual in
negativelyby the wretchedness
social taboo.
Society is,
perpetual solitude or under
of the wishes
indeed, an agent for the repressionof many
that he shall be moral by
in the individual; it demands
repressingat least the wishes which are irreconcilable with
the welfare of the group, but nevertheless it provides the
within which any of his schemes or wishes can
only medium
it would be superfluousto point out by
be gratified.And
examples the degree to which societyhas in the past been
of attitudes and values on the
able to impose its schemes
individual.
Professor Sumner's
volume, Folkways, is practically
couragin
discollection of such examples, and, far from
a
us
as
they discourageProfessor Su
the ability
of ti
should be regarded as proofsof^
iyidual
attainment;

to

conform

vided

it is

to
an

any

to accept anyM
definition,

expressionof

the

"Pro~

publicwill o^jJH

Bne

limited group.
a
appreciationof even
To^fekea Jmgle
mother
example from the present, to be a bastai^Mfrthe
of a bastard has been regarded heretof ojfl^
anything but

desirable,but

we

have

at

this

the warring European

nations

l^omenand
un'rnj"

girlsand

hu"ands

ft

at

the

of
that
momenj^fcrts
is offiJ[Hp
impregnatingits
one

evd^frried

front. VwiflP

true

women

whose

(which

we

do

PRIMARY-GROUP

74

assume) we

not

have

ORGANIZATION

definition and

new

evaluation

new

of motherhood

arisingfrom the struggleof this society

that
againstdeath, and we may anticipatea new attitude
the resulting
children and their mothers
will be the objects
of extraordinarysocial appreciation. And
if we
find
even
"

that the attitudes

that it is not

are

tractable

so

possibleto provoke

shall stillbe in the

mechanics:

not

highestdegree of

us

assumed,
we

physicsand
securing the

say,

the

of

problem
possiblein view

control

have

we

all the desirable ones,

situation as, let

same

shall have

we

as

of the nature

of

materials.

our

As

to

the present work, it

pretend to
basis.

establish social

It is clear from

workers

in any sense
evidentlycannot
scientific
theory on a definitely
precedingdiscussion that many

and
from

much
the

the

time

will be needed

traditional

body

of

attempt
Our
whole
Polish

limited

even
materials,

to reach

some

task

selves
our-

thinking,develop a
working method, and reach
generalizations.Our

is the

preparation of a certain
if we occasionally
go beyond it and
generalizations.

object-matteris one class of a modern

concrete
complexity of its life. The
peasant

free

we

of

ways

completely efficient and exact

correct
a
system of scientifically
present very

before

society,motivated

such
incidoptaUUlteons,

at

societyin

the

selection of the

first

by

somewhat

intensityof the Polish

of gettingmaterials concerning
immigration and the facility
has proved during the investigation
the PoMs^MB^sant,
to be a fortun3Mk"ne. The Polish peasant finds himself now
in

as

the

from the old forms of social organperiod of flMfcition

ization
halBteen
in force, with
that
only insignificant
to a
man^lBkuries,
preserved enouJHfcthe old

changes, for

modern

has

attitudes

reconstruBB|
possible,and
sociological

form

he

to

oflife.

^H

ifB

He

"|heir

BK^V

METHODOLOGICAL

advanced

the

upon

of modern
been

invited

construction

new

way

attitudes

by

the

upper

of Polish

NOTE

make

75

study of the development

fruitful. He
has
particularly

to

classes to

national

collaborate in the

life,and

hi certain

lines!

his

development is due to the conscious educational efforts "'

of his leaders
the nobility,
the clergy,the middle class. \
In this respect he has the value of an experiment in social
technique; the successes, as well as the failures,of this
educational activity
of the upper classes are very significant
"

for social work.

have

These

efforts of the upper

classes themselves

particularsociological
importance in view of
the conditions in which Polish societyhas lived during the
last century. As a societywithout a state,divided among
three states and constantlyhampered in all its efforts to
and develop a distinct and unique cultural life,
preserve
it faced a dilemma
either to disappearor to create such
substitutes for a state organizationas would
enable it to
resist the destructive action of the oppressingstates; or,
of a state.
to exist without
the framework
more
generally,
in
These substitutes were
created,and they are interesting
sified
intentwo
respects. Fiist,they show, in an exceptionally
and to a large extent
isolated form, the action of
certain factors of social unity which exist in every society
a

"

but

in normal

conditions

are

subordinated

to

the

state

for in
accounted
organization and seldom
sufficiently
reflection. Secondly, the lack of permanence
sociological
of every social institution and the insecurity
of every social
from
value in general,resulting
the destructive tendencies
of the dominatingforeignstates,bringwith them a necessity
of developingand keeping constantlyalive*all the activities
needed to reconstruct
again and again every value that had
been destroyed. The whole mechanism
of social creation is
particularly
transparent and easy to undertheref"j"|here
in generalthe role of fruman attitudes in social

76

PRIMARY-GROUP

lifebecomes

much

ORGANIZATION

evident

than

in

societynot living
under the same
strain,but able to relyto a largeextent upon
the inherited formal organization
for the preservation
of its
culture and unity.
We
which

only

givesthe
in

least

the

inductive

possibleplace for

method

the

selection

materials

proceed

in the most

used.
cautious

But

even

way

form

materials,and

is concrete

has been

ments.
arbitrarystate-

basis of the work

of these

in

any

The

discrimination
to

this work

in

use

more

some

here

necessary

have

we

tried

possible. The private

letters

volumes
have
needed
constitutingthe first two
little selection,
as
relatively
particularly
they are arranged
in family series. Our task has been limited to the exclusion
of such letters from

among

the whole

collection

as

contained

nothing but a repetitionof situations and attitudes more

completely representedin the materials which we publish
here.
far

as

In later volumes

the conclusions

the selection
of the

can

be

more

precedingvolumes

severe,
can

as

be used

for

guidance.
The
analysisof the attitudes and characters given in
letters and in introductions to particular
to particular
notes
in the
series contains nothing not
contained
essentially
materials
themselves; its task is only to isolate single
attitudes,to show their analogiesand dependences, and to
interpretthem in relation to the social background upon
Our
which
acquaintance with the Polish
they appear.
societysimply helps us in noting data and relations which
diately
would
perhaps not be noticed so easilyby one not imme-

acquaintedwith the life of the group.

the introductions
to
Finally,the synthesisconstituting
particularvolumes is also based upon the materials,with
to draw
few exceptionswhere it was
a
thought necessary
data from Polish ethnological
some
publications
or, |^stematic studies.
The sourc*
are
always quoted. "*

78

PRIMARY-GROUP

undertaken

it here, is often

played by
of

ORGANIZATION

particularclass

and

group

to

enough
of

to

for the isolation of this class from

what

sufficient indications

its social context

omitting any important interaction that may

phenomena of this class and others, and we
these

indications
in

phenomena

in

other

the

taking

societies

as

role is

in the total life

phenomena

in this way

give us

show

without

exist between
can

then

use

corresponding kinds of
objects of comparative

research.

examples,we point out here certain problems

suggested to us by the study of the Polish peasants for
which this study affords a good starting-point
i1
By

of

way

The

1.

problem of individualization. How

compatible with social cohesion ?
"

ualization
forms

of individualization

useful

or

that

sociallyharmful?
organization that allow
individualism
We

have

be

can

What
for

are

the

far is individWhat

considered
the forms

greatest

the

are

socially
of social
of

amount

been

led to

the

suppositionsthat, generally

speaking,individualization is the intermediarystage between

form of social organizationand another; that its social
one
usefulness
"

new

character
or less constructive
depends on its more
that is,upon
it does reallylead to a
the questionwhether
organizationand whether the latter makes the social

influences;
capable of resistingdisintegrating
and that, finally,
an
organizationbased upon a conscious
is the most
ami
co-operationin view of a common
compatible
more

group

individualism.

with

their

and
as

applicationto

the American
2

and

The

middle

Points

would

verification of these

concrete

constitute

suppositions
such a society

problems of
work.
a grateful

Relation between individual

problemofefficiency.
efficiency.Dependence of efficiency
upon various
"

social
1

The

and

and upper

following are

classes of Polish

more

directlyconnected

societywhich

do not

appear

with

materials

in the present

on

the

work.

METHODOLOGICAL

individual

attitudes

and

NOTE

79

various

upon

forms

of

social

organization.
The

Polish

societyshows in most lines of activitya

particularly
largerange of variation of individual efficiency
low scale of social efficiency.
with a relatively
We
have
to the conclusion that both phenomena are due to the
come
lack of a sufficiently
and detailed frame of social
persistent
resultingfrom the loss of state-independence.
organization,
Under
these conditions individual efficiency
depends upon
individual
An

attitudes much

individual

to hinder

be very

help

his

be very

activityin

any

inefficient because

him.

under

may

The

these

social conditions.

efficient because

there is little

line he selects,
but he may
there is little to

push

conditions

also

him

total social result of individual

efficiency
depends, not
individuals

than upon

more

to

or

activities

is

relativelysmall, because social

of the
only on the average efficiency

that constitute

the group,

but also

the

on

more

perfectorganizationof individual efforts. Here,

of these conclusions to other societies
again, the application
to important discoveries in this particular
can
open the way
the
sphere by showing what is the way of conciliating
highestindividual with the highestsocial efficiency.
titution
pros3. The problemof abnormality crime,vagabondage,
far is abnormality the
alcoholism, etc. How
or

less

"

"

unavoidable

manifestation

individual,and

how

inborn

of

far is it due

priestsin Poland have

their peasant parishionersthat
individuals,provided that the
The

them
social

is skilful and
factors

"

steady and

familial

community, religionand
motives,

etc.

And

to social conditions
a

theory

there

are

influence
draws

into

solidarity,social
magic, economic

in his recent

Delinquent,Dr. William

tendencies

Healy

book

touches

on

the

with
no

of
?

regard to
incorrigible

exercised

upon

play all of
opinion of
and
The

the

the
the

intellectual
Individual

problem

on

the

8o

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

side

same

wonders

in

what

that individual

during his
attitudes

following remark:
"Frequently one
might have been accomplished with this or
if he had received a more
adequate discipline
the

childhood."

in connection

By
with

investigationof abnormal

our

normal

attitudes

instead

of

and by the recognitionthat the

isolately,
individual can
be fullyunderstood
and controlled only if
all the influences of his environment
are
properlytaken into
mality
account, we could hardly avoid the suggestionthat abnorof deficient
is mainly, if not exclusively,
matter
a

treatingthem

social

attitude
organization.There is hardly any human
which, if properly controlled and directed,could not be
used in a socially
Of course
there must
productive way.
difference of efficiency
between
always remain a quantitative
individuals,often a very far-goingone, but we can see no
for a permanent
reason
qualitativedifference between
antisocial actions.
And
this
and
from
sociallynormal
standpointthe questionof the antisocial individual assumes
but
no
longerthe form of the rightof societyto protection,
that of the right of the antisocial individual to be made
useful.
division and
problem. The modern
occupational
and continually
organization of labor brings an enormous
growing quantitativeprevalenceof occupationswhich are
almost
completely devoid of stimulation and therefore
The

4.

"

present little interest for the workman.

affects human

This

happinessprofoundly,and,

this reason, the restoration of stimulation

to

fact
if

sarily
neces-

only for

labor is among

important problems confronting society. The j

present industrial organizationtends also to develop a type
of human
being as abnormal in its way as the oppositetype
of occupational
of individual who
gets the full amount
stimulation by taking a line of interest destructive of social
order
the criminal or vagabond. If the latter type of
the

most

"

METHODOLOGICAL

NOTE

81

abnormality is immediately dangerous for the present state

of society,the former is more
menacing for the future,as
leadingto a gradual but certain degeneration of the human
we
regard this degeneration as congenital
type whether
or
acquired.
The analysisof this problem discloses very profound and
"

of the evil,but

generalcauses
It is

remedy.

fact too well known

organizationof

modern

also the way

to be

labor is based

on

of

eventual

an

emphasized that
almost

an

absolute

interests
more
exactly, on the
prevalence of economic
tendency to produce or acquirethe highestpossibleamount
"

of

values

economic

universal

actually so

themselves

express

others

"

either

"

point to

these

and

in
be

because

predominant or
social organizationmore
of

and

men

organizationto be brought about

determinist
preaching; the economic
social

organization as
necessarilyby economic
exclusivelyfrom
modification

conditioned
factors
a

of the economic

and

because

change of the
by moral or religious

expects

social

are

they
easilythan
moralist complains

investigated.The

of the materialization

interests

considers

the whole

fundamentally and
ment
expects an improve-

possiblehistorically
necessary
organizationitself. From the

serious
sociological
viewpoint the problem looks much more
less
and objectivethan the moralist conceives it,but much
limited

and

determined

determinist.
human
modified

The

attitudes

by

in the nature

an

of

than

economic
among

it appears

interests

others,and

are

every

to

the

only

economic

one

attitude

class of
can

be

adequate social technique. The interest

work is frequentlyas strong as, or stronger

than, the interest

in the economic

results of the work, and

objectiveexpressionin spiteof the fact that

actual social organization has little place for it. The
that
protests, in fact,representedby William Morris mean
has visiblypassed from the stage
certain class of work
a
often finds

an

82

PRIMARY-GROUP

where

stimulatingto a stage where it

handicrafts formerly expressedan interest

the

it

was

itself rather

than

Since

attitude

we

ORGANIZATION

every

tends

influence

to

in the work

from

returns

that

"

the work.

social institutions,

expect that, with the help of social technique,an

may

organizationand

division of labor based

occupational
gradually replace the present organization
may
of economic
demands
productivity. In other

interests
based

economic

in the

is not

on

on

words, with the appropriatechange of attitudes and values

all work

5. The

artistic work.

become

may

relation

of the

sexes.

the many

Among

"

problems

of fundamental
to
us
fallingunder this head two seem
the second
importance,the first mainly socio-psychological,
mainly sociological:(i) In the relation between the sexes
how

can

with

the

reciprocalresponse be obtained
minimum
of interference with personalinterests ?
is the generalsocial efficiency
of a group affected by

(2)How

the various
We
A

do

systems of relations between

advance

not

number

of

maximum

of

this

of

our

general character

materials.

of

matters

the Polish peasants the

among

each other,though their demands

unromantic

character,while

woman

points will appear in the

of a
But a few suggestions

arise in connection

society. In

and

definite theories.

point any

concrete
interesting

later volumes

concrete

at

man

with

the

study

of

find
we
reciprocal
response
sexes
equallydependent on
of

are

at the

same

rather limited and

tune

this response

complete subordination of their

to a common
personalities
sphereof group-interests.When
the development of personalinterests begins,this original
harmony is disturbed, and the disharmony is particularly

is secured

marked
leads

at

the cost

immigrants hi America, where it often

of familylife.
complete and radical disorganization

among
to a

of

the

be

real solution in view.

There

does

In this

respect the situation of the Polish peasants may

not

seem

to

as

yet any

throw

METHODOLOGICAL

an

classes of modern

both

and

man

society. The

difference between

lies in the fact that among

situations

two

83

the general situation of the cultivated

interesting
lightupon

these

NOTE

begin almost

woman

the peasants

simultaneouslyto

develop personal claims, whereas in the cultivated classes

have been developedand in a
the personalclaims of the man
satisfied long ago, and the present problem
largemeasure
limited to the woman.
is almost exclusively
The situations
analogous,however,

are

in

far

so

the

as

of
difficulty

tion
solu-

is concerned.
With

regard

woman

attain

can

Polish

our
efficiency,

conditions

that,under

tend to show
of the

social

to

in which

materials

the activities

objectiveimportance more

an

or

equal to those of the man, the greatest social efficiency

is attained by a systematiccollaboration of man
and woman
in external fields rather than by a division of tasks which

less

limits the
which

the

"home

to

woman

peasant

labor based
seems

to

upon

aptitude of
and

successful.

and

point at

one

be

at

between

of social

of

women

far

as

along

which

has
a

woman

been

division

of

is concerned, there

sexes
a

tion
certain differentia-

shows

with
a

the

particular

the formalism, uniformity,

organizationand

various, and

changing individualities.

abilityof

woman

the

line

present in accordance

efficiency.The

mediation

permanence

As

differences of the

of tasks would
of social

The

societyis particularly
development and co-operation;and

line the collaboration

be at least

demands

children."

class of Polish

efficient is economic

preciselyin this
wide
particularly

and

the

concrete,

And, whether

this

congenitalor produced by cultural

certainlybe made socially
very useful,
is

conditions,it could

preciselythe abilityrequired to diminish the

innumerable
and
continuallygrowing frictions resulting

for

from

it is

the

misadaptationsof

organization,and

to

avoid

individual

attitudes

the incalculable waste

to

social

of human

84

PRIMARY-GROUP

which

energy
with

contrasts

ORGANIZATION

deplorablyin

so

efficient use
increasingly

our

of natural

problem of social happiness. With

6. The

problem

"

we

hardly make

can

any

are

among

the

society

energies.

regard to this

positivesuggestions.

is certain that both the relation of the

situation

modern

our

fundamental

sexes

It

and the economic

conditions

of human

of making it and
of spoilingit.
happiness,in the sense
But the strikingpoint is that, aside from abstract philosophical
discussion and some
popularpsychological
analysis,
been seriously
studied
the problem of happinesshas never
the consince the epoch of Greek hedonism, and of course
clusions
if they were
reached
more
by the Greeks, even
scientific than they reallyare, could hardly.be applied to
the present tune, with its completely changed social conditions.
Has this problem been so much
neglectedbecause
of its difficulty
or
because, under the influence of certain
in Christianity,
tendencies
immanent
happiness is still*^"
less sinful,and pain
half -instinctively
or
regarded as more
i

as

meritorious

have
things of real significance
about

be, the fact is that

that may

However

been

said up

if we
happiness,particularly
material

enormous

that

has

been

compare

collected

to

no

the present
with

them
and

the

merable
the innu-

cerning
important ideas that have been expressed conunhappiness. Moreover, we believe that the problem
merits a very particular
consideration,both from the
theoretical and from the practical
point of view, and that
the sociological
method
outlined
above
gives the most
reliable way of studyingit.
and
(nationalities)
problem of the fightof races
7. The

Probably in this respect no study of any other

indications as the
sociological
societycan give so interesting
study of the Poles. Surrounded
by peoples of various
degrees of cultural development Germans, Austrians,
cultures.
"

"

Bohemians,

Ruthenians,

Russians, Lithuanians

"

having

86

oldest

practice.

that

would

by

and

cultures

only

as

that

fittest,so

tribunal"?

brought

about

by

cultural

there,

Or

no

are

the

impossible

overcome,

its

bring

to

profiting by
them.

stopped,
the

cultures,

be
that

such

of

their

it.

the

ultimate

the

systematic

in

the

main

in

ideal

be

all

Or

is

possible?

for

not

note

the

imitating

cultures

the

could

of

and

world

this

and

by

it is

problem,

is

of

various
in

.the-eniy
*~

ever
What-

exemplified

work,

be

differences, but

estimation.

and

to

possible perfection,

and

races

being

simply try

sociological study

of

the

technique

cultures

others, but

solution

body

will prove

system?

of historical

this

-of

subordinating

should

greatest

value

survival

social

national

nation

fight of

between

perfect organization of

of

of

possible, will

organization

an

unique

of

would

happiness

fight

perfect

destruction

outlined

as

beginnings
solve

the

that

of the

and

one

the

the

rational

reciprocal acquaintance

may

evident

to

is

the

ity
abnormal-

any

history

such

every

the

case

by

not

law

the

and

experiences

recognition

growing

to

the

this

In

of

differentiation

system

own

of

forms

many

society, and,

result

conditions

contrary,

tion
organizaand

the greatest

world's

conscious

of

tendencies,

must

to

there

Perhaps

differences'
the

on

exclude

organization

finally"the

historical

the

modifying

as

between

individualism

human

such

one

form

perfect

would

expression

an

world's

by

all

automatically,

come

the

widest

border

the

on

highest efficiencywith

and

one

the

of

use

the

if

And,

one

cohesion, that

making

harmonize

Is there

unify

social

strongest

the

lying

sociological problem,

theory and

it

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

"MU~V^

its
way

INTRODUCTION

TO
THE

Polish

The

of the

sense

word, is

law-relatives

the

fourth

the

in

with

family

familial
be

cannot

it includes

the

living

group

completely lacking;

the

the

is

practicallythe

whoever

whether

"

many

persons

locality,but

these

have

Heraldic

considerations

nobility

and

granted

various

in

looser

than

the

type.

We

shall

continuity
that

the

familial

in

not

"

of

the

have

the

earlier

these

real familial

speak again

to

the

idea

importance

be

or

the

on

the

and

of ancestral

of this idea

partly
organization itself,
87

from

live in

one

family

life.

were

the

social

is not

only

of

different

organization in
class-problem.
basis of familial

land; but

is derived

names,

peasants

the

economic

We

son.

times, but

of this type of

to

the peasant

connection, but

certain

of

family

family

considerations

class-distinctions

cult

dead

name

villages where

upon

seems

same

religious,

place among

some

it is

The

with

little influence

certain

with

Finally,there

because

religiousattention

connected

privilegesin

based

connection

same

legends

especiallyif

an

genealogicaltree

father, brother, husband,

find, indeed, certain

connection

conceptions,

formation.

is

member

be

indispensable to

are

ancestors

dead

sense,

life.

economic

or

usually

"

children,may

law-relationship and

mythical, heraldic,

larger

the blood-

limit

two

represented by

strictly social, concrete,

and

narrower

their

These

marriage-group,

of the

understanding
because

pair

primary

variable

family

the married

and

the

certain

The

II

including all

"marriage-group."

family-group
The

in

social group
to

up

I AND

FAMILY

family,

degree.

including only
termed

PEASANT

peasant

and

VOLUMES

we

partly

communal

shall

see

from

the

life.

"-"'

88

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

In

the

short,the idea of

unity of

common

the familial group,

origindoes

not

determine

the concrete

but

unity of
the group does determine how far the common
originwill be
traced.
Common
descent determines,indeed, the unity of
the group, but only by virtue of associational ties established
within each new
generation. And if we find examples in
for keeping or
which common
originis invoked as a reason
a connection,it is a sign that the primitive
establishing
unity
is in decay, while the sentiments
correspondingwith this
unity still persist in certain individuals who attempt to
reconstruct
consciouslythe former state of things and use
the idea of community of originas an argument, just as it
has been used as an explanationin the theories of familyand
for the same
because
it is the simplest rational
reason
"

scheme

of the familial relation.

simple an

But,

as

we

shall see, it is too

explanation.

adequate scheme would represent the family as a

pluralityof nuclei,each of them constituted by a marriagefrom each of them toward other
group and relations radiating
marriage-groupsand singlemembers, up, down, and on both
sides,and toward older,younger, and collateral generations
The

of both husband
these

nuclei
nor

with

and wife.

But

it must

be

kept in

mind

that

selves
equally consistent within themequallyimportant with regard to their connection

others

are

neither

given moment,
evolving (in a normal
at

any

and

that

they

are

not

family)toward greater
consistency and greater importance. The nucleus only
of marriage,for
begins to constitute itself at the moment
static,but

then

the relations between

than

those

unitingeach

husband

of them

and

to the

wife

are

less close

correspondingnuclei

members; the nucleus has the greatest

they were
it is the oldest
relative consistencyand importance when
of children
livingmarried couple with the greatest number
and grandchildren. Each nucleus is a center around which
of which

INTRODUCTION

circle may

be

drawn

sides up to, let us

includingall

say, the fourth

marriage-groupmay

any

the family, and

89
the relatives

both

on

degree. Abstractly
speaking,

be thus

selected

as

of

center

the composition of the latter will of

course

accordingly;we shall have as many partlyinterfering,

partlydifferent families as there are marriage-groups. But
all these family-groupssome
actuallyamong
are
socially
vary

real than

more

behave

others, as

is shown

by

the fact that

they

units with regard to the rest

as
consistently
of the community.
For example, from the standpoint of
a newly married
couple the relatives of the wife in the fourth
more

degree may
the

from

the latter
the

belong to the family,but they do not belong to it

standpoint of the husband's parents, and it is
more
standpointwhich is socially
important and

assumed

one

parents

by

alive.

are

couple grows
adopted by

the

community,

long at

so

After their death, and

when

least

as

the

the married

and is
old,its standpoint becomes dominant
But
the community.
at the same
time the

husband

usuallyhas brothers and sisters who, when married,

constitute also secondary centers, and these centers become
also primary in the course
of time, and thus the family
slowly divides and re-forms itself.
The

family is thus a very complex group, with

only approximatelydetermined and with very various
and
its members.
degrees of relationshipbetween
the

fundamental

familial

it cannot

be converted

relationshipnor
otherwise

it manifests

to, and

in control

by

other

to

exerted

member

one

But

cible;
irredu-

and

other type of group-

personal relation
It may

familial

assistance rendered

in

over,

member

representingthe

between

be termed

itselfboth
any

kinds

group

of the group
as

whole.

economic,
religious,
totallydifferent from territorial,
national solidarity,
though evidentlythese are additional

It is
or

reduced

is

into any

isolated individuals.

and
solidarity,

any

connection

limits

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

go

bonds

shall see
promoting familial solidarity,and we
presentlythat any dissolution of them certainlyexerts a
the
family. And
dissolvinginfluence upon
again, the
the degree of assistance
and
familial solidarityand
of
control involved
should
the personal
not
depend upon
character
the kind
of
the
members, but
only upon
and

between
or

of

degree

their

members

two

friendship.
In this lightall the

that

is,as they

would

of the

relationship;the familial relation

admits
no
gradation,as does love
familial relations in their ideal
be if there

family,become

relation of husband

The

the united

and

and husband
families,

were

no

form,

integrat
progressivedis-

perfectlyplain.
wife is controlled
and wife

both

individuals

not

are

by

closelyconnected according to tljeirpersonal

sentiments, but group-members connected
absolutelyin a
Therefore
the marriage norm
is not love, but
singleway.
be controlled and
"respect," as the relation which can
which
reinforced by the family, and
corresponds also
more

or

less

norm

representingthe dignity of

and

group

of respect from

wife

to

for the husband's

care
fidelity,

member

of

that

group.

The

husband
comfort

includes
and

obedience,

health; from

not lettingthe
fidelity,
wife do hired work if it is not indispensable.In general,
wife ought to do anything which could
neither husband
nor
lower the social standing of the other,since this would lead
to a lowering of the social standing of the other's family.
of respect,
Affection is not explicitly
included in the norm
As to sexual love, it is a purely personal
but is desirable.
matter, is not and ought not to be socialized in any form;

husband

as

the situation of the other party

exactlyto

the
or

to

wife, good treatment,

family purposelyignoresit,and the slightest

indecency
indiscreetness

is viewed

with

with

regard to sexual relations

disgustand

is morally condemned.

in

marriage

INTRODUCTION

familial assistance

The

to

91

the young

married

people is

of the

dowry, which they both receive.

Though the parents usuallygive the dowry, a grandfather
or
grandmother, brother, or uncle may just as well endow
This shows the familial
the boy or the girlor help to do so.

given in

character

manifest

form

the

and
of the institution,
if

recognize that the dowry is

we

the property of the married

sense

this character

is still more
in the full

not

It remains

couple.

part

general familial property to the extent that the

married coupleremains a part of the family. The fact that,
and wife, but their families,
the future husband
not
represented
to
by their parents and by the matchmakers, come

of the

this

understanding on
relative community
an

the

assume

form

to

The

property.

dowry simply

of

members

extent

some

is another

of

couple, composed
must

of

point

of

ones,

only an addition
a beginning of a

The

of
new

some

new

the

one
an

or

this
must

married

different

isolate itself from

these families;but the isolation is not

it is

assistance

because

two

of

proof

families,

the other of

individualization,

familial ties

to

the old

nucleus.

relation of parents to children

is also determined

by the familial organization. The parental authority is

the rightof control which they exercise
complex. It is,first,
other members, but naturally
of the group over
as members
unusually strong in this
intimate relationship.But
particularly
the control is

The

parents

are

whole, backed

case

it is more

of
privileged
representatives

by

every

other member

of the

because

than this.

the group

as

in the exertion of their

responsiblebefore the group for their

actions.
The
of this authorityvisreally great; a
power
in the
rebellious child finds nowhere
help, not even
any
of the family will
generation, for every member
younger
and
side with the child's parents if he considers them right,
will feel the familial will behind him and will play
everyone

authority,but

also

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

92

the part of

representativeof the

group.

of the parents
hand, the responsibility

is very

clear in every

On

the

other

the familial group

to

severityor of too great

leniencyon their part. And in two cases the familyalways
active control
when
assumes
a
stepchildis mistreated or
when a mother is left alone with boys, whom
she is assumed
to
be unable
educate
the children
to
suitably. When
case

of undue

"

grow

up

the

economic

parents

family controls
and

matters
are

the attitude

in the

problem

morally obligedto endow

of the
of

parents in

marriage.

their children

as

The
well

they can, simply because they are not full and exclusive
but rather managers
of their inherited property.
proprietors
This property has been constituted mainly by the father's
and mother's dowries,which are stillparts of the respective
familial properties,
and the rest of the family retains a right
if the fortune has been earned individually
Even
of control.
by the father,the traditional familial form appliesto it more
less. Finally,
rather than a proprietor,
or
being a manager
his son
the
the father naturallyhas to retire when
(usually
able than he to manage
the main bulk
oldest)becomes more
as

retiringis
in the familial organization,and
rooted
the
therefore
opinionof the familial group obligesthe old people to retire
if they hesitate.
the matter
In
of marriage the
even
parents, while usuallyselectingtheir child's partner, must
take into consideration,not only the child's will,but also
the opinion of other members
of the family. The
sideration
conof the child's will results,
not from a respect for
of

the

property

"

the

farm.

the individual,but from

in the

The

custom

of

the fact that the child is a member

family will continuallygrow after

of
his marriage. Regard for the opinion of other members
since through marriage a
the familyis clearly
indispensable,
will be brought into the familyand through his
member
new
will be established with another family.
a connection
agency
whose

importance

not

group,
any

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

94

freedom

from

generalcontrol

of the group

or

of

of its members.
the

As

parents

proportionto

their

duty of assistance

Helping in

obliged to

are

children

assist the

in

rightto exert authority,so the children's

is proportionalto their right of control.

housework

and

turning over

the

family money
but the duty of keeping and increasing
earned is not assistance,
Assistance may
the familial fortune.
begin indeed at
the second stage (theboy doing man's work), but then it is
expresslystated

that

of
given sum
personalexpenses
a

is destined

to

in this

it is difficult to determine

the

case

cover

or
primitivefamilial organization

tion of relations.
communism
not

In

to

money,

example,

of the parents, and

whether

for

we

have

still

certain individualiza-

short, at this stage simple familial

in economic

and

matters

differentiated.
sufficiently

But

familial assistance
the

are

differentiation

is

complete in the third stage, after marriage. If the married

than the parents, help
son
or daughter is in a better position
is perfectly
natural,and it is plainlyhelp,not communism, to
the degree that the division of property is real.

stage, when

the parents have

fundamental

attitude; and

In the last

retired,assistance becomes
it is

now

duty powerfully reinforced by the

the

consciouslymoral
opinion of the familial
a

group.
In

all the

relations between

familial organization leaves

affection.
express
the

the children

and

acts.

individual

merits

or

The

it cannot

behavior

the contrary must

exclusivelyby their situations

by

the

place for merely personal

sociallysanctioned

parents toward

not

children

Certainly this affection exists,but

itself in

determined

no

parents and

of
be

bers,
family mempreferences. The only
as

termined
either side,of any behavior not deat least,on
justification
by the familial situation is a preceding break of
of the members
in question.
the familial principleby one

INTRODUCTION

Thus,

the

95

parents usuallypreferone

child

preferenceshould be based upon

The preferredchild is usuallythe one
is to take the parental farm
(the
this

Poland; the youngest

the south; any
son
or
emigrate),

the

to

familial

who

for

oldest

others,but

superiority.
some

in Central

son

in the mountainous

son

who

it is the child who

districts of

home

at

stays

is most

reason

while

likelyto

others

raise

by his
family. And,

the social standing of the

personalqualities
the contrary, a voluntary isolation from the family life,
on
brought to the family-group,a break of familial
any harm
sufficient reasons,

are
solidarity,

for

treatinga child

than

worse

others

for

disowning it. In the

in neglectingthe bonds
justified
cases,

with

them

familial
a

marriage in old
his wife
assimilating

new

instead of

assimilated
The

different form

between

which
solidarity

the latter sin

and

age

to his

in such

against the

way

family,he

own

are

unite

(or widow)

widower

after the death

alive the

are

brothers

closer

than

because
sisters,

and

of the

the

between

As

tracts
con-

that,

becomes

between

neither relation is

assumes

In

the

is rather

children

brothers

merely personal,and

parents represent the familial idea.

long as

children

parents and

connection

in
organization,
therefore,

sisters

parents.

between
solidarity

mediate; the connection

much

the children

way

of

in extreme

even,

to hers.

relation

parents

only if
example, if a

only sufficient ones,

and

same

their parents

for
spirit,

the

and

normal

is

and
the

familial

strugglebetween parents and

child other children side with the parents, particularly
older
children,who understand fullythe familial solidarity,
unless,
first.
of course, the parents have
broken
this solidarity
But

if the

and

sisters becomes

parents

are

constituted

dead,

much

familial relation which

any

the

relation between

brothers

closer; indeed, it is the closest

then

remains.

by the marriage-group,does

Thus
not

the

nucleus,

dissolve after

96

PRIMARY-GROUP

the death
group

of the married

it resists

It is true
as

ORGANIZATION

as

that the

couple; the group remains, and as a

far as possibleany dissolving
influences.
guardians take the place of the parents

representativesof the familial authority,but they remain

outside the nucleus,while the parents

that

within

were

it.

This

familial

the

organizationis not
patriarchal,or else the patriarchalorganization would
dissolve and assimilate this parentlessgroup.
And
this
of
phenomenon cannot be interpretedas a signof solidarity
the brothers and sisters
the young
againstthe old,for among
attitude of authority,and in this case,
the older assume
an
is

one

proof

more

of the
during the life of the parents, any member
all the members
older generationhas a right of control over
as

well

as

generation.
These
general principlesof control
within the narrower
marriage-group and
of the younger

and

of

within

assistance
the

larger

to any member, are reinforced,

family,and from any member
but also by the
not
only by the opinionof the family itself,
parish,and
opinion of the community (village,
commune,
milieu)within which the family lives.
loose-acquaintance

of the familial ties once

admitted, every member
reality
of the family evidentlyfeels responsiblefor, and is held
responsiblefor, the behavior and welfare of every other
member, because, in peasant thinking,judgments upon the
are
a whole
as
constantlymade on the basis of the
group
of the family,and vice versa.
behavior of members
On this
The

also between

account

immediate

nearness

any

wherever
relatives,

two

is assumed

which

found, an

normally

leads

to

friendship.
In

this connection

it is noticeable

peasant life all the attitudes

familial and
has

lived from

all its members

of social

that

pride are

only secondarilyindividual.
time immemorial
for three

or

four

hi

When

primitive
primarily

family
in the same
when
locality,
or
generationsare known
a

INTRODUCTION

remembered,

97

individual

every

is classified first of all

as

belongingto the family,and appreciatedaccordingto the

appreciationwhich the family enjoys,while on the other
hand the social standing of the family is influenced by the
social standing of its members, and no individual can
rise
fall without drawing to some
the group with him.
extent
or
And

at the

time

same

himself

no

individual

can

rise

so

or

fall as

to

the familial

from

background upon which

In doing this social opinion
social opinionalways puts him.
the familial solidarity,
but at the same
time it
presupposes
helps to preserve and develop it.
remove

As

the

to

it

based

be

of

state

thingsin

which

family were personalfriends and had

the family. This ideal is expressedeven
of

some

for relatives.

where
localities,
This

does not

the term

tion,
connec-

tion
organiza-

all the members

the
of

familial

upon

be said that the ideal of the familial

can

would

personalrelations

no

of

friends outside
in the terminology

"friend"

is reserved

that

personalfriendship
to the realityof the
or
even
acquaintance is necessary
the contrary, when
familial connection.
On
a
personal
relation is thought to be the condition of active solidarity,
have a signof the disintegration
of familial life.
we
An
interesting
point in the familial organizationis the
mean

"/
Generally speaking,the woman
has the familial group-feelings
much
less developed than
the man
and tends unconsciouslyto substitute for them,
wherever possible,
uality
personalfeelings,
adapted to the individof the family members.
She wants
her husband
for herself and is often jealousof his family;
more
exclusively
she has less consideration for the importance of the familial
and more
as
a whole
sympathy with individual needs
group
attitude

of the

of its members;
children

without

chooses

her

woman.

she

often

regard for

friends

more

divides

her

their value

under

to

love
the

the influence

among

her

family; she
of personal

98

PRIMARY-GROUP

factors.

But

this is

ideal is nowhere
no

only

certainlyexert

The

the

familial

the other

on

hand

of the

less,
group-feelings.Neverthefamily these traits of the woman

disintegratinginfluence,both

isolate smaller

in the process

degree;

of familial

in the evolution

to

of

matter

perfectlyrealized,and

is devoid

woman

ORGANIZATION

by helping
by assisting
family members

and

groups

of individualization.

organizationhere sketched
familial life,
but actuallywe

is the

generaltraditional
basis of
find it hardly anywhere
in its full force.
The familial life as given in the present
materials is undergoing a profound disintegration
along
certain lines and
main

tendencies

isolation of the
are:
disintegration
personalindividualization.
Although

sometimes

processes

interact,they
therefore

however,
form

to

common

disintegrationof

follow each

also go

may

better
some

The

of this

marriage-group,and
these

the influence of various factors.

under

the

sometimes

independently,and

on

consider

other and

it is

them

separately. There are,

factors which, by leadingsimply to a
traditional organization,
leave the new

of familial lifeundetermined, and

these may

be treated

first of all.

of the Polish

traditional form

The

evidently subsist only in

peasant family

can

agricultural
community, settled
and
at least for four or five generationsin the same
locality
nationality,
admitting no important changes of class,religion,
or

an

profession. As

soon

disintegrationis imminent.
individual
which

enters

into

must

brought

life.

Emigration

Germany

such

many

scatters

into
the

or

broken.

social

Polish

family.

The

changes

from
or

last

the

that in
later the

fifty
years

into the peasant

cities,to America, and

The

same

appear,

marriage-group or

community different
family lives,and sooner

be weakened

have

The

changes

the rest of the

old bonds

these

as

thing results

to

from

INTRODUCTION

the

99

of
progressiveproletairization

farmers'

obliges many

country, which

the

inhabitants of the
and

sons

daughters

buy "colonies" outside of their own

district. The industrial development of the country leads
there is a very rapid
to changes of profession. And, finally,
evolution of the Polish class-organization,
and, thanks to
to

to

go

service

this,peasants
middle

to

or

pass into the

may

class within

new

middle

or

at least lower

almost
generation,thus effecting
an

one

complete break with the

or
nationalityare
religion

rest

of the

indeed

very

family. Changes of
rare, but, whenever

they appear, their result is most radical and immediate.

In analyzing the effect of these changes we
must
into consideration
the problem of adaptation to the
conditions.

take
new

of
important: the facility
adaptationand the scale of adaptation. For example, the
man
adaptationof a peasant moving to a Polish cityas a workis relatively
easy, but its scale is small, while by
emigratingto America or by risingin the social hierarchy
he confronts a more
difficult problem of adaptation,but
scale is incomparably wider.
the possible
The
effect of these differences on
family life is felt
forms of familial
independentlyof the nature of the new
organizationwhich the individual (or the marriage-group)
may

Two

find in his

seldom

goes

so

pointsare

here

environment.

new

far

as

to

imitate

Indeed, the adaptation

the familial life of the

new

milieu,unless the individual marries within this milieu and

is thus

The only familial organization

completelyassimilated.
imitated by the peasant who rises above his class is the
agnatic organization of the Polish nobility. Except for
these rare
cases, the evolution of the family is due, not to
but
the positive
influence of any other forms of familial life,
merely to the isolation of marriage-groupsand individuals
and to the accompanying changes of attitude and personality
in the presence

of

new

external world.

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

ioo

If this process

individual

is difficult or

marriage-groupwill

or

unsuccessful,the isolated
have

strong tendency to

will

to the old milieu and

particularly
appreciatethe
familial solidarity
through which, in spiteof its imperfections,
the strugglefor existence is facilitated,
though in a
return

limited

We

way.

is
solidarity
does not

tend
a

be

to

certain

attitude

Europe,

burden

workmen

standard

of
The

We

find

America

Russian

even

this
and

army,

and

in America, in Western

of

process

adaptation is

easy

but

limited

the individual

can

"

that
attain

easilyattained (as is usually the case with

Polish cities) the result is more
complicated.

but

narrow

workmen

hi

"

There

is stillthe

not

strong

so

family

in Polish industrial centers.

even

is,if the scale of control which

is

the

and
feelings

South

soldiers serving in the

and

familial

for the strong.

of familial relations.

few unsuccessful

If the

certain minimal

marriage-groupsin

in many

because

revival of familial

idealization

way,

difficultadaptationwill therefore

or

conscious

Siberia,among
among

rather

unsuccessful

limited

for the weak, whom

fall below

to

while it becomes
life,
an

help mainly

allow

result of

in

say

conditions

as

longingfor
to

make

unbearable.

the
The

the old conditions

of life,
but

organizationof life in the new

familial feelingsstill exist in

their old strength,fqr the extra-familial social life does not

vidual,
give full satisfaction to the sociable tendencies of the indibut the objectof these familial feelingsis reduced
isolated
to the singlemarriage-group. When
territorially
the

marriage-groupis

also isolated from

of rules,valuations,and

sentiments

the traditional set

of the old

community

family,and with the disappearanceof these traditions

the family becomes
merely a natural organizationbased on
nections
personalconnections between its members, and these consufficient only to keep together a marriageare
relatives"
a few near
group, includingperhaps occasionally
and

PRIMARY-GROUP

102

experienceand

ORGANIZATION

his native

and thereby
village,
his social role is naturally
enlarged. Formerly the individual
counted
of a family; now
he counts
mainly as member
by
than formerly. The
himself,and still more
family ceases
to

be

new

all.

at

necessary

because

to

money

the individual

It

gets

is not

needed

alone.

on

for assistance,

It is not

the satisfaction of sociable tendencies,because

friends

satisfied among

be

can

needed

for

these tendencies

and

companions.
similarityof attitudes

experienceand a
the young
create
a
generation
feelingof solidarity
among
as
against the old generation,without regard to family
community

connections.
no

of

social interests and

The

longer coincide,but

each

cross

the familial interests

other.

Externally this

stage is easilyobservable

in Polish colonies in America

in Polish

have

districts which

old

an

and

emigration. Young

people keep constantlytogether,apart from the old, and

the mam
attraction,inducing
"good company" becomes
the isolated
to it at

home, but

girlfrom
The
the

emigrant to joinhis
at the

the home
familial

change

feelingsdo

changes.
on

the

attitude

is

with

no

regard

with

but at the

to

other
an

curious, sometimes

very

time

itselfin

members
active

an

put forward

of

dependence

feelingof selfattitude of superiority

far-going,sometimes

the

and

group,

expression. The

under

profound

not

new

of the

generositywhich the individual shows

members
regardlessof the validityof
could

the

disappearance of this
of familial solidarity

the

same

manifest

demands
superiority

member

or

of their manifestation

obligatory character
to

boy

disappear entirely;

attitude

longer an

family-group,and

disappearsalso ;
importance tends

the

undergoes is

the character

But

There

the

indeed

not

the individual

enough for this.

drawing

return

or

the street.

to

which

time

same

hi America

group

toward

this

result is

whimsical,
singlefamily

the claim

which

traditional

this

familial

INTRODUCTION

103

organization. This

interest
generosityis usually completely disfrom the economic
point of view; no return is
an
expected. It is essentially
expressionof personality,
a
satisfaction

at

affection unite with

do not

and

personal

ties of
only toward persons whom
the giver,sometimes
toward friends who

belong to

even

strengthensit
Any allusion
in

personal affection

is shown

It

vanity.

of

once

to

and

the

family. Pity is

sometimes

is

which

sufficient in itself.

even

obligationoffends

motive

it.

Often

it is

displayed

unexpected way or at an unexpected moment, with the

It is the symptom
evident desire to provoke astonishment.
of an expanding personality.
an

the other hand, the

On
of

individualization

and

at which

unequal rate
the

modification

the process

of

traditional

leads often
placein different familymembers
of both the familial and the personallife.
to disintegration
in the relations of parents and
This is seen
particularly

attitudes takes

children
his

familyin

Poland

questionsabout
and family at home.
possible;he lives in
no

writes:

He

hours.

and I will
not

even

the

sense

and

He

that

has

"Dear

ask

send home
and

as
as
no

much

new

"Dear

much."

as

firstraises

at

to

his parents

all the money

works

the

I send you

Parents:

can

longest
roubles,

300

earn."

He

does

moral; and it is not moral, hi

reflection and

social behavior.

established

too

of his duties

leaves

boy

and

But

no

if in the

individualistic

Parents:

inhibition.

attitudes

I will send

(See in this

of

course

money;

connection

But-

series.)

kowski
But

the

children
courts

you

the

America, he

plans to

it involves

desires,he writes:
you

to

cheapestway

feel this behavior

he

only

comes

the nature

the

When

emigration.

and

always send

It is unreflective

time

in

it appears

as

"

"

one
comes

most

complete

break

between

parents and

presentingitself every day hi our juvenile

with the emigrationof the family as a whole

PRIMARY-GROUP

104

America.

to

added

to

brought with

children

The

it in America

of familial

ORGANIZATION

acquirethe

do not

ideals,while the parents remain

children
but

and

perhaps the

This

parents.
definite

most

has

tic
individualis-

various

is economic

one

or

unchanged, and there

tween
painfulantagonism be-

and

complete

family

traditional attitude

rather the American

but
solidarity,

frequentlyresults

the

"

expressions,
the demand

of the parents for all the

as

complete an

child.

earningsof the child,and eventually

avoidance
as
possibleof the parents by the

and

brutalityof

the

child

and

views

"

hate, the hardness, unreasonableness,

mutual

The

the parents, the contempt

ridicule of the
of the parents

"

and

become

almost

of

means

will
and

swear
a

reform, but
away

same

situation

peasant is unable

by

social

means

of their

there is not
we

and resorts

of vengeance;

call her
girl,

the

elsewhere

difficultieswith his

to the courts

as

pure

The
as

when

they

"whore

ground
slightest

shall note

adjusthis

to

incredible.

juvenilecourt, not

instrument

an

the character

"thief,"when

It is the

as

the

to

ridicule of

old-country habits

speech

parents, for example, resort

and

"

for it.

the

neighbors
expression

A
enmity, and with a total disregardof rightor wrong.
was
case
recentlybrought before the juvenile court in
Chicago which illustrates typicallyhow completely the
be unable to occupy
father may
any other standpointthan
and was
that of familial solidarity.The girlhad left home
the streets.
When
on
appealed to by the court for suggestions
and co-operation,
the father always repliedin terms
of the girl she had not been bringing her
of the wages
when
And
it appeared that he could not
earnings home.
completely control her in this respect, he said: "Do what

of

"

you

pleasewith
The

but
the

her.

last type of

She

ain't

adaptation

giving also much control

climbing tendency of the

"

"

no

use

to me."

requiringmuch change,
is typicallyrepresentedby
peasant and is always conone

INTRODUCTION

with

nected

brings also

intellectual

an

the

105

development.

This

'

adaptation

greatest changes in the familial sentiments.

Individualization

is the natural

result of

risingabove the
primitivegroup and becoming practically
independent of
it. But at the same
time, unlike the preceding type, this
form
of adaptation leads to qualitativechanges in the
concept of the family. -Indeed, the individual rises,not
only above the family,but also above the community, and
of the traditional

drops most

in this

elements, and

the result is analogous to that of the second

On

other

the

level those

Christian

elements

traditional

power

from

Christian

only

The

part of the rich

in peasant
the church

reflection wished
power

morality.

in the system of peasant

that which

higher cultural

traditions which

of Christian

their influence

in peasant life was

higherlevel

conscious

constituted

they

stock, and

popular

and

tion.^
type of adapta-

this

on

embodied

were

different
essentially
the

meets

content

common

traditions,but

he

universal

more

constitute the

hand

respect

it

to

life

was

well

as

be.

as

Their

of social custom, while

on

of intellectual

development and individualization they claim to be rational norms,

directingthe conscious
individual
morality. Thus, the familial attitudes of a

peasant risingabove

his class

undergo

double

evolution:

and they pass from the sphere of custom

simplified,
mental
to that of conscious,reflective morality. Only a few fundaobligationsare acknowledged, and in the sphere of
these obligations
the "moral"
family coincides neither with
natural
the
traditional" familynor with the
family the

they are

"

"

"

"

marriage-group. In its typicalform

wife,parents, children,brothers,and
no
longera group, but an individual.

it includes husband
sisttrs.
The

Its nucleus

husband

or

has,for

moral obligations
toward his own
example,particular
parents,
and brothers,but not toward
the family of his wife.
sisters,
The

moral

obligationstoward

the

members

of the

latter

io6

PRIMARY-GROUP

do

differ from

not

consistencyof
social

upon

those

toward

this moral

family does

but merely upon

factors,

of the individual

friends

acquaintances,
obligations.And the
not depend any longer
the moral development

any

familial
particularly

not

are

ORGANIZATION

or

assuming,of course, that the element of

has been completelyeliminated,which is seldom the
custom
aividuals who feel the obligation
We find
case.
as a heavy
burden and try to drop it as soon
find others
as possible;
we
who accept it readilyand treat the family as an objectof
moral obligation
after it has lost its social reality.
even
In distinguishing
these four formal types of evolution
of familial life we
have of course
abstractlyisolated each
of them

"

studied it in its fullest and most

and

however, we
reality,
and incompleteforms, and
consideration when
examining

radical expression.

find innumerable

In

,we must
k

"

diary
interme-

take this fact into

concrete

materials.1

MARRIAGE

Polish peasant

The
as

many
1

family,as we have seen, is organized

of interrelated marriage-groupswhich are so
plurality
nuclei of familial lifeand whose importance is various

The

Polish terminology for familial relationship

corroborates

our

definition

firstof all,
the use of familial names
family. We must distinguish,
relative
relative
and about a
to strangers. In the latter case
speaking to a

of the

proper

relative within the

The

the

is used, while in the firstthere is a tendency to substitute for it another

term

term, indicatinga much

a

when

family,both usages

those used
terms, i.e.,

proper

strangers, are

closer degree of

relationship.When
are
possible.
when

one

one

is speaking about

is speaking about

relative to

of three kinds:

a) Terms

which

define

such as mqz ("husband"),and zona

unique relation,
"husband"
ojciec("father"). Only the terms
("wife"),test ( 'father-in-law"),
is addressing a member
of the family,while
and "wife" remain unique when one
and blood-children are usuallysubstituted for those which
for blood-parents
terms
indicate

step-

b) Terms
any

relation of

or

law-relation of descent.

which
a

unique relation,but can be extended to

szwagier
are, for example,brat ("brother"),
("grandfather"),wuj ("maternal uncle"), stryj

define
essentially

certain degree. Such

dziadek
("brother-in-law"),
that of the correspondas
ing
("paternaluncle"). Their originalmeaning is the same
also
of
but
remoter
to
are
they
degrees
English terms,
relationship.
applied
is required,
If exactness
they are defined by special
adjectives,but habitually,
up

INTRODUCTION

and

The

changing.

of constitution

process

is therefore

nuclei

of these

familial life. But

the

at

the

and

essential
time

same

evolution

phenomenon

there

culminate

interests of the peasant

other

marriage many

107

and
life,

of
in
we

take the role of these into consideration.

must

the

Marriage from

i.

familialstandpoint. The whole

attitudes involves absolutory
the postulate

familial system of

"

of the young
marriagefor every member
generation. The
and changes brought by
family is a dynamic organization,
birth, growth, marriage, and death have nothing of the
incidental or unexpected,but are included as normal in the
organizationitself,
continuallyaccounted for and foreseen,
and the whole
practicallife of the family is adapted to

of

well

as

who

A person

them.

as

provokes

old

an

in

the

does not

man

does

to

attitude

time,

certain age,

of unfavorable

stopped in

have

certain

die at

not

family-group an

astonishment; they seem

continuous

within

marry

the midst

of

they are passed by and left

alone.
with
There are, indeed, exceptions. A boy (orgirl)
some
physicalor intellectual defect is not supposed to marry,
the third and sometimes

to

and

movement,

the fourth degree,no

required. Thus,

adjectivesare

degree is stryjeczny,
wujeczny, or ciotecznybrat ("brother through
the paternal uncle,maternal uncle,or aunt"), or simply brctt;a father's paternal

cousin of second

uncle is stryjecznydziadek

dziadek,and
way,

terms

A wife's

is necessary,

(ofthe

same

or

husband's

the

relative may

are
are

for collateral members

even

often substituted

for the

same

the terms

"brother"

and

of
indicatinglaw-relationship

specialterms

degree.
which

are

merely class-names.
and "law-relative."

Of these there

They

and in general their usage is limited to cases

is forgottenor when the speaker does not
relationship
person,

exactly. The

intelligentclasses sometimes

this
(Polonized,
kuzyn),bjjf
not

in the

where law-relationship
is indicated by particular
generation),
not only all the qualifications

omitted, but

c) Terms

more

be determined

"of my
wife" or "of my husband."
But if no particular
this qualification
is also omitted, except for collateral

and powinowaty, "blood-"

a

paternaluncle"), or simply

instead of brat). In addressing a member,

(szwagier

"sister"
any

on.

the addition

with

exactness

members

so

("grandfatherthrough

the peasant.

custom

has reached

as

are

never

where

are

only two:

krewny

used in addressing

the degree and kind of

desire to initiate the stranger

use

the

French

word

yet only the lower middle

cousin

class,

io8

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

and

in

his

a
corresponding attitude is
early childhood
adopted by the family and a place for him is provided
beforehand.
His eventual marriage will then provoke the
the bachelorship of
unfavorable
astonishment
same
as

others.
The

strong

as

moral

or

person

so

the

not

by the omission
religious
duty, and with the
cases

than

parents do
themselves
economic

through

the

latter,and

not

dare to put any

their child

we

if

even

in many

see

they

of
marriage (estrangement
and they persuade the child to
losses),

question
limitation

of

only

the

choice

match

It is better to make

The

limitation

The

of

traditional

influence upon

than
a

bad

the
the

disappearswhen

better

foresee bad

this

from

and

of the

results for
the

child,or
even

marry

(see

strong social

and

of this

partner.

But

parents have

factor

the second

marriage;
is prescribedin this case
conduct
by
except that marriage is viewed

certainty
arranged.

be

at

marry
exert

all.
any

line of

determined

no

the
this

even
no

to

ceases

demnation.
con-

principleis

one

familial

even

contrary behavior

proposed will
marriage than not to

the

the

letters that the

obstacles in the way

interest. The
against their own
Sekowski
series)incurs immediate

that

fault of his own,

no

becoming less and less. But

parents of the marriageableperson

the

marriage of

and

more

marrying is not so
of some
elementary
growing complexity
more
frequentwhere

is

condemnation
binds

are

unmarried

remains

standard
more

to

that incurred

of social conditions
a

attached

condemnation

the familial

organization
unfavorably after a

certain age.
The
but

family not only requiresits members

directs their choice.

interest

on

future of the

the

is neither

part of the parents

child,but

situation

This

to

tyranny

married,
nor

self-

solicitude for the

nor

logical
consequence

in the familial group.

be

The

of the individual's

individual

is

relatives.
between

This
the

form
in

one

acquaintance and
a

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

no

matchmaking is intermediary
is personal
the starting-point

of
which

in which

the other

the connection

with

certain

later.

fession
family is sought first through the sivaty (promatchmaker) and personal acquaintance comes
the starting-point
In this intermediary form
is the
relatives of the

friendshipwith
that

the

time

character,and

at

those relatives

belong is worth

this leads

same

the second

to

us

or

the

is supposed

girl. It

partner resembles

future
the

boy

his relatives in

that the

which

family to
with.

being connected

But

aspect of the familial control of

marriage.

b)

The

for

marriage belongs himself

through marriage will become connected

candidate

family,which

that of his wife.

familial group

The

therefore

to

with
the

assumes

right to control the choice of its member, not only with

of the future partner, but
regard to the personalqualities
also with regard to the nature
of the group
with which it
will be allied. The standing of the group
within the community
is here the basis of selection.
This standing itself
is conditioned
gence,
by various factors wealth, morality,intellifluence
instruction,religiousness,
politicaland social inconnection
with higher classes,solidarity
between
"

the
the

family members, kind

or less
family,its more

of

ancient

residence

Every familynaturallytries to make

etc.

alliance;at the

same

by riskinga refusal
match

and

of

occupation,numerousness
in the

the best

time it tries not to lower its own

by acceptingat
thereby showing too great
or

once

even

eagerness.

locality,
possible
dignity
the

best

Thence

long selection and hesitation,real or pretended,on both

sides,while the problem is not to discourageany possible
the

match, for the

is

such

proof of

individual
to an
possibilities
open
high standing of the family. Thence also

range

the

institutions

as

of

that of the

matchmaker, whose

task is

INTRODUCTION

ceremonial

the

shorten

to

of

in

choosing without

apparently

The relative
loweringthe dignityof the families involved.
freedom
given to the individuals themselves,the apparent
individual

yieldingto
the desire

the process

shorten

to

from
responsibility
formal

traditional
of

the

of selection
the

to

group

its

cases

many

swaty is embodied

The

marriage.

love, has in

in

source

the
by shifting

individual.

In

the

this familial control

maker,
accompanied by the matchvisits the families with which his family has judged
it desirable to be allied,
and only among
these can he select
is received by the parents of the girl,
who first
a girl. He

learn

everythingabout

select

c)

only among
particularsituation

children

with

assimilation

but
individual,
assimilated.
widow's

or

is very

part of

At

the

widower's

such

and his

her

or

caused

or

longer an

no

strange marriage-group,has
time

the

or

be

connection

to be

with

the

incomplete,because

the

wife also has

some

claims.

peculiarfamilial situation. A second

would
usuallyone which, if it were the first,

the

of
disintegration

of course,
of

But

marriage.

various forms.

stillapply the

the famlHal

certain liberation from

of his future wife,the

and

widow

marriage is not viewed favorably,and there

real social superiority
of the future partner
ity
familyin order to counterbalance the inferior-

by

the

in matters
assume

when

mesalliance.

With
come,

age
encour-

marriageis thus
be

then

the first marriage is involved.

family will

Therefore

some

family and

because
difficult,

same

the first husband

be

his

is created

from

family of
must

and

And the girl

can
rejecthim at once.
those encouragedby her family.

or

suitor

widower
Here

him

to call further

him

man,

young

same

With
man

life there must

the familial claims

this liberation

itself may

regard to the personalqualities

neglectto consult his family

which his
of appreciation
principles
may

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

H2

family would
habits

apply
"

resemble

the

select

whose

person

type prevailingin his

relatives he knows, who

whose

character
own

and

family, a

perhaps from
the same
etc.
Therefore,for example, immigrants
locality,
in America
individualization has only begun always
whose
boys or girlsfresh from the old country, if
try to marry
native village.
possiblefrom their own

person

A
a

second

individualization

degree of

reasoned

more

wishes his future

selection of such
to possess

mate

comes

manifests

as
qualities

in view

itself in

the individual

of his

own

personal

happinessand regardlessof the family'sdesire. This type

of selection prevails,
for example, in most
of the second
marriages,when the individual has become fullyconscious
of what

his eventual

he desires from

feelingof

his

partner and

when

the

importance,increasingwith age, teaches

him
to neglect the possibleprotests of his family. It is
also a frequenttype in towns, where the individual associates
with persons of various origins
and habits.
The typicaland
universal
opposed here against any familial
argument
own

protests has the

so

you,

in

of

it is none

"I shall live with

content:

of your

this person,

not

business."

Finally,the highest form of individualization is found

the real love-marriage. While a reasoned determination
the qualities
which
the individual wishes to find in his

future

mate

control,and
every

permits
some

of

discussion, some

familial

influence of tradition,
in the love-marriage

of
possibility

priori. Here, under

largestopportunityis given

control is rejecteda

the influence of the moment,

for matches

some

between

the

individuals

whose

social determinism

widely,though this difference is after all usually

not
very great, since the feelingof love requiresa certain
community of social traditions.

differs most

"

2.

Marriage from

territorial

the

standpointof other

social groups:

(community), national,religious,professional.
"

INTRODUCTION

The

claims

which

has

community

marriage corroborate

of

in matters

the

113

the individual

upon

those of the

family-group
that every individual (excepta future priest)
to the extent
if he is not hindered by a physicalor
is requiredto marry,
intellectual defect.
The community demands
from its
an
members

steadiness

but

interior harmony;
this steadiness
unmarried

only

man

life which

of

peasant

individual

can

for its

acquire

his

marriage. The life of an

bears essentially
unfixed
an

after
woman

or

is necessary

remain
singleperson, as we know, cannot
with his family,for the latter is organizedin
indefinitely
He
view of the marriage of all of its members.
cannot
farm
cannot
occupationalactivityalone
carry on normal
be either only a hired laborer,
he can
or keep a small shop
character.

"

"

livingwith
sphere

strangers,

or

servant.

of his interests is much

narrower

In

both

cases

than

that

the
of

couple and his life has less fixity.A singleperson

does not take an equal share with married couplesin the life
procity
of the community; there is little opportunity for a reciof services,still less for co-operation. He cannot
even
keep a house, receive,give entertainments, etc. He
married

All
to economize.
provide for, no reason
these features of singlelife tend to develop either a spirit
of revelry,vagabondage, and pauperism, or an
egotistic
both opposed
isolation within a circle of personalinterests
has

nobody

to

"

to

the fundamental

set of

peasant attitudes and undesirable

for the group.

Accordingly,the community givesa positivesanction to

This is done in three ways:
the marriage of its members.
limited
not
(i)Each wedding is a social event in itself,
in by
the families who
to
intermarry,but participated
the community, and
the pleasure of being for some
days the center of interest of the community is a strong
motive in favor of marriage. (2) The community givesa

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

H4

members:
after
higher social standing to its married
marriage they are addressed as "you" instead of "thou,"
in the
they begin to play an active part in the commune,
individuals have
parish,in associations,etc. Unmarried
a

certain

and

kind

of social

standing

prospective matches,

as

this

but

members
kind

of families

of

standing
couples

(3)The privatelife of married

is much
less controlled by the community than that of
control of the family hi normal
unmarried
The
persons.
conditions is thought perfectlysufficient for the first;the
tant
community interferes only in extraordinarycases of imporindividual who
familial misunderstandings. But
an
does not marry
in due time is supposed not to be sufficiently
controlled by the family,and the community allows him no
privacy.
But the community, as a territorial group, assumes
also
the
the choice of its members
whenever
a right to control
question is raised of taking a partner from a different
territorial group.
The same
right is claimed by the professional
the national,the religious
which
usually
groups,
do not interfere with the celibacyof their members
nor
with their marriage so long as this remains
endogamous.
decreases

with

age.

this respect the

In

from

the claims

of the

First of all,an

families,but
national, or
differences of
Let

us

claims

individual

normally to
religiousgroups.
standpoint.

not

take first the

another

or

takes a
locality,
his religion.For

less

these

family, and

case

who, by marriage,passes
or

of

unpleasant,but

two

at

once

dictory.
contra-

to

two

territorial,
professional,

This

of

into

belong

can

be

even

may

different

are

groups

leads

member

of

important

to

different group

social group
"

moves

to

ity
changes his nationalprofession,
be more
the family such a fact may
of the divergenceof
only on account
new

INTRODUCTION

attitudes

which

individual

thus

who

has

arises between

passed into

lost; he
necessarily

115

remain

may

its members;

another

but

social group

(ifthere

are

is

the
not

other factors

no

of the family.
a
real,solidarymember
disintegration)
On the contrary, for a territorial,
professional,
national,or
religiousgroup such an individual is lost,and, since no

of

group

likes to

lose its members,

which

involves

condemnation.

This

passinginto

the essential values

when

Formerly,

the

communities

greater than now,

the

professional
group

was

traces

group,

differences

of

of

very

of this stage in folklore.

social

renounces

At

and

custom

professionswere

marriage outside
condemned

customs, traditions,

"

and

exogamy

particularly
strong

another

of his first group

tradition between

many

is

of

incurs

group

condemnation

if the individual,by

ideals.

into another

passage

kind

every

much

community or
strongly;we find
a

present

of

change
change

incurs a relatively
locality
slightcondemnation; a
of group
(as,for example, when a peasant
professionally
girlmarries a handworker) is only ridiculed;but a change
of

religionis

nationalityor

the
offense,

latter

is influenced

by

the national

and

even

the

still an

crime.

largersocial

religious
groups

almost

unpardonable
And, of course, the family
it belongs;
to which
group
usuallyrequirethat the

family shall disown a renegade member, and the family in

and
general complies with this demand
rejectssuch an
if he wishes

individual,even
The

side of the

keep

the familial

solidarity.

is

presented when a new

is brought through marriage into a social group.
member
For the family,as we know, two questionsare here involved :
what
is the social standing of the new
member's
family
within the largergroup to which it belongs,and what is the
character

other

to

of the

new

first question does

connected

case

member.
not

exist.

But

the

family indeed becomes

the new
partner'sfamily;

The

through marriage with

for the social group

n6

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

and
the

it the social

to

community

standing of the latter is important.

largedoes

into

But

particular
relation with another
fact of receiving
by the mere
group
little for the other group's
from it,and it cares
a member
standing. Therefore the family may occasionally
acquiesce
in the fact that its member
marries a girlwho
will be
if the family of this girlhas a
assimilated with difficulty,
of
particularly
high social standing is very rich,instructed,
influential. The benefit of being connected
or
good origin,
be greater than the displeasure
with such a family may
of
member.
But
for the community
having an unadaptable new
overshadow
the only point
those reasons
cannot
for it,namely, how
will the new
member
be
which counts
the nature
of
assimilated ? This depends, of course, upon
and traditions which
he brought with him,
social customs
and the more
they differ from those which prevailin the
at

enter

not

any

"

given

group

This

exogamy.

jealousyof

the

parents and
to

lack the

upon

the

greater is the

the

is

condemnation

the

social condemnation

usuallystrengthenedby

marriageablemembers

relatives.

The

of

of the group,
member

exogamous

is

their

judged

and to inflict a humiliation

feelingof solidarity
the
by selectinga stranger. Sometimes
group

attitude of the group

is rather

mixed,

as

when

person

of

in marrying into the group,

or
nationality
religion,
ideals;there usuallyremains
accepts its national or religious
enough difference of traditions and habits to provoke a
certain unreceptivity
in the group, but the spirit
of proselyit happens, for example, that a
tism is flattered. And
so
converted Jew is laughed at within the Christian community,
but defended againsthis former co-religionists.
member
is not backed
As the new
by his old group, his
positionis usually rather helpless.No particularsocial
arises from this intermarriage
norm
analogous to the norm

different

of respect between

husband

and

wife,which has its source

in

n8

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

constituted

social

certain

well

as

as

economic

an

today. Among the

peasants property in land is evidently the basis of this
and therefore the practiceof dowry is adapted
difference,
to the solution of the problem of making every
young
to

this remains

difference;and

extent

married
cases

couple own
this problem

from

both

It is clear also that

farm.

solved

be

can

families.

true

only by

these

Usually

arranged that the family of

the

of the

land

in most

contribution

contributions

are

so

boy gives land, the family

because
than money
means
more
girlmoney,
of his
his wife's land loses some
and a husband
on
settling
dignityas head of the marriage-group,and is usuallylooked
down
The

practice of

peasant

undivided

farm

to

one

off his brothers

paying

have

must

other farmers.

by

upon

children

who

and

and for this

sisters,

below

is,as far
size

of the farm

family.

his wife.

he

purpose

The

father

means

The

head

life upon

continued

son

even

his
of

one

if the

even

son

the

same

and

wife would

conditions

farm

his work

wants

scale.

divided

were

to

poor

parents, and is

Sale, division,or

farm,

would

hardly be able
the family of the

of the

In

gaging
mort-

without
never

to

be

short, it is

rich.

at least to marry

farm

The

loweringof the social standing

of the family,who
has worked

the

on

ruin.

means

tion;
limited by tradipossible,
by law. The sale of the

their life.

during his whole

by
duty

as

after the death

even

possibleduring

very

the

obligationof

the

the fact that it often

certain

is avoided

But

leave

enough to give the other

mortgaging the farm, in view of
of land property, is hated by the

character

division of the farm

familial

has then

in cash from

their parts, and

peasant, aside from

of the

son,

largedowry

the half-sacred

never

is to

able to put aside money

is seldom

farm

inheritance

sold, each son

dowry,
gettingsome
or

allow her to live in

if it could prevent it.

The

same

is true

INTRODUCTION

119

paid off by their brother; they seldom

enough to buy a farm sufficient for living,
get money
especially
who
takes the farm is usuallyfavored
since the son
of the

who

sons

are

in the settlement.
of

course

takinga dowry.

For

There

are

rich farmer

cases

when

there is

example, the only son

is free to marry

without

money.

no

of

necessityof
a sufficiently
But

as

the

value, but is also an expresonly a practical

sion
the custom
of the family'simportance and solidarity,
is
usuallykept up unless the family of the poor girlhas for
a
some
reason
high social standing in spiteof
relatively

dowry

has not

poverty.
social and economic
reasons
obligea
Exactly the same
a
boy with property.
dowry to marry
girlwho has some
sufficient to buy a farm and thus to
The dowry is seldom
keep the social level which the girlhad in her family; and
if it should be large enough, the girl's
family will
even
seldom allow her to marry
a poor
boy, because it would be
considered a proof that the girlhad no suitors of a higher
social standing,and therefore that she had some
personal
defect.
to this generalrule,but they
exceptions
admit of special
explanations. A boy or girlwho is already
declassed or whose
to the
family did not belong originally
class of farmers
of handicraft)is not socially
(or masters
obligedto marry with dowry. It is customary for the young
or goods enough to furnish the house,
coupleto have money
and both families are obligedto help them as far as possible.
is still strong; but since property
The familial solidarity
which has not the form of an independent business does not
determine
the social standingof the family as does land or
master-workman's
a
position,the consideration of dowry
plays a quite subordinate role in the selection of a mate.
A boy who
has money
enough to furnish the house may

There

are

many

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

120

her

freelya girlwho has nothing except

clothingand household linen,and a girlwith
marry

may

marry

in either

rather

some

real

owning classes,not

actual

an

money

inequality

is often raised,it is

of the traditional attitude,or

remnant

of the

case.

is no

completelypoor boy ; there

If the questionof dowry

personal

imitation

an

social

economic

or

problem.
in
that is,one
marriage for money,
a partner with
girlselects intentionally

boy or
always
In

which

real

the

incurs
of

case

establish his

social condemnation

craftsman

shop the

own

who

needs

poor

fortune,

some

'

least ridicule.

at

or

in order

dowry

to

is very

condemnation

slight. He
the dowry, but
capitalin the

ought not, indeed, to count exclusively

upon
since acquired handicraft was
equivalentto
and a journeyman was
old guild tradition,
often pushed into
the master-class by his wife's family,dowry under
these
social
circumstances
has lost its social disapproval. But
for a poor country boy or girl
opinionknows no justification
who
by making a rich match passes into the farmer-class;
the

of

members

marries
in any

rich

latter consider

it is stillworse

And

climbing.

the

girl. He

cannot

rich

marriage only for the sake

pleasureat his wife's expense.

the

use
so

of

supposed to make the

being lazy and enjoying

is

In the two

latter

perhaps strengthenedby the

such matches
the richer party is usuallyeither
moral
or
personallyunattractive,or with some
Thus

are

or

marriage which

she could
is

most

is most

of money
there

he

party, the match

will of his

have

or

her

is almost

family and

made

the

cases

fact that in

older,

much

stain,etc.,

better choice.

evidentlymade

clearlyconsidered
personaldisadvantageson

no

of

cityworkman
dowry productively

is

since otherwise

kind

worst

if the unskilled

line of handicraft,and

condemnation

it the

abnormal.

for the sake

Even

if

the side of the richer

certainlyconcluded
incurs condemnation

against the
from

this

INTRODUCTION

also.

reason

121

And, generallyspeaking,the economic

relation

partiesin marriage is subjectedto a moral appreciation,

not a familial,
only if it appears as a personal,
ment,
arrange-

of the

side

one

on

or

both.

on

economic

point of view a second marriage

or
presents a particularproblem. In the case of a widow
control of the family is greatlydiminthe normal
widower
ished,
since these have more
importance within the familyand their privatelife has
than the bachelor or girl,
group
the

From

independence. The problem

acquiredthrough marriage more
of keeping the same
social standing is also involved,but
usually there is less danger of losingit,for the widow or
widower
already has property. In this case the personal
help of the second husband or wife in keeping the farm and
household
and

sufficient economic

going is normally a
no
capitalis needed.

If there

are

tion,
contribu-

children from

the

complicated,for
marriage, the situation is more
family of their parent has an interest in them and in
in view
maintenance
of their social position,especially

the

the eventual

lot

first

children

of these children
therefore

it is much

But

widow's
that of
basis

maid

of social,and

would

be

There

difficult to

more

or

bachelor, a claim

lower

much

of this kind

also of

therefore

second

dowry is
marriage.

Indeed, since the

get.

marriage-valueis

is

double

on

than

the

economic, equality

on

the

one

hand

and

the process

old

by

social

intermarriageis

more

classes
and

new

of economic
are

more

riage,
mar-

the dissolution of the old

by

substitution of

the other

side of

of the economic

evolution

and
class-hierarchy

The

The

of

unjustified.

influenced

on

in

required even

widower's

or

marriage.

also be considered, and

must

sometimes

the second

from

the

class-organization,
individualization.

becoming

mingled

frequent.

At

the

and
same

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

122

time

criteria of social

new

the old ones,

different

or

good birth

or

each other.

work

loses its

to

and

and

point
stand-

that of property;

frequentin which some

forward by one side as against
more

other party, and

normal

more

hi social

such

mating

opinion and

more

easilyacknowledged by families on either side.

time economicallyunequilibrated
the same
matches
possiblebecause of the liberation of
graduallymore

more

At

become
the

individual

from

the pressure

Stillit is clear that the

disinterestedness

Polish

advance

of the Polish
that

increases.
.

would

the economic

be

remember

must

that

classes the

small,as compared

hi

set

the

of
possibility
even

with

that

and quiteinsignificant
in comparison
citylife,

the end

it started,and
as

conditions

life. On

the

contrary, there

are

of retrogression
the population
as
possibilities
Thus
a married
couple does well if it succeeds

keeping to

with

We

is very

of American

numerous

which

upon

of the

munity.
family and comof showing a real
possibility

country life of the lower

economic

with

depends

environment.

the

by

in

with

set
off-

or

sociallydepreciativecharacter, etc.

and
marriagesare more
is put
other social superiority
the property brought by the
more

by instruction
sphereitselfthe

compete

Thus

becomes

place of
of
equilibration
old advantages

be offset

the economic

begins

an

possible. The

may

Within

of income
hired

them, and

along with
advantages becomes

of fortune

in

superiorityappear

the

economic

it is natural

as
high a standard
a
luxury for which

parents would

standard
for them

to

of life with

try

to

start

possible.Disinterestedness
the

children

as

well

as

the

Marriages quite free from economic

considerations
become, therefore,practically
possibleonly
in some
parts of the country where season-emigrationis
in Polish industrial cities,
and
extent
practiced,to some
in America, where they are, indeed, almost the
particularly
rule.

pay.

INTRODUCTION

123

The sexual
Marriage from the sexual point of mew.
aside from
necessityof sexual satisfaction,
factor,as a mere
the questionof individualized love, must
play of course
an
important role as a motive of marriage in general,although
4.

"

of sexual

want

for

reason

determine

difficult to

it is somewhat

satisfaction

is

to

what

extent

consciouslyconceived

marriage. Certainly the popular

songs

the
as

and

people show that sexuai tendencies are

jokes of young
Both sexes
developedbefore any actual sexual intercourse.
mix
frequently together in work and play, and sexual
arise. But, on the other hand, their developdesires must
ment
depends upon
the

marriageas

social activities which

development
hi view.

have

There

is

social institution.
most

are

favorable

Indeed,
to

their

all,mediately or immediately,marriage
of sexual

stock

information

and

tudes
atti-

acquired before puberty, and this is not conditioned

by the idea of marriage. But after puberty the boy and the
girlalways look upon each other as possiblematches, and
is always arranged with
the sexes
social intercourse between
marriage in view.
merely ceremonial
shows

how

All the

this

have

the sexual

entertainments
aim.

side of this

An

which

are

not

interestingfact

preliminaryintercourse

sions
sociallycontrolled. No indecent allubetween
allowed in a private conversation
are
ever
but any indecent allusion can be made publicly,
boy and girl,
in the form of a song or joke,at a gatheringwhere young

is institutional and

people of both sexes

And
marriage is
are

are

present.

faction
only form in which sexual satisbe obtained.
Illegalrelations before marriage
can
of any particular
because
relatively
rare, not so much

moral

self-restraint as,

control,reinforced

by

once

the

more,

control

because

of the familial

of social

opinion and

marriage. Sexual intercourse

marriage is normally and immediately treated by the

exerted in view
before

the

of the future

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

124

boy,

the

girl,the family,and the community as an illicit

of the sexual
extension
preliminariesof marriage, but
anticipatoryof marriage, and it leads almost universallyto
when, under the influence of disintegrating'
marriage,even
factors,it becomes
part in

Therefore

the

the

idea

The

relation to

se, without

per
any

frequent.

for the

reason

course
inter-

marriage, plays hardly

primitive peasant

main

of sexual

organizationof life.
prohibitionof sexual

marriage is to be sought in the familial

form of marriage itself. The boy and girlwho begin sexual
relations before marriage begin also in fact the marriageintercourse

before

with
relation,thus avoiding the familial control and trifling
the social sanction
This

ceremonies.

expressedin the whole series of marriagemust

evidentlylead to a disorganization

marriage system. Even if a match

arranged
is one
agreeableto the respectivefamilies,still
way
it is a rebellion againstthe familial authorityand a

of the whole

in this
in form

neglectof
After
to

the

community.
almost
pletely
commarriage sexual intercourse ceases
be a social problem; it is intentionally
ignoredby

in
society. Conjugal infidelity
to

social consciousness,is

belonging to

the

same

seldom

conditions

is not

spoken of,and, if
it occurs,
is unconditionallycondemned, equally in man
But
the legalsexual relation between
and woman.
even
and wife is the object of a very far-goingdiscretion.
man
It is never
mentioned
when
is talkingabout marriage;
one
in private conversation
even
by the married couple itself,
In a
sexual allusions are scrupulouslyavoided.
or
letters,
where
few cases
find them
we
they are accompanied by
if the whole
sexual question were
as
apologies. It seems
felt,not so much as impure, as incongruous with the normal
and
sociallysanctioned conjugal relation,which, for the
assumed

exist; it is very

normal
even

fundamentally
type

as

other

familial relation,
relations

between

126

are

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

known

from

obstacle

to

childhood

rapid

which

"

infatuation

is evidentlyan
but

"

important

indecision, careful

into account,
selecting,taking of all possibilities

are

tional
tradi-

in familial considerations,
but
attitudes,originating

by

This indecision is reinforced

of love.

transferred to matters
the limitations of

speech mentioned

above; expressions

the faintest sexual allusion are

containing even
and
sequently
conpublicly made
sociallysanctioned
only when
tions
impersonal or half -impersonal;private declaraFor the normal
are
boy or girl,
young
very limited.

of love

therefore,there
sex

more

certain number

pleasing,and

less

or

of the

of

one

by
The

marriage is when for some

more
opportunity to meet
the

After

and

of the other

sexually

are

made

under

the

all these

reasons

the decision

settles

only case when this "liking"

can
ripen into love before
individuals

the two

reason

each

other

than

have
else.

anyone

particularlyafter marriage,

and

engagement,

is then

one

others

among

person

all of them

for various

family, or

fall away
one
possibilities
the one remaining.
upon

of persons

choice

ultimate

acceptable. The
influence

are

is attained,but

exclusiveness

then the love-relation

precisely
Of course, there is often
changes into the respect-relation.
love shortlybefore and after the wedding, but it is gradually
submerged by familial and economic interests.
-

The

first stage of the liberation

love is actuallythe
We

call it the

sexual
illegal

intercourse before

first stage, because

if
beginning of individualization,
favorable.

Thus,
and

Germany,

for from

intercourse

meet

and

the

among

even

Polish estates, who

to

of the factor of sexual

among
are

seven

it exists at
external

the

very

conditions

are

season-emigrantsto
wandering season-laborers on
young

isolated from
to ten

months

privately,almost
then marry

marriage.

after

50

their families and

and
per

have
cent

coming home,

munities
com-

the opportunity
have

or

even

sexual
send

INTRODUCTION

to

money

their

publicationof

priestduring

their banns.

127

the

Here

asking

season,
the

for

the

"liking"grows
into sexual love,thanks to the actual sexual intercourse,
and
become
the young
strong enough to cause
people to
may
themselves
the whole
take upon
for their
responsibility
marriage, though usually the permission of the parents
before
the priest is asked
is obtained
to
publish the
mere

banns.
The

normal, because
does

not

break

other hand
find it

of the liberation of sexual love is

form

second

it
the

requiresno
traditional

it shows

exceptionalconditions
sexual morality; but on

higherstage of

particularlyoften

in America, but

cities. It consists in the reduction

process

individualization.

of selection and

to

find another
This

whom
way

of

important evolution
possibleonly when
motives

have

"likes"

and

mance.
repeats the perfor-

concluding a marriage shows

of

the

all the

traditional

and

the

is no
possibilities,
boy or girldesires to

many

The

attitudes.

familial,social,or

lost their influence

hesitation among
maintained.

he

We

proposal
personal
boy tries

girlwho "pleases" after a relativelyshort

acquaintance. If the girlrejectsthe proposal,the
to

the

complicated

offhand

an

and

also in Polish

of all the

courtshipto

more

and in this mood, after the liberation from

very
It

is

economic

indecision,the

longerartificially
in general,
marry
all social pressure,

slight"liking" (which under the old conditions would

those from whom
only suffice to put the person liked among
closer selection would
sufficient
be made) becomes
a
a
the

impulse to

start

Finally,the

the decisive action.

last stage is attained

when

this

"liking,"

general cultural progress, and

of a development of imagination and feeling
particularly
made independent of practical
activity,
grows into a typical
under

the

"romantic"

influence

of

love, in which

the

sexual

element

is neither

128

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

in the

as
stifled,

crude

form,

exalted
from

and

traditional

the exclusiveness

idealized,and

institutional

before

intercourse

in sexual

as

conditions,nor

from

nor

reasons

in its

marriage, but
results neither

habit, but from

ideas connected

complexity of feelingsand

given

with

the

rich

given

person.
CLASS-SYSTEM

THE

In

of

SOCIETY

societythere is a general
of the old
social distinctions,
a breaking down

the present state

revaluation

POLISH

IN

of Polish

This
one.
hierarchyand an establishment of a new
is going on
more
rapidly hi certain parts of the
process
country (itis the slowest in Galicia),but everywhere it
social

exerts

the lower

also the peasants and

includes

great influence upon

city classes and

psychology of the younger

the

generationin particular.
The old class-organization
presents
partlyparallelsocial hierarchies
that of the town
population. The
"

second
The

two

independent and

that of the country and

first is

fundamental, the

additional.

highestrank

dominating

the

hi the first hierarchy(and

second

as

well) was

completely
occupied by a few

families of great

pendence
nobility. At the time of Poland's indethey occupied the highestofficialposts, kept their
After Poland's partition
etc.
own
armies, directed politics,
influence disappeared. At present fortune,
their political
title (therewere
tradition,and in most cases
no
recognized
titles in

Poland

Lithuanian

and

before
Ruthenian

the

partition,except

princes)are

for

few

all that

distinguish
the nobility.

fiftyfamilies from the rest of

middle
The
numerous
nobility constitutes the second
Then
stratum.
the peasant nobility,
comes
distinguished
from the middle nobility
by the lack of fortune and culture,
these

forty

from

the

or

peasant, formerly by its rights,now

only by

INTRODUCTION

tradition.1

Then

classified into

the

coirfe

129

farmers, formerly

peasant

peasants (almostcompletelyfree,but

crown

rights),church peasants, and private

political
serfs. Finallycomes
the landless peasants.
It was
in fact
not
possibleduring Poland's independence to draw an
absolute line between
larly
any two contiguousclasses;particuthe gradationof noble families on one
side,the gradation
having

no

of peasant families
the lowest

between

the distinction

the other, was

on

noble

and

the

continuous,and

highestpeasant
social.

not
political,

families

the

But

position
exactly determined; risingand

was

of each

family was
very
within
possible,but very seldom
fallingwere
a
single
far as
the social organizationstill
as
generation. And
is true at present.
the same
persists,
On the other hand, the town
population was also hierarchized,mainly upon the basis of fortune,secondarily
upon
culture
birth.
that of
and
The highestplace was
occupied
in every largetown
by some
wealthy trades-families;then
the intellectual workers

came

petty merchants

and

unskilled

and

the craftsmen; then

workers.

rightsof the old bourgeoisie,

except in
lower than

were

positionof

the
Politically

administration,

town

those of the

old and

'"Peasant

the

rich

nobility" is

the
nobilityin general;socially
bourgeoisfamilies ranked with that

class found

only

in Poland

called in Polish

and

szlachta zasciankowa, "village nobility,"

szlachta zagonowa,
ring
"bed-nobility"(referto their small beds of land),and szlachta szaraczkowa,"gray nobility." They
had

almost

Usually

one

full

political
rights,and

large family of the

several
serfs

villages.They
in the
they were

dates back

mainly

the descendants
low economic

to

were

economic

same

the fourteenth

of warriors

and

endowed

social level

as

division of land.

They

duchy

(unifiedwith

of Mazovia

numbers

of them

Ruthenia.

At

like the rest

were

and

name

the end
as

of the

condition
and
with

land

consequence
are

as

of the

as

the peasants.

fifteenth centuries.

by the dukes, and

of their numerical

of Poland

in

were

sank

in the

no

origin
usually
their

to

increase and

the

ancient

1525-27); thence
in,Lithuania

eighteenthcentury they outnumbered

against 300,000.

even

they had
Their

They

still particularly
numerous

the kingdom

nobility.

villageand

whole

emigrated to, and organized large settlements

nobility 40x3,000
"

coats-of-arms

occupied
quite independent economically,but
same

large
and

the middle

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

130

of the middle

fact, with
general,was
As

both

nobility. Outside of
rare
exceptions,outside

and
hierarchies,

of Polish

in

social life in

the Jew.

early as

of the

end

the

factors began to contribute

system, and

to

eighteenth century
gradual dissolution

of dissolution

the process

reached

many
of this

the

lower

"

The
Constitution
thirtyor fortyyears ago.
of May 3" (1791)gave political
rightsto the bourgeoisie,
but the later loss of independencemade all political
privileges
illusory.The process of personaland economic liberation

classes

some

carried

on

in 1864.
noble

before

the

second

partitionand
by privateinitiative and legalacts, was completed
The development of industry,the ruin of many

peasants, begun

of the

families

revolution

after each

through confiscation

crisis caused
agricultural

of their fortunes, the

by foreign

spread of instruction and democratic

tions
of old distincideas,are all factors destroyingthe content
is still going
while leaving the form.
The
process
importation, the

and

on,

the actual situation

be

may

in the following

stated

way.

First,there

permit
of

certain

isolation

strong class-consciousness

is at the
common

still the old classes,wherever

are

time

same

interests.

consciousness

"

strong

with

factors which

The

mainly

are

the

ditions
con-

development

that is,wherever

social group

and

the

the class

real intercourse

keep

territorial

and

the old class-

vicinityand

identityof occupation. Thus, the old families of middle

district or province,the old bourgeois
nobilitysettled in some
families in largetowns, the peasant families or the peasant
morial
nobilitysettled in the same
villageor parish from immetime
these have still a class-feeling
strong enough
resist any
external influences.
to
They do not admit
"

anybody from
into a higher

lower

class.

class,and
But

these

they

do

scattered

not

try

groups

to

get

have

INTRODUCTION

themselves

131

feelingof congenialityand of equality;

and intermarriagecreates
them
links of
new
among
solidarity.
But
without
these groups,
being exactlydissolved,
are
is determined
diminishingthrough a process whose mechanism
constitution as well as by
by the nature of their own
the economic
and political
the changes which
evolution of
among

the

country
to

brings with

it.

the social system

economic

The

expressedin

form

sponding
corre-

these groups

is

that of familial property, that is,property, parts of which

under

are

of the

the management,

individual.

In

in the

not

this form

complete ownership,

of economic

organization
subsist as a real social group because through
the class can
it territorial vicinityand identityof occupation can
be
preserved through a series of generations,and classif it has no longer any real
consciousness
can
persisteven
basis in the political
organization. Under these conditions,
if an

individual

fortune
as
are

is unable

to maintain

his part of the

family

family helps him and controls him, and as far

possiblehinders his ruin. But this control and help
of course
limited.
The family may
be unable to help,
the

it may

be
unwilling to help, or the individual may
the
reason
unwillingto accept any control,if for some
attitude of solidarity
is weakened
the strain is too great.
or
And

be

the

economic

preservation of

the

changes

of the

old forms

of property

since the lack

difficult,
particularly
did not
permit the development
mechanism
economy
the

cases

ruin,or

to

facilitate the

last century
more

make
and

the
more

of

political
independence
of any
adequate social

modernization

of the

ancient

Thus
handiwork, and commerce.
agriculture,
in which the familycannot
the individual from
save
quent.
where the whole familyis ruined, are very freeven
is finally
the modernization
of economy
And when

in

attained,it usuallyproves

that

greater individualization

PRIMARY-GROUP'

132

of

is

property

weakened,

ORGANIZATION

the individual

and

familial

required,the

solidarityis

is left more

thus

less to his

or

own

resources.

But

proprietoris declassed.
relations

on

interest with
work

maintain

cannot

equality;he

in search of

work; he

class,and, above

his

must

to

ceases

be

the old social

usuallyleave
loses community

all,he

has

do

to

his
of

hired

dependent. Now there is hardly another

distinction so profoundly rooted in Polish consciousness
as that between
independentwork on the person's

he becomes

"

economic

hired work.

property and

own

He

basis of

territorial group

class-groupwho

of the

member

any

shown

by

analysisof

our

(i) hired work,

occasion

The

of

this,as is

is threefold:
attitudes,

the economic

development of industry,meant
almost always "service,"includingpersonaldependence of
the employee on the employer; (2)hired work in whatever
form
has the character
of compulsory work
as
opposed to
free

before the

(3) hired

work;

work, and

organization. (Of
not

on

wages,

The

group

must

work

bears

is

individual

more

work, based on fee,

professional
from hired work.)
distinguished

course

be

complete in the
stillkeeps the attitudes

The

individual

and

personal connection

second, sometimes

attitudes

with

in the

first generation.
of his class-

its members.

remain, personal relations

In

plays a

Even

third, generation some

not

are

severed,the familial tradition is kept up, and the

birth

pendent
inde-

direct relation to the familial

no

loss of class is seldom

in the

than

completely
questionof

role.

this way,

during the last

growing number

during the
fiftyyears,

last century
has

there

of those who

lost

have

and

been

particularly
continually

class,derived

from

all the social classes of the old

complicatedhierarchy.

while

these

hundred

hung about

years

ago

their old class in

some

outclassed

subordinate

But

individuals
the
position,

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

134

which

the
to do this was
helped the intellectual aristocracy
loss of political
independence and the subsequent efforts
to keep the Polish culture in spiteof political
oppression.
Every intellectual achievement
appeared in this lightas
later the capitalbearing a general national value. When
istic
class grew
the standard

in power,
of the

and
aristocracy,
a

marked

it had

to

accept, more

intellectual class

new

it stillhesitates between

inclination toward

or

or

less,either

that of the old

the two, but

the first. Its wealth

with

givesit

the intellectual,
not
the
over
over
superiority
the intellectualand it is easier to satisfy
birth,aristocracy,
istic standard than that of birth.
Thus, the new
hierarchy
time the intellectual
gains in extension,while at the same
criterion becomes
And
complicated by that of wealth.
an

additional

those criteria go down

to

the lowest

strata

of

society.

is,of course, a continual passage of individuals

from the old hierarchyto the new,
and on the other hand
a
growing infiltration of individuals and families of the
class into the old class-groups
new
through marriage and
the
old bourgeoisie is already largely
property. But
the middle
amalgamated with the new
class-organization;
nobilitybegan to amalgamate with it some
thirtyor forty
is going on, although rather
the process
years
ago, and
slowly; the amalgamation of the peasant began in the
present generation. Only the highestaristocracyand the
peasant nobilityremain stillisolated in their class-groups,
though losingmembers
continually.
Polonized Jews and foreigners,
Finally,the individually
when
assimilated,are
they settle in Poland and become
received into the new
be said
can
organization.The same
There

of the bureaucrats.
In

The

this

new

hierarchywe

highest class

can

is constituted

sufficient degree of instruction

distinguishfour
by

those

classes.

who, besides

and
(university)

an

indispen-

INTRODUCTION

sable social refinement,have

135

in
particular
superiority
line wealth, talent,very
good birth, high political,
any
bureaucratic, or social position. The middle class the
essential part of this hierarchy is composed of professionals:
higher technicians,
professors,
lawyers,physicians,
some

"

"

"

of middle

tradesmen

literary
men,

fortune,higheremployees.

of good
University instruction and a certain minimum
this
manners
are, generallyspeaking,the criteria delimiting

class from

the lower

important

for

the usual
his

class.

medium

through

His old social

which

the peasant rises above

class,and he
the

In

city the

middle

class and

rise to the

now

may

do

not

positioncorresponds,in fact,somewhat

the lower

between

one

it is

connection, because

in the present

us

latter is the most

The

class,for in the old social hierarchyhe could

own

this.
to

middle

fall to the other.

or

class is

middle

lower

one

the workman

craftsmen, lower post and

keepers,
composed of shopgovernmental officials,

privateclerks and salesmen, etc. To this

railwayofficials,
officials (farm-managers,
class in the country belong manor
secretaries,
foresters)
distillers,
stewards,clerks,'
; commune
teachers,organists;rich shopkeepers and
But

that the criterion is not

remember

must

we

degree of instruction which

positionitselfas

the

and

cultural level of the

the average

that

of

man

if

even

the middle
and

bad

clerk

and

an
filling

On

inferior

who

manners,

and

does
position,

the other

the middle-class

belongs to

is received

men

level.

higher social

in circles which

are

so

much

this
occupy

the

requires
it,and

tion,
higherinstrucnot

fall below

hand, lack of instruction

hardly permit even

manners

to rise to
a

good birth,good

class.

mill-owners,etc.

Thus
niveau

rich man
relatively
it may
happen that
than his employer

closed to the latter.

by
city the lower middle class is connected
gradationswith the working class and in the
imperceptible
In

the

country with that of

manor

servants; the differences become

136

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

smaller

the

retains its

lower

the

social level.

education

still

dress,are
occupation,money,
important r61e. The criteria
man
definitelyfrom the lower

of

value, the kind

beginning to play a more

which
usually exclude a
middle
class and place him
unskilled labor and

While

in

of the

that

the

though
illiteracy,

workman

are

contrary does

not

hold

special
good; that is,an occupation requiringsome
above the
skill or readingand writingdoes not place a man
working class.
Of

all kinds

course

of

pauperism

vice declass

and

man

definitely,
put him outside of both the old and the new
have
hierarchy. Beggars, tramps, criminals,prostitutes,
holds true of
The
same
no
place in the class-hierarchy.
Jews, except those who
Polish servants
Poland

the

in

are

Polonized,and

Jewish houses.

officials and

the

army

to some

In Russian

extent

and

outside

are

of

German
of Polish

social life.
This

system
than

we

sometimes

become

of social distinctions
have

here

almost

real,and their influence in

than

in

the

old, because

even

more

plicated
com-

it; the distinctions

but they are very

imperceptible,
the new
hierarchyis even greater
in

the

former

they

stimulate

climbingtendency. Under the old system

progress in social standingrequiresthe collaboration of the
slow, and
greater part of the family-group,is necessarily
no
showing-offcan make the individual appear as belonging
his family is
to a higher class than his family,for where
known, his social standing is determined, and where it is
not
known, he has no real social standing. Particularly
since the old class is a plurality
of class-groups,
unified by
territorial and professional
and connected
from
solidarity,
to group
by a feelingof identical traditions and
group
interests (sometimes by intermarriage),
is
social advance
within
but rising
not passinginto a higherclass,
essentially
uncommonly

the

described

is

INTRODUCTION

137

given class-group.The factors which permit a family

the development of property along the line of the
to rise are
occupationsof the class (landin the country, buildingsand
moral integrity,
trade in the town), practicalintelligence,
the

which
and, in general,all the qualities

assure

influence

an

such as good marriages within

class-group,
familial solidarity.
class-group,
the

upon

contrary, in the

the

On

individual

social

new

(or marriage-group)
can

the

organizationan

rise alone

and

rapidly.

easilytempted to show off,to adopt the external

distinctions of the superior class in order to appear
as

He

is

belonging to it,and, if he is clever enough, this showingthe rise itself is here essentially
off helps him to rise. And
facilitated by the fact that
a passinginto the higher class,
the criteria are so complicated that the territorial or professional
groups

in this

have
organization

the

not

importance

of real

and
that no
have
the
can
class-groups,
groups
which the old groups possessed
and impenetrability
stability
before the dropping of the familial principle. The factors
of climbing are
here instruction,
economic
development
rather as an
increase of income
than as an acquisition
of
and,
property wit, tact, a certain refinement of manners,
in general,qualities
which assure, not the influence upon
a
givensocial environment, but the adaptationto a new social
"

"

environment, including marriage

and

breaking of
It is easy

familial

above

one's

class

own

solidarity.

to understand

how

this new,

individualistic
fluid,

of social
possibilities
be attractive to the members
of a society
progress, must
in which the questionof social standingand class-distinction
always played an exceptionallyimportant role. It has
to rise and enough
enough of democracy to permit anyone
of aristocracy
the rise real. Particularly
to make
among

class-hierarchy,
opening so

peasants its influence must

many

be felt

more

and

more,

as

with

138

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

of the
growing proletarization
of rising within
the
the possibility
country inhabitants
peasant community is closed for a largepart of the young
generation.
Since passinginto the new
organizationand risingwithin

land and

dismembering of

the

it involve

far-goingmodification

arises

there

between
struggle,
have

we

an

new

examples

numerous

and

estrangement,

the old and

in

traditional

of the

tudes,
atti-

sometimes

and of this
generations,
this and
the following

volumes.

general,the attitude of the

toward
the old and
class-groups
In

very

characteristic.

down
aristocracy
upon

the

to

of the traditional

the

is
class-hierarchy

new

All the old classes,from

the peasant,

based, as

are

and
generalprinciples,

same

each

understand

members

other's attitudes.

to

This

the
we

highest

have

seen,

this extent

they
understanding is

tity
close between
particularly
country classes,where an idenof occupation creates
universe of discourse;
a common
the town
and country
but it is not lackingeither between
than
this,
And, more
population,wherever
they meet.
is
the Jew, although outside of the Polish society,
even

exclude

by the noble and the peasant and understands

This understandingbetween
the old classes does not
whole
and mistrust whenever
antagonism,hostility,

groups

are

understood
them.

the Jew, the handworker, meet

class-interests.
closeness

But

question.

are

And

of any

class to be true

for

upon

it makes

of relations between

antagonisms
member

the

concerned, whenever

peasant, the noble,

ground of antagonistic
possible a curious

the

individuals

wherever

class-

longer time out of the

in spiteof all antagonisms and hostilities,
a
of any other
the members
wants
class-group
and

shorter

or

of their classperfect representatives

to incorporate
spirit,
fullyall the traditional
the
those which
class,includingeven
are

attitudes of the
basis

of class-

INTRODUCTION

139

antagonisms. Thus,

the peasant

lord in the full

of the word, proud but

sense

the noble

wants

unconcerned
just,livingluxuriously,

about

be

to

humane

and

but

money,

good farmer; not easilycheated or robbed by his servants

even
or
by his peasant neighbors,but consciouslygenerous,
in a word, to have
etc.
those
conservative, religious,
features which, while puttinghim at an inaccessible distance
him familiar and possibleto
above the peasant, stillmake
"

understand.

do

On

the contrary, the members

not

understand

at

all the

new

of the old

class-groups

There

men.

is

no

class-

there is a
cases
antagonism; on the contrary, in many
of interests which may
be even
acknowledged. In
solidarity
of the
spiteof this,individual relations between members
old and the new
hierarchycan hardly ever be very close,

except, of

course,

stillkeeps

some

in

so

far

attitudes

as

member

of

of the old one,

social class

new
or

member

of

modernized.
is it
Nor
class-group becomes
of different occupations. A professional
merely a matter
who buys an estate, a cityworker who buys a peasant farm,
can
hardly ever become quite intimate with any of the old
for example,
inhabitants.
All this manifests itselfcuriously,
some

old

regard to the Jews. The_Jewish boycott of the two

extended
only with great difficulty
years precedingthe war
localities the
in many
to the country populajjon^-Jbecause
the old-type noble, understood
even
peasant, sometimes
of the
better,and felt himself nearer
to, the Jewish merchant
honest
old type than to the more
and enlightenedPolish
(/
merchant
of the new
classl But let a rich,instructed,even
with

j-

middle
the new
to
christened,
Jew, belonging essentially
fr
class,buy an estate and he will feel incomparably more
isolated from the Polish nobilityand the Polish peasant
\
than

some

town.

littleold

crass

Jewish merchant

from

the

boring
neigh-

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

140

shall

We

in

see

manifestations
national

of

later volumes

our

class-evolution

the

to

which

communal

and

ENVIRONMENT

the only organizedsocial group

family is practically
the peasant primarilybelongsas an active member.

Outside
two

in

important

life.

SOCIAL

The

and

many

family his

of the

distinct and

organizationin

social milieu

can

be divided

into

and social
(i)a political
does not play an active role and
and (2) a community
a member;

dissociated parts:
which

of which

he does not

of which

he is

an

he
feel

active member,

but

which

is constituted

of groups
whose internal unity is due
by a certain number
merely to actual social intercourse and to an identityof
This

attitudes.

originalpeasant
constitution
becomes
evolution

an

of

dissociation is

social life; its

organized

active member,

of social lifewhich

essential feature

an

of the

progressiveremoval,
of

groups

is the main

which

the

the

peasant

characteristic of the

shall

study in a later volume.

The
i.
complete lack of political
rightsuntil the end
of the eighteenthcentury made
the peasant only an object,
of political
not a subject,
activity. In the process of gradual
liberation he has acquired some
political
rights communal
self-government,participationin elections. But at the
beginning he was unprepared to use them and was always
since he has begun to participate
governed as before,and even
we

"

life
activelyin political

Galicia,has been limited

as

for the other

Polish

up

this

to the

participation,
except

hi

present, for the peasant

classes,by the political

oppression

equivalentof
societydeveloped some
shall see later,but
as we
an
independentstate-organization,
Poland is the peasant a fullyactive element
only in German
while in Russian Poland he is only on
of this organization,
the way to it. And since in Russian Poland political
rights
of the country.

The

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

142

known
the

the situation;when

oppressivemeasures

benefactors.
and

The

the mystery

or

they

with

themselves

show

unlimited

its leaders

which

peasant'simaginationmake him
absurd
hopes or give way sometimes
as

For

God.
a

unknown

Therefore

motives
in the state

surrounded

are

to

the

state

in

absurd

most

besides

an

plans,exactlyas
viewed

as

the

accessible to such motives

are

and

to

peasant's

cherish often the most

the peasant understands, they have

sphere of
is

if the leaders

even

the

ascribed

power

the

fears.

it,they will change

know

combination
self-contradictory

of

unlimited
it is with

by

the peasant there

an

impersonal regularity,

incorporatedin the habitual functions,and of almost

whimsical
change. Being a superhuman order, it is at the
time a source
of unlimited possibilities.
same
All this explainsthe traditional loyaltyof the peasant
and makes

us

understand

loyaltydisappears. The
a

at

the

same

time in what

first step is usuallyconnected

change of the habitual valuations.

The

as
placed higher and higher,until finally,

Poland,

the

ways

is conceived

source

this
with

of evil is

often in Russian

being practically
parallel
unlimited
The
with, and similar to, Satan.
possibilities
included in the state become
of
fundamentally possibilities
as
a
evil; the good comes
only incidentally,
consequence
of an imperfectrealization of the evil,due to the fact that
the

lower

tsar

in
personalities
Their

human.

human

it is stillweakness, but

as

the

character
weakness

to
the motives
of
accessibility
accepting bribes),and sometimes

Then

comes

the second

step
"

state-hierarchyare more
acquiresa positivevalue;
from
in evil,resulting
an
ordinary interest (as in
to good feelings.
even

the

development

of

half-

mysticalfaith that this empire of evil can be broken and a

and perfectorganizationestablished in its place,not
new
indeed with the ordinary human
forces alone, but with the
supernaturalhelp of God or by the half-supernatural
powers

INTRODUCTION

etc.
people,"of "the proletariat,"
typicalpsychologicalpath of revolution in the

states, of "the

of other

is the

This

143

lower classes.
other

The

is that

way

of

progressivegrowth

of the

positiveor negativepart in the state

tion
participapeasant's
in state-activities and
organized struggle with the
government within legallimits. A real understanding of
sufficient for practical
solves
disthe state-organization,
purposes,
time the
the mystical attitudes,while at the same
development of a national consciousness makes loyaltyto
This evolution
an
oppressivestate appear as national treason.
Poland
and is nearlycompleted
has begun in Russian
"

Poland.

in German
Besides
of which

organizedsocial

other

the state, the two

the peasant is a member

are

the

groups

and

commune

the

passivefor a long time. Although

of self-government,
is based upon the principle
the commune
its freedom
is often limited by administrative
measures
of the state, and in the beginning the peasant was
hardly

parish.

In both

able

use

to

commune

his
in

was

the formal

he

was

side of

administration,and

this situation lasts up

also in

extent

the peasants

they give.
priests,
many
of the

of the idea

to the

present.

not
all-powerful,

priestwas

form, and

can

up

hardly get

It is not

so

only
to the
an

much

in

in many

communes

parish,the

As to the

fact, but

to

of the money

dishonestyon

the

great

parishes

present in many

account

knew

which

part of the

as the expresreallydisinterested,
sion
of patriarchal
principle
government, the influence
that any control would be harmful to the priest's

of whom

are

strugglefor active participationin the

is one of the important
the parishorganization
actual evolution of the peasant'ssocial life,

authority. The
commune

The

within
these limits.
libertyeven
fact governed by the secretary,who

and

pointsin the
in
particularly

Russian

Poland.

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

144

passivitycharacterized the peasant's

life. Well adapted to the old conditions
part in economic
he stood powerless,ignorant
of the local farming economy,
Finally,the

same

isolated hi face of the great economic

and

the external

Jewish

world, and

In this line his

2.

social

The

the

present evolution is most

important in

of

in face of the small and informal

even

organizationsof

economic

phenomena

neighboring town.
rapidand is particularly

its psychological
consequences.
environment

to

which

the

is

peasant

primarilyadapted, within which he is active and lives his

is the partlycoincident primary groups
the
everyday life,
These
here
are
village,the parish, and the commune.
units, but as
as
treated, not
organized administrative
collectivities,
loosely unified by personal interrelations
their members, by a certain identity
of interests which
among
"

does

not

as

rule

give

birth

to

periodicalmeetings, through which

solidarity
developedfor a short time

common

the
in

activities,
by
particularkind of
mob

is perpetuated

must
we
psychologicaldeposit. To this environment
add the neighboringtown, a part of whose inhabitants the
and the
mainly through business relations,
peasant knows
inhabitants he
whose
neighboringparishesand communes,
as

fairs

parish festivals. The

corresponding to this undetermined
environment, with which the individual or the family has
close or remote, but always immediate, relations,
is okolica,
occasionallymeets
Polish popular term

"the
social

at

country around," both

In

sense.

latter

the

and

in the
sense

in the

topographicand
we

shall

the

use

term

"community."
Of

course

facilities of

the circle of the

communication

intercourse,but
us

to

social

determine

there

is

community widens
and
the frequency

always

the individual

of

criterion which

its farthest limits: It reaches

opinion about

with

or

the

as

the

social

enables

far

as

the

family reaches.

INTRODUCTION

opinion is the common

together,besides
unify various parts

Social

which

145

factor which
and

above

all the

holds

the

munity
com-

particularities

of the

community, individuals,
or
with each other,and it is the only indispensable
Occasionallythere may arise a local interest

smaller groups
factor.
which

provokes some
usuallyof an economic

more

common,

or

less organized,
action,

this

But

facultyof common
that the old community has alreadyrisen to a
action shows
of the marked
level,and is again one
new
points of the
nature.

present social evolution

subsisted

of

the

peasant.

The

peasant

for centuries

independent of common
action and lacked any organization,
even
a transitory
one.
in which social opinionholds the community
The manner
togetheris easilyanalyzed. Any extraordinaryoccurrence
community

becomes

for

the members
this is

certain

of the

that

he

each

shares

the

attitude is shared
the

three

by the rest
originalelements

focus

the

community,

developed,and

conscious

time

of attention1 of all

identical attitude toward

an

member

of the

general attitude
of the community.
of

or

mechanism

the

is

community
that
These

his
are

social

of

phenomenon, the identityof attitude,and the

consciousness of this identity.
First of all,the social unity of the community depends
which
social opinion has the
the frequency with
upon
is inversely proitself. This
opportunity to manifest
portional

opinion:

the

directlyproportional
of relatively
number
important phenomena occurring
ciently
In the community the number
of phenomena suffiimportant to occupy the social opinionis,of course,
to the size of the group

to the

in it.

much

more

parish more
group

limited
limited

the number

than

in the

than

in the

increases with

of interests of the members.

and

parish or commune,
village. But in

any

the increase of the

When,

association
an
village
agricultural

in the

has

for

given
sphere

example, in

bought

a new

some

machine,

146
or

milk association has had

of milk, the whole

The

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

exceptionally
largeamount

an

learns of it and

community

talks about

it.

interests has the

political
same
munity
as
effect,
phenomena occurringwithin the commany
assume
a new
importance from those pointsof view.
Finally,a very important factor is added by the press.
first only
Through it phenomena from the external world

awakening

of national

and

"

those which
interests

have

or

which

arouse

brought into the focus

less identical
or
about, more
regard to them, etc.
with

the

the
particularly

of the

the

community,

purely intellectual interest

talked
of social opinion,are

are

But

relation with

some

the members

prevailingamong

then also those

have

to

seem

introduction

"

attitudes

of these

external ones, social

that it

developed with

are

new

phenomena,

opinionloses a character
primitiveconditions

possessedeminently hi more
its reliability.
In a primary group, with steadycomponents,
with a form
of life relatively
simple and changing very
its members,
between
slowly, with a close connection
mistakes in the perceptionor interpretation
of an interesting
vated
fact are relatively
rare, and gossipis usuallyas well moti"

it

as

the

can

sphere of

be.

The

his normal

peasant is

keen

observer

within

environment, for good observation

practicalsuccess, and he knows his

environment
well enough to interpret
exactlythe observed
data.
So those who start a pieceof gossipare usuallysure

is there

condition

of their fact, and

of

those

who

hear

it know

enough

to

be

able.
probableand the improbAnd deliberately
false gossipincurs a strong censure
and criticism are
of social opinion. Of course
interpretation
the standpointof tradition,and nothing can
exerted from
false traditional beliefs;
resultingfrom
prevent errors
of magic are
classical example. From
accusations
our
a
of the peasant's
point of view, therefore,many expressions
between
to distinguish
critical,

the

INTRODUCTION

147

opinionare partlyfalse.

But

they prove true as soon

the tradition of the peasant community is taken into
as
account; for example, in normal conditions only those are
accused of magic who
reallytry to exert it. The error lies
of he1iWsr not
in the interpretation
of
in the whole system
fact from the standpointof this system.
a particular
social

when

But

kind

appears

of

phenomenon

in

focus

the

and

new

hitherto unknown

social attention, the

of

Observation

old-,

becomes

incomplete,
is
the fact distorted by old mental
habits; interpretation
there is
and real criticism impossible,because
hazardous
no
ready criterion of the probable and improbable. And
fact occurs, and the gossip originates
if such a new
particularly
outside of the community, the disorientation of
circulate
social opinion is complete. Aiiy absurdity may
this is due, not only
and be generally
accepted^ Of course
and
of tracingthe gossipto its source
to the impossibility
but also to the generalmental
of verification,
the difficulty
mechanismjtailsat

attitude

of the

conditions,faces

once.

peasant who,
the world

as

outside

once

unlimited

an

of his normal

sphere of

culable
incal-

possibilities.2
We have spoken of an identityof attitudes,
developedby
of a community with regard to the socially
the members
interesting
phenomenon. In fact,this identityifla. npresf nnrial opinionnnrl it brrom^s
more
pprfprt
social opinion is

when

whichj:hisexerts

the

individual.

Thus, during the emigrationto

communities
with

on

formed, in view

once

the

mist, and

legend was

Parand

in 1910-12,

circulated that Parand

of its existence.

nobody knew

Were

But

up

of the pressure

in many
to

for this

it not

eastern

that time

was

the Virgin Mary,

isolated
covered

seeing the

and settle. Or
the mist and told them to come
misery of Polish peasants, dispelled
the earth came
of
and
When
the mist was
a variant:
raised,all the kings
emperors
togetherand drew lots to decide who should take the new land. Three times they

drew, and
Mary,
2

gave

always the Pope

won.

Then

the Pope, at the

of
instigation

the land to the Polish peasants.

See ReligiousAttitudes and

Theoretic and

Esthetic Interests.

the

Virgin

148

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

appreciationcould hardly be
attained as often as it is,in view of the frequentdivergence
of individual and familial interests in a given case.
The
main factor in establishing
this uniformityand in enforcing
it in spite of individual disagreement is tradition.
The
attitude to be taken with regard to any phenomenon of a
and an individual
definite class is predeterminedby tradition,
unanimity

pressure,

who

took

tradition

of social

different attitude

and

in this character

would
would

be

rebel

himself

against

become

sociallyinterestingphenomenon, an object instead of a

subject of social opinion, and in fact an object of the
unfavorable
criticism. But there comes
most
eventuallya
time
and at the same
progressivedissolution of tradition,
an

increase in the number

included
are

in

in any

of

of traditional

quitenew or because
the community throw

the
a

phenomena which cannot be

either because they
categories,

new
new

interests which

lightupon

have

arisen

old classes of

phenomena. And the result is a dissociation of attitudes

within the community, a formation of oppositecamps,
more
less durable,sometimes
or
even
a struggle,
usuallyleading
crude beginningsof organization. If the divergent
to some
attitudes

if they remain divergent

steadydirections,
with regard to many
new
phenomena and thus point back
within
the
to certain profound social changes going on
community, the latter may splitinto two or more
parties,
which may
in turn joinsome
largerorganizations.But all
this does not mean
As
that the community is dissolved.
social interest,it is
long as the same
phenomena arouse
a proof that behind
a
diversityof, or even
oppositionin,
details there is^anidentityof generalattitudes,and it is
with
regard to this identity that the community still
remains one
only its unity is weakened, because the
group;
stock of common
traditions is poorer
and the unanimity
incomplete. A complete division of the community would
assume

PRIMARY-GROUP

150

permits the
toward

ORGANIZATION

communication

of the event

and

of the attitude

influence as
printed word has the same
the expressedopinion of the group, because it is implicitly
assumed
to be the expressionof social opinion. There
are
certainlyessential differences between the meeting and the

it,and

with

paper

the

regard to

the mechanism

by

is elaborated; the relation between

and

through the

into relation with

enters

study in
if

of the Polish

function

the

the fourth volume,

take

we

mediate

the individual

paper

it in connection

well

as

as

the

second,

the

world.

which

paper,

opinion
and

in the

the external

popular
can

social

the individual

in the first case,

is immediate

group

which

we

munity
com-

But
shall

be

clearlyunderstood only
the social opinion of the

with

community.
The

nature

individual
of all,it
rather
from
the

of the influence
is its

who
seems

cause

of it;

no

This would

of

the focus
even

of

if this

complicated. First
peasant in generalit is
public attention,apart

cause

value

personal

is indifferent from

element

in

it.

The

if

and

tional
recognizethe tradiexcitement
of departure to
of
contains certainlysome

displayof grief,even

vehement

the

public attention
admiration, it stillbringsa pleasantexcitement.
explainto a great extent, for example, the usual

standpoint

involves

be

opinion upon

rather

that for the Polish

pleasant to
the

object is

of social

we

militaryservice or to America
with
of return
this pleasure; still more
the excitement
But
certainly this
anticipationof public admiration.
pleasure never
goes so far as to neutralize the feelingof
it
shame
at being the object of intense public blame, as
city criminals. On the contrary, the
negativeinfluence of publicblame in criminal matters
goes
of the
far that suspicionof crime, just or unjust,is one
so
of suicide. Another
most
intenselyfelt
important causes
sometimes

does

in

publicdisgraceis that

which

follows ruin and

the declassing

INTRODUCTION

which
to

151

accompanies it. Not less intense is the shame

girl by the discovery of her misconduct.

this misconduct

consists,not

in actual

sexual

brought
But

if

intercourse

if followed by the birth of a child),

but in a
(particularly
flirtation with many
far-going
boys, the distress of incurring
publicblame is neutralized by the pleasureof having much
with the boys. Finally,
there is one matter
in which
success
dislikes publicityin whatever
the peasant universally
form;
it is_the matter
of conjugal relations.
But, generally
powerful
speaking,the desire of showing off is a much more
factor in the peasant'sbehavior
than the fear of shame.
People who, by risingabove, or fallingbelow, the normal
level of the community, have learned to disregardpublic
still show
blame
themselves
susceptibleto public
very
The
appreciation./
peasant'svanity does not require for
its satisfaction explicit
publicpraise; the generalpleasure
of attractingattention is adequate. It may
even
adjust
itself to a moderate
of blame, for which the peasant
amount
has a ready explanation: they calumniate
because
they
And
In a
certainlythis explanationis often true.
envy.
less to be the
or
community where everybody wants more
object of general attention anybody who succeeds in this
aim becomes
in so far an objectof envy.
add that
We may
of notorietyis probably much
stronger than envy of
envy
economic
in any line is appreciated
and success
well-being,
for the publicadmiration
which it attracts
at least as much
'

as

for itself.

this actual

Behind

opinion

there

unconscious
belief in

an

machinery

of the

action

public
profound,

some
perhaps still remain
in
vestigesof forgotten motives,consisting
immediate, useful or harmful influence of

may

appreciation expressed in words.

But

which

of this

would

of

clearlyrequirethe

use

we

have

no

the
the

data

tion.
magical explana-

PRIMARY-GROUP

152

The
is

ORGANIZATION

influence of social

only

side of the

one

opinionupon

question; we

consideration

its effects upon

community.

Here

singleindividual

must

smaller

problem

the

the

is more

also take

into

within

the

group

complicated.

is the internal and what we

call
starting-point
may
social group, in the face of
of every
external solidarity
The internal solidarity
opinionof its social environment.

The
the
the

consists in the fact that

every

member

feels affected

by

opinion expressed about his group, and the group is

affected by the opinion expressed about
of its
one
any
external solidarity that is,the solidarity
The
members.
the

"

enforced

from

without

"

is manifested

in the

tendency

of

the opinionabout an individual

community to generalize
social group of which this
by applyingit to the narrower
individual is a member, and to particularize
the opinion
about a social group by applying it to every member
of this
every

group.

It is
blame
is

quite natural that in all matters

the external solidarity
imposed by

usually the

group

condition

itself. The

the group

of the

opinion of

for
responsible

internal

involvingsocial
the environment

solidarityof

the environment

its members

even

the

often makes

if there is feeble

unity in this group, and practicallyobligesit to become

ment
solidary,either by reactingtogetheragainst the environor
by enforcing upon every member
compliance with
the environment's
demand.
Thus, when in a villagesome
people begin to develop a certain vice, the rest of the
inhabitants cannot
throw
the guilty
the responsibility
upon
members
alone,for the opinionof the community will always
accuse

have

the whole
either

to

group

interfere with

accept the judgment and

course

is sometimes

vice becomes

without

make

taken, and

discrimination.
the

So

guilty members

the best of it.

the result may

generalin the village. There

they
or

The

latter

be that

are, for

to

the

example,

INTRODUCTION

for

villagesnotorious

153

theft, drinking,card-playing,etc.
in such

Besides imitation,there has been

also

cases

passive

and acceptance of the vox populi,after a vain

resignation
and a subsequent adaptation to the bad opinion.
struggle,
to deal with
such cases.
The priestsknow
very well how
When
a vice is only beginning to develop in a village,
they
proclaimit publiclyfrom the chancel and brand the whole

village,without

discrimination.

In

this way

they get

collaboration of the greater part of the inhabitants

if

in their

villagehas long been

notorious for some
vice,the priestproclaimspubliclythe
of
improvement in order to show the possibility
slightest
changing the bad name.
The
unorganized social group usuallylacks, of course,
struggleagainst the

the

efficient

most

shame

vice.

the

arms

But

it,namely, exclusion.

upon

members

against the

In

some

who
cases

bring
this is

less successfully,
but then the group
or
attempted, more
organizesitself temporarilyin view of this particularend.
with
It is possiblefor the individual to disclaim solidarity
ill-famed unorganized group
an
by leaving it, but this
again does not happen frequently,because the individual,
feels less strongly the
supported by his narrower
group,

community. This process of enforcing

is
the group
solidarityupon
by the social environment
frequentlyrepeated,on a largerscale,when a community
of the wider

blame

is blamed

in

members.

We

the

for the

newspapers

find it,also,in

acts

of

some

of its

different form,

somewhat

the
isolated community
on
intellectually
national
solidarityis
ethnographical limits of Poland
for example,in German
awakened
by the blame of foreigners,

when

in

some

Poland.
The

contrary process, when

in the eyes

of the

claims to this

the group

acquiressolidarity

larger community by enforcing its

is,of
solidarity,

course,

found

only in

own

matters

PRIMARY-GROUP

154

ORGANIZATION

involving social praise; the group

of the social prominence
account
individual wants
as member
recognition
This

group.

is the

well-known

local,national,
pride.
which

have

We

is possible
also in

an

recognitionon*

wants

its

of

of

members,

the

social prominent

mechanism

of

this
distinguish
organizedgroup but
to

familial,
ism,
mechandoes

not

from the other,by which the organized

requireorganization,
demands
of its social function,
account
on
recognition
group
shall meet
this problem later on.
as
a whole; we
How

does

of social

the individual
As

opinion?

we

free himself
have

from

the influence
the Polish

already noted,

easilyof the dread of social blame

than of the attraction of social praise. But, making allowance
for this difference,
find that there is already in the
we
of
ofinderjendence
psychology agerm
prjmitive_rjeasant
social opinion which, un4eii_favorable circumstances, can
develop. We have seen that originally
conjugallife
least in part, out of the reach of publicintrusion.
There is,
in general,a tendency,particularly
to resent
men,
among
of the community into family"matters ; this
intrusions^
with the~gf6Wittg
tendency increases usually
Importance of
the man
within the family-group and reaches its highest
peasant rids himself

more

stage in old heads

of the

family before their resignation.

Besides
this, the peasant frequentlylikes to keep secret
all those personalmatters
which would not attract
a particularly
favorable attention of the community.
And
the same
is often done under the influence of his desire for publicity;
he likes

his effects in order to

carefully
unexpected and as strikingas possible. This
great effects makes him often disregardor even

make

social blame

in order

make

the

for

contrast

some

tune

and

to

stronger; he may

praise if it comes
spoilshis effect. In

social
and

to prepare

before
this way

extent

some

aiming

at

encourage
to

be dissatisfied with

even

his

them

own

chosen

his ambition

moment

itselfteaches

INTRODUCTION

him

extent
disregardto some
public opinion and helps
a
particularpleasure in the contrast between his

to

find

to

economic, moral, intellectual value and the

own

appreciationof

social

is the idea that

value and
These

day

astonish

Back

of this all the while

will

when

he will show

come

community.
features make
psychological
of

member

his real

when

usuallycomes

some

whose

group

easier the real process

the peasant becomes

opinion differs more

or

less

that of the

from
group

and

above

the

community. Sharing the views of this new

or less backed
feelingmore
by it,he learns to rise

cityor

to

recent

is formed

once

But

it goes

traditional

in

easier.

community,

In

those

fact, all the

tion.
taking this direc"enlightened" peasants
are

the further

social workers

The

also among

on

group.

small circle of

This

leaving the community, going

changes of the peasants'views

When

much

the

traditions.

disregardthe

to

his

by

America.

stay within

who

and

community

is facilitated

process
to

opinion.

the

which
of liberation,
a

erroneous

movement

in the

becomes

country

stand
under-

this
influence

necessityof opposing a group to the groupand always try to organizea "progressivecircle,"

the smallest

even

one.

When

suffices for the individual

printwith
feel strong

some

group

enough

popular papers
of the adherents

to

have
of

some

one

another

and

of their bearers.

readingis developed,it often

to communicate

by letters or by
outside of his community in order to
the prevailing
opinion. Some
oppose
therefore organized loose associations
movement,

who

communicate

with

of
in the cases
through the paper.
But, even
almost perfectliberation from the pressure of the immediate
an
environment, there is a latent hope that some
day
the community will acknowledge the value of the new
ideas

At

present

the peasant

is

of
unorganized social environment
itself undergoing a profound evolution,in
the

156

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

connection

with

modification

-publicopinion,are

changing

individual

the

traditional

the

class-

the interests
constitution,the criteria,

hierarchy./The
of

of

influence

the

to

rapidly,and

very

the

this

of

tion
reac-

changing

either weakened
environment, without being necessarily
in connection
strengthened, is changing qualitatively,
the formation

of

of

or

with

social classes./

new

LIFE1

ECONOMIC

Polish

the

Among

stages of economic
mental

attitudes

in which

values

are

yet subordinated

dominant

to

with

three

coexisting
accompanying

their

of the old

stillto

familyeconomy,
largeextent qualitative,
of quantity,and the

the idea

is the interest in

attitude

gettinga good living,

the tendency to get rich; (2) the spontaneouslydeveloped
marked
cation
by a quantifistage of individual economy,

not

of economic
make

values

fortune

to

or

and

which

economic

moral

point of

values and
view.

form

in concrete

lower

stage may

groups

economic, while the

to
1

it

are

In addition

by

of the Kingdom

Materyaly

have

wloscianina.

are

seldom

subordinated

are

of

to

the

realized in their pure

attitudes

individuals;some

of

Or the familial attitude may

at
to

been

the request of the Central

the Russian
used

Minister

on

season-emigration

AgriculturalAssociation

of Agriculture,some

data

in writing this chapter: Wladyslaw

Franciszek
sprawie wioscianskiej;

important monograph

influences,in

external

first-hand materials,including a report

of Poland

the followingworks

attitudes

operation,
co-

higher level. It happens that

develops under influences other than
economic
attitudes logically
ing
correspond-

of the authors

one

it; (3) the stage of

under

yet realized.

not
to

or

persiston

social individualism

corresponding tendency

be sure, these types

To

increase

developingmainly

made

find

we

development
(i)the survival

economic

not

to

peasants

and
village),

Bujak, Zmiqca

Limanowa;

from

Grabski,

(a particularly

Jan Slomka,

Pamietniki

158

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

of his land, and

owner

property plays up
there has

to

ideas since the abolition of

is shown

by

about

Russian

Poland, has
therefore

forms, and

questionswithout
is

matter

innumerable, often

the

The

scene.

with

modern

also

legal

the traditional social

the peasants either try to settle land

usingthe legalscheme

brought before the

once

absurd,

mainly Galicia, but

been- the

incommensurable

categoriesare

legal side of

land, of which

lawsuits

the

secondary role,although
a
far-goingadaptation to legal
serfdom.
The
of this
difficulty

the present

necessarilybeen

adaptation

therefore

that

all,or, when

at

court

or

the

only before

even

reconcile their old concepts with

they cannot
ones
imposed by the law, and a situation which
be simple if viewed
exclusivelyfrom the traditional
mined
complicated and undeterlegalstandpointbecomes

the notary,
the

new

would
or

the

when

be

to

mixed.

standpointsare

the influence of serfdom

But
not

the two

overestimated.

It

land

upon

to

seems

property ought

have

been

rather

negativethan positive;it hindered the development of the

legalside of property, but hardly developed any particular
features.

Indeed, the main

land property

perhaps they

are

are.

found

among

the

of the peasant

higher classes,although

distinct in the peasant class.

more

system of serfdom

has

forms

life whose

of economic

characteristics

simply adapted

itself to

ultimate

The

pre-existing

originis

lost in the

past.
Land

familial ; the individual is its

property is essentially

temporary
essential

Who

manager.

provided he

manages

does it well ; it may

oldest son, the youngest

son,

to

of the

establish separate households, but

not

be the father,the

the son-in-law.

that it is usual for all the members

and

it is therefore

We

have

family to
if

seen

marry

member

of

family is unlikelyto marry

(beinga cripple,sick,or
otherwise abnormal), or if,exceptionally,
member
does
a
the

INTRODUCTION

wish

he

159

live with

his brother

sister,
working as much as he is able,not working if he is not able,
but in any case gettinghis livingand nothing but his living.
of work entitles him to anything like wages, no
No amount
diminish his rightto be supported on
to work
can
inability
not

to

marry,

grown-up

the

have

the

they

go

own,

because
own

it

"

its natural

from

branches

due

was

to

Of

to

absolutelysevered.

Its existence

localities under

some

farm

badly,

absolutelyto

the

lord

pretedas

if the

economic

share

in the

character

of members

social
The

right to

obligationto

farm

The
do

It

was

the

upon

nearness

be

If

never

well manifested

very

his

serf managed

else,but
a

gave

an

farm;
of the

be

cient
suffi-

any

be inter-

not

association holding a

they

only

share

group,

and

common

no
essentially

family have

supported by

contribute

should

the

social

this result

from

the group

and

their

of the group.

to the existence

basis of this social relation,the

unity of the group in the

of the members
obligations
individual

claims

economic
with
on

of their social relation

world.

regard to it

property, but
to

the

group.

that the
only with the greatest difficulty
accepted that the land left after the death

therefore

idea could

was

the

rightsand
not
depend

upon

only weakened,

of the farm

of the

is the material

expressionof

the connection

give it to someone
possiblerelative who

familywere
members

their social

is

collateral

better management.

The

property.

on,

their

not

could

familial character

This

is

the

extent

serfdom.

the nearest

guaranty of

if,later

earn

course

some

the connection

in

they

was
they gave for this money
the family-farmand diverted

the farm, but

with

they

money

destination.

family lose

of the

the farm, but

for the farm; and

which

the work

from

away

outside,the

work

to

their

not

same

rightto live
obligationto work

They have

or

principleis manifested in the

children livingwith their parents.

The

the familial farm.

attitude toward

can

160

PRIMARY-GROUP

of the head

of the

family should be treated together with

to the heirs
property as belonginghi common

other kinds of
and

be divided

eventuallyto
The

ORGANIZATION

first form

of

providingseparatelyfor

of the

the

family,other than
a payment
certainly

was

the life of the head

them.

among

who

one

in cash

of the

take the farm,

to

was

the members

farm-stock,made

or

during

the member

family

managing
This is not the acknowledgment of their rights
the farm.
to the farm, but simply an
expressionof familial solidarity,
individualistic form is necessitated by modern
a help,whose
With

conditions.

economic

"

the progress

of individualism
find the first sign

principlebegins to yield,and we
sometimes
almost purely nominal

the old
in the

rather

of the

of the head

the death
the

new

to

rightsof the
acknowledges some
such, begin to increase,but they

the

share

when

in

after

seldom
are

rare

the

member
the

cases

divided

all means

And
to

become

never

the

land.

itself is divided

of the

head

to

of the

mortgaging

benefit of other
course,

The

it

we

see

the

usuallymost of them
older generationendeavoring

prevent the division.

nominally

heirs.

above

and

curious

question of its territorial unity.

composed of fragments, sometimes
And

over

the whole

area

Most
over

of

son,

for the

becomes, of
do with

nothing to

has

gem
strata-

to one

its value

legal division then

practically
impossible.
of the farm
indivisibility

disseminated

equal to
Finally

(usuallyonly
family)it is

is,for example, the bequeathing of the farm

and

the land

all the heirs;

among

off."

farm

other heirs

holds

who

death

premature

"paid
by

of

and

alreadythe principal

heir
as

his brothers

to

pay

Then, these shares,by which

sisters.

after

family the principalheir,or

has

manager,

shares which

of the

farms

hundred

of

the
are

them,

villageneighborhood.

changes of territorial arrangement

neighbors
separate fragments between
"

the
or

exchange of
the

modern

INTRODUCTION

of
integration

do

to have

effect
dissolving
the social unity of the farm.
not
Nevertheless,
every
is equally adapted to playing the part of familial

upon
farm

"

farm

property.

not

this

is devoid

farm

new

is

quitenaturallyassociated

often

with

bears its name,

even

associations.

land may

new

generations of the

many

of such

lose,and the

land may

seem

which

upon

family have worked

particularfamily and

same

farms

161

But

while
the

old

the function

assume,

remains
principleof indivisibility
if the object to which it is appliedis not the
in force even
This explainshow
the idea of familial
before.
same
as
property has been kept up in spite of colonization and
emigrationfrom provinceto province,and is stillexertingits
the

of familial property;

influence
The
value
a

even

among

land

being

Polish colonists in Brazil.

thus

the material

"

whole

the Russian

the

of the existence of

government

colonized

representedby the land; the

the unique familial group.
express
:

communism

of familial property would

communism

standpointof
Land

the
an

of

individual

should

never

or

only

who

had
that

of the social

essence

cease

comparison

of land from
mean

Polish

it is evident

objectsof personaluse

to

may

point
the stand-

something

more

or

from

the

member

of

property.

be mortgaged, except

family. Mortgaging
institution

the

latter would

value

be deduced

can

factory workmen,

were

forgotten the peasant attitude. And

communism
would
destroy the very

less like

as

prevailing
principle

peasants, almost

there

illustrate this attitude

group

ing
Siberia,constitut-

the communistic

Russian

colonists attracted

is acceptable to the Polish peasant.

accordingto
villages
among

economic

an

fact.

No land communism
When

than

of land property

other characters

"

social rather

condition

this fundamental

from

to

government,

stranger, and
not

to

to
particularly

only involves

the danger

62

of

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

losingthe land, but

it

destroys the qualityof property.

Mortgaged land is no

longerowned by the nominal proprietor.

"The
land is not ours, it belongs to the bank," says
the peasant who has bought a farm with the help of a bank.
This attitude leads to a particularly
irrational behavior in
of loans.

matters

lends money
is

paid

payment

back

land

on

in from

with

conditions

The

the interest

knows

this very

on

which

the state

favorable.
particularly
forty to sixtyyears, and

any

average

per

cent

well,but, in spiteof it,as

he tries first of all to pay

the

to 3 per

investment.
soon

the mortgage.

debt

yearly

cent

The
as

bank

The

are

interest is from

than

on

less

peasant

he has any
A

private
if the interest is higher and no
even
mortgage is preferred,
partialpayments possible. The peasant prefersabove all
at high interest and for a short term.
a personaldebt, even
And this again results from the social character of the land ;
a
mortgaged property becomes
purely economic
category
and loses its whole symbolicalvalue.
The situation is here
analogous to that which we find in every profanation;the
profaned object passes into a different class and loses its
exceptionalcharacter of sanctity.
Finally,land property is evidentlythe main condition
of- the social standing of the family. Without
land, the
but it cannot
act
family can stillkeep its internal solidarity,
it ceases
as a unit with regard to the rest of the community;
Its members
become
to count
as
a social power.
socially
and
often
economically dependent upon
strangers, and
to
about the country or abroad; the family ceases
scatter
its young
play any part in the affairs of the commune,
in matters
of
generationcan hardly be taken into account
marriage,it cannot
give large ceremonial receptions,etc.
The greater the amount
of land, the greater the possibility
of social expression. Of course
all this graduallychanges on
the higherlevels of economic
development.
money

INTRODUCTION

has

Land

also

163

exceptionalvalue

an

from

other

pointsof
magical rites

object of work, as an object of

and later as a basis of national cohesion.
and religious
beliefs,
But all these questionswill be considered in other contexts.
The second class of property
ity
activproducts of human
but only a partial,
shows a partial,
independenceof the
familial idea.
These products are not destined for the use
of the familyas a whole, and in this sense
they are individual,
Members
but not personal,property.
of the family own
in particularthis ownership
them, but for every member
view

as

"

an

"

"

is,so
farm-

The head of the familyowns

speak,accidental.
stock,can sellit or give it,but only as long as he

to

of the farm.

manager

hold the

who

House

furniture

the
is the

is owned

house, but again only as long as

by those
they hold it.

valuable

Even

home-made,
piecesof clothing,particularly
often passing from
generation to generation,are owned
really,but only temporarily. Things bought or made by
the individual
function
the

himself

of this class

function

of land

exceptionto this rule. The

of property is preciselyto complete
property in assuring the material
are

no

requiresindividual
of the family to
ownership,and the rightof every member
own
depends upon this fundamental
something individually
aim and is determined
by the positionwhich he occupiesin
the group.
The
head
of the family owns
the farm-stock

existence

of the

group,

wherever

this

because

this is necessary

for his management

and

and

the

he

his wife

goods; they have

of the group.
the

are

To

no

what

member

who

stays

which

marry

distributed

which

and establish
are

they give

home

clothes;

"

necessary,

but also to fulfilthe function

at

member

as

he needs to live

other function in the group

those who

he needs

farm,

of these

general distributors

giveeveryone

only individual property

he has
To

to

are

of the

except being a member.

new

not

the

household

only to

goods

live personally,

of householders

"

besides

64

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

clothes,some

house

and

furniture,some

bed

and

farming implements. And

family should be ready to give to
which
the

the other needs and which

particularpositionof

unmarried
without

any

married

who

member

household

are

inherited in the proper

is

regulatedby

the

same

to

his needs, as

far

as

in the

of

the

other member

can

into

things
himself,taking

spare

Thus,

account.

an

the

opportunity to get from

farm goods should give them
to a
Dividing the inheritance means

marrying one.
primitivelyonly dividingthis
or

he

both

has
or

member

every
any

farm-stock

class of goods, for

sense

no

others

of the word, and the division

principle:to

result from

those needs

his function

personal desires. And

under no pretext should any goods of this class,as long as
they have any value, be given away to strangers, or sold
as
long as anybody in the family needs them.
kind of property which
has
new
Money is a relatively
adapted itself to the pre-existing
organizationand whose
economic
life penetrates
importance grows as the modern
the peasant community ahd makes
that pre-existing
zation
organifamily-group,not

insufficient.

For

from

according

everyone

the peasant, money

not the character

originally
and
provisionalsubstitute

He

does not

at first even

his

of

but
capital,

for

think

he

simplykeeps it at home.
mediaeval
principleof no

other
of

property has
of

kinds

making

an

of

immediate

property.

produce;
the
And ifhe lends it privately,
interest prevails,
at most, as
or
money

products is taken
for the service. Even
interest on privateloans from
now
into the
Putting money
peasant to peasant is very low.
bank comes
stilllater,
and, last of all,usingit on enterprises.
Being a provisionalsubstitute for other kinds of property,
tion.
is individualized accordingto its source
and destinamoney
A sum
received from selling
is qualitatively
a
cow
we

shall

see

later,a reward

different from

sum

in money

received

as

or

dowry,

and

both

are

dif-

66

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

determined

prefersto

borrow

rather than

needs

that

very

stage of evolution

since the economic

social

of the

property which

temporarily,
difficult conditions,

sum.

of
exclusivelythe measure
family or the individual.

view

little money

under

it,even

touch

this

At

and

end,

property,
economic

the

income,

not

situation

is

of the

be so,
evidentlyit must
situation is socially
important only in
standing which it gives and since it is
And

the

expresses

social side of economic

life.

valued
largerbut badly managed farm is therefore more
if their real
than a well-managed but smaller one, even
economic
values are inversely
proportional. And there is a
toward
curiouslymixed attitude of envy and commiseration
town
employees who have an income much
people or manor
largerthan the peasant, but no property.
itself which we use here is origiThe concept of income
nally
strange to the peasant. We can apply this category to
the yearlyproductsof the farm, but we must
remember
that
the peasant does not apply it. The products of the farm
A

destined

be sold and not

evaluated

quantitatively.
Their destination is simply to give a livingto the familyand
to keep farming going on
And the original
nothing more.
wheat
and
system of farming (one-third whiter crops, i.e.,
one-third summer
barley,oats, potatoes,
rye;
crops, i.e.,
low level of agriwith an average
etc.; one- third fallow),
cultura
to sell from
a
practice,
reallydoes not leave much
farm of the average
size of ten to thirtyacres.
Below
ten
acres
a farm
giveshardly enough to feed the family and the
are

not

to

"

stock;

and

sellhis

until the
think

earn

some

money

in the

he must
or

if the peasant cannot

harvest.

new

rather

products.

springeither borrow grainfrom

pig,cow, or even horse in order
of

There

And

to

rich neighbor

get

living

if his situation is

increasinghis
are

outside

stock

also in this

case

than

good, he will
of sellingany

greater claims

to

be

INTRODUCTION

satisfied

servants

members

of the

"

helped, guests
should

which

be

to

family

167

fed, old

parents

collateral

or

be

supported, neighbors to be
be received.
For, unlike the property

to

never

to

outside

pass

of

the

family,the

farm

has to be shared as far as possiblewith

(products)
of the community, guests,wanderers, beggars,
members

income
poor

Its

etc.

is to

essence

support human

the smallest part of it is

waste

sellit is not

sin,almost

sin,but perhaps even

animal

or

here

we

life. To

crime.

may

To

find in the

background of the peasant'spsychology the half-conscious

that it is not

conviction

remains

using what

quitefair.

There

is another

after the satisfaction of the needs

way

of

of the

familyand of the duties toward the community : the income

in products can
be turned into property by increasingthe
farm
farm-stock, improving the buildings,buying new
implements, all of
villageor commune
to it is almost

real

in the

consider,as

have

of the

member

family,to
without

regard
goods

the

to

assume

are

not

attitude
forests

of the

belonging
property

common

word, for the peasant does

materials

raw

simply
or commune
village

source
can

as

from
draw

not

the property of
which

every

materials which

productsin order to support

feed his stock,and to keep up his farm buildings,
gettinginto trouble with the law. Only with
these
relation to other villages
communes
or
the

attitude

the farm

also

toward

an

evolution
the natural

of

property.

In this

during the last period.

products of

the farm

agricultural
progress of the Polish peasant
slow up to twenty or thirtyyears ago.
There were
was
so
sufficient motives
to increase
the productivityof the
no
land.
The standard
of livingsimply adapted itself to the
natural income, and the question of increasingthe farm
explainswhy

the

to

secondary character

line there has been

This

seen,

are

he needs in addition
his

the

of

The

pastures and

They

same.

sense
we

is property.

toward

the

They

anyone.

which

68

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

equipment

hardly important enough

was

studies,harder

complicatedsystem
the slowness
where

case

there

"

could

for

resources

at

allowed

solve the

to

began

the

of the

international

and

change,

to

of income

sources

situations.

new

the development
large cities,

of national

when

"

give a livingto the family

making improvements.

first additional

peasant found
him

strong enough

conditions

general

the

be

sufficient to

not

no

we

And

of the progress.

was

were

When

of farming, etc.

the motive

income

farm

more

tradition into account,

clingingto
at

work,

justifyagricultura
trouble in running a
If we take the passive
shall hardly wonder
preciselyin the only
to

The

the

which
of the

growth

of communication,

means

commerce,

him

gave

the

of sellingsecondary products of his farmingpossibility

industry,which
butter, eggs, vegetables,fruit,etc. Home
had existed from
time immemorial, although it was
never

developed,found

much

very

interest which

sudden
Polish

hired

was

hen

season-work,

also in
and

The

as

had

to

in the

work
finally

supply

same

way

in

natural

obligedthe
this could
which

only

the

higher classes

in the

of

income

neighborhood,
in Germany,

in America.

accounted

not

was

to

such

cover

that money

property suppliedthe

of property.

new

for hi the old economy;

the deficiencies of the old system

of the old system

tojbepaid

first

to

of additional

source

of this income

use

were

at

in the

distant parts of the country and

more

first

expenses

it awakened
the main

society. But

markets, thanks

new

Taxes

increased

it

of

living
deficiency
and

had

in cash, whereas

formerlypaid mainly
they were
The
"procTucts.
multiplicationof the family
of new
land, and
possible,
purchase,whenever

be

done

interest had

to

be

paid

in cash.

the

of the younger

New

needs

arose

generation,needs of
city products, city pleasures,learning; individualization
among

members

usuallyonly by contractingdebts, on

INTRODUCTION

169

and the older generationhad to yield,

sometimes
progressed,
the products of the
after a hard struggle. Finally,when
not sufficient to feed the family,food began to
farm were
This is the latest
be bought instead of being borrowed.

stage of evolution.
But

in this evolution

even

of economic

held

values

earned, had

the

principleof qualification
of money,
ditional
adgood. Every sum
particularend and could be used

partiallyand temporarily. And

nothing else,not even
there was
always a tendency to let as much of it as possible

on

the class of income

pass from
the

largeenough

was

sum

If

latter.

sum

actual

some

to

need

felt

was

explanationof

remains

his characteristic

Traditionallyall
fuel,were
clothing,
land, and

there

on

them.

the money

Even

spend

more

because
is not

in

than

worse

of

more

comes

for the

of

the peasant, which

as

needs

an

immigrant.

of food, shelter,

natural

products of the
aversion
to spending

natural

living. In

products were

localities where

of this kind

expenses

has to be

acquired.

tries to limit his

extraordinaryexpenses,

directlyfrom
use

even

have

sold,

they find

citypleasuresand objectsof luxury,

on

regard to

his

feature

We

products the peasants often live

remote
villages.But they usually

traditional and

than

some

used for

the peasant in America

more

the

for their

money

with

in

to

but for other needs.

We
living,
seemingly paradoxicalsituation that an
in cash usuallymeans
ing
for a time a lower-

of the standard
market

of
stinginess

when

increase

to

misfortune.

is still an

and

was

increase of income

easy

as

addition

necessityof spending it

elementary
satisfied by the

therefore find the

an

aside

the

not

was

the

marked

set

once

here the

money

make

the property, the

particular
way
on

was

into that of property, whenever

sum

the country.
of money

which

And

the

In the

inhibition
same

livingexpenses

way
even

if he
particularly
when
he has a plan

he has earned, nothing

PRIMARY-GROUP

170

ORGANIZATION

except final misery and

compel

can

the

him

to

third kind of income

The

lifeis wages.

But

of earningor borrowing
impossibility
his living.
on
spend this sum
known

here again the

to
Primarilythere seems
equivalent of the work done,
one.

is rather

There
a

living. The

employer, is assimilated
evidentlyinferior to that of

is not
principle
be

no

of

an

of the

economic

an

family. His positionis

employer,because the latter

his

managers

the distributor

property and

employer'sfamily

become

may

idea of

the modern

his

to

income; but it is inferior only

of the

this stage of economic

exchange of values.
the collaborator to
a collaboration,
entitling
servant
or
employee, by co-operatingwith

his

is the manager

at

that

to

in the

of other

fact that

themselves.

There

these
can

of the

members
members

also be other

inferiority.The family of the employer has

usuallya higher social standing than that of the employee.
the employer is a peasant, the positionof an
when
But
of

reasons

employee or farm servant, a parobek, involves

In the case of manor
social inferiority.
servants
of class-distinction enters

and

can

as

such

no

the element

be obviated, and

never

element of
employee's work includes also always some
different from collaboration,
and
personalservice essentially
involvinga real personalinferiority.But in this case also
the

employee

the

degree that

is assimilated

to

the

the relation involves

employer'sfamily to

collaboration.

To

the

be sure,

this assimilation

from collaboration led only to an

resulting
of the family-group with reference to
internal solidarity
of external reactions
not
to a solidarity
and living,
work
latter solidarityis
other
toward
family-groups. The

acquiredonly through
manifestation

The
work

is that the

given in
board

natural

and

long lifein

of this attitude

salaryof

the servant

products. The

determined

common.

or

was

toward

dependent
always originally

singleservant

undetermined

amount

received
of

his

clothing;

INTRODUCTION

the married

in

171

had

lodging,fuel,grain (called
a field for potatoes, the permissionto keep one
ordynaryd),
in short, everything included in the
two
etc.
or
cows,
economic
tion
evolupeasant idea of living. Later on the same
which obligedthe peasant farmer to seek for an additional
income obligedthe employer to pay a littlemoney
to
is considered as only
his employee. But
that this money
be
addition, an equivalentfor products which cannot
an
servant

manors

"

furnished,is shown

amount

servants

to manor
10

by the fact that the

of

cent

per

the

even

keeps a
based
Originally

servant

farm.

of

servant

by
A

worked

on

with

who

has

do

day-work
custom

cheap hands
largechildren

made
for

obligatory
lightwork.
therefore

must

boy or girl(calledposylka). But here also

is retained as far as possible;the servant
principle
hire

his

for

posylka

productsbesides

the

that of occasional

by

the

farm
and

manor

an

additional

dailypay,
in the

servant

livinginstead

As
of

receives
natural

same

parobek,the
receives his living

as

way

the

in cash.

Naturally this situation

of changing income
possibility
future.

old

workers, and the hired posylkais treated

small addition

for the

the

is therefore lower than

servant, by the farmer, that is,he

a

in

remuneration

which

manor

largerchildren

was

need

the

the manorial

on

the fact that the

no

to

paid
only

products. Another
seasonor
day-work
by which

custom

him, the

who

manor-owners,
servant

manor

the hired

family,is the
boy or girlto

the average

on

in natural

wages

modification,parallelwith
of the farmer's

now

in cash

wages

excludes

any

idea

and

any

into property, of

consequence

of the

economizing
principleof a

never
can
regular wage, the servant
become
member
an
owner,
except by inheritance from some
of his family,or incidentally
by marriage. The problem of
solved on the familial principle.A
livingin old age was
disabled worker was
to be supportedby his own
family,or,
a

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

172

if he had

served

in

connected

with

the

placelong enough to become closely

family of his employer, the latter was

one

an
sociallyobligedto support him until his death
tion
obligawhich was
always respected.
of this state of things
Another
interesting
consequence
the type of moral regulationof the relation between
was
"

'

employer

and

identical

on

attitude

The

employee.

in
both sides,

spiteof

requiredwas

tially
essen-

the difference of

positions
"goodness,"

spheres of activity. Its basis was

consistingon either side in the care for the interests
welfare of the other side
including the families.
and

"

employer

the good"just,"that is,to reciprocate

ness
employee; the employee was to be "true," that
moral

the goodness of the employer. The

is,to reciprocate

regulationdid
between

work

touch

not

which

shows

for his

"just"

even
or

proportion
the

when

now,

"just"

he

pay,

well for

cares

the intention

of the

good servants, a pay

employer to provide well

of the

is not

why

reasons

taken

long

tradition of

craftmanship and

the relation between

is

into account

the Polish peasant toward

a

And

master

of

matter

employees.

One
wages

who

master

all the

at

remuneration.

and

peasant speaks of
means

The

to be

had

of his

and

work.

certainlythe

While

among

work

and

attitude

of

handworkers

guild life developed an appreciationof

generallyspeaking,
efficiency,
or, more

attracted the attention to the results of the work, the peasant

is

negatively,
fundamentally interested, positively or
orated
principallyin the process of work.
Many factors collabFirst of all,the comto develop this attitude.
pulsory
could hardly
work
under
the system of serfdom
awaken

any

interest in the results.

his work

whether

for the lord

contrary, the process

interest

"

of

negativeone,

was

What

efficient or

compulsory
of course,

did the serf

work

because

not

On

evoked
of the

care

the

strong

hardship

PRIMARY-GROUP

174

good.

We

influence

the
is

solve

cannot

of work

process

assumed

has

Christian

of the

it.

The

ceremonies
God"

which

religiouscharacter

fact is that when

the peasant has been

or
questionof more
littleimportance.

work

to

fulfilledthe

has

and magical
religious
requires,he "leaves the rest

tradition

for the ultimate

waits

and

the
problem, whether
this importance only under
ideology or whether there
the

fundamental

and
working steadily,

regard

here

primitive and

more

belongingto

to

ORGANIZATION

less skill and

of
efficiency

results

whose

immediate

are

counts, and
an

different from

very

hired

When
enters

motive

new

attitude

work

is not

begins
"

that

changed.

results of his work, that

for the process

the

laborer,even

paid.

of work

Even

when

it is

of work

allows it"

"

to

of wages.

the

But

It is for the process,

that later the

for the

not

employee, the

considers

later the idea of wages

is accepted,often
work

essential

gets his living;it is

the servant

applied less willinglyto

that

city handworker.
develop, there gradually

factoryworkman,

for the results of the work

it

here

even

if God

that of

has very

carpenter's,

"

But

"will hold

thing made

the

attitude

work.

the

different with

the skill as the conscientiousness

much

so

work

attitude is somewhat

The

weaver's
blacksmith's,spinner's,
is not

results to come;

at

as

himself

hired
be

to

remuneration

eagerlyaccepted,

home

than

abroad.

explanationsare givenby the peasants who

rejectpiece-work in Poland and ask for it in Germany;
lies
the irrationality
of this attitude shows
that its source
The

absurd

most

in the old habits.

The
results
and

stress

its external

process

on

explainsalso

motives

The

put

of
are

main

the process
the

factors

rather than

importance which

conditions

have

for

the kind

the

on

its

of work

peasant.

The

with this
displeasureconnected
firststage more
important than the profits.
of pleasureare freedom, variety,facility,

pleasure and
at the

of work

INTRODUCTION

175

companionship. Independent work is more

pleasantthan
incomparably more
dependent, farm-work
pleasant or
rather less unpleasant than factory-work,and
the only
"

"

pleasureof the process of work outweighs

always and everywhere its hardshipis when all the neighbors
to gather his
come
together to help one of their number
is almost
This kind of help,always disinterested,
crops.
equivalentto a pleasureparty. It is becoming rare since
in which

case

the

the

appreciationof

new

the old communal

and

Up

the

to

pass

to

those which

various members

of

relation

all of them
of

an

are

in

the

use,

is

of

way

now

relations between
relations

These

concepts

purely economic
of

one

between
solidarity
same

We

giving,
crediting,
renting,exchanging,
of reducing these
no
possibility

modifications

occasional

economic

the followingseven

limited number

more

these.

belongs to

peasant community.

lending for temporary

selling,
stealing.There
to

"

determine

be classed under

may

spoken of the economic

for
singlefamily or individual
have

we

concern

employment

the

even

developed

life has lost its primary character.

present

which

attitudes

for its results has

work

as

but
categories,

fundamental

relation

the members

of

all the

relations

"

munity,
com-

between

familyin matters of property are modifications

of a permanent solidarity
within the family.
The giftis the most
elementary form in which solidarity
is expressed,because it is the simplestform of help. We
must
distinguisha real gift,when the object given has a
members

of

when
the value of the
symbolicalgift,
moral.
The real giftbetween
objectis essentially
strangers
be only an
can
object of consumption, belonging to the

material

value,from

category of income,

not

to that of

property, because, as

we

ical
family. A symbolgiftis usuallya religiousobject (medal, cross, image,
sometimes
wafer, scapular,etc.),
an
objectof adornment, a

have

said,property

cannot

go out

of the

76

triflemade

by

but
not

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

its material

diminish

increase

the person

himself,etc.

value

the stock of

the wealth

is

It is in itself property,

that it
insignificant
property of the giverand does
so

of the receiver.

hi the social attitudes

which

Its moral

value

does
not
sists
con-

it

symbolizesand which
constitute its meaning. Now, the common
meaning of all
the symbolicalgiftsis that they establish between
the giver
and the receiver a spiritual
bond, analogous to the familial
because they formallybear the character of
bond, precisely
giftsreserved for the familial relation; the receiver is
conventionallyincorporatedinto the giver'sfamily. In
the case
of a religious
or
magical object the latter has still
another meaning in itselfwhich heightensthe moral importance
of the gift; the bond
between
the giver and
the
receiver is sanctified,
to speak. By gradationsof the
so
material value of the gift and of the sanctitywhich
it
imparts to the relation between the giver and the receiver
we

pass

from

conventional

Thus, the boy offers

to

the

to

real familial relation.

girlwhom

he intends

to marry

giftsof real value, which increase as the marriage becomes

more
probable,and the betrothal and wedding rings have a
particularly
sanctifyingfunction, because they have been
blessed for the occasion.
specially
If the symbolicalgift establishes a new
relation,the
real giftis the result and the acknowledgment of the preexisting
relation of communal
solidarity.It has thus a
double function,the primitiveone of help in emergency
and
of manifestingsolidarity.It assumes
the derived one
the
latter on particular
occasions and is then ritualized. Food,
offered at all ceremonial
acter.
meetings,has certainlythis charThe

ceremonial

familial occasions
"

and

member

even

on

of the

"

all the important

on
meetings occur
betrothal,
christening,
wedding, funeral

secondary

ones,

such

family, the name-day

as

the

arrival of

of

the head

of the

INTRODUCTION

family. By invitingmembers

177

of other families and

offering

familymanifests that it wants the event to be

and that in spiteof
not
considered a social,
a privateaffair,
with
any change in its life or compositionit remains solidary
the community.
Moreover, this is not a mere
questionof
the good will of the family; the community requiressuch
This explainsthe enormous
manifestation.
a
proportions
with regard to
which all these ceremonial
meetings assume
them

food the

offered,and
people invited, the treatment
the whole community
meeting lasts. Theoretically,

of

the number
the

the time

be a
must
ought to be invited,and the treatment
real,not a symbolicalgift;that is,every guest ought to be
reallyfed for a certain time, a day, two, three,originally
often more.
The motive of showing off,
usingthe ceremonial
has cerentertainment
tainly
as a signof the standingof the family,

of the

developed later on,

community toward

But

on

iclp. The
livingfor

that

with
its solidarity
idea

was

to

of the attitude

consequence

manifestation

of those occasions

some

manifest

to

as

the

solidarity.
community had also

familyby
the family

the

assist

of

in

real,effective

procuring a

for a new
or
(at christening)
larriage-group(at the wedding). Every person invited
had to offer something for the child or the new
couple. At
in money,
but we
have vestiges
"resent
the giftsare made
showing that,at least in the case of marriage,they were made
farm products food, fuel,linen,cloth,etc.
The family
in
lelpedthe new
couple mainly, though not exclusively,
the community helped it to get a
latters of property;
not
That
those giftswere
livingduring the first months.
intended as a reciprocity
for the entertainment
times
(as somehas degenerated)
the case now, when the custom
seems
a

member

new

"

is

proved by

when
:casions,
it death

or

the fact that

there

was

no

no

giftswere

offered

actual increase of the

betrothal,for instance.

on

other

family
"

178

PRIMARY-GROUP

ORGANIZATION

The

giftdoes not involve necessarilyany relation

of the giver to the receiver.
superiorityor inferiority

of
In

the

precariousconditions of peasant life everybody may

need
non-ceremonial
help occasionally.Of course
gifts
are
usuallymade by a richer to a poorer person, and the
giveris usuallysuperiorto the receiver,but this superiority
does not result from the fact of giving. Even habitual living
at the expense
of others, as, for example, beggary, is not
stances
humiliatingin itself;the humiliation lies in the circumthis necessity hi the loss of fortune,
which
cause
in the family of the beggar which
or in the lack of solidarity
permits him to lead such a life. The situation is different
if the giftis one
of property, because such giftsare not in
"

use

peasants and anybody who

among

accepts them

from

of the
stranger acknowledges thereby the class-superiority
latter.
ized,
ritualCloselyconnected with the gift,although never
is lendingof mobile property (propertyof the second
This is a form of help quite
class)for a temporary use.

obligatoryhi many circumstances; and if the objectis used

immediately for purposes of living,the situation contains
in comparison with giving. But if
new
nothing essentially
the objectis used for productivepurposes,
if,thanks to it,
who

the person

borrowed

it gets

or, in other

income,

some

terms, if the relation of the objectto the purposes

is

indirect,then

borrowed

product
to

barn,

and
or

to

in order to go

cart

The

the

on

lead to

borrowed

instruments

productive,and
service.

the person

objectis morally obligedto offer

the owner.
Thus, for example, a

repairthe house,

horse

is added

moment

new

the

borrowed

cart

no

in order
used

owner

remuneration

in

living
who

part of the

horse

instruments
visit,

of

and

borrowed

obligation.But the same

to bring the crops into the

hired

should
grows

work,

are

considered

get something for his good

with

the

importance

of

INTRODUCTION

179

(even by chance), and not with the

sacrifice of the owner,
although a marked

results obtained

the

importance

of the

distinction is not
is clear.

The

object should

the

of

deterioration

made

good.

The

but the principle

precisein detail,
lending is a social service,not an

very
of

act

be

is not an equivaand the remuneration

enterprise,
lent
of any profits
lost by the owner,
for this loss is accounted
for and accepted in lending as well as in giving,but an
expressionof gratitudeand reciprocalhelp on the side of
who
borrowed
the objectproportionateto the
the person
economic

increase of the
The
the

primitiveattitude

same,

property.

adds

certain sum,

social

toward

money-lending is exactly
first only the equivalentof
in paying the money
back

is at

since money

mobile
a

of this person.

resources

debtor

The
not

as

but
interest,

solidarity
proportionateto

of the service rendered.

introduction

of

Up

interest,the

that,if the debtor

of
reciprocation
subjectiveimportance

the

as

the present,

to

custom

after the

even

is sometimes

observed

thanks
successful,
particularly
to the money
borrowed, he will add a free gift to the
toward
determined
the
interest,as a sign of benevolence
has

been

creditor.
of
quite different principleprevailsin the matter
is the basis of the
Land
the first object of rent
rent.
existence of the family; therefore,when
it is rented, it
ought to bring income, that is,it ought to enable the family
But

"

"

to

live,as

of rent

when

And, indeed,

we

form

consider

can

cultivate it himself,either because

strength or because
The

the

ance
primitiveis in perfectaccordwith this principle.Usually a farmer who has enough
cannot
equipment rents the land of another who

farm

which

it is cultivated.

productsare

tenant

and

owner

he cannot

then

is

he has not

buy

divided.

already an

or

keep

In this way

the necessary

the

equipment.

the relation of

exchange of services,but

i8o

PRIMARY-GROUP

ORGANIZATION

it is

regulatedby the idea of living. But, in general,

a frequentfact among
rentingis not primitively
peasants, for
exists and the whole family is
as
long as familial solidarity
collateral member, assuming
not ruined or dispersed,
some
of the family, usually undertakes
the role of head
the
cultivation

which

of the land

the

regularlythe case with the land

orphans. Renting of land for money
appears
This

was

in the temporary
As

of the

absence

to the rent

for

cultivate.

cannot

owner

of widows
as

and

rule

only

owner.

an
buildings,

evolution

have

to

seems

originally
Temporary lodging in a house was
equivalentto any giftof thingswhich serve for living. It
involved in hospitality
and was
was
always only occasional
occurred.

strangers,since almost

among

everyone

except beggars had

house, then at least with

steadylodging,if not in his own
cabin
his family,with his actual or former employer,in some
a

lent
or

by

the estate-owner, etc.

stable could be lent

on

the

But

someone's

barn

to

house

same

as
principle

same

property for productivepurposes;

used

at the

that

his crops

is,the

time
any

mobile

person

remunerated

barn

who
the

In short,there
by givinghim a part of these crops.
was
no
renting,but lending of buildings,and this was
for the buildingsbelonged to the class of
perfectlylogical,
Later
mobile, manufactured
property, as against land.
there developed the class of komorniks, that is,people
on
had no
who
houses and lived from day labor, lodging in
other people'shouses, and the principleof remuneration,
extended
to
applying originallyto farm buildings,was
taneously
simuland rooms
houses
permanently used. There was
of regulation
of the remuneration, about
a process
which we
shall speak later. Finally,in some
cases, when
of
rented together with land, the principle
buildingswere
owner

land

rent

to

seems

although this

last

have

phase

been

partly extended

is uncertain.

to

them,

82

PRIMARY-GROUP

ORGANIZATION

sacrifice

and in the right

itself,
given at the right moment
This is only an
social
intermediary stage between
way.
determined
exchange, but we find the
help and objectively
correspondingattitude very frequently. Gram lent in the
spring has to be given back with a very large interest,
because

that

is the

creditor himself.
it will be

Money

it is most

when

time

is often lent

needed

the condition

on

the creditor needs

given back whenever

latter refuses to accept it at any

other

the

by

that

it,and

the

Night and
highly
Sunday work is valued by the worker exceptionally
because of the sacrifice which it involves;but the same
man
when he appliesto it the principle
do it disinterestedly
may
and is asked for it as for a help. In selling
of solidarity
or
exchanging some
object the peasant adds to its economic
value which the objecthas for him on
value the subjective
of personal or familial associations.
And
account
many
other illustrations
of

But

course

can

be found.

when

into economic

moment.

the

once

attitude
egotistic

is introduced

relations,these relations have

to

be

objectivelyregulated. And thus ultimatelythe principle

of economic
and
equivalence of services is introduced
becomes
fundamental, while there stillremains always some
placebeside it for the old valuation based upon the efficiency
the
valuation based upon
of the help and for the transitory
subjectivesacrifice. This may be said to be the actual state
of thingsin the average peasant community.
The objective
but its action is
equivalenceof values is the usual norm,
modified

The principle
of equivaby social considerations.
lence
requiresthat natural products lent for livingshall be
time without
interest,but it
given back at a determined
may

be modified

condition

and

the payment
less equal and

in two

the creditor
of the

ways.

was

debtor

rich,the latter ought

debt; but

the debt

If the

if their conditions

contracted

in

is in
to
are

bad

postpone
more

or

periodof scarcity

INTRODUCTION

in

paid back

and

which

be added

of abundance,

moment

183

is measured

the difference of

by

product at these moments

therefore be objectively
very high.
of equivalenceany
On the principle
lent should be given back with
money
value

of the

representingthe resultant
sacrifice of
deterioration of the object,

deprivedof

its use,

remuneration

The

of

subjective

time,

mobile

and

of the

can

property

determined

the creditor

or

neration,
remu-

three

benefit derived

is determined

factors:

as

rarily
tempo-

the debtor.

by

beforehand; but if any

different from

those three factors proves

interest should

an

what

of

expected,

was

the idea of social

of

the

requiresthat
in the
allowed

to

if the debtor

same

form

pay

it,as

of
exploitation

the tenant

land

in return

year

proves

year,

to

for

far

as

the

profitfrom

and

if the year

to offer the

owner

is

more

it he shall be

Finally,the

determined

the

least allow

of

now

quantity of
if

But

should

owner

the

idea of

owner

remuneration.

determined

at

debt whatever

any

of rent; the

essence

or

pay

possible,by working for

a
source
principlebecame

creditors.

by

the rent,

to

he contracted

exceptionallybad

possibleremit
ought

in which

debtors

modified

exchange has

next

is unable

Nevertheless, this

creditor.

allows

fication
solidarity
requiresa correspondingmodiAnd
the idea of solidarity
agreement.

it to be

as

far

paid

exceptionally
good the
than was
agreed.

as

the

tenant

Applied to work, the idea of exchange becomes the source

of the modern
for the
principleof wages as remuneration
difficult to get away
result,although here it is particularly
from the

personalrelation.

(day-or piece-work)and

in hired work
or

service that
The

It is therefore almost

this

principleis

in

active.

equivalencetends to be perfect
is in the simple exchange of objects. The idea is that the
objectsmust be reallyequivalentfrom the economic point
only

case

in which

not

exclusively
employment

84

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

of view,

independent of subjectivefactors. To be sure, a

ascribe to an objecta specialsubjective
value,
may
the contrary, give it voluntarilyfor a less valuable

person
or,

on

neither of these attitudes has any

But

one.

attached

Only cheating is forbidden; the cheater

objectof social condemnation; the cheated, of
it.

to

becomes

social sanction

an

ridicule.
idea of exchange of

The

equivalentservices

second, individualistic stage of economic

introduces

with

the

to

harmonize
we

first stage, because

it

strong familial organization(itis not

at first to the members

as

it

tions
at least into the relaquantification,
of a community.
members
Nevertheless,it

still belongs rather

which,

life,because

economic

between

does not

the

prepares

the

applied

same

shall see, characterizes

stage of evolution.

exist
co-

family)and because it
tendency of economic advance

of the

with

can

the second, individualistic

economic
egotistic
organizationof a community which rises very slowly and
gradually,remaining still solidaryin so far as it permits
nobody to profittoo much at the expense of others. No
individual fortune can
in such a community, and
be made
in fact

no

community

individual

It expresses

fortune

is made

an

within

(exceptby sociallycondemned

this the individual must

enter

the peasant

usury);

for

into relations with the external

world.
And

this is illustrated

by

curious

fact.

There

was

of a community,
between
members
no
commerce
originally
at all. It was
no
buying and selling
hardly necessary in the
ance
and it would not have been in accordprimitiveconditions,
outlined it.
with the idea of solidarity
have
as
we
Therefore
the attitudes in buying and sellingdeveloped

exclusivelyunder the influence of and hi contact with

chants.
merJews, foreignpeddlers,town
people from outside
Thence
the necessityand importance of the fairs,
"

INTRODUCTION

later,by
a

all the

almost

where

buying

transaction

money

somebody of
It
has

to the

for

his

done.

and

And

convention, the fair became

be treated

be

as

concluded,

community,

but

outsider,and

an

only

not

with

even

with

bor.
neigh-

happen stillthat when a farmer

to buy they both go
neighbor wants
may

fair,and there,after the first has pretended

conclude

and

and

happened

buyer

different

horse which

could

sellingwas

or

sort of half-conscious

placewhere everybody could

185

the second

to search

the transaction.

Of

acknowledges that he intended

beforehand.
Actually the custom
but the peasant stilldoes not

for

horse,they meet
neither

course

make

to

the

is almost

like to

of them

transaction

broken

from

buy

wait

to

down,

sell to his

or

neighbor,because he feels morally bound by the principle

of economic equivalenceand cannot
hope to do a particularly
good pieceof business.
This
development of buying or sellingin exclusive
with

contact

outsiders

accounts

for the fact that

principles
dominating the economic relations
transactions.
community is applied to money

within

the

find the
as
no

typicalbusiness tendency
cheap,sell as dear, as possible;no
social considerations.

personalor

in its pure

the

Here

we

form:

limitations of
But

of

none

buy

honesty,

the peasant had

He
attitude.
had to
purely economic
that goods brought to the market
learn,first,
acquirea new
character
that of being subjectedto a common
tive
quantitadistinctions
standard
of value,in spiteof any qualitative
to

be

this

taught

"

which

they may possess

Everything can

outsiders.

And

present many
to

some

someone

to

it

else does

be

not

easy

within

bought from,
to

learn this.

or

the

munity.
com-

sold

Up

to

to,
the

apply the economic standard

goods and are disgustedand offended if
it. This happens most
often with regard

peasants do

of their

land, but

was

social values

as

sometimes

not

also horses

or

cattle which

have

86

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

been

used

the

on

farm

sold

are

unwillingly,the peasant

As we
have seen, there
preferringto sell the young ones.
was
probably an unwillingnessto apply the economic point
of view to farm products which served for living,
and up to
the present, except in localities near
the peasant
largecities,

will not

sell bread.

is,of

There

course,

such

no

limitation

of
buying, although the fact that every individual sum
has a particular
destination,can be used only to buy
money
pendently
indeobjectsof a particularclass,shows that there is still,

in

of the

question of needs,

social classification.
qualitative,
After learning to apply the

peasant had

dear and

to sell very
at

to

community,

.within the

spiritof business,and
even

buy

either; the idea of

once

The

now.

in

standard

possibleand

few

will

the

take

not

more

nor

if accidentally
he makes

of business

psychology of

the average

the

and is consequentlytraditional

disappearing attitudes, use

"Do

you

once

the idea of

to

want

the transaction

of

making

such

the business

in
exceptions,
the most
up

to

the

he

poor

Jew ?"
the

assimilated

community. But
an
appeal indicates

attitude.

This attitude

This

forms.

last,and

he

In
does

better

is

introduces

at

personalelement, and
exchange between
the necessity
course

to an

of

the
now

partialformation
with
prevails,

all relations with outsiders.

extreme

IPSS

adapted to
people with whom
they deal
and often correspondentwith
in bargaining the
appeal:

equivalenceand

becomes

of the

members

wrong

pjyp

it

reproacheshimself for
feels gratitudetoward

him.

method

of the

localities hinders

remote

he

Jews, whose

the

desirable

development

bargain than he expected,either

or
having cheated the other man
The

some

cheap. This did not come

equivalence,
appliedto exchange

peasant

of

very

hindered

i? right;and

thinln
Ithanhe

economic

learn also that it is

to

remnant

It

assumes

of
few

often

buying, the peasant bargains

like to buy if he cannot
not

INTRODUCTION

187

to be persuaded that he has

bargain,because he wants
he often demands
bought the cheapestpossible. In selling,
exorbitant prices,
the most
if he has some
particularly
reason
to think that the buyer needs his goods very much.
As his
business attitude is displayedonly within a limited part

of his economic
The

life,
however, it is not systematically
ized.
organ-

quantitativeside

of economic

value

is, in his

its other qualities,

only one among
brought forward
at particularmoments,
particularcircumstances,
among
with regard to particularpeople. Each
of buying or
act
is a single,
isolated action,not connected
with other
selling
eyes,

actions

of the

same

class.

The

is therefore not
selling
future,by any endeavor to get
and

principleof cheap buying

limited by any idea of the

dear

The

at

peasant

which

this stage avoids

class of

steady customers.
of delivery
contracts

any

proposed to him; he makes no calculations for a

longer time, but tries simply to get as much as possibleat
He will break any contract
the given moment.
of work and
if he loses more
place with higher pay, even
go to another
in the long run
than he wins.
This was
for many
years the
of
practiceof season-emigrantsin Germany. The number
broken was
This was
due in largepart
contracts
enormous.
to bad treatment, but partlyalso to a lack of organization
of the business attitudes,which
frequentlyhad their first
in contact
with foreigners.This whole
to work
application
situation left,
of course, no placefor any spirit
of enterprise
industrial lines.
or
along commercial
Finally,we must take into consideration the questionof
There is
theft,as it corroborates our previousconclusions.
absolutelyno theft in "taking" any raw material which is
not

are

in any

minerals,

way
game.,

the

product of human

fish,wild berries, and

we^havesaid, everybody's
unchanged

up

activity;trees, grass,

to

the

property.

mushrooms

are,

as

This attitude remains

present, because

of

the

sermtuts,

88

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

that

is, the right which

scendents

have

to

to

use

which

the life of

man

the

deand

products

animal

or

be

may

for sale it is not

taken

unfair,but unless the products are

their

the forests

extent

"Taking"

estate.

maintain

to

serve

limited

pastures of the manorial

serfs and

former

the

theft.

"Taking" prepared food to satisfy immediate

hunger is hardly even unfair,except that it would be better
clothes are stolen and worn,
to ask for permission. When
the act is on the dividingline between
"taking" and theft.
But

as

soon

as

product

any

is stolen for sale,there

is

no

of the word.
Even
it is theft in the full sense
justification;
here we
find a gradation. The
stealingof goods which
belong to the class of income is incomparably less heinous
of farm-stock,particularly
horses and cows.
than the stealing
Since money

draws

its character

from

the

it is the substitute,a condemnation

with

the

represent only
an

the

if the

and

it decreases

of the
2.

class.1

There

income, a

medium

one

large one

land.

And

the

belongs to

and

community
be

can

community;

same

if the

proprietor
of
particularly,

or,

theft between

no

members/

After the definite liberation of the peasants and

sometimes

it

land their condition

was

even

worse,

free of duties and

to

We

and

find often

than

the thief's

also

village.

often

were

the

stealingin one's

not

own

contrary

was

than

charges to

they could

pay;

of emergency
1

can

family.

same

with

taxes

thief

small

level,increases if the proprietor

any

of another

endowment

indeed

on

property,

theft varies
sum

if the thief is in real need

member

another

worse

part of the natural

condemnation,

is poor

is

individual

object of

of money

stolen,simply because

amount

which

objectsfor

at

first no

before.

better,

They

the lord,but had

their

were

heavy

relyon the lord's help in case

insufficiently
prepared materireasoning: stealing in another

village,because

it gives rise to

bad

villageis

opinionof

PRIMARY-GROUP

90

to

the traditional conditions

morals

and

of his immediate

where
simply moved to another environment
found conditions awaitinghim which requiredno particular
adjustment. Only gradually the more
independent

environment
he

ORGANIZATION

forms

or

could

of advance

old environment

Land-hunger

and

the

"

climb within

to

or

appear

the

phenomena

of economic

forms

modify

the

environment.

new

the

emigration are

to the lower

effort to

sponding
corre-

advance, while the

industrial,and
expressedin agricultural,
commercial
and in the active adaptation
at home
enterprise
For those who
and abroad.
to a higher milieu in towns
remain in the community, increasing
or
acquiringproperty
in land is the form of advance, satisfying
tional
the tradiat once

higher forms

are

idea of fortune,the desire of social

The

first two

which

But

calculation

in

buying

in force

character

at

of land

peasant who

the

at

pays

better

The

in the second
the power
time

same

land

In

property.

pricesfor

the
a

of

living.
proportions

the
to

tendency

new

the lack

regard

to

half of the last

of the

that

proves

least with

absurd

standard

fundamental.

are

proof of

the best

are

advance.

remain

factors

land-hunger assumed

century
to

desire for

extent, the

smaller

standing,and,

of economic

old

the

attitudes

qualitative

consciousness

pieceof

of the

land there is no

equivalencepossiblebetween land and any other economic

Land
with each other.
value; they are incommensurable
is a. unique value, and no sum
of money
be too largeto
can
it is only
pay for it; if there is bargainingand hesitation,
the buyer hopes to get elsewhere
because
at another
or
moment

would

land

more

rather

turn

later the interest

cent, he does

not

for the

same

the money

money,

not

because

something else. And if

his capitalis hardly i per cent to 2 per
on
complain if only his generalincome, that
to

is,the interest and his work, is sufficient to givehim

He

does not

count

he

his work,

or

rather he does not

living.

dissociate

INTRODUCTION

interest

the

work

one-sided
of

his

on

the

to

who

overcome

the

So the

and

had

twenty morgs

to

farm

lead them

rich

was

undertake

to

their

sufficient motive

their country and

to

incalculable

attitude of many

difference of size between

mere

the attachment

unknown,

months

examples

some

emigrated,because they were

cheap price,fortymorgs of land,although

their future

and

strong and

land sold it and

cultivated.

actual

Peasants

work,

glad that he

How

Brazil.

to

of his

he is

elsewhere.

land, not

own

land, and

be is proved by

get there,at

not

the

to

product

land-hungercan

emigration

of cultivated

the

capitaland

is due

his work

because
can

his

on

191

the fear of

journey of

hardship afterward.
farmer, while the

to

This

the

was

and

poor

two

landless

naturallylooked upon this opportunity to get land as

undreamed-of
real fever
a
piece of luck. There was
emigration.[Whole villagesmoved
emigration,in 1911-12, was centered
and

at

in the most

in the
part of the country 7[

backward

of

this

and

once,

an

isolated

parts of

eastern

provinces of Siedlce and Lublin, and preciselywhere

the tendency to advance
had still the elementary form of
land-hunger.
A phenomenon essentially
different from this emigration
the

of colonists

with

their families

emigration of singleindividuals
shall

speak of

in connection
there

course

it in detail later
with

are

increases every

the

many
year

"

land,and earningsome
Their livingis on the
are

no

Here

on.

of

search

who

hope

cannot

Most

of

money

grandfathers under

longersatisfied with

better than

even

average

such

similar
an

if

Of

they

live

can

small

by

it only

their number

them, indeed,

in addition

We

advance.

advance

to

proprietorsof

or

work.

mention

we

tendency to economic
in the community
and

laborers,servants,

fathers and

in

is the

land

of

"

stay in the country.

hired

in search

as

pieces of

outside work.
that

of their

conditions,but they

existence; they want

better

future,"if

which

not

it.

they express

as

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

192

for

ourselves,at least

This

is the essential

for the

accounts

simultaneous

for

children,"

our

change

of attitude
and

appearance

mous
enor-

development both of emigrationand of land-hunger.

this standpoint,
Moreover, emigration to cities,from
When
belongsto the same
category as emigrationabroad.
a
peasant emigrates,it is usually with the desire to earn
ready money and return home and buy land. He goes where
for work
he can
find a ready market
involvingno technical
intellectual preparation,
and he is at first satisfied with
or
he

the wages
and

often

in

mines, on

of labor to which

labor.

expressedthat

inclination to become

undertakes

found

for his unskilled

secure

regret are

decided

no

can

ment
Astonish-

the peasant shows

farmer

in

America, but

railroads,and in steel works

he is totally
unaccustomed.

But

it will be

the work
peasant has selected precisely

that the

suits his purpose,

namely,

quick

and

sure

forms

which

accumulation

of cash.

Usually it

is the second

the economic

above

the accumulation

effective.

be

to

ceases

generationwhich begins to rise

than
level of the parents by other means
of land, for at a certain point this means
The

increase

is

of landed

always limited by the contrary process

the children,
and there are alreadymany

land

be

property

of division among

localities where

no

owing to the fact that the larger

these circumhave already been parceled. Under
stances
estates
the only remaining possibility
lies along
of advance
the other line
increase of income
through skilful farming
can

bought

at all

"

and
A

notable

themselves

whole.

income

As

and

commercial

under

takings.

alreadybeen accomplishedalong the

typicalexample, four sons divided among

progress

first line.

more

industrial

through

has

their father's
from

Industrial

his

land, and

now

each

of them

portionthan the father had from

undertakingsdevelop more
slowly.

has
the

Thf

INTRODUCTION

important

most

and

of butter

fruit,and

The

cheese.

to

those

Among

mills,brick factories,the production

are

development

of

is

commerce

largelylimited to trade in hogs,poultry,

petty shopkeeping in villages.

It is

stillslower.
and

193

who

left the

have

country

the

second

and
generationtends to higher wages, better instruction,
usuallytries to rise above the ordinaryworking-class.The
milieu
usually gives more
opportunity,but requires
new
more
personaleffort in order to rise,and it is therefore here
find the greatest changes of attitudes.
that we
Finally,education and imitation tend to create in the

country another

of economic

form

The

progress.

parents

give their children land try to prepare them for

higher positionsby giving them a general and technical
instruction instead of sending them to industrial centers, to

who

cannot

Germany

or

America,

unskilled

as

During this evolution

graduallyadapted to the

the

laborers.

economic

attitudes

become

fundamental

problem of economic
The result of this adaptationis that they cease
to
advance.
almost purelyeconomic; they quantify
be social and become
all the material values and tend to increase the quantity.
economicallyprogressiveindividual

The

the classical

"

economic

side of his lifeis almost

side and

tendency to

advance

effects in the peasant

result of this
new

man

; that

Or, in

in the material
an

analysisof

analysisis the

from

if it continues

conditions

of existence

of

The

phases:

evolution

of

ing
concern-

regard to the
enjoyment by the subject.

viewed

their

with

property in this direction shows

individualization

and

the

systematicbody

attitudes,social in their ultimate nature, but

and

to react

and
his social life,

constitution

merely material values

greatest possibleincrease of

the social

terms, the general

exact

more

imately
approx-

is,the economic

completelydetached

even
systematizedin itself,

to social influences.

of

"

becomes

As
capitalization.

soon

two
as

PRIMARY-GROUP

194

the

problem

living,the
increases
a
was

to

ORGANIZATION

of advance

individual

role of the
and

more

certain amount

live from

to

the property at all; it

in any

concerned

the

at

more

of property

merely how

the

takes

the

problem

in matters
of the

cost

assumed

was

the

and

originand

When

family.

question

essence,

claim

no

there beforehand, he
its

of

of property

it,the individual had

was

with

way

place of

not

was

but

only

exploitation.The basis of his existence was in the

this basis. But
group, and he -could only help to maintain
the situation was
totallychanged when he became an active
with its

in the modification

factor

certain

extent

here

even

of this basis.
the

the
distinguishing

without

this modification.

The

To

family could
part played by

be sure, to
act

as

unit

individuals

property often increased

under

in
the

regime,and up to the present we find many examples

hi matters
of advance
of families behaving with solidarity
of living. But
the
as
they behaved
formerly in matters
element
a dissociating
tendency to advance has necessarily
familial

which

the old type of

resist very long;

solidaritycannot
has the problem of harmonizing
co-operation

only in

modern

economic

advance

shall

in

see

of property

family as

made

whole

by

in the next

one

more

of the

one

could

generation was

family in

followed

the number

of

the increase
and

moral

who

And

even

family group
those

who,

as
as

that

were
as

the

the progress

by a regression
marriage-groups

in whom
Consequently the members
advance
was
particularlystrong and
the

we

hand, the part

important is the fact

advance
only slowly,and

generation when

to consider

burden.

the

equal,and, when the social

solidarity
began to weaken, those

injustice.Still

began

On

efficient began to feel the familial communism

the most

to

members

been solved, as
solidarity

not

was

side of familial

increased.

social

later volume.

individual

played by

an

and

ency
the tend-

impatient
no
longer a help but
heads of the family,

INTRODUCTION

familial

representedthe

principleassumed when they were

attitude of despotism which was
in

efficient an
particularly
itself

individualization

step toward

individualistic reactions
The

195

from

other

and

members

intense the desire to advance

more

the progress

the
itself,

familial form

of property.

of the

and

difficult it

more

provoked also
the

individuals

The

activity;then
productsof their own
extended
individual ownership became
to
the

familial

land, and

in

family.

those who

take

the

possibleintact.

property

money

land, farm-

"

individual

among

"

is the

aim

pass

property in generalwas

higher economic category

and its use
as
a means
itself,
It resulted
be

used

as

from

of existence

the

basis of

nature

Other

change.

an

as

of economic

not

pass

incomparably

was

end

an
a

in

secondary

of property

living,but

far

the process.

income; it was

than

favor

as

it,but it could

into

tioned
apporto

this

to preserve

economic

of any

are

tendency

only one side of

the highest form

was

of property could

matter.

these

this is

But

And

land, but

remains

there

familial property

into them.

The

land, in order

value, the ultimate

could

whole

receive cash and

separately,and

forms

ing
began by claimthe principle
of
the hereditary

ity
only vestigeof the old solidarif divided,
such cases
is the desire to keep the land, even
in the family. The same
as far as possible
members,
of the

never
therefore,

The

retain the

last stage of this evolution

the

quantitativedivision of the
stock, house
furniture,and
members

rapid

more

to

was

group.

its value

it

that

did not

merely in the livingwhich could be got out of it;

the livingwas
always an individual matter, while property
The
fact that the idea of
corresponded to the group.
consist

property could

never

made

impossiblethe
capital. All this was
but
individual,

even

to the idea of income

be subordinated
of

treatment

changed

as

property

soon

as

then, indeed, its

as

productive

property became
nature

was

not

196

PRIMARY-GROUP

completelyexhausted
since it continued

to

ORGANIZATION

being the source

by heredityover

its

by

stretch

generation. Still this became

led to
a

new

revaluation

basis.

property

The

valuation

the basis of

on

income,

an

than

more

its essential character

of the various

new

of

forms

of

one

and

property upon

of every

form of
particular
its productivity,
of the amount
and
which
it brings,has two
results:

durabilityof the income

it givesa common
of all the various forms of propmeasure
erty,
in spiteof their qualitative
and it givesa
differences,
of property
to all forms
makes
the change
greater fluidity
of one
form into another relatively
The
frequentand easy.
ization
peasant hi the country seldom reaches this complete capitalof property, but he approaches it more
and more.
He alreadybeginsto think of individual fortune in terms
of
without
enumerating separatelyland, farm-stock,
money,
and objectsof privateuse; he compares
goods with
money,
tries to increase this productivregardto their productivity,
ity
by sellingand buying, tries to change less productive
for more
class (landfor land,
productivegoods of the same
farm-stock
for farm-stock),puts, not
only his work, but
"

also his money,

waiting

for

in
the

peasant will

not

such

improvements, even
results.

/^But even

the

yet sell his land hi order

as

requirelong

most

advanced

to start

with

this

productivebusiness of a different nature unless

in
he is already settled hi a city or abroad, particularly
America.
He
will resign all property, sell his land, and
if his
emigratein order to live elsewhere as a hired workman
farm is too small to keep him and his family,but he seldom
economic
tries to exchange land for something else. The
equivalenceof land and other forms of property is not yet
fullyestablished.
The
attitude with regard to income
is undergoing a
money

a more

somewhat

similar

raise the income

evolution.

makes

The

of this also

individual
an

individual

effort

to

matter;

198

PRIMARY-GROUP

standard
And

ORGANIZATION

of life becomes

thus

economic

an

ideal of life.

of

of this standard, the

necessitythe relative fluidity
of passing from
one
postulatedpossibility
expressionof
form of
to another, requiresthe translation of every
power

income

into terms

This
Polish

of money.

attitude

been

has

particularlydeveloped

immigrants in America,
those

among

economic

level

becomes

have

who

the

of

of the

one

sources

among

it exists also in Poland

but

in

succeeded

rising above the

preceding generation. It often
of the generalfeelingof self-

of
importance typicalof successful climbers, and is one
It
which we find many
examples in the present materials.
has an
important influence upon various social attitudes,
in matters
of marriage and in relations with the
particularly
shall point out
these
family and the community. We

presently.

consequences

As

increase

of

fortune

and

income

is

mainly

effected

through individual work, the attitude toward work becomes

also essentially
was
changed. Work
always a necessary
condition of living,
mined
but livingwas
not unequivocallydeterother factors complicatingthe
by work; there were
relation

The

want.

period was

bad

God's

help, and the

devil's harmful
when occasionally,
as
activity. And even
in hired dailylabor,the relation between
work
and living
was
simple,the process, not the result of work, was regulated
by it,and the duration and intensityof this process
limited by the actual needs of which the peasant was
were
conscious; he worked only in order to satisfya determined
good

"

or

search
at

will of men,

for better work

first merely

endeavor

an

to

we

find at

get

more

pay

later
for

activity. But all this was

became
the end
changed when
advance, instead of living,
of work.
There
are
no
predetermined and steady limits
the

same

of advance.

limited

which

In

amount

the

of

tendency

to

rise the

needs

grow

con-

INTRODUCTION

199

tinually.The peasant begins to search, not only for the

remuneration
for a given amount
of work, but
best possible
work
for the opportunity to do as much
as
possible. No
sacrifice is too great, when
the absoefforts are spared,no
lute
of income

amount

be

can

this stage is therefore

so

increased.

peasant

at

get piece-work. It is

to

eager

The

in

Germany that good Polish workers can be

secured only if a largeproportionof piece-work is offered
And
them.
during the period when
piece-work lasts
the peasants often sleepand eat in the field,
(harvesting)
well known

from

work

and

in

wages

sixteen

Germany

to

about

are

hours

twenty

day.
higherthan

50 per cent

And

at

as

home,

all the best workers

a

preferto go there rather than work on

harder and treatPolish estate, though the work is much
ment
worse.
They take the hardship and bad treatment
but

into account,
of

accept them

higher income.

absolute
moved

When

as

they

inevitable

an

condition

back, they take

come

rest

for

two

do

the

work, proving that work

slightest
in itselfand desirable only for the

to

highlyundesirable
which it brings.

or

Another

three

months

and

of this

consequence

not

are

new

to

an

be

is still
income
attitude

changing work if there is a slightest

hope
of immediate
improvement, and without regard to ,the
future (as expressed in contract-breaking
and wandering
from place to place),
the peasant now
begins to appreciate

is that instead

more

and

more

of

the

importance of

steady job,particularly

in America.
But

the evolution

does not

of the results of work

through the
the attention
skilled and

medium

to

of

end here.

wages

When

been

has

further

piece-work,a

the difference of results and

unskilled

labor.

The

once

established

step bringsto

of wages

increase

mere

limited
quantityof work proves more
the improvement of quality. While

the relation

and

between
of

the

less effective than

this difference

was

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

200

known
abstractly

before,it acquiresnow
has

importance, since social evolution

and
to

for the unskilled

worker

the

advance

tendency
The

peasant.

pass

concrete, practical

opened

ities
possibil-

new

into the skilled class,

becomes

sufficiently
strong

passivityand lack of initiative of the

problem of skilful and efficientwork therefore

the

overcome

to

to

old

At firstthe skillis valued

the situation.
beginsto dominate
only with regard to the income which it brings; but slowly
the
and unconsciously the standpointis shifted,and finally

skilled

or

attains the level of the old

half-skilled workman

guildhand-worker, is able to evaluate the

without
and to be proud of his skill even
the

to

immediate

reference
certain

question of earning a

The

character.

This

remuneration.

results of his work

ence
refer-

changes its
for

amount

pared
particularpiece of work becomes
secondary as comThe
with the generalearningpower of the individual.
with that which we
ultimate level reached here is parallel
some

found

the culmination

at

of progress

in matters

of income.

in an ideal
tendency to rise expresseditselffinally
incorporatingthe highestpossiblebuying power at a given
is
increase in the general earning power
an
stage. Here
There

the

object,and it finds its expressionin a correspondingideal

which
gives direction to the efforts to acquire a higher
technical ability.Necessarily,
these two ideals are closely
the

connected, and

buying-power
power;

we

should

would

the questionof
expect that finally

become

secondary

but the peasant does

not

seem

few

cases

in America.

that of

to have

stage of systematization of "he economic

in

to

earning-

reached

attitudes

this

except

j"The attitude of perfectsecurityI

independence with regard to the actual income can be

of his
who
has the consciousness
acquired only by a man
own
earning-poweralong the line of independent business
and who is,moreover,
not limited to a singlespecialty. But
the Polish peasant, in the great majority of cases, had not
and

INTRODUCTION

time

had

enough

develop

to

rapid adaptabilitywhich
native

the

of failure,
resultingfrom
the

hinders

other

explains,among
to the

up

in America

reallybig fortune,either

to

spiritof initiative and

the

characterize,for example, the

Polish peasant has succeeded

no
a

This

American.

201

present in making

at

or

facts,why

home.

The

fear

insufficient

feelingof

adaptation
economic
life,necessarily
complexity of modern
the undertaking of great enterprises./
a

expressed in the relations to

The
other
economic
men
undergo a parallelevolution.
importance of the family and the community diminishes
rapidly as the relations of the individual with the
very
The

economic

external world

happen

become

indeed

that

of the

if those relations
hinder

an

has become

individual

who

traditional
are

who

rich
relatively

advance.

generositytoward some
without regard to the degree of
is of course
quite contrary to
typicalthat

peasant settled in

his fellow-countryman with

he visits for

short time

his old friends and

This

course,

much

habitual

stillbehaves

this

some

only

occurs

Thus,
years

for

example,

in America

show an
occasionally
relative,often
poor
familial connection
tradition.

And

"

it is

and
pected
unexeven

which

quite

cityor abroad will receive

and when
hospitality,
particular
a

his native

villagewill

acquaintancesin

display of the
of showing off.

occasional

his

if the old attitudes do

and

rare

will

man

But

for many

has been

in

It may

in his relations with

groups.

few and

durable.

business

modern

individual's

the

emigrant

and

the traditional way

in
occasionally

not

various

more
an

lifeis almost

economic

member

attitudes

an

treat

ostentatious

old attitudes

has

The

of

attitudes

all of
way.

in it,of

solidarity

realityvery weak, but they get strengthfrom the

desire to manifest the importance of the individual's own
in his
which is sure
in a way
to bring recognition
personality
may

be in

old milieu.

PRIMARY-GROUP

202

ORGANIZATION

if the individual

But

his

old economic

community, the
hindering advance.
formerlyapplied to

his

still lives among

attitudes

Usually the
the community

are

attitudes
are

in

family or
dropped
which

as

were

transferred

now

to

of help is acknowledged only in

family. The obligation
of living,
matters
to a limited extent.
not of property, and
For example, a member
of the familycan
enjoy the hospitality
of another
member, but only for a time not exceedinga
few months, or varying in individual
After that
cases.
of property the
time he has to pay for his living. In matters
the

help may stillexist in the form of lending,but

of gift. The dominant
not
principleis that of exchange of
equivalentgoods. The attitude formerlyemployed toward
attitude

of

extended

be

strangers may

real

though a
community, as in

some

the

members

ceremonial

attitudes

for

"

munity,
com-

of the

of usury,

infrequentcase

ritualized

the

to

measure

of
exploitation

the not
the

Even

in

is

demned.
con-

example,

and gifts, do not escape the influence

receptions
of the generalegotism; reciprocity
begins to be expected
of reciprocityprovokes contempt.
lack
and
Only in
"

of

matters

marriage does the

because
disinterestedness,
advance
because
behaves
The

attitudes

new

greater

adaptation to
organization,and
business; it is

are

thus

the world

an

he

be

to

milieu.
we

more

is,as
higher and

every

economic

investment

gives.

In

dividua
sought hi the in-

outside of his

advance

individual

profit. The
than

the

his real economic

is now

feature of economic

more

lead to

of individual
possibilities
make
marriages without
dowry possible,and
the marriage-group,isolated from
both families,
in economic
individual.
matters
as
a single

relation to
which

evolution

new

always
this way

wants

seen,

complex

act

with

the dominant

Here

have

community,

takes

the
to

sive
progres-

economic

the

form

expectationof
get from

his behavior

of
a

others

corresponds

INTRODUCTION

classical economic

the

to

organizedwith regard
system,

others who

meets

competition arises.
known

aims

The

And
which

business

constitute

far

as

acts
a

are

tical
prac-

the individual

as

interfere with

his own,

attitudes

too

are

well

requireanalysishere. The point is that they did

exist at the beginning in the peasant'seconomic
life,
tion.
appeared as the result of a long and complicatedevolu-

not

but

to

the second

3. In

half of the past century,

after tha unsuccessful

the

among
a

business

the future and

to

have

His

type.

life-business.

203

classes
intelligent

movement

enlightenand

to

order to prepare
effort to

revolution

them

for

national

recover

particularly
1863, there originated

of

of the three parts of Poland

organize the peasants in

in some
future participation
new
independence. The movement
to

In Galicia
began in a different way in each part of Poland.
the starting-point
was
politicalorganization,in Posen
economic
Poland
instruction.
organization,in Russian
But
graduallythe problem of organizationalong all lines
of social activity
assumed
not alone
an
importance by itself,
with

regard

modern
of any
of

to

future

militarism
endeavor

national

revolution; and

proved

to

almost

lost its hold

with the idea of social revolution

At present the social
connected
national

unity of

unity of

the

organizationof

with

the

more

independence by

recover

revolution

and

more

the advance

as

the

the social type

as

the

of

problem
a

or

of

hopelessness

arms,

the idea

except in

European

nection
conwar.

diately
peasants is imme-

a strong
constituting

substitute for national

and economic
political
zation
organitype (thestate),
is the most
important part of this problem. All the

traditional
well

as

modern

economic

are
individualism,

economic
of

and

course,

lifebased
of

the

on

used

to

attitudes,solidarityas
construct

co-operation. There

western

new

is an

peasant associations

form

of

imitation,
and

labor

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

204

the

line has

importation of

been

the

most

but the whole

hand

one

study

thus

with the national ideal

and

actual

or
reality,

subordinated

to, and

organization,that
constructs

peasant gives us
the

system of economic

of this first stage

historical status

to

the future.

completely
with, social

state

new

of

which

isolated from
tries

deduce

to

fail. Then

out

thingsdeveloping"

with the
correspondspractically
economic
life becomes
theory. The

behavior.
as

must
life,

as

which

elaborated

are

as

theorywhich

any

in fact from

abstracted

life was

attitudes

economic

see

we

classical economic

so

beginningof

the

as

rapid,

present moment,

methodological abstraction

any

organizationfrom

of human

the

of

process

consequence

indissolublyconnected

other social attitudes,and

attitudes

at

on

shall

We

has been very

in the first stage economic

that

see

operation,
co-

volume.

fourth

our

process

all of its stages coexist

as
vestiges,

the other.

on

rationalism,since,in

of economic

of

character
original

exceptionalopportunity to study

an

social

an

of the Polish

evolution

circumstances,the
particular

and

We

in detail in

economic

development
of

has

this

certain traditional attitudes

with

this movement

The

the English form

movement

through its connection

tendency in

self-conscious

and
organizations,

the

rest

which
These

constitute

can
are

of social life; economic

be of themselves
connected

rational

is isolated in the consciousness

motives

among

practicalsystem

of the individual

from

selves
themwhich
other

with
spheres of interest,
although occasionallyinterfering
But this is not a general law of economic
them.
life,
only a
of the
particularhistorical status, due to the appearance

Finally,the third status,

shall see in detail later on, realizes historically,
in
as
we
zation
part, the socialisticdoctrine of dependence of social organitendency

to

upon

economic

economic

advance.

life. The

economic

organization

206

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

undertakingto attempt a historical analysisof

What
seek at this point is a determination
we
attitudes shown
from

aside
magical life,
attitudes

by the peasant

themselves.

And

of these

find four

we

of the fundamental

the

and
religious
originof these

rites hi which

of the beliefs and

and

complex.

in his

questionof

the

this

they

express

partially
independent

(i) gpnpraj am'rriationof natural objects^, but no

of
spiritsdistinct from the objectsthemselves; solidarity
life in nature; no distinction possiblebetween
and
religion
magic; (2)belief in a world of spirits,
partlyuseful,partly
harmful, and distinct from natural objects;the beliefs are
the practiceis magical; (3) absolute distinction
religious,
of good and evil spirits;
the relation with the good spirits
is religious
and expressedin social ceremonies,the relation
established individually.
with bad spirits
is magical and
types:

(4) TntrnHiirtirm

r"fmysticism,

tendencyto

self-perfection

ancLsalvation; personalrelation with the divinity.

it is possible that

Although
represent

as

many

these^Typesof

attitude

stages hi the development of

necessary

this cannot
without
be affirmed with certainty
life,
religious
icism
like Catholcomparativestudies. And in a concrete religion
various
we
naturallyfind mixed elements representing
or
stages of religiousevolution, and a concrete
group
individual shows a combination, often a very illogical
one,
of attitudes belongingto various types.
All the natural beings animals, plants,minerals,the
i.
are
objectsof the peasant's
heavenlybodies,and the earth
interest and sympathy. His motives
not
are
consciously
"

"

utilitarian,
although, as

always
We

may

causes

between
which

in

some

related to the man's

way

perhaps assume
the

man

himself

to

shall see, natural

we

that it is this

invent

and

in fact does not

some

objectsare

life and

welfare.

generalinterest

which

direct utilitarian connection

natural

exist)when

object (a
he wishes

to

connection

justifyhis

INTRODUCTION

rationally.1This point will

interest

determine

we

207

the

become

clearer when

of the relation between

essence

man

and

nature.

the fact that natural

But

welfare

this interest from

the purely
distinguishes
whose originwe shall analyze elsewhere.
The

one

common

feature

in both

individualization

animals,but

and

far.

goes

tendency to individualize.
Not only all the domestic
always,as far as possible,
(with domestic animals

are

sometimes

act

always)expresses
largestone, every
own

is the

the wild ones,

even

identified,which

of its

related to man's

all

at

aesthetic

The

objectsare

itself in

name-giving. Every tree,every

pit,meadow, field,has an individuality

often

The

name.

itselfin the individualization,

often

same
even

tendency shows
anthropomorphiza-

tion,of periodsof time.

tire

are

year

never

of the daYS_Qf
At^leaj^onejjhird
and the peasant
individuallydistinguished^

numbers

uses

The

names.

saint is very

dates, but always individual

for these

Christian

consecration

of

day to a
peasant usually

every

helpfulin this respect,and the

(forexample, in his innumerable

proverbs)the
saint for the day.2 Tales in which
months
or
days are
anthropomorphized are frequent. The anthropomorphization itself is not serious,but it is a sign of the tendency to
individualization.
Thanks
to this tendency,time becomes
a
part of nature, and individualized periods of time become
natural
objects. There is little trace of an analogous
substitutes

individualization of space,
the

six cardinal
I

directions

It is forbidden,for

swallow

too

example, to

when
persistently

except the usual

"

objective: east, west, south,

touch

be
Or:

For

sharp."
"If Johnny begins to

St. Ursula."

swallow*s nest

may

out

of it.

become

or

The

the

rationalistic justification
and

angry

observe

to

even

drop her

ment
excre-

eye, causing blindness.

example: "When
Or:

it is flyingin and

of this attitude is that the swallow

into the man's

distinction of

"St.

St. Martin

Matthew
cry and

either
God's

comes

upon

white

destroysthe winter
Mother

does not

horse,the
or

calm

makes

winter will

it wealthy."

him, he will cry till

208

PRIMARY-GROUP

north,

down.

up,

When
with
a

subjective:right,left,before, behind,

down;

up,

ORGANIZATION

individualization

regard

to

invent

tendency to

then

the

Thus

we

whose
the

wild

many
an

is

impossible,as, for example,

animal species,
there is at least

imaginary individual which

and the head

representative
find everywhere the legendof
in

crown

tales

some

of the whole

king of

in

stealing;
particularly

wolves,deer,boars,hawks, owls, etc.,have

old and

powerfulindividuals

there appear

various

whom

individual

they obey;
animals

exceptionalqualitiesand knowledge
if in some
and even
cases
specieshas to listen,
and

even

without
For

tales

whom

to

their

these animals

metamorphosed men, this is not essential at all,

shall see, can
be explained
such changes, as we
powers.
any appeal to extra- or supra-natural
the interesting
point hi all this individualization of

to

prove

in many

birds endowed

and

with

species.

the serpents,

peasant succeeds

becomes

be

in
objectsis that,while there are no spirits
objects,the latter are always animated, often

behind

natural

or

the

conscious

and

reasonable.

even

attached

to

To

be

sure,

we

find

also

spirits

objects in the peasant'sbelief,but these

cases

quitedifferent religious
system. In the system
we
are
now
consideringwe find only livingbeingswhose life
is not at all distinguished
from its material manifestation
no
oppositionof spiritand body. The animals, the plants,
belong to

"

the fire,all of

heavenly bodies, the earth, the water,

the
them

live and

degrees.

days

and

Even

all of

them

think

individualized

and

fields and

times of the year, have

and knowledge. The

existence,life,

same

varying

meadows,

kind

some

in

know

of

even

independent

characters

belong

degrees to manufactured
objectsand to words.
existent
short,anything which is thought as individually

in various
In

is at

the

same

time

animated

consciousness; the "animated

and
and

endowed

conscious

with

thing"

some
seems

INTRODUCTION

to

be

category of the peasant'sthinkingin the

the

that

209

"thing"

mere

reasoning. Or,

scientific

"substance"

or

is

same

sense

category of

scientist
a
exactly,when
isolates an objectin thought in order to study it,his act is
purelyformal; the objectdoes not (orrather,it should not)
acquirein the eyes of the scientist any new property by being
thought, except that of becoming the subjectof a judgment.
But

more

the peasant, at least at the stage of intellectual culture

isolate an object
cannot
study here in its vestiges,
of course)
in thought without ascribing
to it (unintentionally,
and more
less
an
or
independent existence as an animated
conscious being.
We
find innumerable
examples of this attitude. If we
her
manifestation
take only one
of nature's consciousness
conscious reaction to man's activity we
that up to the
see
highestforms of animal life and down to the manufactured
which

we

"

"

time-periodman's
An
action is understood
and intentionally
reacted upon.
animal
and
not
only feels gratitudefor good treatment
indignationat bad treatment, not only tries to reward or
thingor

to

but

to avenge,

them

the animated

abstraction

understands

even

into account.

This is not

but is manifested
tales,

of

human

motives

only shown

and

takes

in all the animal

everyday life. A peasant in whom

this belief is still strong will never
mistreat
intentionally
the animal to
an
animal, and tries to explainor to cause
After the
due to accident or anger.
forgeta mistreatment
death

of the

animals

of the

Some

master.

actions of
bees will
leave
the

same

farmer

man

never

farm
was

death

in

his heir has

and

animals
even

understand

some

formerly true

plants,iffruit trees

tell them

if these do not

stay with
where

to

grow

inform

to

that

and

domestic

the
he

condemn

is

the

now

unmoral
The

affect themselves.

thief,the stork and

the swallow

evil deed

committed;

has

of the house

well and bear

been
snake.

As

to

the

if crops succeed,
fruit,

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

210

it is not

merely a result of a mechanical or magical influence

man's activity;the plants are conscious of being well

of the

treated

and

not
literally,
dignifiedin

bends

the

tales,where,

its branches

did not

from

the

laborer's

became

black

an

fruit to

and

apple tree
who
a girl
another

is contained

the earth,which

owner

belief

same

anything to

well-intentioned

taken

and

in

consciously

sincere

refuses to

work.

yield to

is

indignant at any crime committed

before Cain killed Abel and
crystalline

its face; it was

upon

the

literal sense

same

its real

earth

The

usurper.

The

best

be

must

example,

and refuses

moss,

gratitudeof

the

field knows

Every

for

gives its

and

do this.

saying about

rewards

find

metaphorically. We

cleaned its trunk

who

their gratitude. This

show

after this.

It sometimes

refuses to

cover

who
has hanged himself.
self-murderer,
particularlyone
The
and knows
sun
sees
everything that happens during
the day. If something is said against it,it punishes the
ings.
and blessto thanks
offender,while it is no less susceptible

Prayers
the moon,

and

the

does

moon

who

still addressed

are

evil

doings are

not

knows

be

to

them.

see

on

occasions

some

performed

The

rather

understand

stars

to

when
the

give an answer
and immediately in the form of inspiration,
not
literally
in
as
mediately,through the calculation of their positions,
should not be dirtied or dried up.
astrology. The water
Nothing bad should be done or said near it,because it knows
man

and

how

Ifor being cleaned

Imore

animated

Ishown
told:
The

"Don't

covered

with

the

The

play

with

be
when

ashes

them, and

pitshows

apple

tree.

the

children

who

same

gratitude

perhaps still
peculiarrespect

Fire is

conscious,and there is a

it.

fire should
blessed

as

and

toward

ask

In the tales

betray.

can

to

play

the fire. It is not

with
your

the fire are

brother."

liness,
kept with the greatest care and cleanlightedin the morning, blessed when
at night. Once
a year
(on St. Lauren-

INTRODUCTION

211

this' Day) the old fire is extinguished

and
ceremonies

both

being accompanied
should

blessings. Fire
is

tale of

new

fires meeting;

lighted,

one

with

thanks

fopIpntjpjtViprfrom

never

and

respect

or

with thejajnily/ There

connected
jtjsjiajlicularlz

because

of them

praisedits hostess
for treatingit well, the other complained that its hostess
mistreated it,kept it carelessly,
and never
blessed it. Then
a

two

the first fire advised

followingnight the
Nothing offensive

the second

second

"

and
itself,

to avenge

burned

should

wind,
phenomenon
of the
againsta season
we

one

be

the house

said

vengeance

natural
cold

follow.

may

"

or

Again,

tales in which

have

anthropomorphized natural phenomena

(e.g.,
frost,wind) prove gratefulfor good and revengeful

for bad

treatment.

regard

the

to

peculiarattitude

of the year.

days

others.

upon

the

next

year

and

But,

then avenge

can

and

months, and

normal

attitude in tales,where
of the

Traces

conscious)belief

or

to

play with them;

the peasant

misused,great
1

There

mediaeval

as

words

is scarcelyany

the pun

already knew

how

to

read

(but

year.

are

here

are

pomorphized.
anthro-

only

found

half-

in the

pronunciation of

is seldom

if ever

used

joke. Nor should words ever be

appliedto petty things,etc.
Finally,

relation between

almanacs;

fragments, while

applied to the whole

months

mere

magical doctrines astrologywas

in disconnected

week-days
exaggerationof the

things understand
peasant's unwillingnessto change the
words

reward

mainly the

comes

and

that

or

returns

is true of

same

same

day

action

bad

Thence

days

of its

action,1or,

this,each

find here also the

we

in view

ably
actions,unfavor-

some

last year.
good action committed
The
importance of anniversaries.

day,

determined

than

more

be noticed with

can

Each

is particularly
fit for
individuality,
more
exactly,reacts favorablyupon

by

of its hostess.

against any
thunderstorm, hail, rain,
year;

the

on

the

this belief and

the last to reach

like all other

belief stated

astrology. Of

all the

the peasant, when

he

it reached bun
book-doctrines,
in the text is systematically

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

212

the

of

power

measure

depends

curses

in

life of the words.

immanent

the

upon

natural

blessingsand

certain

It

seems

nection
explainthis respect for words by a magical conbetween the word as a symbol and the thingsymbolized,
because for us the word is nothing but a symbol, and
in imagininghow a word can have lifeand
have difficulty
we
in itself independentlyof any relation to something
power
else. But for the peasant the word is not only a symbol, it
find also,
'as will be shown,
is a self-existent thing. We
magical power ascribed to the word, but then we are in
a

to

different system of beliefs.

The

attitude toward

the word

independentbeing exists. This fact we must fully

raise the further question
and only then can
we
recognize,
this
whether
there is any direct geneticrelation between
attitude and the magicalone.
In connection with the objects
made by man
ing
the animatnection
tendency is expressedperhaps less clearlythan hi conwith natural objects,
but it is essentially
the same.
No
object should be hurt, destroyed,soiled,neglected,
without necessityand this not because of
moved
or
even
as

an

utilitarian considerations

alone

nor

because

magicalconsequences, althoughthose reasons

The objecthas an individuality
of its own,
is not

alive and

conscious in the proper

of the fear of
are

and,

sense, it has

tendency to maintain its existence. There are

almost intelligent
taken by man-made
vengeance
and

in tales

they

and

speech.

The

whose

process

also often endowed

are

of

animation

disappearssometimes
in the
And

case

of those which

the latter

for

are

certain

of

cases

been

case

an

objects,
of

objects

observed, and

always)almost completely

the individual has made

also the

if it

only ones

which

himself.

the individual

the moral rightto destroy,if he

implicitly
them.
so immediatelyafter having made
By existing
certain time they acquireimmunity.

has sometimes
does

(but not

has

even

with consciousness

decreases in the

manufacture

also active.

PRIMARY-GROUP

214

This

explanationexists,but

system of beliefs. The

ORGANIZATION

in connection

with

another

seeingeverythingin dreams
to call for no
seems
explanationat all,because it is simply
assimilated to the fact of imagining thingsin the waking
state; it is too naturallyaccepted to be a problem. The
problem appears only in connection with propheticdreams,
but here again it is not distinct from
or symbolical,
explicit
other facts of prophecy or second sightfound hi the waking
state, and the explanationis made, not on a theory of the
the basis of the whole
on
soul,but, as we shall see presently,
conceptionof the natural world. As to death, there is
certainlya "spirit"which leaves the body, but it is only
"vapor" or "air" which dissolves itselfin the environment.
The body simply loses the part of its vital power
of which
the "air" or "vapor" is a condition,in the same
as it
way
loses in sleepthe power of voluntarymovement,
and
seeing,
then the body is not reallydead; it
hearing. And even
is never
for under certain
quite dead as long as it exists,
influences it may
to full life again. It may
awake
come
at certain moments,
periodically
or, if it has a particularly
live indefinitely
it may
in the tomb, coming
strong vitality,
This is the case with the vampire.
out every night to eat.
A man
who will be a vampire can
be distinguished
even
duringhis lifeby the redness of his cheeks,his strength,his
big teeth. And all of this has nothing to do with the
questionof a returningsoul.
This, however, is only a partiallife. To have a real
is
second lifethe body must be destroyed,
and then the man
other.
regeneratedand lives again,in this world or in some
The
regenerationis nothing particular.Every year the
whole

of nature

fact of

is regeneratedfrom

death.

There

are

cases

waiting for natural death, let their

bodies be destroyedand arose
again,young and powerful.
in this world took placein
In other cases
the regeneration
the form of a tree,a lily,
an
animal, etc. Thus regeneration
of

men

who, without

INTRODUCTION

in another

world

natural facts.
lives his second

is a fact classed with many

other
The only difference is that the man
life somewhere

friends, though sometimes

possible.The
can

215

instrument

be either fire or

earth.

of reach

of his

mystical communication
of destruction

The

and

is

regeneration

purificatory
propertiesof
the fecundity
destruction,

fit for
particularly
of the earth for regeneration.I^oth cremation
and burial
used in funerals at different epochs,anidagriculture
were
opjgenerallori
by bothjnean"^ In primitive
gaYe~analogies
the forest was
burned
and the soil acquireda
agriculture
The branch of the willow placedin the
fertility.
particular
fire make

it

else,out

perfectly
usually

earth grows into a tree.

Now
this whole world
conscious

of animated

and

more

or

less

which
beingsis connected by a generalsolidarity
because the ways of its
has certainly
a mysticalcharacter,
action are usuallynot completelyaccessible to observation
be rationally
tions
and cannot
determined, but whose manifestamoral principle
the solidarity
of
as
express the same
the familyand of the community. Even in the reaction of
which we have indicated in the
man's activity
nature
upon
is manifested.
above, this solidarity
examples enumerated
But we find stillmore
explicit
proofs. There is a solidarity
between certain plantsand certain animals.
When
the animal
(forexample, a cow) is sick,the peasant finds the
plant,bends it down, and fastens its top to the
proper
ground with a stone, saying: "I will release you when you
will
make
well."
The
cow
same
evening the cow
my
Then
the man
must
recover.
go and release the plant,or
else on the next day the cow
will fall sick again and die.
animals are interested in plantsand can influence
Similarly
them.
Hence
the numerous
of assuringgood crops
ways
the successful growth of fruit trees through the help of
or
animals.
A stork nestingupon
the barn makes a full barn.
A furrow drawn around a field by a pairof twin oxen
insures

216

it

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

againsthail,and

with

the

the addition

same

twin

that

is used

means

brothers

Sparrows should be allowed to eat

grain in winter, and pigeons should
because

these birds

allies and

are

for their share in the crops

The

cuckoo

can

blossom, because
to wake

not

cherries in

and

summer

be allowed

to

companions

help them

oxen.

eat

peas,

of man,

and

If there

to grow.

are

them.

is also

There

lead the

must

that millet will be good.

spring,it means
call only till the crops have
ceased to
then they fall asleepand the bird ought

in

maybugs

many

againstthe pest,

relation of

between
the earth
solidarity
(alsothe sun) and all livingbeings, which is strikingly
expressedin such beliefs as the following:The earth can
communicate
its fecundityto an animal (forexample, to a
sterile cow), and, on
the other hand, the fecundity of
animals
The

or

women

in

the

eve

blood, and
of St.

before

Easter,make

There

is also

life,and

or

even

animals;
of

course

dead

object.1 The

lesser

degree,of

should

plant the fern

fern is

lost
2

We

powers;

or

is to increase

nants
(rem-

dead

mattress

of

dead

left after the

water.2

his house, or

near

privileged
plant.

midnight, June 24)

were

same

custom.

all living
beings.

anything

the

Fires

localities

some

aim

whose

it is

making of a
of the
the aim is the regeneration
is true, although perhaps in a

exists between
solidarity
particular

from

straw

rain.

old pagan

an

"

the fireand

of wood

remnants

unless
coffin),

animals, because

be fed with

never

sterile field.

John (June 24),in

mysticalactions

it should

to

send hail and

may

between
solidarity

of dead
man,

dead

the crops succeed

in many

It is used

look upon

not

disturbed,sets

lightedon

be communicated

can

should

sun

sees

Whoever

the

the fern and

else the house

fire;therefore nobody

will burn.

In

general,the

finds its flower (itis supposed to blossom

all the treasure

under

the earth and

at

all the things which

stolen.

shall speak later of the

magicaluse

here their influence results from

other beings.

of fireand water

their

own

nature

as

and

symbols of mystical
their

with
solidarity

INTRODUCTION

between

But

beings of the

contrary, the destruction

this
upon

about

of any

kind

house

success

others,and,
of

on

plantsnever

Predictions
of wild

the peasant is asked

when

animals

Among

of
the
goes

can

be

plants,and

is

snake

solidarywith

die.
is killed they will certainly
exists between

still greater.

the cattle and

animals

The

poultry;

thrive,but if it

kind of

same

of

sympathy

(alsothe magpie) and the horses.

the cows
is destroyedor a swallow killed,
The cow
is also related by some
ous
mysteri-

givebloody milk.
link with the

die, and

weasel; whenever

warn

high in

the clouds

one

another.
and

his breast he

calling:"Snow, snow!"
more
closelyconnected

comes

there

when

down

is

some

weasel

danger

the redbreast

In autumn

watches;

dies

cow

reciprocally.When

animals

fallsupon

reason

the goat

swallow's nest

must

for the

is
solidarity

the

if it is well treated all the domestic

the

as
a rational inference based
hardly be interpreted
the knowledge that these plants need the same
mospheric
atconditions.
No such explanationis in fact attempted,

his belief.

If

of
principle
solidaryand

can

even

The

of

success

the observation

from

crops

are

Therefore

influences the lot of others.

alone,but
made

Plants

another.

results in the

of them

class the

same

evident.

is still more
solidarity
sympathetic with one
some

217

the

one

and informs

than

another

rises

first snowflake

everybody,

("nieg).Again,night animals
with

the

are

with others.

solidary
speciesare naturallymore
is less
than those of different species,
and their solidarity
and
often observable empirically
mysterious,because more
ity.
solidarmore
easilyinterpreted
by analogy with the human
An. animal,particularly
wild one, can
always call
a
animals

But

all its mates

is always some

of the

to

same

its rescue

if attacked

danger hi hunting even

wounded, and there

or

the

apparentlymost

inoffensive animals.
The
much

knowledge ascribed
as
sign of solidarity

to

of

natural

objects is also -as

because
intelligence,

it is

2i8

always
result

about

knowledge

or

cause

omit

cannot

In

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

analogy between

social life solidarity

reaches

peasant community, that

another

about

or

be

to the

as

far

far

is, as

another, and

one

objects,either
them.

social life and

the bearer

of

is also

stranger. Nature

as

the

power,

The

applied

and

creation."

guest

is it

primary group,
member, perhaps

belongs to this group as a

but not a "king of
privileged,

We

sphere of the
as
one
people know
only secondarilyand

unknown

some

nature.

the influence of the belief that

under
accidentally,
may

natural

between
mysticalaffinity

of the

here the

other

man

somewhat
attitude

of

beings toward him, as well as his attitude toward

them, is that of sympathetic help and respect. Nature is
activelyinterested in man's welfare. The sun gives him
warmth
and light(intales it considers this to be its moral
duty), the earth gives him crops, fruit trees give fruit,

natural

rivers

animals give him

Domestic
give water.
milk, eggs, wool, the dog watches his house, the cat keeps
from his food, the bees give honey and wax,
the mice away
the stork,snake, swallow, and mole give him generalhappiness,
the magpie bringshim guests, the fire prepares
food

springsand

for them.

The

accordingto

cuckoo

the amount

he has in his hand

And

makes

him

rich

or

(orsome

of money

poor

for the year,

other

possession)

when

hearingits voice for the first time.

all this is not a metaphor; the "giving" is to be understood
Other animals,particularly
as a voluntaryact.
really,

birds,advise him what

the

pigeon,the

to do.

sparrow,

The

the

rail,
lark,the quail,the land-

frog,etc.,tell him when

to

preted
particularfarm- work, their calls being interas
indistinctly
pronounced phrases. And at every
he is warned
intentional sign against
moment
by some
misfortune.
If a hare or a squirrel
his way, it is
across
runs

begin

an

some

advice

of the

to return.

journey;

the

The

dog

horse foretells a
foresees

good

fire,pest, war,

or

bad

and

end

warns

2IQ

by howling; the owl foretells death

his master

children to get good teeth if the child's

help the

mice

The

tooth is thrown

them

to

and

Any sickness which

one.

is healed

by

the

help of

of medicine

essence

birth,etc.

or

they

are

befalls the
animals

and

in the system

asked
man

to
or

give a

better

his farm-stock

plants,for

this is the

of beliefs which

we

are

of remedies
number
analyzing. We find an enormous
the oldest of them some
which
againstsickness,and among
of magical symbolism and
contain not the slightest
trace
also are not based upon the concept of purelyphysicalaction,
be explainedonly by the idea of sympathetichelp.
but can
that plantsby being bent are compelled to
We
have seen
help the domestic animals; there are plants which act
act of growing in the garden; others
remediallyby the mere
Easter
which
on
or
destroy sickness when brought home
Pentecost
(ancientpagan springholidays,symbolizingthe
awakening of nature),St. John's Eve (midsummer holiday),
holiday).
or
on
Mary's Day (August 15, and harvest-home
of the plants used internally or applied
And probably many
to the mysticalsolidarity,
their power
not
to the body owe

now

to the

magical

that the

or

mechanical

influence.

There

is

no

doubt

prevailswith regard to animals, at

the help of the animal is asked, though in the use
find mainly the
parts of the dead animal we
attitude

same

least when
of various

magical attitude, and this is quite the contrary of the

attitude of mysticalsolidarity.Thus, while from the latter
find in the
of a snake is a crime, we
standpointthe killing
magical system of beliefs that the ointment made from a
the
snake killed and boiled (orboiled alive)in oil is among
efficient remedies.1

most
1

stone

The

of stones

use

which,

as

to

seems

be

mainly magical.

the lightning. But

these stones
them.

are

from

the peasant believes,comes

this is particularlyefficient,
because
in

some

cases

usually found

it has
stone

is,for example,a small

and
melted by lightning,

There

sand

symbolical relation to the power

immanent
power,
helpsby its own
learned
is
and
their
use
reptiles,

by birds and

of
and

from

PRIMARY-GROUP

220

Plants

and

animals

ORGANIZATION

also the power

have

of

provoking

given person favorable feelingsin others,and

men.
promoting in generalthe social solidarity
among
toward

addition to magical love-charms

which
with

when

and

sown

boys, without

snake, and

the

Finally,even
man

even

may

normal

is not

The

other

In

plants

some

girlhelp her

magical ceremony.

swallow, among

in the human

toward

cared for by

any

find also

we

of

to succeed

stork,the

mony
functions,keep har-

familywith which they live.

with regard to the beings whose
relation
determined
or which
(spiders,
moths, flies)

harmful

seem

attitude

(bugs,mosquitoes,fleas,etc.)the
We
is expressedin the words:
don't know
"

what

use."
And, as
they are for,but they must have some
from the Chrismost
of the old beliefs are interpreted
tian
now
standpoint,a peasant says to a boy who wants to kill a
also praisesour
Lord
frog: "Don't do it. This creature
Jesus." Christian legendsare indeed connected with most
of the natural

beings who have a mysticalvalue. Healing

certain plantsbrought in on the midsummer

propertiesof
day are explainedby
when

it was

soars

so

cut

legend that the head of St. John

these plants. The lark,which
off fellamong

high, is

the favorite bird of the

they hold it

storm

the

in their

hands, and

angels; during a
when, with

every

the heaven
lightning-flash,
opens, it is allowed to look
The nightingaleleads the choir of birds which sing to
Mary on her assumption day, etc.
VirginAlthough the belief in the solidarityof nature
most

and

in connection
evidently manifested
somewhat
extraordinaryoccurrences,

pervades, in fact,

the

whole

sphere

of

with
we

the

see

in.

the

is

isolated
that

it

peasant's

interests.
of nature, in the peasant'slife,
is neither
solidarity
of theoretical curiositynor
matter
an
object of purely
a
aroused on specialoccasions.
aesthetic or mysticalfeelings

The

PRIMARY-GROUP

222

And
the

natural

other

in turn

must

man

ORGANIZATION

be

community,

members.

himself

show

far

as

old

good member

of

possiblehelpfulto

as

tales express

this
explicitly
idea.
The hero and heroine are asked for help by animals,
and they give
plants,mountains, water, fire,
etc.,in distress,
it out of the feelingof sympathy, often without any idea of
service usuallyfollows.
reciprocal
reciprocity,
althoughsome
These

Many

extraordinarycases give,as usually,only a more

and strikingexpressionof a habitual attitude.
work

every

in order

done

increase

to

of

an

value.
Work
religious
aim is help. Plowing

is

sacred, whenever

the

ing

actions

this kind.

sacred.

consist

They

in which
work

its immediate

have, of necessity,human

They

the

mainly

not

in

immanent

be

enough to make them

mere
ditions
preparationof concan
solidarityof nature

better.

On

the other
Some

punished.

innumerable

an

has

the

view, but this would

interest in

protect life

to

and feedfield,
sowing^ sheltering^
animals, digging ditches and wells, are

domestic
of

act

But

solidarityand

character

the

assumes

of

and

dent
evi-

death

sure

means

which

crime

killed

who
human

member

is immediately
solidarity
examples have been given, but there is
quantity of them.
Cutting a fruit tree

hand,

can
a

to

the

be

never

house

any

snake

break

of

criminal.

pardoned.
ceased

to

community, probably because

of the natural community. A

old times

In

be
he
man

member
was

who

is

stork

Killinga

no

man

of the

longer a

killsa

dog

or

is up to the present avoided

by everybody unless indeed

ated.
he shoots these animals, for curiouslyenough this is tolerlack of solidarity
Even
is avenged by
men
among
We
have
that the stork leaves a
nature.
already seen
a

cat

house

where

refuses
mice

will

some
a

evil deed

pregnant

has been

woman

destroy his clothes.

anything which
The

If

committed.

one
some-

she asks

destructive

for,

forces of

INTRODUCTION

(about

which

223

shall

speak presently)usually
the ridges between
abide, when
personified,
fields,
upon
because
those placesare desecrated by human
quarrelsand
The bees give testimony to the purity of the girland
hate.
the honesty of the boy by not stingingthem.
And so on.
nature

this system

In

and

work

we

of attitudes

results in

bad

the

relation

is
agriculture

not

between

that of

bad

purely

but that of a moral sanction.

If nature
physicalcausality,
does not yieldanything to a lazy and negligentman,
it is
his neglectof the duties of solidarity.And
the
to avenge
sanction may
be expressedin a quite unexpected way, on a
A neglect of the
different line from that of the offense.
toward
animals or insects may
duties of solidarity
be
some
punished by bad crops; careless behavior with regard to
fire

water

or

result in

may

some

unsuccess

with

domestic

animals, etc.
But
sary

there is always

for

to

man

certain amount

live; all actions

of destruction
cannot

be

neces-

helpfuland

productive.^And in nature itself there are hostilities and

is this to be reconnot
ciled
struggles,
solidarityalone. How
with

the beliefs stated above

In order to understand

partlyapparent, partlyreal
breaks of solidarity
know
must
what is the generalmeanwe
be a struggle
ing,the aim of this solidarity itself. It cannot
with

the

external

whole

world;

there

seems

nor

these

world, for the solidarityembraces

a

strugglewith

evil

because
principle,

principlein nature; nor yet the

struggleagainstbad and harmful beings,for there are no
for
bad and harmful.
The only reason
beings essentially
nature's solidarity
is a common
struggleagainstdeath, or
rather againstevery process of decay, of which death is the
absolute
most
and
Sickness, destruction,
typical form.
misery,whiter, night,are the main phenomena correlated
with death.

to

be

no

evil

any

the

PRIMARY-GROUP

224

ORGANIZATION

It is really
difficultto say how

idea of death
because

interpretedas
peasant'sattitude

the

the connected

On

the

evils has

nature.

It is neither

for there

are

it

toward

place within the community of

natural being nor
a natural
force,

individual

of

realitycould be ascribed. There

pluralityof phenomena of decay, each
of
"

be

nothing but
decaying thing

to

seems

the

"

mortal

or

"

of

things which

make

break.

on

But,

concept is

an

the

itself

that of

nebulous

The

latter

But

it

other

hand, death

etc.

up

It likes also to

hedges.

in white
derived

In

by

in

man

stay

short, it has

on

and

of

die," is

from

death

Christian

object;it may

paintings.

or

of

an

also be, as

fields and

form

We

skeleton.

in the

cask, buried

exclusive

assumes

in the form

appear

such

decay.

that of

ridgesbetween

no

to

an

shapes which

other natural

any

tales,shut

some

phenomena

usual

be

weakness

objectified
anthropomorphi-

as

be

can

separately

or
solidarity
punish

thing and
other

only

exterior natural

some

in

change its shapes and

can

animal, plant,or
in

influence of

woman

to

seems

of which

kind

any

is therefore

break

animated

which

everything "has

"

cally represented,like
know
by tradition of two
"

to

things,there

result of the immanent

harmful
a

be

to

no

abstraction
philosophical

not

seems

hand, indeed, death with all

one

forces distinct from

no

of

trace

no

essentially
negative
meaning a positiveentity,

is

quite consistent.

is

far this

abode

earth,
about
and

dent
beings,while there is an eviis true
analogy between it and the spirits.The same
of diseases (pest,
fever)and sometimes of "misery." Winter
of the character of a natural being. We
has a little more
differs therefore from

find here

natural

hesitation between

intermediarybetween

attitudes and

naturalism

type of belief

and

resulting
spiritualism,
from the fact that for death, diseases,misery (poverty),
munity
etc., as independent beings there is no place in the comof nature

and

therefore

they must,

if anthropo-

INTRODUCTION

morphized

all, stay outside.

at

this is the

reason

have

from

seen,

only

But

being.

But

where

case

essential

no

objectand

natural

225

preciselyfor

and
objectification

importance.

The

of
activity

its relation with others

its character
it is not

so

interpret all the actual

as

with

this

result,as

animated

an

death.

facts of death

and

It is

mation
anievery

have

we

conscious

impossibleto

in nature

by the
interpretationis

and
such
activityof the death-spirit,
never
attempted. We find at most the fact of human death
This limitation of the activityof
explainedin this way.
world is still more
evident
the death-spirit
to the human
with regard to the "bad air" or "black death," that is,the
times
somedistinctly
representedas a woman,
pest, which is more
flyingon bat-wings,sometimes waving a red kerchief
and towns;
but this "black
above villages
death," whose
is quiteinexplicable
for the peasant, is afraid of many
essence

natural
death

beings
"

is conceived

Such

the

fire,
reptiles.In short,as

natural

world.

(aswell

as

of

soon

as

being,its power is limited; and it is

of natural decay.
a generalprinciple

conceptionseems, therefore,to be a
going on with a separationbetween

death

as

all identical with

at

not

of water,

The

more

determined

late result of

lution,
evo-

the human

and

the

of

image

the farther
disease,misery,etc.),

we

are

primitive naturalistic system. It is probable,

fied
less vaguely identior
therefore,that originally
death, more
with disease,misery,winter,meant
undetermined
an
"something," "it," or "the evil" rather a speciesthan a
to provoke a mixed
unique entity,
having justenough reality
and characteristic attitude of dread, hate, and disgustwhich
the peasant manifests in the presence
of anything connected
from

the

"

with

death.

This

attitude is found

always shows
or

near

to
a

in the aversion

which

the peasant

tery
talkingabout death, passingnear a cemedied, staying with
place where someone

226

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

dead

body, etc. It is bad luck to meet a coffin containinga

from
to look after it. The
straw
body, and particularly

dead
thp

lagf

frpH ar"rlt^

Wf;
pplinfprg

be left in the house, because

house.^(We
of

have

that

seen

somebody

else

they should

not

respect for the fire.)For

look

into

mirror

which

.,0/4^
[Iduring death, and no
^J* \
the coffin
uJ 'inearthupon

rnffi'nshr^ilr!nnt

flip

frnm

the

same

member

be burned

reason

in the

hung

die in the

may

no

one

out

should

dead

person'sroom
family should throw

of the

ju^
,

it is sunk

when

into the grave.

magical,but tlipy^nw hnw

And
who by
is_t^"-dfeft4-"iLdeath.
anyone
these beliefs

has

some

and

despised

women

who

with

dress the

the

death.

killinganimals

almost

as

much

as

and

All these
etc.
(ifthey kill),
performed by Jews, or by men
the present, in Russian

functions

stillJews.

are

defend

the crops

and

bodies

are

these

Among

were

therefore

had littleto lose.

usually
Up

hunting

in old

tunes

the domestic

act

as

the

tioners
execu-

the butchers
does
it

not
was

to

often

the dog-catchers are

But

this attitude,perhaps because

something

skin-dealers,butchers

and

bidding of the authorities

offenders,and most of
political

skin-dealers

have

the executioner.

Poland

prevailswith

preparing their

who

cuts

tions,
the best inten-

attitude
who

the

who

person

with

at the

of

to

body.

Those

dog-catchers, tanners

who

occupation

executioner,the gravedigger,even

animal

to

his

less feared,hated,

or

body of a hanged man, even

is particularly
shunned.
This

avoided

men

is more

the

do

are

with death

and

wash

regard also
to

the

"

down

fnr|r|pTnpnia1

are

connection

All

and

provoke
sable
indispen-

animals.

in some
already seen
examples, is ascribed to other natural beings. The sun
hates the sightof death; animals and plants foresee it for
and for the man;
themselves
they avoid and despiseanybody
who bringsdeath, they will not abide in a place soiled

The

with

same

death,

attitude,as

etc.

we

have

Only earth, water,

and

fire,while they

INTRODUCTION

should
with

be

never

death,

they have

are

profaned uselessly
by anything connected
in a sense, above
the dread,because
still,
death.

over

power

(exceptpest),misery, and

Sickness
the

dread

of

attitude

because, although they

influence is

and

hate

winter
the

to

varieties of the

are

weaker, they are

effect is more

do

not

extent

same

evil,their

same

easilyavoided,and

more

voke
pro-

their

easilyrepaired.

this dread

But

227

of death

rises to

never

tragical
pitch,

view of existence or to fatalism.

pessimistic
with sin,
The tragicattitude comes
only with Christianity,
the devil, and hell. In the naturalistic religious
system
life is always ultimatelyvictorious over
death, thanks to
the solidarity
of living
beings. Within certain limits,death,
total or partial (for example, sickness,misery),can
be
avoided
it is
through reciprocalhelp, and when it comes
always followed by regeneration. And this explainsat the
time the necessityof sacrifice,
same
requiredfrom all the
leads to

never

natural
of

beingsby

since
sacrifice,

the natural

and
solidarity,

sacrifice is ultimate

no

the

in view

possibility

of the future

regeneration.
The

life of every

by willinggiftsof other
voluntarygiftof life. In
their
sacrificing

because
was

the animal

sacrifice themselves
his human

life. A

life there is

no

tales

is

go

life for the sake

In

for the

reward

sacrifice

assumed;

only

far

as

find animals

we

of

man

or

as

sciously
con-

of

one

usuallyonly temporary,
form, which

legendsanimals and plants

VirginMary, or for Jesus during
usually follows. In everyday
some

explicit
acknowledgment

beings to

readiness

many

may

is regeneratedin the human

its primitiveform.

natural

being can
beings,which

if this sacrifice proves

another,even

be maintained

natural

of the readiness

themselves, but

while, as

destruction of life is a crime because

we
a

implicitlythis

know,
break

of

of

any

useless

a
solidarity,

228

PRIMARY-GROUP

destruction

which

is necessary

beings,is permitted.
elder,whom
thus

for

the latter buried

of the inhabitants.

rest

food, but

never

Man
than

more

alive

during the pest, making

order
is

to

in killing
animals
justified
actuallyneeds and not for

he

build

sale.

house

none

no

in which

case

because
man

the rats

away

cut

can

fair to cut

not

used

He

as

belongs to

selected

the state

them

for

only

tree; old

or

for this purpose,

to

or

utilitarian considerations

to

trees

firewood, and

is it licit to fell some

be

living

and

manor,

only

prevail. The

it is

permitted to cut, sell,or burn any trees

the land is to be turned to agricultural
purposes,
will be expiated by production.
here destruction

is when

The

be

should

trees

if the forest

therefore

or

should
be found

can

poorly growing
even

barn, but it is

wood

Dry

when

or

sell the

may

that it will be killed.

knowing

the life of the

save

sale,although,sophistically
enough, he
animal

the life of other

to man
and
appliesindifferently
of a village
the ward
story of a girl,

expiatorysacrifice in

an

maintain

to

This

find the

We

nature.

ORGANIZATION

by

may

destroy the

in his
some

insects which

barn, but it is always better

means

"

to

his crops

damage
for

frightenthem,

drive them

to

instance,by

The wolf
catching and maltreatingone of their number.
is justified
in eatingother animals, but man
is also justified
in slayinghim.
In short,every livingbeing has the right
to get its livingand
to defend itself againstdeath or decay
in any

form, and other beings have

but every
then

destruction

retaliation is

beyond
just. And

to

there

would

justifydestroyinglife for
interesting
story which shows
complains to a hungry wolf that
since the mole

ones

should

"

is

the necessary

essential difference of value between

her nest with her young

acknowledge this right;

an

is,in this respect, no

animal

and

man

his purposes.
this very
a

crime, and

mole

We

which

have

plainly. A

threatens

unnecessary

take the trouble

to

act
to

an

lark

destroy

of destruction,

pass

around

of

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

230

firewhich

kept under

was

conceived

phenomena are
partialdeath.

And

attention

close.

is turned

in

familial

The

spiteof

resurrection

whenever

regenerationin

other

analogous

partialresurrections

as

least to

at

successive generations,and
and

the ashes,and

be

cannot

mitted
ad-

continuityof

the

the connection

after

between

tion
genera-

the

peasant'smind is thus very

attitude,the continuityof the family

of its members, the lack of

the death

interests,
certainlygave

vidual
purely indiparticularstrength to

this

partialidentification of the resurrection of the individual

of lifein new
with the regeneration
individuals.
The appreciation
domestic

of home-bred
the
in many

now

the

animals

those

chased,
pur-

unwillingnessto change seeds,manifested even

have their background also in
localities,
may

attitude.

same

Even

when

the

continuity of generationsis lacking,

however, the idea of regenerationis not

may

appear

may

appear

in

what

different form,

or

absent.

The

dead

different individual

tinction
these two ideas the displace. Between
do not
we
sharply drawn, and sometimes
real idea is. The changing of men,
animals,

in his

is not
know

above

the

ject
particularly
frequent subthe first idea;
of tales and legends gives us definitely
individual is the same
throughout the process of regeneration,
in spiteof a different form, and may
assume
times
some-

and

plants into

another

one

"

"

the

his
is

precedingform.

quite real

assuming by
second

and
a

crops

should

spiritof

idea,that of

of the old ones,

grow

planted

new

the

the

are

"born

from"

the

following:a

must

remember,

interpretedas

mere

The
bodily appearances.
individuals appearing in the place
when, after the burning of a forest,

same

dead

willow

be

never

soil,when

spot where
a

change, we

different

is found

upon

upon

The

.another

body.
growing

But
upon

fruit tree

new

when

grew,

in such
the

is

worms

examples as
of a girl
grave

INTRODUCTION

sister

betraying her

and

of

the grave

upon

wife,we

cannot

another.

And

her

as

murdered

it is easy

it is the

distinction

this

is

Death

that

from

change

of the group;

regenerated,for
long

as

the

of

death

the

but

he

his

in

from

the first it is of

individual

generalfor

is much

dread

almost

grows

the whole

menaces

death

own

Of course,
ascribed

to

questionof

vidualization

to

is freer to

therefore,man
the

and

and

use

some

the human

or

when

only

subject

to prepare

when

self
him-

calamity

of pest and

memory

localities.
less importance

of destruction.

In

general

plants than animals, though

higher degree of
of

not

of the

the
regeneration,
acts

is

are

weaker

fear

The

centuries in

the easier the

death

with

community.

has lived for two

war

another

or

for that of his dearest ones,

or

insane

the

secondary one.
standpointand

himself,is in question. The peasant is able

calmly for

erate
oblit-

the difference between

particularindividual,even

very

life and

of the individuals

is dreaded

but

so
signifies
relatively
little,

value

and

Death

group,

it

not

communal

while
same

of the

helps to

the individual

the

group

the number

diminished.
natural

the

in view

regeneration and

of individual

and

great importance whether

that

individual

from

regarded both

same

familial attitude

between

and

betrayingthe
livingbeing or

question has

of
generation,so the close solidarity
correspondingsocial attitude make

change of form

and

understand

to

lilies growing

murderer;

husband

tell whether

of nature
generalsolidarity
great importance. As the
the

231

consciousness

greater similitude

with

and
man

indi-

plays
freely

plants,again, those are more

the forests
used which are regeneratedevery year.
When
in Poland
were
large,the inhibitions with regard to trees
much
weaker
than they are now;
(exceptfruit trees)were

part here.

the

Among

forest seemed

Among

the

to

restore

itself

animals, aside

easily and
from

the

ously.
spontane-

question of

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

232

economic

value, the

less
are
productive ones
readilysold or killed,etc.

more

ciated
appre-

individually more
The religious
system which we have sketched does not
tween
requireany magician,priest,or mediator of any kind bethe layman whose
everyday occupationskeep him
which
within the sphere of profanityand the sacred powers
too
a
are
special
dangerous to be approached without
in his practicallife is continually
preparation. Here every man
"

with

in touch

is supported and
religious
reality,
world.
integratepart of the religious

the

by it,is an
oppositionof sacred

surrounded

meaning in tl
it is only when the re
it appears later,
system; if sometimes
attitude toward nature
encounters
an
one
irreligious
ligious
wit
But
there is another practicalproblem connected
The

the present system which

the peasant must

within

community.

duties; he

againstthe
how

must

group
to

He

know

of which

how
he is

conciliate the

from, his fellow-members.

societyare

still more

no

nece
religious
specialist
the community of nature

the relations which

know

of this

members
and

makes

In order to prosper

sary.

profane has

and

know

must

to
a

exist among

make

his

good

part, how

offens

to avoid

good-willof, and

to

relations

the

The

right

own
an

hi

the

geance,
ven-

get helj
natun

complicated than in the

the degre
indispensableto know

various

and

society,and it is
and
the kind of solidarity
between
and
all natui
any
Last but
beings in order to act upon one through another.
who
knows
and understam
not least,only a man
nature
the warnings and
signs which other beings give to
human

foresee future

and

direct his

activityaccorc
it is evident that the ordinary rm
to this foresight.But
his occupationsno time to acquireall this knowl
has among
if he is sufficiently
come
edge, even
intelligent.Thence
A
the necessityof a specialist,
of a "person who knows."
can

man

who

"knows"

events

is

usually

called

wroz

or

wiedzqcy,

INTRODUCTION

"prophet" (augur)or

"knower";

should

Both

wise one."

233

be

mqdra, "the

woman

from
strictly
distinguished

the

magicianand witch on the one hand, the prieston the other,

into
although actuallythey often degenerate individually
witches.

magicians and

those who

among

The

have

is often

wroz

deal much

to

with

recruited

from

and

have

nature

keepers,
beeenough to learn what they need to know
but seldom hunters
shepherds,sometimes foresters,
fishermen,whose occupation requireskilling.Woman's
or
and therefore any
activityin peasant life is less specialized,
leisure

"

but

woman,

become

and

the

leisure;but this numerical

great

this shows
of

that the

"knowing,"
The

sex

usual

not

women

occupations

domestic

difference is

animals,
necessary

mately
approxi-

even

magicians and witches,and

while it has much

fundamental

wise

easilythe

more

such has

as

children,can

more

plants and

that between

as

many

the woman's

finds

woman

not

somewhat

closer relation with

because

so

has

are

probably because

than men,
involve

There

mqdra.

who

usually one

no

in

importance in
magic.

functions of the wise

man

or

matters

woman

are

from

generation to generation the store of

naturalistic-religious
"knowledge," including the legends
and tales,and to give practical
advice and help. They are
paid for their advice, but they never
try to harm
anyone
to

preserve

as

the

witches

this,because
the natural
"

is,

am

not

do, and

be moved

can

they are afraid of

community. Their
allowed

to

by no
incurringthe

reward

usual

in such

do this."

they
behave
tianjreliftion

answer

With

rather

to

of

vengeance

regard to

do

cases

the Chris-

They
indifferently.

go

church,perform the rites,use Christian formulae in their

but they do it rather in order to qyt credit
conjurations,

to

among

the

people and

magicians than

hand, they never

from
use

not

true

to

be identified

Christian

Christian

sacred

with

witr.hes

feeling. On

objectsin

and

the other

perverted

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

234

it has for the

has no value for them
as
sacrilege
witches and magicians. In fact,not only are there no magical
but they are able to destroy
elements in their practice,
magic. They recognizemagicalinfluences easily
; they know
and

sense,

at

once

magician

of hate

and

witch

or

and

show

for them.

contempt

Their

curious

main

tude
attiof

means

selves
in which they address themdestroyingmagic is conjuration,
in the bewitched
to the spirit
objectwith entreaties
and threats,and call for help to good spirits
and to natural
is regarded as hostile to harmful
objects.1 Nature in generaj.

natural

magic, and

gical
beingshelp one another againstmainfluences and
harmful
spiritsand collaborate also
useful spirits.The
same
plants and animals which

with

luck to

bring good
Flowers

buried

and

under

the presence
defends

the

faith in nature,

hope that the

to defend

It

disturber

in nature

cu

disclose

burned

tales the bluebell

of the

natural

but

harmony,

the

to
long as it remains alive,permits man
community of natural beingshas power enough
as

its members

againstthe

when

spirits;the magpie when

the stable hinders the bewitching
is easy to understand
that magic

above

hung

as

of the

one

away

againstwater

horses, etc.

appears

when

forces.

diately
helpfulimme-

are

the witches

keep
In

againstevil

growing

threshold,and

witch.

woman

killed and
of the

of

while

animals

and

men

him

defend

can

plantswhich

and
to

man

natural

againstthis
evil

death.

"

unnatural

evil

It is only when

as

well

as

the faith
t-

is

appeals to
in order

to

partly lost that this hope is shaken and man an

that is,to good magic
supernaturalpowers
vil
defend himself againstthe harm
brought by evil
"

"

magical influences.
2.

We

have

beliefs and
1

The

now

to

examine

the second

based
attitudes,

concept of "spirits"is of

system, treated below, in which

we

course

upon

here borrowed

.1:
gious
system of reli-

the admission
from

the second

of

religious

find the properly magical action developed.

INTRODUCTION

world

of

spiritswithin, beside

pointout

We

in the

235

that

no

or

above

historical connection

natural

objects.

be established

can

of historical

knowledge between this

system and the one justexamined, and perhaps it will never
since Christianity
be possible
to establish it with certainty,
it could of the vestiges of the
has destroyed as much
as
of the spirits
and magical practicesof
past. Most
pagan
the

present

present

in the pagan

were

state

introduced

with

period a system

naturalistic system.

It is

the Christian

but
religion,

coexisted
spirits
possiblethat the

of

even

with
two

the
were

closelyconnected at that time than later and that

had the effect of dissociating
It brought
them.
Christianity
world of spirits
in which
the pagan
a
spiritsbut not the
naturalism
found a place. Two
trate
examples will illuspagan
more

this

supposition. The

lightning or thunderstroke
and a
a natural
being (fire)
divinity;probably the two

time
(piorun)was at the same
divinityor the expressionof a
acter
not
meanings were
quite distinguished.Its second charassimilated to the Christian mythology, but not
was
the first. We
find, therefore,two contradictorybeliefs.
is the instrument
The lightning
of punishment in the hands
of God or a weapon
of the angelsin their fightagainstthe
be a great sinner.
struck by lightningmust
devils; a man
is
But there is also a belief that a man
struck by lightning
without
sin and goes immediately to heaven, because fire
in the naturalistic system is the purifactory
of
instrument
The snake
regeneration.1 Another
example is the snake.
time it was
was
a powerful natural
being,and at the same
consecrated
to a
divinity. In the Christian system it
became
a
symbol of the devil,but its first character was
1

turned

mixture

of both

elements

in another

mainly against the souls of children who

present the idea of punishment and

for not

is found

being Christian,but

baptismalwater.

at

the

also of
same

belief

die without

"

christening. There

regeneration.The

time the fire seems

lightningis

that

souls

to be

an

is

persecuted
equivalentof

are

236

PRIMARY-GROUP

left unheeded, and

that the snake

ORGANIZATION

thus

find the curious

we

is sometimes

considered

contradiction

benefactor

and

its

is a crime, and sometimes

killing
again it is the incarnation
of the evil spirit
and should always be destroyed.
The
existence of mythological beings is not in itself
always sufficient to constitute a religious
system different
from
be conceived
naturalism, for these beings may
as
natural beingsand included in the system of natural solidarity.
Thus, when we find legendsof giantsand dwarfs whc
within
live more
less like men
or
nature, helped by, am
helpfulto, animals, plants,or men, and who, like all natun
there are
fightagainst death and destruction; or when
and forest-beings
who need humai
mythical home-, field-,
of food and drink in order to live,and prove theii
offerings
gratitudeby protectingthe house and the crops, who avenge
of solidarity,
if not cared foi
and who run
a breach
away
have nothing but an imaginary extension of the natun
we
outside of this worlc
world, not a supernaturalstructure
The
which

attitudes

which

he ascribes to them
the whole

characterize

easilyunderstand
sary

about
cannot

natural

its role is.

an

these

different from

not

are

such

why

toward

community.
extension

beings am
those whic

And

of nature

we

is neces

given stage of knowledge

nature
extraordinaryand unexpected phenomei
propertiesol
always be derived from the assumed

and

what

the known
Man

shows

man

natural

the natural
ascribed

beings,and

either suppose

may

to

beingshave
them,

In any

or

two

ways

are

openec

knowledge is false,that
than those which he
properties
imagine that the inexplicable

that his

other

he

then

can

beings which up to tl
by some
present he had no opportunity of knowing. The secom
less intellectual effort am
explanationrequires,certainly,
fre
has been used in the historyof human
thought more
quently than the first. We do not know how far the mythc
phenomena

are

caused

238

PRIMARY-GROUP

fact that man's

other
Here

ORGANIZATION

attitude toward

them

is the

same

toward

as

that toward
and differs from
natural beings.
spirits
belong,for example, water
spirits,
boginki,who have

human

bodies but

heard

become

can

their linen

invisible

night or

at

will,who

be

can

midday, and who

bear children.
They often try to exchange their children
for human
not
ones, usuallyonly so long as the latter are
the foi
they can assume
yet baptized. Like real spirits
of any woman,
and it even
happens that under the aspect
of friends and relatives they entice a woman
after childbirtl
washing

from

her home

her

there,while

in its

into the forests and

of them

one

remains

place,and

abducted

at

at

marshes

steals the

in the house

and

mistreat

child,puts
in the form

her

o\

of th(

changed child can be recognizedfroi

its bad
temper, its growing ugliness,and its enormous
appetite. The boginkawho took the placeof the real worm
is also bad-tempered, capricious,
evil. In order t(
and
force the boginkato give the child back, a naturalistic means
is often used.
The boginka'schild must
be mistreated am
beaten.
Then
the boginkabrings the real child back am
takes her own
but she tries to avenge
herself by
away,
ing
bitingoff,for example, a fingerof the real child,or by makit as bad-tempered as her own.
With
the exceptionof
this means
of getting the real child back
(which shows
that the boginka is still very
much
a
mythologicalpagaiT
as
are
being),the other means
mainly magical and the same
againstthe devil the signof the cross, Christian amulets,
exorcisms.
The priestcan
free the woman
from the handsIs
of the boginka,but he must
all his ceremonial clothes
wear
A

woman.

"

turned

side out.

wrong

Another

kind

natural

of

beings, intermediarybetween

logical
mytho-

the topczyki children

are
beingsand spirits,
of illegalrelations and
drowned
born
secretlywithout
baptism. Except for the last point,in which the analog
"

INTRODUCTION

real

with

spiritsof

natural being.

He

has

change.
magical.

He

grows

not

and

animals
no

to

body, which

They
died

other

indeed,sometimes

The

by mere
Magical

strength
rites have

best way

is

simply

naturalistic

tendency in the representation

in a legend in which two of

The

taken

were

draws

againsthim.

topczykiis shown
drawn
them
are
by fishermen
hunchbacked
from having been
the

topczyk is

His action is physical,

hi water.

of the

years;

he may,

into the water, etc.

men

him.

is evident, the

spoilsthe hay,

He

particularpower
avoid

dead

the

239

to

shut

covered

was

up

and

One

pond.

hi

hair

with

house

human

of

out

pot for

like

was
seven

animal.

an

christened,but they

after.

soon

Skrzat,the house-being,and lesny,the wood-being,have

lost the
was

importance they

had

beneficent,the second

hi pagan

brought little harm

lose their way.

making men
beingis probablypreservedin

The

The

first

except by

last vestige of

field-

the

midday- woman,
poltuLnica,
in the field,
sleeps at noon

stranglesanybody who
the ridge between
particularlyupon
wisps (compare below) are beings who
who

times.

fields. Will-o'-thelive in marshes

and

character,have very
they have littleof a spiritual
themselves
around
small bodies,warm
a
fire,etc. They
viciouslymislead drunken
people, but do no other harm
unless aroused
tactless action.
Religiousmagic
by some
meadows

is only partlyefficient againstthem.

planetnikior latawce,is very

cloud-beings,
Sometimes
and hesitant.
logical
they are mytho-

belief in

The

indeterminate

beings dwelling in the clouds; sometimes

storm;
spiritsdirectingthe clouds, bringing rain, hail, thundersometimes
spiritsof children who died without
baptism (oftenrepresentedas persecutedby the clouds and
and women,
cians
magisometimes
even
lightnings);
livingmen
natural

or

witches.

The

means

of attracting or

dispelling

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

240

clouds

sometimes

are

the
againstlightning,
the field
plowing around
planting certain trees, etc.

stork and

"

as

shall

we

beautiful

particularlytwins,
sometimes
again magical,

oxen,

and

"

presently.
being is the kania, which
and

woman

in the form

appears

steals children,who

are

never

seen

who
eats
jedza is a horrid old woman
in the night,terrifies
wil, a being who comes
hinders people from
sleeping ("It stands
has two
you look"). The nightmare, zmora,

children;the
children, and

always where
meanings: it is sometimes
sometimes

also

soul,as

shall

we

see

later,but

half -spiritual
distinct,
being which strangles

night upon horses. All these

the same
intermediary character between
less materialistically
or
objectsand spirits;they are more
conceived, but they are acted upon
mainly by

natural

rides at

and

sleepingmen
beings have

magical means, not by appealsto natural solidarity.

The probable originof their intermediarycharacter
be

of

The

more.

any

with

swallow; againsthail,

see

Another
a

natural solidarity

based, therefore,upon

traced.

can

primitivelynothing but natural

and harmful
help from man
only
But
late
refused.
Christianitytried to assimidevil and to fightagainstthem by magical

They were
beings,requiringsome
if this

help was

them

the

to

Thus

means.

against which
were

past and

to

he used

the

transferred

was

even

long time

as

had

man

graduallythe

essentially
harmful,and

of the devil

they assumed

fight,and
to them.

in the present,

hesitated between

magic

harmful, and

of the church

tried to

drive

secretlyhe kept the old

himself
them, sought to excuse
againstthem, and tried to win
and

character
spiritual

find facts,in the

We

proving that
the

two

beings
consequently

which

of the

some

features of

the peasant for

attitudes.

againstthem,
them

away;

their

help.

Officially

treated them
but

privately
duties of solidarity
toward
for using the church magic
Even

if accept-

INTRODUCTION

241

sinful in the eyes of the church as

as
ing their help was
acceptingthe help of the devil and led to damnation, the
to believe this. And
he
peasant could hardly be moved
did not even
believe in the complete efficiency
of church
magic against them.
Up to the present magic remains
and it is easier to get rid of the devil
only partlyefficient,
than of these

intermediarybeings.
interestinggradation
particularly

A
with

regard

the

to

soul.

human

of beliefs is found

There

are

least six

at

varieties of

beings correspondingto the concept

the ordinary vampire, the man-nightmare, the
the specter,the soul doing penance
vampire-spirit,
the

of soul

"

Christian

earth,

on

soul

coming from purgatory, hell, or, occasionally,

paradise. The relative degree to which these spiritsare
detached from the body and lead an independent existence
is the reason
for this diversity.
The ordinary vampire, mentioned
in the precedingsection,
is

scarcelya spiritat

all.

It is

livingbody,

less alive than before death

and devoid

ideas and

be touched,

feelings.It

and killed for the second

again.

Sometimes

farm-

have

sexual intercourse
but

it does not appear

and

itself at

occupy

vampire

die

can

night
even

dren,
bring forth chil-

his wife and

they are always weak

grappled with,

even

the male

housework, and
with

to

of the human

some

time, after which

it continues

with

or

can

of

if

even

soon

"

of

course

cause
be-

the father has less life. The

of the

vampire

are

to
(ability

relative

pass

characters
only spiritual
tions
independence of physicalcondi-

appear
through the smallest opening,to dis-

suddenly, etc.),which was acquired

of being influenced to
only after death, and the possibility
certain extent
a
by religiousmagic sign of the cross,
amulets
again a character not possessedby the
prayer,
of getting
man
duringhis life. But the most effective means
and

to

appear

"

"

rid of the

vampire

are

the

well-known

natural

actions

"

PRIMARY-GROUP

242

cuttingoff

ORGANIZATION

the head,

passing of an aspen pole through the

heart, binding of the feet with particular
plants,etc.
The human
nightmare is alreadya soul,detaching itself
from the living
body during sleepand embracing,strangling,
and animals or the sap of plants.
sucking the blood of men
During its absence the body lies as dead, and real death
follow if someone

may

find the

back.

way

since it exerts

(the scar

it,because

turns

soul is of

The

immediate

then the soul cannot

material

course

half -material,
be wounded

action,can

body), can be physically

because it can be detached
grasped. But it is also spiritual,
from the body, assume
various forms
animal, plant,even
inanimate
object can pass where a material being could
not
finallybecause the really efficient means
pass, and
againstit are magical (Christianamulets),not natural.
The Christian vampire is also a soul,of the same
nature
the nightmare, but walking after the man's death, and
as
thus stillmore
dissociated from the body. It is not even
call it "Christian"
referred to any particularbody. We
because
it originatedfrom
the primitive,bodily vampire
under the evident influence of the Christian theory of the
is then

seen

the

upon

"

"

soul and
soul

of Christian

must

rites.

be detached

from

bodily vampire theory is

the Christian
christened
and

then

soul cannot
it belongs to
solved

rites themselves

gave

becomes

lives

on

different

earth

and

frightfully
numerous,

on

hand,

christened

after death; the old

in accordance

with

the other hand, the

vampire, unless damned,

spiritdifferent class of spirits.The contradiction
a

by

theory, to

Christian
The

second

was

and

there

which
are

the
two

through baptism,

becomes

legend, there

not

But,

birth, that

through confirmation.

one

body

therefore

be
a

the

the

system of beliefs.

was

of which

On

a
a

the

Catholic

souls,one
the

other

soul of the unconfirmed

vampire. According
time when
vampires

people appealed to

the

to
were

pope

INTRODUCTION

243

help. The pope advised them to give two names

baptism, in order to christen also the second soul.
that time the vampires have almost disappeared.

for

specter is

The
is

always

frighteningmen

its aim

is

or

in

church,

not
anti-Christian,

specter

of church

the souls
intermediary being between
which are stillpartly connected
with the system of nature
and those which are alreadyquitesupernatural.
earth belong to the latter
The souls doing penance
upon

objects.

It

is

spirit.It

magic. There is a story of

who
use
planned a sacrilegious

of church

Since

It appears

cemetery

It is thus not

in the church.

sometimes

of

useful.

nor

night,walking near

at

kind

and
identified,

It is neither harmful

visible form

afraid

undetermined

very

soul, but seldom

some

unknown.
a

at

an

Their

penance

They manifest

their existence

they talk,sometimes
bodies

which

when,

as

they

people (some of them,

conceived), those
istically
tened

those who

penitence,and
line.

The

often

can

penance

as

which

they

it is
of

do has

them, giving them

the

sex

should

hears them

of the

always

dead

children,but also

men

throw
two

by
to

who

were

even

unchris-

without

lar
particu-

some

acter;
magical charthus

has

who

the

died without

various

furniture

some

names,

is unknown.

Children

"

The

stillnatural-

suddenly,

the sin and

always analogous to
destroyingthe sinfulness.

who

seen,

only in

baptism try to attract attention

cracking in the fire,rapping on the
moaning in the wind, etc. in order
man

belong

group

sinned

form.

into real bodies,

enter

died

who

times
some-

be touched,

not

have

we

have

hi any

appear

happens, they
plant. To this

or

numerous.

mainly by noises,but

they

assume

sometimes

animal,

human,

aim

the idea of

originseems
purely Christian,as
itself. Spiritsof this class are
very

group.

noises

and

"

walls,

baptized; the
and baptize
water
be

Adam

and

Eve,

for

only unbaptized
wrongly baptized,wander
Not

PRIMARY-GROUP

244

their death.

after
many

killed in

church.

They

be

cannot

locality

one

againstthe

accordingto

christened

they were

battle

in

are

their souls find

and

eighteenthcentury,
for

Greek

instance,there

For

of Russians

graves

in the

ORGANIZATION

Poles

rest

no

where,
any-

the rites of the

helped, and

await

must

the last

judgment. Those who died a sudden death always

the place where
to confess
they died. They want

haunt

their sins,and

it happens sometimes

saved, if only they find

are

them.

sudden

Any

death

that

courageous

something

has

peasant and is supposed to be sent,

devil

"

clear.
cases,

Thus

wrought.

wronged the
one

or

poor,

who

to

compel

was

refused

buried

or

miser

during

to show

his heir to divide it with

the

looks
will-o'-the-wisp,

wishes

in vain to correct

did not

his wrong

over

them.

respect the food and

pail with the

pailin search

dishwater
of remnants

threw

is heard

at

in order

and

of

the

standing
under-

livingfrom

surveyor

in the form

the

remnants

who

woman

into the

night dabbling in
to

of
and

measurements,
soul of

The

hovers

the poor

his bidding. The soul

fulfilling
measured
falselyduring his life wanders

ticularly
par-

livingwhere

the

or

his life,

hid his money,

way

church; but the devil usuallyhinders

who

they

the church, and

giftsto

wealth,wants

but

which

the harm

in any

by God,

not

to undo

who

man

his collected

it is or

for the

uncanny

by the
whether
with God's permissionor not is not always
Finally,people whose sin was not, as in the previous
but some
a lack of religious
particular
purification,

evil deeds, often try in vain

about

they succeed and

priestto absolve

stillher hunger.

the
A

slappedhis father wanders at night,in human

but indistinct form, and compels his own
livingson to give
Two
kums
who
blow.
him
a
quarreled during their life
find rest until somebody brings them
cannot
togetherand
man

who

reconciles
the

mass

once

them.
wanders

man

who

hunted

after his death

and

Sunday during
hinders people from
on

246

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

being, although often malicious, harmful, or disgusting.

The proverb: "The
devil is not so terrible as he is painted,"
is very popular,as well as the other:
"Who
lives near
hell,
In dealingwith men
the
asks the devil to be his kum."
devil is often cheated,not only because he is not particularly
clever,but also because he usuallyshows more
honesty in
show.
Often
the
term
keeping agreement than men
"devil"
is simply substituted for some
other mythological
are
forgotten. With
being whose old character and name
regard to the devils we therefore find also a gradation of
But
all the devils are
more
more
spiritual,
spirituality.
the natural world, than the mythological
detached
from
beings of the first category and than most of the souls,so
of the devil for the

that the substitution

boginka,the nightmare,

evolution
from
the
an
vampire, etc., means
naturalistic toward the spiritualistic
religious
system.
The least spiritual
the local devils,who
are
are
more
less attached
to particularplaces ruins,marshes, old
or
but can
They are usuallyinvisible,
trees, crossroads,etc.
the

"

show

themselves

at

will either in the form

of animals

but also black dogs, rams,

owls, cats, bats, reptiles,

(usually
horses,

half -human
or in a human
or
body. Although popular
etc.)
imaginationhas naturallybeen influenced by the traditional
mediaeval
picturesof the devil and orthodoxly conceives
the devil in his real form, stillit has
them as representing
constructed for itself representations
more
adequate to the
devil is representedas a little man
The
popular sense.
in "German
clothes"
(fashionof the second half of the
eighteenth century) with a small "goat's beard," small
horns hidden
horse-

to

do

with

he does not

being who

the

try

to

frightensthe

he has

tail and

one

paintings. The local devil has

tion;
questionsof temptation and salvaget any souls,but is a mischievous
livingand gets them into trouble,

in the

as
goat-leg,

or

nothing

his hat; sometimes

under

INTRODUCTION

merely in

often
a

joke. Sometimes he has indeed

to perform,for example, watching buried
livingshould get them; there is a real

serious function

treasures, lest the

danger

of life in

flower which
him

to

searchingfor treasures, or
the eyes

opens

the

see

of

the way

247

of the possessor

under

treasures

purify the treasures

long as the soul of the

do it

does

as

and

treasure

it

be

can

found

by

enables

with

year

who

buried
to

ceases

the

fern

It is believed
a

man

this, the devil

after

penance;

once

the

and

the earth.

that these devils

and

for

fire,
them

watch

the

this tale

living. In

the local devil is alreadyassociated with the purgatory devil.

class of devils

second

The

who

those

are

possess

the

animals.
Possession is quitedifferent
or
livingbeings,men
In the latter case
from the assumption of a visible form.
but in the first with a
have to do with an apparition,
we
dwells.
the devil,himself invisible,
natural thing in which
be explicitly
The natural thing can
thought to have a soul
besides the

devil,or the

be many

may

harmful
as

well

some

to

as

devils who

The

of consideration.
"

are

that

if we

And

mythology, was
which

had

note

be left out

possessionof
Not

useful to the

and

good

others.

idea

the

take

three,five,seven.

all of them

son
perare

possessedperson

that sometimes

wise

possessedone, we must conclude

of possession,originatingin the Christian
ena
simply applied at a later time to phenomthe system of
different meaning under
a

is identified with

woman

of the soul may

matter

naturalism.
The

third kind

of devils

independent existence
still mainly interested in
an

to the orthodox
men

them

play also

co-operationon

outside
matters

tradition their

in order to get them

makes

are

those

of the natural

world, are

of this world.

According

only aim ought

damned, but
the

who, while leading

the

to be

peasant sometimes

with whom
part of spirits

the basis of

tempting
simple

without
is possible,
reciprocity

248

PRIMARY-GROUP

involvingdamnation.
lack

they

ORGANIZATION

They have supernaturalpowers, but

achievements, and this makes
a
operation
co-

natural

fruitful for both

the

apprenticeof a
while teachinghis
in the

butter

with

but he

man

some

and

of

whom

In

tion
connec-

all-knowing)

Or

he

tional
excep-

for his

know

not

agriculture,
gives

This is the

treasury.
sexual

the

sows

better,or he

have

the

upon

gettingan
bring him,

grow

hidden

is going

of

for he does

witches

receives his friends at

who

is not

cheese.

the crops

out

money

learn the trade

magical powers

own

become

to learn what

(forhe

man,

make

can

type of devil with

"*

miller and

givesthe witch the means

quantity of milk, while she must

field in company

"

of his

purposes,

devil may

supernaturaltricks.

master

some

Or he

unknown

the

or

community

human

while he bestows
witch.

blacksmith

Thus,

the witches,the devil wants

with
on

sides.

relations

or

weekly (sometimes monthy

"A

"

or

yearly)banquet

the top of the Lysa Gdra.1

on

Of

course

vf

m"tive

tne

f* ^but

J^
^

its moral

value

popular

and

important,
The
devil,

doubtful.

is sometimes

,V

according to

"^* ^ "f a
" "" as

man

as

or
explicit

an

n*s

own

reward

relations among

is very

of damnation

of his rich

servant

tacit agreement,
for

men

some

in
service,

poor

peasant may

neighbor for

the soul

takes

certain

the

same

way

become

time

to

pay

a
a

Sf

debt

which

he cannot

scarcelyany
promise his

pay

idea of moral

moment

the

man

means.

The

idea of

does not

mean

most

man

may

even

And

often cheated, for at the last

frequentlygets

And

by magical

rid of him

if the sin

as

leads to hell,it

such

of the break
of its magicalinfluence,

"Bald
Mountain," proper
provinceof Kielce,but used also
1

punishment.

temptation,in this system of beliefs,

"temptation to commit a sin,"but temptation

do business.

is because

there is often

way;

child to the devil before the child is born.

it is here that the deviHs

to

in another

name

appliednow

mainly

to

of the
a

magical

mountain

in the

in other provinces in relation to local hills.

INTRODUCTION

249

with the heavenly powers

and the establishment
solidarity
with the devil. The only sins to
of a magical solidarity
his followers are those which
which the devil really
instigates
have
immediately this magical consequence
sacrilege,
"

denial of the

heavenly

the other hand,

On

him.

recognitionof

effect is to establish

rites whose

and

powers,

we

the devil often appears

an

of breaks

avenger

find also attitudes which

between

and

men

functions which
unable

to

The

societyor

last class of devils

have

almost

except sometimes

They

earth

well

as

vail
pre-

spiritualistic
in hell

as

or

men,

as

even

performs vicariouslythe
nature

for

are

some

reasons

perform.

in hell and
men,

He

nature.

human

on

between
solidarity

of

devil,

with
magical affinity

in the naturalistic system transferred to the

one;

the

torture

the

are

dwell

those who

permanently
nature
or
living

relation with

no

taking souls

souls and

the earth to hell.

from

endure

punishment

themselves

for their revolt

againstGod.
The category of heavenly beings God, Jesus, the Holy
Spirit,the Virgin Mary, the saints,and the angels are
"

"

them
between
Any connection
completely spiritualized.
and actuallyexistingnatural beings,if it ever
existed,has
is identical with the
been forgotten. For example, heaven
the thunder and lightning
skies and is God's dwelling-place,
are

manifestations

activity,
etc., but there is not
identityof God with those natural

of God's

trace of any
slightest
phenomena.
problem of
Naturally the theological
The
the peasant's attention.
attracts

the

little importance, and

is individualized

and popular prayers

liturgical
his

symbolizationby

the

addressed

dove.

in this system, dissociated

lifeof Jesus. The

names

are

God

Trinityseldom
Holy Spirit has

the

only through
to

him

and

through

and

Jesus

beings,owing

the

to the

are

tainly,
cer-

earthly

often mixed, but the functions

PRIMARY-GROUP

250

ORGANIZATION

to
sufficiently
distinguished

are

and

allow

Jesus as separate divinities in the

God's

main

This power

attribute

is not

limited

in this

and

is

by
God

sense

magical

but it is limited

by

influence.

directs the world

consider

of the

eyes

of the

God

peasant.

things.

over

power

the nature
may

to

us

selves,
thingsthem-

be called

all-powerful;

magicalpower of the devil and even

of man,
althoughit is certainly
greater. It may be used at
but it is not so
and with regardto any object,
any moment
used in fact; many
phenomena go on without any divine
God

the

when

he

wishes,but

does

support it. The idea of creation is rather undetermined

not

play an important part in the peasant's

mythology ; it is usuallyassimilated to workmanship.
and

does

not

divine power
be used for beneficent or
can
without regard to properlymoral reasons.
purposes
The

but
qualitatively

harmful
It is

morally antagonisticto the devil's

in the harmful
There is,of course, a certain principle
power.
of God; an explanation
be given
can
or beneficent activity
not

of every manifestation of God's benevolence

But this explanation
has a magical,not a

or

malevolence.

moral, character,

and moral terms.

God's
expressedin religious
attitude toward
man
(and toward nature as well)depends
by his acts establishes
upon the magicalrelation which man
between
God and himself.
If the magical side of human
with the tendencies
or of natural thingsharmonizes
activity
of divine activity,
the latter is necessarily
beneficent,and
ever
it is necessarily
harmful in the contrary case, that is,whenthe acts of thingsare in harmony with the intentions
of the devil. The main sins,therefore,are those against
rites that is, all kinds of sacrilegeand every
religious
even

if it is

"

"

other sin is termed

as

"offense of

sacrilege.Therefore

to

every

sin,and it is enough

harmony
.

also

with

God

God," that is,assimilated

magicalchurch

to

in order

establish
to

keep

rites can

relation of

destroy

magical

one's self and

one's

INTRODUCTION

property safe from

results also that

any

harm.

of

magical estrangement

the

dominant;

the whole

if not

it may

act, and

made

also extend

from

this it

sin reach

much

just retribution
from

God

situation of the

future

leads to eternal damnation

But

of the

the consequences

they should if the idea

farther than

itself over

incidental

251

extends
and

man

good by

itself

were

over

thus

some

trary
con-

the

man's

bring calamities to his family,community, farmto his purely natural environment.

stock,and even
ordinated
subsystem, has the somewhat
Jesus,in this religious
positionof a magical mediator between the divine
He is the founder and keeper of the magiand man.
cal
power
is put into a relation of harmony
rites by which
man
with God or defended
againstthe devil. Accordinglyit is
monizing
haras
Jesus who judges men's actions and personalities
milieu and

with

not

or

God, and

mainly depends.

soul after death

personalizedthan God, but

in his eyes the magical,not

He

he is also not
the

the lot of the

whom

upon

is somewhat
a

moral

moral, value

more

divinity;

of the act

is

always important.
ity helpingalways a.nd everybody hy_the way of miracles.
In fact,she is the only divinityworking miracles even
now.
For, although the whole activityof God and Jesus is supernatural,
because
it does not break the normal order of things,
well as magical
this normal
order includes material
as
,

phenomena,
the material

and

magicalaction

of

of

miracle

sin,of

and

the
both
when

spontaneous

some

it is

there are two coexisting

orders,
exactly,
magical. The real miracle is therefore
orders.
Healing a sick person is only

more

that breaks

one
a

or,

God.

when

sickness is a result of natural

action

the sickness is

is

or

necessary

the

or

witch, but

consequence

magical harmony between man

preciselythe kind of miracles,besides

dissolution of the
This

of the devil

causes

PRIMARY-GROUP

252

ORGANIZATION

simple magical actions,ascribed

She

Mary.

in favor

disturbs

order itself;she

saves

sins in this world

and

even

of

from

men

commonly

divine

the

men

the

to

the consequences

Virgin
magical
of their

in the other.

sphereof activity. Every

saint has a specialline along which he acts, usuallybeneficently,
by modifying, through a supernaturalinfluence,
natural phenomena.
Some saints,as, for instance,
St. Franciscus,give also magical help against the devil,but this
The

saints have

limited

a more

frequent than help in natural difficulties. Thus,

St. Agatha to extinguish
Anthony helps to find a lost article,

is less
St.

Every man's

fire,etc.

patron saint

saves

him

in

averts
danger. Every parish has a patron saint who
calamities from it; the day of this saint is a parishfestival.
There are patron saints of corporations,
fraternities,
cities,

provinces.

St. Stanislaus is the patron of Poland; St. Casi-

mir, of Lithuania.
functions

The

They have

to

souls

of the

angels are rather undetermined.

to praiseGod, to take
fightagainstthe devils,

paradisefrom the earth or from purgatory,

to fulfil,
accordingto their original
meaning, errands of God.
watches
The guardian angel of every man
over
him, to keep
him from natural and magical dangers, and defends his soul
againstthe devil immediately after death.
human

If

to

omit

we

now

natural

beings and

its pure

form

as

notice that there

"

divine

and

all the

intermediary stages

world in
atid take the spiritual
spirits,
from the material world, we
distinguished
are

communities
antagonistic
spiritual
To
and
the first belong also once

two

devilish.

forever the souls of the saved, to the second

Souls

damned.

These

two.

by
and

in

are

purgatory

communities

kind
particular

they

between

of

opposed

are

are

on

each

the way

between

connected, each

which
solidarity
to

the souls of the

we

other also

can

by

the

separately,
call magical,
magical con-

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

254

than eating,eatingmore
ently
insistinsistently
than breathing. The
is hardly
phenomenon of snow
explainedmagicallyby the Polish peasant, while hail and
thunderstorm
are
frequently referred to magical
very

sexual life more

activities.
this is only a difference of degree between

But

the

cal
magi-

physicalsystems. The difference of nature lies

from physical
elsewhere.
Magical action differs essentially
action in that the process by which
one
object influences
be analyzed in physicalaction,
is given and can
another
while in magical action it is not given and avoids analysis.
and physical
There is a continuitybetween
physicalcause
effect;there is an immediate
passage, without intermediary
and

the

magical

stages, between
when

milks the cow;

when

field because

of too

of action of

one

known, the

cause

without

into

as

by milking a
neighbor'scow
formulae
her

and

distant

rain

much

fightstrikes

and

effect

of

many

is known,

stages as

we

own

burning

some

when

winter

ripen,but

never
"

here

between

the

first

the passage
another.

the

blossom
the

process

between
Therefore

the

when

the milk

and

of action

can,

of

four

witch,
of her

and

the

effect
do
we

the

new

until

month

every

Four

of

corners

during

sown

again

cause

continuityis

not
cannot

know

thing
any-

analyze

objectand the state of

ways
course, modify in many

the state of
we

other

analyze the

chapters of

broken, the influence is immediate, we

about

each

milk-pot;when by sayingsome
headache
to
plants she causes

Gospels,written down and buried at

field,avert hail-clouds;when peas,
moon,

But

in the

supposedly

or

can

house, draws

own

into her

wish.

blow;

the process

with

we

rot

cases

connected

are

another
crops

in all these

"

continuity,and

stick in her

enemy;

when

another

thingupon

break

any

process

in

man

drives hail-clouds away;

wind

when

magical effect. Thus,

her neighbor'sstable and

by night to

comes

woman

and

cause

one

INTRODUCTION

direct it by

physical
process,
but

255

various
introducing

additional

only abolish the magical influence

determined
destroyit,by introducingsome
contrary factors.
This character of the magical relation explainsthe fact
causes;

can

we

of those

that most

relations are.,

be, symbolical. This symbolism

rather appear

or

can

it is

the desired

in the example
as
effect,

stick,or in

analogy

between

the

us

to

different forms.

assume

Sometimes

to

supposed

and

cause

of the witch

milkinga

the very

generalcase when two bones of the bat,

a rake and
a fork,are
resemblingrespectively
used, the first
to attract
something desirable,the second to push away
Sometimes, again,it is a part represomething undesirable.
senting
the
of

man

whole

whole, as when
used

are

body,

taken from

when

field is

harm
a

or

rite

hairs
to

or

heal

performed

supposed to

finger-nail
parings

through
upon

affect the whole

them

few

the

grains

crop.

Or

objectis presumed to exert

influence upon
another objectwhich is or was
in spatial
an
when
as
an
proximitywith the first,
objecttaken from the
an

action

or

to

some

house

or

performed upon

some

sand

from

some

under

the

threshold

is used

to

Succession
magically the house or its inmates.
in time, particularly
if repeated,becomes
often a basis of a
beliefs in
of many
magical connection; this is the source
lucky or unlucky phenomena. The connection between the
word and the thing symbolized by it is,as we know, particularly
The words
often exploitedfor magical purposes.
have
immediate
influence upon
exert an
a magical
reality,
influence

creative power.

The

relation of property is also assumed

is hit by magic
magical action; the owner
ciprocally
exerted upon
some
object which belongs to him, and, reto affect
it is possible
by bewitching the owner
natural
his property. Things often connected
by some
causalitycan be easilyconnected by a magical causality;
food can be spoiledby bewitchingthe fire upon which it is
to

be

vehicle of

256

PRIMARY-GROUP

cooked, the miller

ORGANIZATION

effect,that is,by turning

example gives us
by analogy

the

wings

combination

wind

the

arouse

can

by imitatingits

of the mill.

of

kinds

two

last

The

of

ism:
symbol-

(natural)cause
effect. Such
combinations
to
are
frequent in the
very
more
complicated kinds of magic, as when a witch, by
sittingupon goose eggs, brings hail as big as those eggs, or
when

relation

the

by

host is put into

consecrated

the bees

make

and

This

prosper.

beehive

last is

of

in order

to

tion
triplemagical rela-

priestchange the host into the flesh

of Jesus; the particlerepresents the whole
divinity;the
supposed effect of religiousperfectionwhich the host
is transferred by analogy
the soul of the man
exerts upon
:

of the

the words

to the insects.

in all these

magical relation is supposed to

exist among
objectswhich are in some
way alreadyconnected
in human
consciousness,so that one of them pointsin some
of it,symbolizesit. And we
to the other,reminds
one
way
that this is a necessary
condition,
can
easilyunderstand
which it would
without
be hardly possibleto imagine the
existence of a magical relation between
two
given objects.
Indeed
in physicalcausalitywe
follow the process of
can
Now

cases

causation,and therefore (exceptin

or

is the
process

think

reasoning)we
of

cause

determined

what

given effect.

is hidden, and
of

know

given fact
fact B

effect

But

there would
A

rather

being

as

than

of

cases

in

error

has

cause

of any

or

what

magical causalitythe

therefore be
the

of observation

cause

of the

or

no

effect of

the types enumerated

above.

innumerable

happen about this time if A and B had

been connected
Sometimes
previouslyin the mind.
for
facts are
connected
and the reason
traditionally
connection
can
no
longerbe determined, but whenever
it is always a symbolicalrelation of some
the reason
see
other facts which

to

reason

not

the
this
we

of

INTRODUCTION

the

If, now,

probablybe

257

magical causalityexisted alone,it

considered

natural, not

supernatural. But

coexists,in the peasant'sexperience,with

multitude

purely physical causality,includingmost

of

cases

would

of

it
of

the

phenomena, and ic becomes supernatural

by antithesis to these, exactly as spiritsbecome
natural
superby antithesis to material beings.1 And certainly
of the magic came
to the peasant with
the fact that most
must
already connected with spirits
Christianityand was
material

common

helped to develop this oppositionbetween natural and

supernaturalcausality.
of magic with the spiritual
But the connection
beingsis

have

merely

not

material
at

result of their

the

world.

Magic

contains

in itself elements

this connection

certain stage, make

oppositionto

common

the

which,
Indeed,

necessary.

instrument
of theoretical
an
magicalcausalityis by no means
explanationbut of practice;only such relations as are
supposed to help to attain a desirable end or to avoid a
tion
Every magical reladanger are taken into consideration.
in some
is therefore connected
more
or less closely
way
the idea of the conscious

with

acts, who

wants

necessary
a

stick must

which

think
to

directs the

in all endeavors
to the person
a

hidden

if the
1

and

to

whom

treasure

diggerhas

The

antithesis is

the

at

certain

end.

In

many

same

time

of the

whose

woman

deprive of milk, and it is her intention

magical effect. It is also indispensable
sickness

convey
one

direct the attention

to

desires to harm.

harmful

magical

at this moment
evident
particularly

magical effect. Thus,

water

it to

who

somebody

she wants

cow

apply

of

primitivemagic, intention is a
relatively
milks
who
witch
condition
of causality. The
in

even

cases,

to

intention

water

are

powers

the intention
when

the

same

naturally washes

an
object from
magicallypurifies

searchingfor

In

neutralized

(provisionally

object exerts

natural

physicalstains,but

the devilish magical power.

secrated
con-

258

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

assumed)

of

And we know
givingthe treasure to a church.
of consecrated
that in religiousmagic the use
objectscan
have its whole influence only if exerted with a determined
intention and belief in its efficiency.There
are
certainly
in which
the effect of a magical cause
is precases
many
sumed
the intention is not
to come
mechanically,when

amulet

produce

to

necessary

talisman, has

or

when

action,or

beginning.

find

action does not

result from

when

not

members

have

been

objectsand

object,
magical

ently.
inadvert-

action in the

(when their

talismans

and

natural power,

own

intentionally

moment

some

such

are

the

of the inadvertent

that is,

gious
relifirst,
naturalistic,

of the

of those which

many

Most

prepare.

intentional

their

magicalpowers;

with

endowed

an

is brought about

some

at

when

property of

permanent

of the amulets

Most

they are
system)

happens

magical effect

usuallywe

But

This

it.

all the consecrated

magicians and

actions have

witches

magical

influence because

they are actions of conscious beings who,

if they have no explicit
intention at the given moment,
of will,are capable of intentional influence.
a latent power

even

have

the

By

supposed

to

usual

exert

action which

it

association

the

same

the inadvertent

influence

resembles,because

the

directed,takes the habitual channel.

is

conscious

no

more

suppose,
case

every

of

or

less of the conscious

short,in

magical relation
it

And

even

when

non-

there

between

somebody,

magical causation there is more

element completing the mechanical
and effect;there is always
cause

man

or

and the object through

spirit,
is here merely an instrument,

the action

not

spontaneouslyacting being, as

system.

spiritual
power,

every

which
a

intentional

beginning,the peasant tends to

less definitely,
kind of intention in
or
some
imprevisiblegood or bad luck which happens

him.

behind

the

is

action in the

to

In

as

action

is exerted

in

the

naturalistic

INTRODUCTION

gradationof the part which consciousness

which is also the basis
playsin magical causality,
human
and spiritual
distinction between
magic. In the
is

there

But

of

259

curious

ordinary ritualistic magic the intention is only one component

of the magical action,more
but subordinated
or less necessary,
the

objectivecausal

the

more

to

phenomena

"

Its role is increased

the words

when

are

not

mere

that it is the intention,not

sometimes

the intention.
between
consequences.

influence
because
man

only

Those

the
can

who

desire.

its form, which

which
expression,

the visible

it is

because

act

more,

marked

The

proves

is essential.

counts

there is

case

times
some-

portion
dispro-

exert

being which

looks,

concentrated.

But

conscious

spiritual
powers

are

magical influence by

consciousness

the

keeps hidden

and
spirits

feelingor

the

In any

sometimes

beings may
devil who

actual

arrangement),but

This is the privilege

help of visible means.
spiritswho, when completely detached from
act immediately by the magic of their will.
spiritsand natural
are
intermediary between

alone,without

nature,

and

in itself,
and its
physicalact, trifling
Evidently the "evil eye" has a magical

never

of

rite.

the

in the eye

can

an

sound

is efficient whatever

curse

In the evil eye

complicated the

more

by words, particularly
traditional formulae
(to a great

of
spontaneous expressions

blessingor

visible

the action

in

efficient by their

extent

the

so,

relation between

need

the

treasures

can

get

The

with fire;local

cleans them

of the lower devils

some

visible rites.

help of

man

into their

by holding any part of his body or his clothing,etc.

But the more
and powerful devils and the
spiritualized
heavenly spiritsdo not need anything for their magical

power

action.

And

of

course

the whole

supernatural beings depends

direct
unable,

magical influence by
to

do

upon

their

this,they would

not

importance
practical
their
mere

count

abilityto

will.
at

exert

If they

of
a

were

all,for,being

2"5o

PRIMARY-GROUP

detached

from

ORGANIZATION

through material
objects. In other words, the dissociation of mythological
dition
beingsfrom the material world is possibleonly on the conthat those beings can
influence this world by the
magic of their will,and thus the magic of consciousness is
the condition of the existence of spirits.For spirits
without
exist in the popular mythology;
practicalinfluence cannot
their power
of their reality.
is the measure
This magical power, which, among
the spirits,
God possesses
in the highestdegree and of which the spirits
in general
is nothing but the facility
than men,
have more
of producing
magical effects. It is quiteparallelwith the "energy" of
nature, they cannot

act

and certain livingmen

physics. The spirits
possess it from
the beginning. Its manifestations can be directed and often
checked at will. This is the case
higherbeings,but
among
it happens that the magical power
tends to
men
among

manifest
act

itself even

of will.

"inborn"

The

in
case

tendency to evil; the permanent

will is stronger than

nature

is

oppositionto the present conscious

is exactlyanalogous to that of an

so

bent

upon

actual

an

motive;

direction of the
the

individual's

exercising
magical influence

upon

all

within his sphere of action that he can

objectswhich come
refrain from exercising
it upon
some
only with difficulty
who have the evil
particularobject. Thus, many
persons
eye

do harm

even

particularmeans
example, look upon
object which

may

they do

when

in order
their
be

to

own

harmed.

not

wish

it and

must

use

neutralize

their power,

nails before

lookingupon

Of

the

witches, in

for
any

many

localities the

opinionprevailsthat they are more

unhappy
than guilty,
that their magical power
is either inherited or
of God
communicated
to them
(a curse, since
by a curse
their power
even

her

is contrary to the divine

power),and

cases

quoted in which a witch, unable or unwilling to

neighbors,exerted her influence aimlesslyupon

are

harm

inani-

262

The

of

curse

can

of towns,

But

centuries

laws

adapt itself to

idea of consecration

The

we

objectsonly within
have spoken above.
to every

the

into

the

legends

earth, of

same

human

as

way

the laws of

is used

physicalcausality.
explainmagical powers

to

the limits of the

Thus,

use, but

the

hermits, etc.
by priests,
of spiritual
beings when acting
adapt itself to the immanent

the

techniquemust

the town

cursed

when

into stone

nary
ordi-

cursed
are

sank

an

Gniezno

Numerous

ago.

of

that

the town

since St. Adalbert

fortune

magical power
material objectsmust
of magical causalityin

upon

from

or

churches, castles which

turned

men

nine

than

more

in

Thus, nobody

make

ever

influential than

saint is more

person.

of

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

each

symbolism

not

every

one

by

of which

objectcan

consecration

be

secrated
con-

acquires

of action.
For
only a particularand determined
power
example,in Loreto consecrated bells are particularly
adapted

thunderstorm, salt consecrated

to

avert

St.

Agatha extinguishesfire,determined

acquire

in the

washes

evident

to his

of

the

The

power

have

we

the devil put upon

own

relation

use

Another

the laws of

mother's

or

Hence

use.

the

water

said

above, because

between

priesthas

as

in the

communicated

children; God
to

of fire in hell and, secondarily,in purgatory

meaning;

The

curse.

particularly
powerful because

parents and

in hell,fire tortures

the universal

becomes

magic is found
is

curse

objects,consecrating

against fire in the

good example of adaptation

medium,
purificatory

to
spirits

fulfil it.
1

secrated,
con-

material

away

naturalistic system.1

father's

As

water.

dominant

of the

plants,when

of

dirt,consecrated water, by an
symbolism, purifies
magically,that is,destroysthe

which

stamp
and

of

use

water

them

laws

immanent

the

day

against determined
perhaps is this adaptationof spirits
of magical causalityso evident
as

Nowhere

etc.
diseases,
to

magical

the

on

without

purifying.

us

has

that
a

must
an

old

ferent
completely dif-

INTRODUCTION

263

peasant confessed the cursingof his

sin of his whole

life. The

went

to
obliged

to

see

already met

have

We

most

heinous

son

to

?"

interfere with the business of God

it that the

the

as

the army
and was
the peasant said: "Why did I

son

in his confession

and
killed,

son

He

felt that God

was

killed.

was

than

more

the problem of

once

The
belief in magical causation
leads
magical dualism.
to the standpointof a dualityof contrary influnecessarily
ences.
does not bring
a magical action
Indeed, whenever
the intended
result,the agent can only either deny the

efficacyof the

magical cause

the

used

means

or

suppose

neutralized

was

by

that the influence of

a

contrary influence,

the causation

but

In physidestroyedby an oppositecausation.
cal
explanationa process of causation cannot be destroyed,
with another process, because we
only combined
can

follow both
but in

in their

development and
magical explanation,as we have

causation is not

given,and

causal relation must

Of

when

be assumed

their combination;
seen, the process

the effect does

not

come

of
the

to be annihilated.

this

oppositionof contrary magical influences

involve
does not
absolute
the
appreciation. From
any
standpointof the subject who desires to attain a certain
effect a magicalinfluence favorable to this aim will be valued
influence which destroysthe first,
an
positively,
negatively.
But

course

the

appreciationchanges with the change

and no magic can
be termed
good or

There

are,

indeed, actions which

bring

point,
of the standevil in itself.

harm

and

actions

which

the

as

of classification

of

bringbenefit to other individuals or to

this a basis
a whole,but in order to make
magical actions the moral viewpoint must

community

be introduced

and this is done only in the third

magic and religion,
religious
system, which we shall analyzepresently. Before

into

this moralization

help

of

magic

can

actions performed with

religion,
be useful or harmful, the person

of

the

who

264

PRIMARY-GROUP

performs them
evident

if we

be virtuous

can

is neither

power

ORGANIZATION

good

the

that

remember

be, according to circumstances, useful

community
of rain is a

the individual.

to

or

the

harmful

or

to

the

The

bringingor stopping
harmful influences,
directly

Even

good example.

but

magical
itself. This is particularly
same
magical influence can

in

bad

nor

wicked,

or

bring sickness or death upon a man,

be useful to the community, when
sometimes
the harm
punishment for a breach of solidarity.And if this is

true

of actions which

true

such

of

as

which

those

have

which

magicalpowers

for these powers

spiteof

its absolute

is

good magic and

on

possess,

different actions.
not

Christianity,

even

and

God

devil,heaven

the idea that there

once

magic, and

that

the

magic

of

was
good, all other magic evil.
priests
this idea
do not raise here the questionhow consistently
itself. The peasant, standing
developedin Christianity
empiricalground, could frequentlynot avoid
practical,

that the effects of divine

the conclusion
as

well

as

ideas of reward

cheat

decisive way,
God

can

be disastrous

and that the devilish magic

beneficial,

strong enough with the peasant

ever

magic

does

always,but may often be very useful. The

and punishment in future life were
hardly

bring harm

not

in

more

is

of

heavenly beings and

was

evil

an

at

thingsmay

or

oppositionof

able to introduce

hell,was

We

spirits,
men,

be used for very

can

and
a

result,it is the

understand, therefore,that

We
in

determined

can

the less

during lifeand

so

as

it

the devil

to

influence his choice

always possibleto

was

at

the

moment

of death

good which

from both sources

might come
possibleand by turning to God when
as
long as it was
nothing good could any longerbe expected from the devil.
in most
of the tales and
This is the attitude which persists
in spiteof some
in real life,
incidental,
evidentlyimitated and

by acceptingany

formal, moralization.
the influence

of

If God

religionupon

were

alone

againstthe devil,

peasant life would

be

very

INTRODUCTION

265

equivocal.But the factor which, in spiteof all this,makes

the religiousmagical system so powerful as to direct the
peasant'sattitudes in all the important events of his life
of all the divine
is the above-mentioned
magical solidarity
beings,on the one hand, and all the devilish beings,on the
This solidarity
other.
consists,not in an essential opposition
the two
between
magics as such, but in the fact that
the magical action of any divine being always supports and
corroborates the magicalaction of all the other divine beings
and is always opposed to the magical action of any devilish
is true of the devilish community.
On this
being; the same
in harmony with the divine comacts
munity
basis,when a man
he is assured of the protectionof this whole community,
its member, while by a single
because he becomes
action supportingthe tendencies of the devilish community,
indeed a member
but makes
all
of the latter,
he becomes
the divine beings his enemies.
will depend upon
these communities
The choice between
of the
the number
and the concreteness
three factors : First,
divinities belonging to them
respectively.In this regard
the devilish community had a decided
superiorityin the
logical
beginning,when the church itself put all the pagan mythoclass
and concrete, into the same
beings,numerous
world
with the devils; the influence of this rich and plastic
indeed for a long time, stronger
have
must
been, and was
than that of the poorer and relatively
pale community of
than anything else,accounts
heavenly beings. This, more
of the devilish mythology and rites.
for the long persistence
But graduallythe heavenly pantheon increased in number
and

concreteness;

legendsgrew
power,

With

the

about

churches
and

memory

up

many

made

local saints

them, their

consecrated
them

were

graves

to

them

familiar

and

development of reading,lives of

added

to

it,

cal
preserveda magi-

perpetuatedtheir
plasticdivinities.
the saints became

266

PRIMARY-GROUP

ORGANIZATION

favorite

related by
topic; and before this their lives were
priests,
amulet-peddlers,
pilgrims,etc. In this way many
known
and worshiped. The Virgin
foreign saints became
down
from the higherclasses to the
Mary, whose cult came
churches, miracles,and
through the many
peasant, became
of the most
legends one
powerful divinities. Particular
legends connected God, Jesus, Mary, the saints,and the
a

the familiar environment

angels with

adapted to Polish life and nature and

local character.
a
distinctly
Finally,art in all
music,architecture,
painting,sculpture,
poetry-

of them

most

bear

thus

its forms

"

were

in

contributed

beings of

of the peasant, and

incalculable

an

make

to

measure

all the

and
alive. Of
heavenly pantheon concrete
the hell-pantheongrew also,but its growth was
less
course
extensive and was
decreased by a loss in number
and conof the pagan
creteness
mythologicalbeings.

The

the

second

the devilish

for

reason

community

this respect the church

of the

the power
latter is not

too

of which

example, that

than

is that of their relative power.

In

heavenly world

much
we

divine

rather

has also done

much

very

to increase

againsthell,even

as

if the

tions
minimized, in view of other considerashall

the pagan

speak presently. We notice, for

mythologicalbeingsassimilated to

rather

limited

sphere of activity. The

sunshine and thunder,
most
important natural phenomena
and winter, birth and death, extraordinarycataclysms
summer
and extraordinarily
good crops, war and peace, etc."
far as possibleascribed to God.
have already
We
are
as
the

devil have

choosing the

"

spoken

of the power

of Mary

of the

patron saints

phenomena

of social and

and

Jesus, whose

community,
them

up

main
to

to him

to

them

if they

are

manifested

whom

most

individual

function

defend

as

is

to

of the

life

attract

againstthe
stubborn

"

in her miracles,

subordinated.

are

to

men

devil

usual

more

"

the divine
and

to

is always shown

give
as

INTRODUCTION

267

powerful magician than the devil.

always depicted as victorious against the
struggle. Finally,the decision of the lot of
more

after death

belongs mainly

the devil

from

paying its due

while
paradise,
succeed

not

magical
which

the human

to

the devil in purgatory the soul

the devil cannot

take

saved

the church
The

help man

to attain

implies the

distinction

reach

can

soul into hell.

in the

line did

same

which

objects to

communicated

were

powers

soul

heavenly community,
always take the soul away
singlegood deed, and after

the basis of

tendency of
quite so well.

are

devils in direct

on

another

But

angels

the

to

Jesus, if he wishes, can

because

The

divine

consecration

by

influence

and

the

spirits
and over
nature
ought to belong also exclusivelyto the
divine order, ought to bear such a magical character as
would make
them by themselves useful only to the members
of the divine community and harmful
Here
to the devil.
belong,for example, the localities and instruments of divine
But
service,amulets, holy water, consecrated wafers, etc.
to

were

this idea

magical powers,

and

failed.

of

The

be made

use

therefore

between

in the favor of the devilish

used

them.

them

in

Sometimes
perverse

way

as

by

was

evil

and

of the church
could

the church

well

the intention
it

good

the endeavor

objectsconsecrated

community, according to

over

as

of the divine

of the person

necessary,

indeed,

to

who
use

in order to attain results favorable

the
where
community, especiallyin cases
long use for divine ends had evidentlyimparted to these
with the world of the devil.
objectsa certain incompatibility
We find this attitude in such facts as the saying of prayers
backward, crossingwith the left hand and in the contrary
But
etc.
objectscan be
direction,
very often consecrated
used at once
for devilish purposes.
cian
Every witch or magito

the

devilish

tries to get

water, oil,or

hosts, church

salt,fringesfrom

candles, consecrated earth,

church

banners, etc., for

268

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

magical purposes;

sometimes

the devil asks

even

them

to

get such objects. A candle put before the altar with certain
rites and
effect

as

wanted

died

to

waxen

kill;the

while

intention

determined

image

of

person

was

candle

the

had
person

consumed

the

same

whom
with

magical
the witch

sickness and

graduallyburned away during

divine service. A piece of clothingput upon
the organ
caused insufferable pains to the person to whom
it belonged,
the organ was
whenever
played. The churches,cemeteries,
the roads or in the fields
crosses, and chapelserected upon
are
placesnear which devilish forces are supposed to reside ;
of the means
of callingthe devil is to walk, with cereone
monies,
nine times around a cross
or chapel.
But

of

the

course

was

the fact itselfthat the church

was

in actual

with magical power

objectsendowed
increased enormously, not only its influence,but the influence
of the divine community of which it was
a part and
which it represented. The political
of the church
supremacy
it impossiblefor the devilish community to have as
made
magical thingsat its service. One of the meanings
many
of sacrilege,
which all the witches and magiciansfeel morally
obliged to perform whenever
they can, is to destroy the
magical power of consecrated objectsand to weaken in this
the church and the divine community.
way
In trying thus to increase the divine powers
the
at

possessionof

expense

many

of the devil the church

to introduce

only by

so

went

the idea that whatever

God's

stillfarther and
the

tried

devil does he does

tarily
permission,that God leaves to him volunthis idea seems
to
a certain sphere of activity. But
have been assimilated by the peasant rather late and only
in connection with the religious
system which we next treat,
for the church
itself apparently contradicted
it by making
all possible
efforts to ascribe useful phenomena to the effects
of divine magic, all harmful
phenomena to the devil. This

PRIMARY-GROUP

270

present

the evil sent

And

one.

his faith and

did not

rewarded

by

ORGANIZATION

turn

did
by God, if man
the devil,was
sooner

to

proved

with

true

while in the hell

regard

suddenly discloses

with the divine

as

well

members,

cheated.

this belief is found

these it is the theatrical contrast

realitywhich

its human

to

community they were

expressionof

later

or

short,the heavenly community

In

greater good.

in many

between
itself to

An

esting
inter-

tales.

In

and

appearance
men

in their relations

with the devilish world.

as

lose

not

Any

member
of the first turns
given to a man
by some
into gold; apparent calamities sent by heaven prove to be a
of happiness; divinities in human
form
behave
source
apparently in the most absurd or cruel way and disclose
trash

afterward
the

the wisdom

and

benevolence

contrary, devilish gold becomes

of their acts.

On

trash, devilish food,

is in realitycomposed of the
seemingly the finest possible,
most
disgustingsubstances,the splendorand beauty with
which the devil or his servants
to men
change into
appear
the utmost
poverty and ugliness. Even if this tendency to
lower the value of the hell community is not completely
itis not without its influence.
successful,
in

of the church
harmful
All

the
inculcating
was,

picturesof

the

represent the devil

of course,
future
as

The

great resource

belief that the devil is ultimately

the

conceptionof

life in hell,without

torturingthe

souls.

The

future life.

exception,
Christian

teaching had probably no contrary ideas to combat

assimilate in the sphereof the representations
of the

or

to

human

soul's existence after death, since in the naturalistic system

there

were

The
of the

no

whole

souls.
evolution

of the divine

number, concreteness,

power,

community,
and

the

benevolence

growth
of the

in an actual state of things

heavenly beings,resulted finally
in which
the importance of divine magic is incomparably
greater in practicethan that of devilish magic. While the

INTRODUCTION

first-stillpervades the whole

is

life of the peasant, is

of all his

component
second

mostly degraded

to

disbelieved,but unworthy of
of credulous

matter

more

when
no

which

of

concerns

activityof
is

But

rare.

is

part of the

character,and

considered

as

evidently

abnormal

it is

to make

of God

or

the

magical system stillremains great

questionof belongingto the community

of the devil the main

is

members
such

as

man

to

member

conscious

contrary

man

from

makes

him

passes

many

the

temporary

community

times

of the

and

durable

life from

he does not

sion
exclu-

and

matically
auto-

of hell.

community

during his

because

or

of heaven

of the divine world, but because

this

men

community; every act

divine solidarity,
every

the

to

member

the other, not

the duties which

choice that

of the devil's

"sin,"if not expiated,causes

of the

Indeed

religious
problem.

only by voluntary and

become

which

the

only the intentional magical

voluntary alliance with the devil
magical importance of the devil

the whole

enough
it is not

course

it is the

men;

himself within

The

and
individuals,

vital.
longersocially
This

can

to be

comes

few

but this attraction

attraction,

an

its abnormal

to

attitude

an

for

stuff,"not

occupation; it is

curiositythan

business of life. It stillexerts

itself is due

women's

real man's

dispens
in-

an

practicalactivity,the

"old

an

only incidentally,
except

used

271

munity
com-

one

want

to be

the limitations and

membership imposes

upon

him

are

difficult to

keep.
The devilish community, in this magicalreligious
system,
is an indispensable
condition of the existence of the divine
itself. In the naturalistic system the aim of the
solidarity
the struggleagainstdeath.
of natural beings was
solidarity
Here the magical solidarity
of the heavenly world has its
numerous

only reason
of the whole

fightagainstthe
heavenly community,

in the

world
from

of hell.
God

down

The
to

aim
the

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

272

humblest

soul,is

saved

possiblefrom among
possibleof the material
the

for

same

only

want

the

harmony

who

livingand

world.

But

as

to

own

of the

as

the hell

the strugglegoes
itself,

members, such

true

members

new

many

At

human

do

members

destroy

whole; they therefore exclude

much

as

as

community accept new

tales and legends there

hell; but neither does

members
are

cases

without

the
munity,
com-

not

solidary. The heavenly community

this respect, probably because it does

difficult in

as

community

on.

any

as

much

is

not

are

new

as

communities, exactlylike

time both

same

attract

the

as

wants

to

not

those
more

need

the devilish

selection.

in which

In

the devils drive

magical pacts with the devil

the man
be consistent,
must
and, for example, any mention
of Jesus or the saints may
lead to a terrible punishment.

away

untrue

There

are

members.

is not

of the

material

world

heavenly beings as
in the

name

gatory
Pur-

placeof punishment, but also a preparatory

heaven, making the souls eager and likelyto

members

The

hell wants.

nor

mere

stage for
be true

neither heaven

whom

men

In

well

of their

heavenly group.
is also an
object of
as

the devils want

respectivegroups,

contest.

to

as

The

appropriate,

many

material

We may
objectsas they can.
say that the material world,
with regard to the magical communities, plays the same
part as property with regard to the family. It is perhaps
not

the

of the

basis,but

at any

rate

one

condition

of the

must
and we
gives a dwelling-place,
this respect the devil was
wronged at

It

group.

that in

existence,
member
re-

the

ing
of extendgives,as we have seen, the means
who
the power
of the community among
act
men
can
magicallyonly with the help of material objects,and it is
of the living
therefore important to give into the hands
adherents as many
magical instruments as they can handle.
at
Finally and this point is not very clear the spirits,

beginning.

"

It

"

INTRODUCTION

souls,seem

least the

to need

273

natural

food and

clothing;it
this conceptionis only a vestige
is difficult to say whether
of the belief of regeneration after death or belongs to the
magicalreligious
system itself.
The character of the priestand the witch (ormagician)
be easilydetermined
within this system can
from what has
who
been said. They are
by divine or devilish
persons
consecration have acquired a magical power
superiorto
sometimes
that of ordinary men,
or
they became priestor
witch because
they originallypossessed this power hi a
the

higher degree.

At

of the world

and
spirits

which

was

of

same

communicated

themselves,partlyby other
"knows

time

have

they

knowledge
of magical action
of the means
to them
partly by the spirits
priestsor witches. The priest
a

all the

things,present, past or future"; the witch

has perhaps a less extensive knowledge, but with regard to
than the
the devil and devilish magic she knows
even
more
priest. With regard to their knowledge the functions of
from those
the priestand of the witch do not differ much
edge
of the wroz
or mqdra, except that there the objectof knowlBut
was
nature, here it is the supernaturalworld.
of the priestand the witch
from the superiormagical power
trained and efficient
result new
functions.
As technically
specialists,
they take the placeof the ordinarymen wherever
strong magicalaction is necessary;
to the power

with
At

same

natural

power

is added

magical instruments and they can attain

more
important results than the layman.

time

they

magical power

any

incalculable

as

direct their action.

the
such

between

the profane,

magical, supernatural
powers.
is

undetermined;

have

it may

anybody who has not

it is dangerous to manipulate objects

effect,and

enough himself

and rites endowed

intermediaries

are

life and

The

power

own

of the

the latter

the

their

with power,
The

for

because

priestand

efficiently

he cannot

the witch

can

do

this

because

by

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

274

their

itself than

has more
their intention,
will,
the will of ordinarymen,

magical influence
devoid

of the

same

power.

of
go

Finally,the priestand the witch are permanent members

communities
the respective
(thepriestcan scarcelyever
to hell,
the witch to heaven),and in this character they
intermediaries

are

which

between

they represent.

limited

to

holy man,

the

But

layman

and

this function

the

is not

community
necessarily

of heaven
the official representatives

or

hell; a

out
witha possessedperson,
being a priest,
being a witch, can play the same
part. It consists in
members
to get new
or
helpingthe respectivecommunities
in rejecting
those who are harmful,and hi helpinglaymen to
active members
of the magical groups.
become
The
influence of this whole
magical religioussystem
the peasant'slife-attitudes was
upon
very durable and of a
diate,
great, mainly negative,importance. The belief in immemagical causality,inculcated for nine centuries by
those whom
the peasant always regarded as his intellectual
superiorsand appliedto all the important matters of human
existence,developed a particularkind of credulitywith
dents,
regard to the effects which may be expected from any incioutside of the ordinarycourse
of life.
things,or men
Anything may happen or not happen ; there is no continuity,
consequentlyno proportion,between cause and effect. Out
of this a feelingof helplessness
develops. The peasant
without

feels that he lacks any

been
an

accustomed

almost

to

unlimited

the limitations

control

think

world, while he

that others have

degree.

of power

of the

He

of those

has
who

no
are

this control
consciousness

has
to

of

his intellectual

he does not understand, and he ascribes

superiorsand whom
for anything that happens.
to somebody the responsibility
in these conditions is cunning apparent
His only weapon
resignationto everything,universal mistrust, derivingall
"

INTRODUCTION

possiblefrom

the benefit
to

third type of

3. The

contains
church

no

has

began

to

elements

pagan

assimilated

manifest

leadershipof

christened.

and

and

with

that

happens

the

the

unity of
with a
priest,

help of

is purelyChristian,

in

It has

which

the

attained its

certain of its consequences

only a few years ago. Its

moral

the benefit of men,

to

person

except ceremonies

themselves

basis is the idea of

and

or

religious
system

development recently,and

full

the

fact

any

his control.

under

come

275

the human
view

to

under
society,
the gloryof God

conformitywith

the divine

world.

the divine law

The

mythological
precedingsystem,

in the
as
nominally the same
but the attitudes are completely different,
often contrary,
and this obliges
to treat this system as a different religion.
us
In practicethe correspondingattitudes of the peasant
have originatedmainly in the parish life,
and of course
the church is their initiator. The parishis a kind of great
united by a community of moral
are
familywhose members
interests. The church buildingand the cemetery (originally
always surroundingthe church) are the visible symbol and

beingsare

material

the

property of the
We

say

"moral

belong,in
or

group;

dedicated.

unity. It is the moral

parish as a whole, managed by the priest.
property,"because economicallyit does not

instrument

of

this

the eyes of the peasant,

it is first
The

God's, then

to

the

any

human

individual

saint's to whom

it is

it

economicallyalso,not
parish,however, but only as
the
explainswhy in America

priestmanages

representativeof the
This
appointed by God.
Poles so easilyagreed in earlier times to have their churches
gregations
as
registered
property of priestsor bishops,not of the conwho
It was
had built them.
not a questionof
as

formalityconcerningmanagement.
ownership,but a mere
to the idea
accustomed
Gradually,however, they became
that churches

can

be treated

as

economic

property,but

up

276

PRIMARY-GROUP

the

to

as

the sale of

sacrilege.The

moral
the

of the American

present certain consequences

such

as

ORGANIZATION

church, appear

claim

the

of

in

parish to

some

measure

the

church

property consists in the right of the group

religiousdestination of

be used
in the

for any

ends

other

life of
religious

the

church.

than

the group

The

point,
stand-

those which

guard

to

latter

as

cannot

involved

are

meetings,parishfestivals,

"

dispensationof sacraments, burials,etc. Any use of the

church buildingand its surroundingsfor any profane ends
whatever
is not only contrary to the magical character of
these objects,
but is a profanationof their social sacredness,
an
injurydone to the parish-group. On the other hand, it
is

moral

duty of the latter

to

make

the church

as

fit as

and social purposes,

and no sacrifice
possiblefor its religious
is spared in order to fulfilthis duty. There is a striking
between
the poverty of the peasants' private
contrast
houses and the magnificenceof many
a
country church.

Buildingand adorningthe
and

the most

parishfor

the

evident

satisfies the

church

symbol

glory of

God.

aesthetic

the

to

an

of the
At

impressive frame
strengthens the feelingof awe
gives

is one

church

of the manifestations

solidaryactivityof

the

same

tendencies
for

time

beautiful

of the

peasant,

religiousmeetings,

and

the

the exaltation which

and
all

ceremonies provoke.
religious
The
moral rightsand duties of the parish with regard
the church
originatethus exclusivelyin the functions

which
events

are

performed

in the church.

The

most

communal

of individual,familial,and

important
life

occur

there,at least partly;all the essential changes which happen

parish-groupare sanctioned there; the relations

identified with this
of the group with the highestpowers
are
ceived
place; moral teaching,exhortation,condemnation, are rewithin

the

in the church.
are

connected

with the

In

short, the

place,which

most

intense

feelings

is therefore surrounded

278

PRIMARY-GROUP

ORGANIZATION

meeting is arranged with regard

to a determined
practicalproblem, and if thus a certain
interest is presupposed, the attitude which
the
common
members
will take with regard to the problem is not formally
if it may
be foreseen.
The conscious
predetermined,even
unity of the group is therefore mostly produced anew
during
the meeting itself. But
every meeting does not antedate
the religiousunity of the parish not
its administrative
expressed.

if the

Even

"

"

unity,of

which

do

speak depends upon the

community of interests and
meetings; the conscious
assistance at
attitudes is kept alive only by the common
for each particular
service. And
the religious
meeting this
community is predetermined; the center of interest is
we

now

the

"

attitudes

only of a
This is made
definite kind and direction.
possibleby the
ceremonial.
Every ceremony
performed by the priest
before the congregationhas not only a magical meaning
(throughwhich it belongsto the precedingmagical religious

known

beforehand, and

not

be

can

system) but also a social and moral tendency; it symbolizes

certain religious
idea of a type which
shall analyze
a
we
this idea the center
of interest of the
and it makes
presently,
The

present group.
in ceremonial
"and
common

those
to

acts

response

in gestures, songs,

"

schematized

symbolize and provoke

acts

all the members.

the sermons,

of the latter is also embodied

with

their

This

goes

prayers

definite attitudes
so

varying contents,

far that

and

even

the process

objectsof a certain ceremonial,

The
to some
extent
spontaneouslyevolved, non-liturgical.
ing
gestures and intonations of the priestare performed accordcode.
The congregationreacts to them
to an unwritten
in a determined
even
by gestures, sighs,sometimes
way
A priestwho
exclamations.
how to use this
does not know
unofficial ritual can never
be an influential preacher. Thus,
through a series of successive meetings, the ceremonial
of

to
listening

sermon

are

INTRODUCTION

maintains

continuityof

without

which

it could

279

interests and

group

be

attained

attitudes,

only by

perfect

organization.
Besides

Sundays

the
and

holidays there
number

undetermined
mass

week

on

eves;

general meetings of the whole

of members

during May

December, preparatory
during

to

confession; adoration
after

of the

an

occasions-

singingon holiday
Mary; service during

of

and

prayers

songs

the

of Jesus and
sufferings
preparationfor the Easter
Holy Sacrament
during the

Christi Day,

Corpus

of

Whoever

etc.

lives

near

enough and has leisure tries to assist at these meetings.

more

villagessmall groups
evenings and sing in common

liturgical
songs

on

are

those

during Lent

in remembrance
are

people gather

are

and

the

concern

called Gorzkie

of the

Passion.

religiousassociations

on

and

kind of worship,such
particular
Holy Sacrament, the worship of Mary

after-Christmas

coming

of Christ;

zale,"bitter regrets,"
almost

In

is a

In

half -popular,half-

religious
subjects. The

called Kolenda

songs

there

of

remote

winter

on

and

Christmas;

commemorating

Lent

other

on

in honor

incitingto contrition; common

week

partialmeetings

are

days; evening prayers

service

parish

every

parish

fraternities whose
as
or

the adoration
some

aim
of the

saint,common

They have a determined

singingof the rosary.
part to perform during each solemn divine service; they
cultivate religious
Some of them have also
song and music.
of the sick and
humanitarian
and practicalends
the care
recital

or

"

poor,

help

insurance.

to

widows

These

last

fraternitiesin towns;

orphans, funeral and dowry

functions are performed mainly by
and

in the

familial and

country, where

is stronger, the necessityfor philanthropy

solidarity
and organizedmutual
help is less felt. All of these
meetings and associations,composed mainly, but not

communal

of
exclusively,

women

and

elderly men,

are

under

the

280

PRIMARY-GROUP

direction

control

and

ORGANIZATION

of

the

if he

priest,even

does

not

always actuallypreside.
It is easy

understand

how

immediate

touch

powerfully this intense

life operates in developingthe unity of the parish.
religious
occasions the members
On other,more
of the
extraordinary,

parishget

to

into

an

Such

occasions

with other

gregations.
conreligious

celebrated
festivals,

are

once

borhood
parish,where all the people from the neighgather; religiousrevivals,organized usually by
visitation by the bishop; festivals during the
monks;
consecration of a new
church, an image, etc. ; priestjubilees;
a great
pilgrimagesto miraculous places. The last assume
lectivel
importance in the peasant'slife when they are made colof people,under the leadership
often by hundreds
of such "companies" come
of the priest. Hundreds
every
year to such placesas Czestochowa, Vilno (OstraBrama),
a

year

and

in every

localities of minor

many

take part in
a

many

man

pilgrimagesto Rome, Lourdes, even

or

of

cases

economizes

woman

to be able to make

In

Some

importance.

such

for many

pilgrimage.
extraordinarycalamities

people

Jerusalem;

years

in order

which

befall the

parish (drought,long rains,epidemics)the priestorganizes

a
carrying
specialdivine service with solemn processions,
the Holy Sacrament
through or around the parish,etc.
But
individual
familial occurrences
even
or
give an
opportunity for religiousmeetings. Every christening,
wedding, or funeral is attended by numerous
as
community, and the occasion itself,
ceremonial,arouses
The

unity of

the

of the group
as

well

as

the

sponding
corre-

assistants the

identityof interests and attitudes.

meetings are the most powerful factor of the
of

far

in all the

of the

members

sciousness
con-

an

parish,but

not

the

in their individual

this life is

regulatedby

only one.

All the members

religiousand
the

moral

church, are

moral
also

as
life,

obliged

INTRODUCTION

to manifest

the

interests and

same

all alike,go to confession and

with

duties

regard

in
identically

on

the

the

formulae, read

more

same

less

or

priest;they ask for

remonstrances; they say the same
the

traditional

same

familial circles,
greet

They must,

the

occasions,use

same

objects,perform

they have in

church, behave

their relations with

the

attitudes.

communion, perform the

the

to

his advice, listen to his

prayers

281

ceremonies

another

by the
religiousbooks,

one

same

sphere of

consecrated

same

same

etc.

in the

religious
In

short,

attitudes

imposed by
the church, and they are conscious of this community even
outside of religious
meetings in their personalrelations of
the unity of the parish stillcloser
every day. This makes
time this unity is disand more
tinguish
persistent.At the same
from that which is due merely to social opinion
by the fact that its form and content are equallyfixed and
To be sure,
imposed by the superiorpower of the church.
sphere can also,
any phenomenon belongingto the religious
common

vast

"

object of social opinion; the

religious
sphereis a part of the peasant'ssocial environment,
but it is its most
fixed part. The parish in the religious
at

sense

become

moment,

any

of the term

commune

or

unique

an

group

determined

is,indeed, not

an

organizedgroup

association; it does

within

way;

the

we

the
cannot

social world

speak

of

not

in
the

like

as

function
a

steady

functions

and
of

which constitute
parish. But the attitudes of its members
its unity are relatively
independent of the fluctuations of
in stable symbols, and in
social opinion and are embodied
rises
this sense
this part of the peasant'ssocial environment
above
the level of the primitivecommunity and popular
the community
is an intermediarystage between
tradition,

higher,organizedgroup of the church.

attitudes of the parish
The central objectof the religious
is the glorification
of God and the saints by acts of worship.
and

the

282

PRIMARY-GROUP

becomes

God
the

supreme

consciousness
religious

for the
lord

ORGANIZATION

and

of

master

the

of the peasant

human

community;

and* models of persaints,its guardians,intercessors,

fection.
this conception and
The
difference between
the
which we find in the precedingsystem is quiteessential.
one
is magical; here it is moral
There the function of the spirits

the

and

social.

becomes

There

man,

member

spirit,
by the moral
incorporatedinto
is the form

of

by the magical bearingof his acts,

a
spiritualcommunity; here the

character
the

which

which

is ascribed to

human
this

community, and
assumes.
incorporation

it,becomes
social
A

ship
wor-

acteristic
char-

expressionof this difference is found in the

that, while in the magical system Jesus is subordinated
God,

in the moral

system he takes the place of God.

fact
to

The

frequentlyused as that
of the spiritual
head of human
of God.
societythan the name
This is of course
the result of the half-human
personalityof
into the human
munity
comJesus, which makes his incorporation
of

name

Jesus is incomparably more

much

more

easy

and

natural.

mythology is almost identical in both systems,

the difference is evidentlybased upon
practicalattitudes.
It is not a pre-existent
theoretical conceptionof the magical
world which makes the man
of the spiritual
nature
use
magic
the
in his religious
but the use of magic which causes
life,
world to be conceived
as
a
spiritual
magical community.
As

the

worship is not a theoretical

leader of the community,
conception of the divinityas spiritual
but the practiceof worship,graduallyelaborated
and fixed in the complex ceremonial, is the originof the
social and moral functions of the divinity.
We
have seen
that in the magical system the magical
In

the

same

way

the

source

of

from those which

acts has been extended
bearingof human
are
intentionally
performed to produce a determined magical
that there
effect to the whole sphere of human
so
activity,

INTRODUCTION

is

hardly

action

any

remain

does not
extended

limited

of the

in the eyes

which

act

every

the

actions

time

which

in

worship
but is
practices,
value

the lord of

harmony, and thus

harmony becomes at

the

preserve

moral

(Jesus)as

its

The

idea of

have

God

community.

helps to

The

the ceremonial

is interested

community

the

magically indifferent.

system.

to

all human

to

is

in the moral

happens

same

which

283

of

worship. Altruistic help, pedagogical

and medical activity,
maintainingof concord in the
community, spreading general and religiousinstruction,
meritorious.
become
religiously
By a further extension
same

an

contribution

every

act

the material

to

welfare

of

by

men

licit

the good management

even
(Jesus),
of one's own
also
Jesus is glorified
property. Further still,
and
a
by anything which helps to maintain
teleological
is willed

means

aesthetic

by

God

in the natural

order

environment

of

work, raisingand feedingdomestic

of

gardens,

houses, establishment

of

Partly perhaps
more
probably in

under

etc.

church, but

the old idea of the natural

to

natural

in this system

well

as

subordination

man

has

as

of nature

greater since only

only

arose

an

man

orchards
the

the

God
glorifies

immortal

of the
thanks
of

animation

of nature,

by

their life

is therefore forbidden

in the naturalistic one,

human

way^

whole

beings,glorifyGod

to

flower

and

influence

and
solidarity
that

cultural
agri-

"

ment
animals, adorn-

spontaneous

Unnecessary destruction

do.

men

idea

natural

the meanest

even
as

objects,the

men

is

ends
in the

although the

incomparably

prescribed
way,

it is for

soul, and

man

that

Christ died.
As

the

munity
comagainstthis moral organizationof the human
of Jesus and the saints,
under the spiritual
leadership

devil

and

evil
distinctly

immoral.

The

devil-worshipassume
character; they are
reason

for

for the
not

first time

but

only harmful

this is evident.

There

is

no

284

PRIMARY-GROUP

human

community

with

the devil that

ORGANIZATION

which

would

the

into the

enter

into with

parish enters

relation with the devil is individual and

and

social ceremonial.

and

the devilish world

between

The

the

God;

lacks social sanction

oppositionbetween

is thus associated with

individual

social and

relation

same

the divine

the

opposition

life,and
religious

both

position
op-

character
acquire through this association a new
and
a
new
strength. The divine world becomes
socially
acknowledged, a positivesocial value; the devilish world
is socially
despised,a
is

God

negativesocial value. The worship of

and organized; the worship of
meritorious,official,
incidental.

the devil illicit,

secret, and
is

God

member

good

of the

his group;
to

moral
socially

action is subordinated

harm

the

be in

Since

every

of
glorification
oppositionbetween God
to

the

action is conceived

immoral
socially

devil,every

serves

the devil is

serves

fellow-citizens.

essential

God, and since there is an

and

who

man

his

who

man

community, trying to

harmony with
rebel, trying

as

servingthe devil.1
It is only in the latter sphere,in thingssubordinated
to
the devil,that magicalaction keeps most of its old character,
because this sphere,becoming secret and individual,
precisely
evolution as the sphere of divine
undergo the same
things. In the latter,actions whose meaning in the magical
system consisted in bringingimmediately and mechanically
effect become
acts of worship,and their
now
a determined
did not

old effect is

action of the
1

tempt

becomes
not

Whatever

The

rare.

give them

to

peasants have

allow the devils to tempt

grown

saved.

so

evil themselves
The

women

temptationand

see

out

divine reward,

by

human

are

men

the merit
a

as

much

little better,and

the devil

more

worship.
permission;God

of victory. But

they did before,because

as

use

all his power

therefore

frequently.

they

are

no
more

It is

no

of his old
allows him

temptation

even

curious explanationof this fact.

that if the devil could

a

conscious

as

of social life,
has lost stillmore

he does, he does it by God's

in order

men

as

divinitymoved

Naturally the devil,thrown

importance.
to

conceived

now

man

God
men

does

have

could be

subject to

286

PRIMARY-GROUP

ORGANIZATION

the
regularly. In general,the greater the role of the priest,
and the more
requiredfrom him
greater is his responsibility
in

the

line of

volumes

moral

and

shall have

we

detail the

role which

the

the

religiousperfection.

later

In

in
opportunityof studying more
priestplays in peasant society

place in the moral-religious

system. For
this system is now
ism
Naturaldecidedlythe dominating one.
survives only in fragmentary beliefs and practices
and
in a generalattitude toward
nature, whose real meaning is
forgotten. The magical system
alreadyin a largemeasure
because

of his

is stillstrong, and

the

influence which

it has

exerted

upon

But
psychology can hardly be overestimated.
it is no longerdeveloping,no new
elements are added to it
and in fact it is rapidlydeclining.
The fourth system, that of individual mysticism,whi
is stillrare among
shall presentlydefine,
the peasants and
we

the peasant

does not

to be

seem

on

the way

the

to

an

immediate

development.

But

retains almost

all of its traditional power,

limited

but
circles,

communal

problems.

We

that

most

of

belong to

this

moral-religious
system

is still growing

life arise and

and

the old

as

strong

not

except in

new

only
some

conditions

is appliedto
principle

of
new

already see in these first volumes of letters

interests explicitly
the religious
expressed
clearly
system, and we shall see it stillmore

in other volumes.
4.

with

Religionas
God

mystical connection

of the

individu

ordinatio
expressedby the attitudes of love,personalsubdesire of personalperfection
and of eternal life
with God, etc.,is,as we have said,not very much
developed
the peasants.
The
peasant is a practicalman;
among
with his practicalinterests,
religionremains interwoven
while mysticism requirespreciselya liberation from those
of thoughts and
interests,a concentration
feelingsupon
beingsand problems having littlerelation with everyday life.

INTRODUCTION

signof

the lack of

peasant; unless

the

mysticism is the absolute orthodoxyof

dares to imagine
by ignorance,he never

religiousattitude

any

287

church, because

outside

himself in any
this respect
Still there

different from

the

teachingof the
he never
imagines
divinity. He is in

of the church

direct relation with

radicallydifferent
in which

the

from

the Russian

peasant.

mysticalattitude develops
during extraordinaryreligious
meetings revivals,
pilgrimages
are

cases

"

for

are

environment

while forgotten,and

his normal

by

state

the

example

these occasional outbreaks

of

conditions

phenomenon
into

passage

problem
the
But

lead to

must

which

ceases

ones

from

to

and

he is a part.

The

way

form

of

When

But

which

upon

the

lifeleads
religious

death

to

ceases

be

the

upon

is

way

his

own

member

at
event, particularly

death

from

the

when

or

that

of

standpoint,from

of the group
a

the

mysticism.

possibleonly

the traditional social

of

to

becomes

certain detachment

open

death

look

the isolated death

less normal

of which

of others

preceding regeneration and

practicalproblems
this brooding upon

his dear

of the devotion

from

supernaturalworld, broodingupon

new

of death

individual

or

the usual interests

mysticism in determined social

the precedingreligious
system

belong as much to
to the properlymysticalone.
as
peasant can reallypass into a new
through the problem of death.
natural

and

the individual is aroused

the influence of the mob

by

and

the usual

when

"

is

more

certain age ; he must

for only
only as a fact of individual life,
then it has extraordinary,
abnormal
importance which can
give birth to mystical reflections and attitudes. And this
the average
individualization
than
requiresagain more
realization of the uniqueness of the
peasant shows, more
individual.
find
indeed
We
mystical attitudes always
during calamities which threaten the existence of the whole
But
community pest or war.
singleindividuals develop

begin to

view

"

death

288

PRIMARY-GROUP

attitudes

such

ORGANIZATION

when

only

more

servants
(e.g.,

communities

or

less isolated from

or
largecities)

in

when

their

ally
exception-

cultivated.

In Volume

IV

shall have

we

peasant'stheoretic
development under the
the

classes.

will be

succeeded

the center

of attention
three

are

manifested

are

influence of the culture of the superior

however, apparently

in Volumes

their

the

occupying within
of individuals

primary

forms

the

how

they have
singlegeneration

in which

in the peasant

tional
tradi-

tudes.
practicalatti-

of whole

and

II, it

I and

within

place

their relation to

in

sometimes

interests

interests in their full

be able to understand

shall then

There

opportunityof studying

aesthetic

determine

peasant life and

i.

the

manifested

are

useful to

We

and

INTERESTS

these interests were,

As

lacking,and

never

AESTHETIC

AND

THEORETIC

groups.

theoretic

the schematism

"

of

interest in new
life,
facts,and interest in religious
practical
explanationsof the world.
first is completely original.It arises out of the
The
peasant's spontaneous reflection on his activityand its
his human

conditions,on
constitutes

natural

and

the

man

may

be very

wise, have
stillbe

concerningpractice,and
lack of energy,
assumes

of presence

satirical

of

meaning

mind,

their

wisdom, behave

For

reflection is not
prepares

for

an

it,tries

This

etc.

distinction

one

having
stupid.

as

their

The

the first two, with

last

all

like fools.

accustomed

man

clearly
practicalabilityin
valuable generalizations
unpracticalthrough

in the tales

subjectthree brothers,two wise and

is always practically
while
successful,

It

is very

and

peasant's "wisdom,"
distinguishedby public opinion from
itself. A

environment.

easy

to
one.

live in action
We

to find free time

see

and

how
a

of

the

task

the

peasant

solitary
place,

INTRODUCTION

spends occasionallymany

then

and

he wants

when

Even

it

he treats

of the

write

to

as

importance of

he remembers

that

289

hours

letter which

difficult and

in

thinking.
tion,
requiresreflec-

long business.

proof

reflection in his eyes is seen

in the fact
for many
years every act of reflection

performed (cf.the case of Wladek in Volume III).

But
the process
of reflection,
preciselyon that account
isolated from the process of activity,
artificially
assumes
a
somewhat
independent interest; the peasant enjoys the
The numerous
solution of a problem as such.
riddles which
which

we

he

find in the Polish folklore

results of such

The

are

also

individual

proof of this.

of

acts

through generations, constitute

mulated
accureflection,
a

rich stock

of

Apart of it is expressed in proverbs; but

popularwisdom.
with the growing complexityof economic
and social lifeand

growing rapidityof change the new reflections have no time

into proverbs,but tend to formuthemselves
to crystallize
late
in

themselves

We
"

municated
changing abstract schemes of life comgraduallyby the peasants to one another.
divide this practical
philosophyinto two classes
of things and
of people. The
first
schemes

may

schemes

agriculture,handicraft,trade, medicine, etc.

concerns

is of

It

impossibleto study here the whole content of the

beliefs ; we can
respective
only note certain of their general
characters.
First,they proceed always from the particular
the
to the general,
by induction,and their systematization,
course

subordination
We

have

of details

already

goods

comes

is the slowness
reasons, but

The
new

noticed

concepts; the extension

farm

to

very

of imitation.

frequentreason

technical invention

this with

regard

very

slow.

economic

to

quantitativeviewpoint to
Another
very generalexample

of the

late.

peasant who

generalview, seems

sees

with

It may

come

from

is also the lack of

an

estate-owner

good

results does

other

many

tion.
generaliza-

apply
not

some

imitate

PRIMARY-GROUP

290

him, simply because

ORGANIZATION

he does

not

His

respectivepositionsas farmers.
It is all rightfor you, who
a
are
but not for a poor, stupidpeasant
"

in social
in this

positionas a whole
particular
respect he

the

For

same

usual

him

instructed
The

from

same

their
is:

argument

like me."

do the

can

identityof

rich and

hinders

the

reason

the

see

as

man,

difference

noticingthat
his

superior.

little
peasant brings relatively

agricultural
learningfrom season-emigration.In Germany
level even
he usuallyfinds an agricultural
higher than that
of his

the estate

on

great that he does

home

dare

not

to

abroad.

he learned

what

of the

that

farming and

own

neighbor, and the difference between

large German

estates

generalizeand
On

the other

his
is

apply

to

hand,

we

so

at

find

him

hasty and superficial

making most
generalizations;
and weather
in
proverbs and sayingsconcerningfarmwork
connection
a

few

with

the

disconnected

classified upon

the

days of

the year

based

mostly upon
observations; a new
object is often
basis of a quitesuperficial
analogy with
are

the slowness
and
the incidental
objects. Both
and hastiness of generalization
result from the
superficiality

known

way

in which

the process

of reflection

peasant beginsto think,the result depends upon

which

at

this moment

is present in the

If the material

happens

When

occurs.

the material

sphere of

his

false it will be

or

often

by others until

some

new

accepted by the author

time

is
generalization

of reflection

contrary to, the first. Because

effort its results

are

criticized.

explainsthe

This

seldom

contradictorystatements

again

comes

But

and
and

with,

or

reflection

verified hi

requiresso much
experience,seldom

evident

many

current

himself

in accordance

made

sciousness.
con-

to be well selected and

the generalization
is valid; if not, it is false.
sufficient,
valid

the

among

the peasants;

created

they live,and

because

one-sided
they help to equilibrate

they have

absurdities

even

useful
views

and
once

function
of others.

INTRODUCTION

peasant seldom

The

291

dialectic in

uses

criticizing
any

hardly be persuaded by dialectic.

his opinion to another; and the more
opposes
elaboration of this opinion has cost him, the
and

can

exchange it for another.

is he to

He

may

opinionis right,but

that the contrary

even

He

view

simply

effort the
less

willing
acknowledge

he holds that his

own

of solvingthe apparent
right,and he feels no necessity
contradiction unless the problem is important enough to
is also

more
compel him to do some
thinkingand to elaborate a
to live
third,intermediaryopinion. He is so accustomed
that he likes to
partialand one-sided generalizations
among

collect all the

opinionson
seeming approval to every
he intended

to do

some

one,

at first or

important issue,listens with

and finally
either does what
about

and elaborates
reflecting
If he selects the opinionof anybody
view.
his own
else,he is led,not by the intrinsic merit of the opinion,but
If only he has confidence
by his appreciationof the man.
in the man's sincerity
and intelligence,
he supposes
that the
man's advice was
the result of a sufficient process of thinking
and considers it useless to repeat this thinkinghimself in

order to
His
either

appreciatethe
ideas

about

and

advice

other

afterward

at

the

equally schematic,

are

traditional

store

of intense

moment

some

without

used

its merits.

on

people

appropriated from
elaborated

sets

new

any

thinking

with
solidarity
evidentlythe

people is that
interest
egotistic

supposes
last

either

his group;

by

his

if neither

can

be

body
everyor

by

detected,then

enough to keep his motives

particularly
If, nevertheless,a person'sactivity,

hidden.
that of

only

The

reflection.

about
peasant'sgeneral prepossession
is moved

pendently
inde-

or

man

is clever

the peasant
stranger, is manifestlydisinterested,
first stupidity,
and

ex

to altruism

only

as

the

who has
only exceptionis the priest,
interest is usually
officio;here egotistic

explanation. The

to be altruistic

recurs

the
of

last,more
the

less

or

be

which

forced,explanation. The

of

readilyin

interested but

motives

whose

man

understand, because

that

in

in the firstcase

into account, while in the second

the

degree

confidence
to

can

he does

the
more

be not

whom

one

he

and

person

he understands

he knows

than

dishonest

even

given

will show

He

willingness

depends upon

thinks

or

this person.

him

persuaded by

he understands

motives

with

business

do

to

peasant

to
particularly
to

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

292

only

he does

not

take the motives

know

not

how

to

limit the

what
and does not know
to expect.
possibilities
and egocentric
classification
Accordinglyhe has a summary
Those of the first
ready and appliesit in any given case.
class are the members
of his family,whose behavior ought to
be determined
whom
of the
or

more

Then

by the familial relations themselves and from

be expected. Then come
the members
can
solidarity
community, classified again accordingto their nearer
remote
neighborhood,their fortune,character,etc.
all the

come

other,unknown

The

supposed to be the same

the noble,the Jew,
priest,

are

but

stillsupposedly known.

The

has

already been

are

understands

the

wine,

money,

and

his

always more
is classed
no

other

makes

him
or

once

motive

and

less of
and

the

than

the

and

life.
religious

peasant knows
In

man

peasant.

who

priestis supposed

noble
of

serfdom;

has innumerable

There

may

neighbors,but
reciprocal
understanding.

money

his schematization

that

of the country

ity
be hostil-

his peasant

forever

as

merchant

is ascribed

The

is

Jew

cheater,and

and
to

there

him; but this

relatively
easy in spiteof
if anything,about his
little,
this

ones.

the peasant

the reintroduction

farmer, a

traditions with
between

of course,

housekeeper. Every

but besides this he is a

common

of the known

peopleof different classes,

officialcharacter
priest's

weaknesses

desire in his heart

to

those

as

determined, and,
usual

interests

peasants, whose

the fact
familial

connection, however, the Jew

PRIMARY-GROUP

294

country in order

ORGANIZATION

learn from

to

them

at

unless,indeed, as
generalizations,
time free to observe

some

and

to

least

seldom
reflect.

few

elementary
happens, he hi

The

fault is here

of
again insufficient generalization
; the peasant has schemes
classes of people,but not of man
in general.
particular
The interest in new
facts is always strong, even
if not
We
much
here very
are
supported by practicalmotives.

reminded

of

the

curiosityof a child,without the child's

restlessness. The intensity
of social life in an unorganized
this interest. Anycommunity naturally depends upon
thing
that happens within the community attracts
tion,
attenif

even

the

center

fact

provokes

in

only

the most

of attention

of the

kind of

some

strikingof
whole

these

Each

community.

reaction,and,

facts become

as

have

we

seen

attitudes are elaborated and

previouschapter,common
become
factors of social unity. In this way
the interest
in facts happening within
has a social
the community
importance. But the peasant is not conscious of the social
a

consequences

of

know.

he

And

his

to
curiosity;he just naively wants
knows
and remembers
everything about

his environment.

This

for it enables
this is a consequence,

him

among

also useful to him

course

to

however,

in order to build

try to know

when,

is of

construct
not

sonally,
per-

schemes;
practical

motive.

He

does not

schemes, but he .builds schemes

all the facts that he has

learned,one

strikes

practically
important. Consequently the sphere of
his concrete
knowledge is incomparably larger than the
schemes, and one of the most important
sphere of his practical
sides of his latest intellectual development is the
of thingswith which he
learningof the practical
significance
was
acquaintedlong ago.
from
This independence of curiosity
practicalproblems
interest in thingsthat
enables the peasant to show
a lively
him

as

can

have

no

practicalimportance for

him.

In

older times

INTRODUCTION

information

bulk of such

the main

295

suppliedby returning
emigrants, pilgrims,travelers,beggars. Happensoldiers,
ings
and religious
in the political
social
world, extraordinary
of the

outside

events

community,

industry,the varietyof

human

interest.

objects of

main

was

marvels

mores,

Fiction

of nature
and

were

listened to, but the interest in them

gladly

are

be in general

to

seems

still the

are

stories also

and

lively. They are treated as history,as true, but

concerningfacts that were
past long ago, and are therefore
less

much

those which

than
less interesting

their consequences.

in

or

such,

as

peasant
"

food.

have
be

know

As

shall

we

read, and

the

must

progress

to

character

large extent

Even

account.

of

promotion
a

on

of theoretic

for

The

newspapers

facts in order

concrete

practicaland

to

intellectual

take this concrete

higher

closed
dis-

facts got

later,the popular

see

of
descriptions

give many

to

into

the

reading developed, the interest

When

new

When

imagination is
this interest is usually lost.
only about reality.

even

to

wants

stillreal in themselves

are

intellectual

curiosity
level this

interests is preserved.

Descriptive
works
on
geography, ethnography, technology, zoology,
botany, etc.,have the greatest popularity;historical books
the second
are
on
last, unless its
plane; fiction comes
subjectsare
nations

taken

or, in

general,unless

the peasant did

have

papers

know.

not

As

it informs
a

result

dropped completelythe

novels and

short

other

classes and
about
of

some

old custom

things that
the popular
of publishing

stories.

cityworkers and
quite different among
lower middle class,where
mous
enorassumes
fiction-reading
proportionsand a powerfullydeveloped interest for

The
the

the life of other

from

plot

situation is

has

favored

This

the

recent

of sensational

success

difference of interest between

city population

is

certainlydue

to

ture.
litera-

the country

and

difference in social

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

296
conditions.
interest hi
life

facts

new

them

gives

superabundance

the

of the life of

character
that
numerous

place of

But,

the

on

city inhabitant

of the novel

hand, the

other

city
the

ment
excitehis

unsettled
lacking. The relatively

compared

as

it easier for the reader

the hero

an

with

news

the

peasant, the

imagination,make
the

additional

the

uncertainty and
of the future, give
possibilities

of the

keen

as

facts and

new

peasant gets by sharing the

is here almost

community

of

because

and

not

country because

find hi the

we

as

is deadened,
receptivity

which

have

city inhabitants

The

and

numerous

with

relatively
food

more

for

put himself in

to

thus

enjoy the plot.

social and political
life find a more
ready

problems raised by modern industrial

city workers than among
receptionamong
peasants, and
intense and serious
to the development of an
open the way
it may
be said that with regard to
intellectual life. Hence
intellectual activities
into

the

fiction-readers without

readers

with

There

city class

lower

be

can

social interests and

divided

non-fiction

social interests.

is indeed

always finds
the peasants; it is religious
fiction
a strong interest among
legends,lives of saints,etc. This, however, is quite a
different kind of interest,based
the general theoretic
on
one

kind

of fiction that

"

and

practical value

which

the

religiousconceptions. The

compel

interest.

of
peculiarities

notice it here

to

us

Here

of

as

course,

the

primarilyindependent of

other

this

also

practicaland

aesthetic

theoretic
kinds

elements.

complicatedmachinery

to

the

attitude

distinct class of theoretic

of

interest

is not

interests,but

part of the general religiousinterest which

only
whole

ascribes

peasant

But

while

is

contains
in the

of the cult these elements

are

indissolublyconnected, hi the myth the theoretic element

predominates and becomes
frequentlyquite isolated from
the

others.

The

relation to

practiceis then only mediate.

INTRODUCTION

297

useful,indeed, to know

everything about nature, or

the religious
or magic, in order to control eventually
spirits,
reality;but this control is exerted by the peasant himself
who not
to only a small extent, since there are
specialists
It is

only know

than

more

the peasant does about

the nature

of

and particular
means
particular
powers.
Except by prayer and a few simple ceremonies, the peasant
into control,but
does not try to turn his knowledge directly
the latter intrudes
as
appeals to the specialist.As soon
between
practicethe interest
religious
theory and religious

this world

but have

practicalaims.
Myth then
for the layman chieflya theoretic explanation,
becomes
but, on the other hand, the interest in mythology remains
for a long time the most popular form in which the peasant's

in

theory

loses its relation to

explanationsmanifests itself. The realityof this

desire is shown
by the fact that Christian mythology,
its part concerning the originof things and
particularly
of their qualities,
has grown
old
considerably,and many
desire for

myths,

such

those of Genesis,have

been

greatlychanged,
ences
systematized,and completed. Lately the explanatory sciphysics,chemistry,biology,geology have begun
to take the place of religion.
as

"

To

"

these

three

built in view
"

of

spheres of theoretic interest schemes

facts,geneticexplanapractice,concrete
tions
"

correspond three

different types of

We
specialists.

find,first of all,the wise and experiencedold peasant who

playsin

the

in troubles

or
village

and

in the

is the

community

the role of

real intellectual leader

meetings having some

practicalsituation in
usuallya good material position;his success
of his wisdom.
otherwise
traveled
this

He

people would
nlore

or

givesassurance

be

must
not

less and

well known

listen
met

to

many

adviser

at

all the

view.
is

He

has

guaranty

for his honesty,

him.

He

different

that he will be able

an

to

must

have

people,for

grasp

any

new

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

298

prudent, conservative,mistrusting. He
talks with
deliberation,slowly, weighing carefullyevery
His arguments seldom fail to persuade,because they
word.
less clearly
his listeners had more
or
express ideas which
of the
He
realized themselves.
usually selects only some
situation.

is

He

ready schemes; his

many

"advisers,"as
obstacle

to

we

problem. These
given practical

the

adaptationto

tion and

call them,

may

efforts

all the

function is their systematiza-

main

such

peasants ; but if once

frequentlythe greatest

are

enlighten and

to

organize the

intellectual leader is won,

an

the

are
rapidlyand easily. Such men
In extraordinary
of the commune.
often elected mayors
epochs of rapid social change (as during the revolutionary
be provisionally
period of 1904-6) the old adviser may
supplanted by a popular agitatorwhose influence is based,
not
personal authorityand not upon a selection of
upon
which the community implicitly
but
arguments
approves,
an
abilityto provoke favorable feelings.Then the
upon

follows

community

himself

peasant

second

be old
now

or

facts.

as

for advice

.ancient

His

in

may

be

the

the

has

practicalcare,

on

winter

of information

source

approximately

even

if ever
have

may

no

asked
social

function

the

solid social

this function

much,

inherited

naturallymuch

becomes

He

may

hired servant,

in times
Insignificant

narrator

traveled

is seldom

He

He

dailyworker, a

beggar or pilgrim.
for

is the

He

important matters.

hardly compatible with

facts.

schemes

narrator."
have

importanceis not

parasite. He

performed,

"

should

that of the adviser.

positionat all;he
even

various

be called the

type may

formerlyhe
simplyread much.

he may

great

his

among

young;

about
as

finds

arguments.

necessary
The

him

time
of work

if the

the

positionis even
latter is steadily

is needed
and

of

or

to

learn

new

serious business,

personalityat moments* free from

eveningswhen the family and the

INTRODUCTION

neighborsgather in

the

299

of

big room

some

rich peasant

men

"

and listen
lighthandiwork
to the narration.
Lately,since readinghas developed,the
is being graduallysupplantedby the reader.
narrator
function
The
of "explaining" was
traditionally
performed
and by the priest,
or
by the "wise" man
woman,
often by the organist. Since religious
explanationshave
begun to give place to scientific explanationsthere is an
evident need for a new
kind of specialist.
Indeed, this is the
for the appearance
of the "philosopher" in the
moment

smoking,

ancient

doing

women

Greek

some

for

sense,

"

scientist with

modern

the

his

cannot
specialization
satisfy the peasant's many-sided
desire for explanation. Hence
this type also is beginning
to develop. It is the self-taught
reading every book
man,

he

can

to

explain everything.

papers,

get, always prepared to discuss any subjectand eager

wants

problem

to contribute

which

about

scientists

eager

fame

reaches

him, and

abstract

matters.

in the country his

he

positionin

an

the

But

it
priest,

classes of the

scientific

is recent

community

since he

the

correspondwith
is continually

this type

is

intellectual leader of the

this movement

As

to

the peasant

determined.
yet sufficiently

antagonistof

letters to

to the solution of every

hears,is

whose

thinking about

writes elaborate

He

is the

probable that he will

movement
anti-religious

is not

natural
become
when

developsin the country. Among the lower

town
population he alreadyplays a part in

this movement.

prestigeattached to the functions of the

if often mixed
even
adviser,the narrator, and the philosopher,
with
kind of condescension
in the beginningwith a particular
The

social

tion.
regard to the two latter types, is a strong factor in instrucwhen instruction develops,the prestige
Reciprocally,

of these functions
of

grows.

"enlightenment"

uses

We

shall

see

how

this circumstance

the movement

for its ends.

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

300

In

general,the rapid intellectual

during the last thirtyyears,

well

as

progress
as

of the peasant

the progress

of social

possibleonly through certain preexisting

and
social life.
features of the peasant'sintellectual
in exploiting
The men
who lead the peasants have succeeded
those features for the sake of a highercultural development,
made

organization,are

this is their merit.

and

2.
sources

We

aesthetic interests of the peasant have

The

religionand

"

main

amusement.

already noticed the frequentanalogy between

have

and aesthetic fantasy; both tend

religious
their object,
both find a particular
meaning
data

two

which

beyond

goes

sensual

the

individualize

to

in the

empirical
However,

content.

religionthis super-sensualside of the world is

taken quite seriouslyas a perfect realityand referred to
practice,from the standpointof the aesthetic interest its
existence is not believed and its role is only to give more
while

in

the

significanceto
beliefs whose

seriousness

forgottenbecome

examples in

sensual

world
is lost

itself. Hence
or

aesthetic attitudes.

the

whose
We

real

stories are
spirit

are

still plainlynoticeable

sense

is

find innumerable
naturalistic

peasant life. Old tales in which

beliefs
religious

religious

and

many

of the

merely matters of entertainment; the

often changes, shortens,develops,combines
narrator
them,
giving free play to his imagination. Most of the patterns,
now

forms, and combinations

of colors

in

popular architecture,
had a magical value.1
The
furniture,dress,and ornament
is mainly forgotten,
but the traditional
magical significance
models

still determine

the

originalreligious
meaning
often
1

remain

Cf. M.

taste.

Old

ceremonies

whose

be

easilyrecognizedeven now
valuable for the peasant,
only aesthetically

Wawrzeniecki,Nowe

niektdrychprzejawdw

can

naukowe

stanawisko

dziedzinie ludoznawstwa

pojmowania i wyjatniania

(Warsaw, 1910).

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

302

other

familial

old

and

in

all

festivals.

social

and

Sometimes
Others

are

of

feelings

familial

extend

thanks

More

recently
itself

lines,

while

and

background

it

models

the

not

try
in

this

tends

is

to

later

if

any,

increasingly

become
volume.

among

poets.

occasion.
the

sion,
occa-

the

to

ask

to

express
for

has

movement

developed

by

nificance.
sig-

entertain

particularly

peasants,

presented

few,

probably
do

the

very

gifts,

etc.

aesthetic

intense

an

the
for

solidarity,

hospitality,

for

suit

warning,

and

are

religious

to

"

communal

or

among

social

advice

give

to

them

composed

evidently

is

to

present,

persons

of

aim

modified

are

sometimes

recent,

their

and

to

they

more

had

originally

probability

of

Many

the
the

under
classes.

upper

half
We

come

-educated
shall

examine

literary

traditional

the

upon

to

along

fested
mani-

the

influence
There

are

who

peasants
this

ment
move-

FORM

FUNCTION

AND

OF

THE

PEASANT

LETTER

Polish

The

writes many

peasant,

as

the

present collection shows,

long letters. This is particularly

striking,
of reading letters is
since the business of writingor even
It requiresa rather painful
at best very difficultfor him.
effort of reflection and sacrifice of time.
is
Letter-writing
for him a social duty of a ceremonial
character,and the
fixed form of peasant letters is a sign of their
traditional,
and

social function.
All the
one

peasant letters

fundamental

can

type, whose

be considered
form

variations of

as

results from

its function

and remains

ifit eventually
the same, even
alwaysessentially
degenerates. We call this type the "bowing letter."
The bowing letter is normally written by or to a member
of the familywho is absent for a certain time.
Its function
is to manifest the persistence
of familial solidarity
in spite
of the separation. Such an
expressionbecame
necessary
of the family began to leave their
only when members
native locality;as long as the family stayed in the same
and permanently
was
community, the solidarity
implicitly
The whole group
assumed.
manifested its unity at periodical
in
and extraordinarymeetings,but no singlemember
familial feelings
was
particular
obligedto manifest his own
more

than

other

members, unless

occasions,e.g., at the time of his

individual who
situation

as

leaves his

compared

or

some

her

marriage.

familyfinds

with

extraordinary

on

himself in

that of other

the

distinctive

members, and

bowing letter is the product of this situation.

nothingcorrespondingto it in personal,immediate
relations.

But

There

the

is

familial

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

304

In

with

accordance

function,the bowing letter has

its

composition. It begins with the

exactly determined
religious
greeting:"Praised be Jesus Christus," to which
an

the reader is supposed to answer,

"In

centuries of centuries.

greetinghas both a magical and a moral

significance.Magicallyit averts evil,morally it shows that
Amen."

The

the writer and

the reader

are

members

of the

religious

same

standpointof the moral-religious

nation
subordisystem every community is religious.A common
also be otherwise expressedthroughout
to God
may
the entire letter,but the greeting is the most
sable
indispen-

community,

and

from

the

expression. There follows the information that the

writer,with God's help,is in good health and is succeeding,
and wishes the same
for the reader and the rest of the family.
We
know
that health (struggle
againstdeath) and living
of natural
constitute the reason
and
human
solidarity
aims
at
(only spiritualsolidarity
power). Finally come
of the family,or
greetings,"bows," for all the members
of the family if the letter is written
from all the members
the absent

to

member.

enumeration

The

should

be

plete,
com-

stilllive in
who
embracing at least all the members
the same
if the family is already scattered,as
locality,
often happens today.
These

elements

function

of the

remain

in every

letter becomes

in other words, whatever

letter,
a manifestation
letter,

be

schematized; the

may,

but

for
the

of

more

else

"bows

the

complicated; every
it may
be, is a bowing

solidarity.Various

words

when

letter,even

for the

elements
whole

may

family"

example, be substituted for the long enumeration,

principleremains unchanged in all the familial

letters.
The

bowing

letter is the

which

function.

The

letters

vicarious;the letter merely

are

functions

only one

of all the other

has

an

original

types of familial

takes

the

place of

FUNCTION

functions

family becomes

of the

LETTER

communication.

personal,immediate
these vicarious

PEASANT

THE

OF

when

has

It

it is

perform

to

of the member

the absence

long that

so

305

impossibleto

wait

for his arrival.

we
According to the nature of these vicarious functions,
each of which is
five types of family letters,
can
distinguish
also and fundamentally a bowing letter.

letters. These

Ceremonial

1.

occurrences

of all the
normally require the presence
the family weddings, christenings,
funerals,

of

"

name-days

of

New

Easter.

Year,

older

instead

letter is the

of

members
These

speeches.
a

The

of

the

letters

as

the function

occasion

which

the whole

concerns

narration

letters. The
of the

the

meeting

feelingon

monial
cere-

speech
of such

and

speech,

determined

group.

bowing

"

for

function

The
of

the revival of the familial

detailed

sends

saying it himself.

same

Informing

substitutes

member

absent

Christmas,

group;

are

namely,
2.

familial

such

on

as

members

written

sent

are

"

life of the

letter

member

absent

the

leaves
or

of

family-groupfor a future personalmeeting. But if the

meeting is not likelyto occur
soon, the letter has to perform
this function vicariouslyand provisionally.In this way
in the family,
a
community of interests is maintained
however
long the separationmay be.
half -instinctive
letters. If the primitive,
3. Sentimental
the

"

familial

weakens
solidarity

the
in
feelings

sentimental
the

as

letter has

consequence

the

task

individual,independentlyof

of the separation,
of
any

reviving the
ceremonial

occasion.

Literaryletters. We have seen

meetings as well as during ceremonies
4.

"

of the
of

peasant find their

most

music, songs, and recital

who

cannot

take

usual

of poems.

personal part

that

during informal

the aesthetic interests

expressionin
The

in the

absent

the form

member

entertainments

306

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

of his group

sometimes
which

sends

read in

to be

same

It is

way.

is

instead,and

verse

amusement

an

vanity in it,since the letter is

of

element

an

letter in

in the

answered

has

destined

often

letters certainly
literary

The

public.

play an important part in the evolution through which the

manifested during the meetings
primitiveaesthetic interests,
of the primary group,
interests whose
change into literary
satisfaction depends upon print.
"

far

As

quite plain.

The

letters.

5. Business

business in person,

is

of these

all his

does

business letter

to a

resorts

only when
great for a special

the distance too

separationis long and

the

function

possiblethe peasant

as

and

vicarious

meeting.
Up
the

to

the present

have

we

spoken

of the letter

function
original

to

was

for
family letters,

of

keep

members

of

Letters to strangers can

familyin touch with one another.
but the essential
perform all the functions of a family letter,
exists only in so far as the
of maintaining solidarity
one
itselfis assumed.
solidarity
Correspondencewith a stranger
also help to establish a connection
which did not exist
can
before
function which
the family letter has only when
a
is added to the family through marriage,i.e.,
member
a new
"

when

We

stranger becomes
mention

must

also the

expressionto thought
language, as

for determined
of

sociallyfixed
uses

in

them,
some

measure

diverge from

clearlyto

ways

the

in

used

attitudes.

of

speaking

express

The

are

or

not, like proverbs,

life,but merely

writing.

The

new

peasant

attitudes,but

attitudes

which

tradition,if this divergence

necessitate

peasant
stances
circum-

determined

They

only for traditional

to

the relation of

has many
in translation,

even

general reflection about

not

question of

peasant letters.

phrases

current

results

in the

be noticed

can

traditional

assimilated.

expression. And

also

already

is not

when

felt
he

FUNCTION

gets outside
find

and

difficult for him

he

the

great words

to

form

of

LETTER

307

expression and

tries to

phrases, then, of course, it is

keep the exact proportion,particularly
literarylanguage. He sometimes
uses

to

uses

PEASANT

THE

of the usual

words

new

when

OF

new

trifles,
or,

express

more

frequently,he
phrases which to

profound and strong feelingsin

reader
weak
and
seem
an
intelligent
commonplace,
which seem
strong and adequate to the writer,who is
expresses

with

familiar

imitate

trying to
attitudes
often

them.
the

in his

words

freshness

and

when

But

the

but
less

peasant, instead

of

literarylanguage,finds for his new

own
stock,his stylehas
philological
impossibleto render in
accuracy

translation.

Further, societyalways tends

to

extent, and

some

ritualize social intercourse

to

modification

every

of

ritual

profound than could reasonably

produces disturbances more
be anticipated. We
have, for example, ritualized remarks
on

in connections

the weather

limited

casual

to

occasions

where

social intercourse

is

meetings and greetings,and if on these

remarked
"Fine trees,"in the
habitually,

man

place of "Fine weather," this would lead to speculations

his sanity. With
the peasant, as with the savage, the
on
of social intercourse,
whole
includinglanguage, is more
rigorouslyritualized than with ourselves, and so long
as

the

peasant

language
We
there

the

remains

within

the

slightest
shading of

notice

is very

sphere of traditional
the expressionis significant.

in this connection

that

in

material

our

little

profanityor abuse between

ances
acquaintin personalintercourse.
For the
family members

or

outsider

and

forms

abuse, but between

of

effect
from

the

Nos.

404,

the absent

can

usual
429.

be

person

there

those

produced by
language norms.

are

indeed

adequate
mum
the maxi-

nearly related
the

minimum

divergence

See Raczkowski

series,

308

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

are
or
portionsof letters,
followingletters,

The
here

LETTERS

PEASANT

SPECIMEN

illustrate the

to

into

enter

letter.

enumerated

elements, as
will be

It

intended

above,

understood

represent the

printed

that

that

these

primitive
and
elemental
types, into which little of the informing
and business elements enters.
Specimens of informingand
business letters are not reproducedat this point,as they are
the dominant
type in the later series. See, for examples,
specimens

are

Wroblewski

series and

No.

below

is

No.

is of the

letters
No.
blood"
No.

series.

type of bowing letter.

pure

type, written

same

more

to

teaching peasants

to

priestwho
write

is

in this case.
successfully
sentimental, designed to "warm

of

an

absent brother.

not

"

Kowalski
almost

an

in

specialinterest

to

informing

very

is the

took

the

frozen

ceremonial-congratulatory
portion

of

of

letter.
No.

5 is

peasant letter,and

charming
writer

also

letter may

letter

The

containingall the
an
example of how

interestingas

written

was

either

as

be
on

within

the

"Palmer

norms

proper

traditional

House"

paper,

chambermaid.
or
a
scrub-girl
barely literate,as shown
by the orthography
of punctuation and
absence
The
capitalization.
whom

was

the letter

was

6 is from

No.

America,

and

shows

literaryeffort.
in-law also

was

No.

7 is the

No.

8 is the

letter
toward

to

addressed

could

girlin Poland
in its most

It contains

to

not

write

her

na'ive form

at

norms.

but
She
and

is
the

all.

the character

the

the

girl to

brother-in-law

indicationsthat

and

in

of

brother-

achievement.
attempting literary

beginningof
rhymed

and

the writer of No.

his

replyto Magdusia.
versified portionof a ceremonial

7.

As

poetry it is very bad, and

the end the versification and

rhyme break down.

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

310

GERIGSWALDE

I, Leon

Wesoly, writing April 28,

Christus."
to

as

well.

The

ist of

I inform

that

April from

from

bows

solar

Rozalja.

I do not

have

Also

Praised be

Jesus Christus.

I send

to write.

more

have

the

Address

to

whom

God

May

bow

write,only
and

wife,

to my

grant it.

WARSAW,

Amen.

WESOLY

April 29,

1914

Jesus Christus."

be

[Greetings;health]. Although

BROTHER:

other,almost

to each

the

same.

DEAR

burning.

I work

LEON

"Praised

am

eclipseon

more

low

for

indecentlythat

so

everybody with

Germany.
[despicable]

live in this

was

I do not

man.

Mother,

the bricks

arrange

o'clock,but it happened

low

Canon

the Holiest

and

Priest,that there

catchinga

were

sincere

lay down

to

is to

I have

Canon

you,

you,

to God

Thanks

health.

work

shivers

even

and

I inform

Also

all,I lay

shepherd, and

my

work

our

First of

be

Jesus
to you,
Priest,
Ecclesiastical Father, about
bows

low

down

"Praised

1912.

at

not

all,and

I don't know

write

we

such

why

little

coldness

not
prevailsbetween
us, stillI write this letter from fraternal feeling,
from
with our
principle. I was
parents for the holidays of the

of Our

Resurrection
Our

parents grievethat

So it is my

duty

to write you

your

kind

Mother

you

in the

but
of

old

whole

very

she

too

"lacks

And

What

she is

him.

and

with

we

love

forgettingthem.

still looks

Such
a

white

whether

illfor the whole

pride,endowed
to make

an

look

not

of him].
[all

sound

and

bad,

I don't know

But

whether
Not

sister

our

gay.

either.

[ordinary]
boy!

head.

Don't

even

Marya

not

I don't know

ought

father

Jan, for

recognizeher. Stefa is in good health,

stave"
[iscrazy]. And Franciszka is sick

faculties she possesses

brother,we
whom

our

with

I could

she has been

because

Our

the other.

dear brother

you,

already,but she does

the fifth

consumption.

hand

for not

"

and

one

selves,like egotists.
and with God's help

own

I thank
first,

parents

our

our

into my

brother-in-law

small

sickly.

At

the
letters,

only for

the pen

future.

acquainted

are

ugly,only
looks

of

memory

our

live

words.

has grown

seen

I read your

we

to take

few

forget them
have

Lord.

for

with

it will be

winter

and

to
possible

looks like

knowledge and

learningand

for

loves

us.

clever mind.

So, dear

keep alive

This

her,

shadow.

everything!

the greatest efforts to

exceedinglyand who

save

is the

sister

result

FUNCTION

inquiriesin

my

the

parents also and

send them

us

to

and

much

reward

She

I kiss you

forget her.

dear

never

and

Be

us.

this letter

concord, and

God

warm

health

our

shake

will

and

"Praised

be

DEAREST

CHILDREN,

AND

PARTICULARLY

third letter and

February 16, and

patron of

love

make

one

may

our

may

our

another

happy

you

Lord

can

will
fort
com-

Don't

lovingbrother
NUCZKOWSKI

Let

have

we

hope
February 16

on

live in love and

us

30, 1910

God

is the

defend

you

all your

you

from

answer

wish

We

have

never

and

of St.

day

you.

any

Julianna,
dear

wants;

may

be

you

sorrow;

may

God

happy and

gay;

you

our

lack

evil accident

against every

health

Lord

love; may
you

to

come

congratulate you,

we

friendship;may

supply

DAUGHTER-IN-LAW:

no

name-day.

and live in concord

in human

God

Lord

who

that this letter will

because it is your
daughter-in-law,
and happinessand long life. May
you

God

success.

Your

YOU,

daughter-in-law. Well,

our

our

Jesus Christus."
the

you

and

WOLSKIE, January

[Greetings;health; wishes.] We
for

good

hand.

your

POREBY

write

of

help us.

you

good

so

frozen blood!

your

photograph

my

STANISLAW

May

our

also.

the address

comfort, because

forever.

We

I send

know

them

to

to

brother,[writeto her]. She loves

sees

for

God

prays

Write

You

311

today letters

also.

yours

will be her whole

This

her ?

Send

you,

though she

you.

I write

yours

beg

LETTER

in Zambrow.

aunt

me

PEASANT

parental home.
our

Send

....

so

THE

photograph.

my

also to you.
aunt

OF

nothing;
and keep

in his

the heavenly dew and the

protectionand grant you his gifts,
earthlyfat. May our Lord God give you every sweetness, make you

you

happy, and
you

from

save

you

their whole

from

evil.

This

your

father and

mother

wish

heart

JAN

AND

EWA

STELMACH

28, 1912

5
I

beginning this
Christus,"and I hope
am

centuries.
DEAREST
health and

letter with
that

you

the words:

will

answer:

"Praised
"For

be

Jesus

centuries

of

Amen."

OLEJNICZKA:

happiness.

God

I greet you

from

my

heart,and wish

you

grant that this littleletter reaches you

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

312

well,and

birdies in

happy as the
Olejniczka.

as

heart,dear

rain is falling;it falls beneath

The

I do not

When

no

it

there,

do the birds

grove

the broad

across
Go, little letter,

Dearest
to start

to

bow

in the wide

low, and

Dear

the

joy

Olejniczka. I
I

see

went

on

up

To

and

see

you,

again,

you

feet I shall

your

shall know

you

not, but I

you

ever

I shall cry.

Then

brother

yearning and fading

am

If I shall

sun.

I shall kiss.

hands

but
direction,

sweet

many
I wish
And

in the

are

how

high

hill and

looked

see

you

not, and

I hear

years
all

you

think of you
Are you

good, a hundred

And

well,very
hotel.

is very

day.

I receive

$120 and

here

eat

We

country.

are

I sent

I have

no

of

in the sea,

water

life,
health,and

through the

what

Is there
I

(inour
like

no

so

holidayshappiness.

white

one

Answer,
to write

gettingalong.

am

worked

would

in

money

it,we

factoryand

32) dollars
could

am

am

I
lilies,

the

the Szases

I sent

for you

you

gettingalong
now
working

month, and that

day what we get only for

bringingover Helena and brother
to

as

bring Wladzio

every

back

more

Olejniczka.And
greet; and

18

If you

good.
We

I have

how

or

more,

answer.

I write you

well.

years

sand-

many

for the Easter

you

I greet you

you.

in Bielice any

there is no

now

drops of

many

As

night,dearest Olejniczka.

every
not

letter and

as
field,

will I write.

of lifeI,Walercia,wish

loveliness I wish

few words

only a
Olejniczka,

grainsas there

in

to you.

come

not.

you

without

your

dearest

in that far

world, and today

littlechild,of great

love you,

I left sister and

Olejniczka,I left papa,

out

then, like

sea, for I cannot

morning, I looked up to the heavens and thought

send.
you, dearest Olejniczka,a little letter I must

like the world

away

you.

in the

arose

myself that

to

pleasure].

sing so sweetly

for
heart,dearest Olejniczka,

As my

my

feet.
slipping

my

then, dearest Olejniczka,

heart will be light[from givingyou

My

from

littleletter,

I write my

And

When

I wish you

is near.
post-office

the

mind;

I will flitwith

In

This

May.

Easter
now.

some

over

in

our

I had

$90.
write,only we greet you from our heart,dearest
Olejniksand their children;and Wladyslaw we
with

their

children; and

the

Zwolyneks

with

FUNCTION

their

children; and

with

their

THE

OF

Grotas

the

with

address:

North

[etc.]

America

goodbye.

WOLKA
I sit down
In

313

their

the present, sweet

For

Goodbye.

LETTER

children,and the Gyrlas

acquaintanceswe greet.

children;and all our

My

PEASANT

SOKOLOWSKA, April 22

table

at a

paintedroom.

table shakes.

My

I write

letter to you,

dear sister and

brother-in-law.

lilyblossomed

And

it was

the

That

my

First

we

But

VirginMary.

thus

I dreamed

heart

was

near

yours.

shall greet each

with

not

other,

hands,

Only with those godly words,

The
I inform

anything. I beg you,

so long,but
you [for]
I

Now
when

I read your

must

have

I had

Jesus Christus."

here, hard

with

to

sow

having answered

for not

me

time.

no

dear

you,

with
brother-in-law,

I laughed very much

letter,

in

plant or

to

and

smile,for

thought that
so
[well]how

you

to
good school since you knew
that letter. But all this [thatyou write]is nothing [cannot

compose

been

for
pass],

to

come

don't be angry

writing to

am

be

that it is cold

now

you

"Praised

words

is there any

boy quiteready to

[and to

come

marry

me]?
Now, dear sister Ulis,I inform you that Jasiek went to you and
I remained
could not both go together. And
at home, for we
then,
will get married, so there would
Hanka
be nobody to
perhaps [sister]
work.

Perhaps there

is planted. Now
me

have
a

And
no

good

I think

children.
and

wedding [Hanka's] when

dear

you,

word], and
[illegible

be earned.

such

beg

few cents, for when

....

you

will be

am

and
brother-in-law,
best

I have

that you

Now

no

maid,

I should

don't

I thank

our

need
Lord

that
funny brother-in-law,

we

much
God
know

Ulis,send

you,

like to treat

for at home

money,

everything

nothing can
yet, for

money
that
how

my

I have
to

got

speak to

each other in such

there is

nothing

more

of us, and

thanks

God.

way
best

my

health,all
to

funny

to be

I will invite you

Now

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

314

in

at home, only
interesting

the

wish you

we

be any

we

cattle

Our

same.

When
to write.
nothing more
write for you
[to come] and invite

they will
[Greetings.]

are

war.

in

are

good

healthy,
is

Hanusia

is

There

married

marrying

am

there won't

Now

man.

When

letters.

our

you

[MAGDUSIA]
Now, dear [cousin]Jagus, I write
in your mother's house, your mother
when

Makar

wanted

to

[them].

coming back
give [send]trousers
was

So

once

was

against you, for

country Jozef [yourhusband]
blouse, but you did not give
much

talked

our

and

with

is angry

mother

your

to

father

When

to you.

you.

April 6,

1914

by railway
Go, littleletter,
don't go to the tavern, where peopledrink
if you went
there,you would get drunk.

But
For
And

would

you

find the way

never

when

meadows

And

be

"Praised

now

shejsworthy

her hand.

Magdusia, kiss

reach

you

Mary, his mother, for

and

Jesus Christus"

sister,

to my

through fields and

Go, littleletter,
And

beer,

of it

[JOZEF DYBIEC]
8

December

BRANNAU,
And

....

beloved

now,

the solemn

On

I send

wishes

And

beg

brother

day

and

of Christmas

1910

brother-in-law,
New

Year

home,

to your

you,

dear

and

n,

beloved

and

brother-in-law

sister and

brother,
Accept
For

On
And

am

wishes,

my

of the

this solemn
if I live and

I think

blood

same

day
come

am

also

back,

that I shall live to

And

I wish

And

to

you

as

you.

rejoicing.
I shall wish

come

to live until

back

to you,

then,

congratulatetogetherone

you

another.

by words.

dear

FUNCTION

the

For

wish

Lord

THE

New

Year

God

bless

after

sands

many

in

the

heaven.

high
luck,

heavenly

are

His

good

every

315

everything;

you

from

you

there

as

wish

heaven

in

death,

LETTER

PEASANT

and

happiness

you

And,
As

of

day

the

May

OF

joy.

sea,

as

fishes

many

in

rivers,
Even

As

may

And

And
And

wish

not

have

day
write

to

God

and

the

in

write

you.

kolenda!"1
and

gay

New

happy
and

merry

for

strength

Refrain

of

Christmas

song.

work,

other

amusement

verses,

words

[i.e.,

in

prose].

STANISLAW

Year.

supper.

in

more

you

grant

money.

fine

at

you.

sea,

health

you

wish

holidays

much

earn

you

the

may

until

grant

Christmas
will

into

kolenda,

live

you

money

happy

you

"Hey,

God

may

fall

as

wish

you

may

and

happiness

happy

And

For

now

And

much

so

And

health

drops

many

Even

On

much

so

DYBIEC

the

MEMBERS

BETWEEN

CORRESPONDENCE

OF

FAMILY-GROUPS
addition

In

letters show
to

the

by

which

internal

which

the

normal

external

external

and

marriage,

religiouslife
"

influences

to

which

not

originallyadapted,

and

the

dissemination

such

of

of

social

familial

increase

and

emigration

contact

Russian

and

Materials

with

to

cities,to America,

far

as

its member
of the

and

new
was

and

and

social advance,

environment
to

Germany,
the

German.
of this character

possible with

questions:

"

group,

neighboring nationalities,mainly

do

strictlysystematic arrangement,
as

to

of instruction

change of occupation, change of social

through

the

organization

ideas, economic

new

events

environment,

tendencies

the

as

either

originallyadapted

was

new

the

various

the

and

processes

by

or

hi its relation

hi

of members

death

these

conditioned

are

conditions, traditional

economic

traditional

attitudes

group

situations

organization

familial

birth, growth,

the

confront

These

of life.

normal

of various

exhibition

primitive familial organization

the

problems

situations

the

to

the

dominant

finds

not

but

reference

to

situation

itself,and

the

family-group.

316

lend

themselves

the letters
the

are

the

arranged

presentation

hi which

to

of two

group

or

progressive disintegration

3i 8

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

attitudes

involved

values

and

In

early
"primary"

schematization

fixed
relatively

is

outlines

life in its main

the

the

peasant community

like the

group

peasant child.

in the

of attitudes

fixation

in this series is the

point of specialinterest

Another

of

and

simple,and
universallyand

are

uncritically
accepted. The child,as we may note in these
freelyin the interests of the family and
letters,
participates
the community and acquiresat a tender age the elements of
a

conservatism.

stubborn

very

9-16,

AND

BRONISLAWA

FROM

IN

BROTHER

THEIR

[Usual greetingsand

BROTHER:

DEAR

IN

POLAND

TO

AMERICA

October

DOBRZYKOW,

BOREK

JOZEF

9, 1913,

month

loth

wishes; letters received

sent.] As to this Alliance,you can inscribe yourself[become a

be in danger of life.1 Moreover, you
will
member], for you may
and

receive

parishthere

is

no

something

will have

you

paper,

read.

In

whole

our

priestis buildinga barn and

The

news.

to

is

calling

organistis alreadyconsecrated as priest. He was

In Gombin
here in Dobrzykow.
they are building the basement of
In Dobrzykow they sing very beautifully[inthe choir].
the church.
The

for money.

They

want

to

people don't
morg

every

build

want

schools

to

agree,

in

the

because

[taxesbeing paid

in

of

commune

it would

proportion to

Dobrzykow,2

but

be very

expensive for
land]. Nothing good

than in any year.

happened here. It rains more
[Cropsand farmwork.] We should have harvested everything,but we had to work
back [pay back with work] for the horses which
they [ourneighbors]
lent

us

to

happened.
is autumn,
1

The

When

plow.

we

were

an
digging [potatoes],

Our

times are sad, it

hog broke his leg. And, in general,
it rains continually,
and
everything is very sad. My

Polish National

of lifeinsurance

Alliance in America

is littleknown

that the insurance

insures its members.

the peasants, and in this

among
of lifewould protect from death.

to

assume

as

it determined, and assuringcertain governmental

among

The

accident

result of

new

law permitting every

the peasants by the

(See Vol. IV.)

classes
intelligent

commune

for the

to

But

the

case

have

as

many

the

plan

girl

seems

schools

help. This led to an agitation

tion.
development of publicinstruc-

BOREK

dear

brother,I

beg
we

us

send

you,
need

Ewka

also

soon

as

as

is

going

possibleany
And

much

photograph, for

your

she is

us

She

sweetheart.

have

suit,so send

Chicago. She boasted that

it only to me, but people are
[BRONISLAWA]

October

10

BROTHER:

DEAR

lina it is

it

as

another.
We

received

We

26, 1913

the

money,

....

roubles,for which

we

you

She has

was.

And

thank

now

the Markiewiczs

gave

no

inform

we

for

can,

Grodny's[daughter]

talkingabout it. Amen.

....

we

now,

you

new

see

told

And

which

money

you

also to

going to America,

to a

now

curious to

am

319

at home.
[with staying]

also weary

am

it very

SERIES

heartily
wish

to marry

this one,

you

what

did

those

we

roubles

50

she waits for

with

back

100

Micha[sister]

With

this money.

with

and
interest,

to the

[commune] office a payement and interest. You asked for our

advice, dear brother,whether you ought to inscribe yourselfin the
alliance. [Repeatsthe advice of the preceding
letter.]When you send
money,

it will be

now,

satisfied that
What

the wages

are

work

much, yet

Mother

bought

it is sad

God

for

me

an
a

Michalina

[i.e.,
dowry]. We
that peopleeven
so

helpsyou,
What

girls?

at least you

[Jozef]have

Now

Lord

our

for

could

earn

have

tears

assist at

surplice. Bronislawa

in my

long very

autumn

eyes

much

envy

you.

Although
the

you

Mass.

holy

to the choir and

goes

sings.

came.

I,Bronislawa,and I,Jozef,beg you, dear brother,with

heart,send us 10 roubles for a gramophone. Now I inform

brother,that

very

well.

earn

accordeon, and

here,because

are

because

for you,

always whenever

I remember

you,

see

never

whole

our

dear
I

you.

you.1

[BRONISLAWA]

December

11

DEAR

We

BROTHER:

....

We

received

....

were

very

that you
much

did not

Broncia
sad, particularly
write for

work
1

23, 1913,

We

so

have

long a

brother

more

Kozlowska.

favorable

to

(Cf. that series.)

We

holidays. It

the request.

We

have

will be very

it is here
see

letter

[Bronislawa]and

time

Certainlythe longing is sincere,but

your

I, Jozef,
now

merry

naively used

in it the germ

i2th

month

to

of the

not

so

for us,
make

the

policyof

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

320

they [theseason-workers]have

for

now

are

many

it any

people in
Our

more.

will calve

cow

young

shall thresh the rest of the rye.

There

is no

pig for

don't

we

After

soon.

In carnival

Prussia,so there

horse,for

no

killed the

We

now

news

have

village. We

our

from

come

need

Christmas

we

ourselves

perhaps there

will be

more

[Marriagesenumerated.]

news.

There
order

is

brother, whether
boasted

now.

When

letters to

write

you

Jarosinskaboasts
what

also

thank

you

send

forge

for

you

to

it,address

parents]will

take it.

nicelyat the

Mass

Now

it to

and

the

And

what

dear

Wladyslawa
[Bronislawa]

weather

intend

you

Bronka's

is there
send

to

us.

they [the

else

or

name,

alreadyhow

I, Jozef,know

in Latin.

for you.

her]. Bronka

gift which

this

you

ask you,

We

to wait

write

[thatyou

Do

Bugel's daughter, for Bugel

she will do in America

work

We

the

buy

to

father that she intends

to our

is curious

wants

not, for he is waiting

to sell it or

us

who

blacksmith

to assist very

singers[women] sing beautiful

And in Gombin
priestbuilt a very nice barn.
they built a barn for people [toworship],because only the basement
of the church is ready. And
Walenty Ostroski began to go [to the
Christmas

Our

songs.

church] and

to

sing,but he had

voice.

no

And

I, Bronislawa,will probably visit you hi the spring,for we

will get married
with certaintywhether Michalina
don't know
not.
or
I, Bronislawa, I could marry if I wanted to take the first man, but
I won't

justanybody. Szymanski'sson

marry

to

wants

marry

me,

to
perhaps it would be well for me, because he will take me
But I don't want
him, for
Warsaw, to [setup] a shop or restaurant.
he is crippled. I have another who turns my head, but only when he

and

back

comes

But

not

am

nobody

from

the army.

in

hurry

than him

more

else.

get somebody

If Michalina
to

whether

?
Our Lord
[thecripple]

I hide

Alina

wife?

[had

Witkowski

....

an

good father
how

it was

we

complain of

on

in

have.

before ?

boys

more

has children in

Prussia].
He

lives like

Well, now

God

America,

small

he

or

you,

God

help me

comes

to

for herself

brother,what
all

we

"

It is

and

me

ask

We

you

know

hard, much

all sides

I, BRONISLAWA

to

additional

some

Prussian

king, and

it is stillworse.

will

marry.

with

the mills.

from

inform

We

I merit

him, but

myself from

Krajeska brought

child
illegal

Did

get married.

and bringswith him

nevertheless,
you

marries,I will also

JOZEF BOREK

to

BOREK

SERIES

321

February 10,

12

1914

I, Bronislawa,received 10 roubles and i copeck, for which

Now
inform you that the
I thank
we
heartily,dear brother.
you
wedding [of Michalina] has been celebrated already on the day of
Our Lady of the Thunder-Candles,1 at 5 o'clock in the afternoon.
....

Very few guests

music

The

was

The

best

were

There

house,only 60.

our

beautiful.

very

There

Wykow.

in

were

musicians
and

men

strangers,from

were

best

4 musicians.

were

girls

The

grandmother and grandfather

at the poprawiny
danced.
[Enumerates other weddings.] We were
"; a festival to complete
[supplementarydancing; literally,repairing
wedding

was

that

so

merry,

very

even

"

one] in Trosin,in the house of the parents

former
He

law.

is a great

did

If you

send

not

for

success

those

roubles,don't send them

now,

don't need

them

now.

it,we

shall

together[with the next] in March,

because

be

afraid,you

can

send this money,

lend itat

interest.

We

have

Don't

brother-in-

our

Their fortune is bigenough

us.

100

of

nothing

we

won't

we

salute

write,only we

to

more

waste

only

T3ro ther-in-law

you

write you

who

also,but

we

won't

brother-in-law
The

with

was

Michalina

and
us

salute you.

And

will

we

wedding. [Enumerates.] And others

The
[name] any more.
family of our

at the

express

agreeableand good.

is orderlyand full of character and

brother-in-law's

now

has

brother

accordeon

an

of

and

one

half

He plays and singsvery nicely.

worth 40 roubles.
[octaves?],
Michalina
is greatlyrespected,all his brothers kiss her hand
tunes

[BRONISEAWA and JOZEF]

February 26, 1914

13

....

8.

April i.

house, to give them

calved,had

it on

to eat

she-calf.

be afraid that

spend

and

Grandfather

Michalina, from

We

drinking; when

on

ary
Febru-

grandmother promise to will their land to

They are to live in the grandparents'
and

rouble every

shall

keep her.

shall lose this money;

we

calved

cow

young

you

come

we

week.

Our

cow

young

Wladzio, don't
won't waste
it,we won't
And

back,you

you,

will have

And
gave

me
1

collected 25 roubles for her caul.

I, Michalina Jasinska,thank you for the

this money.

Michalina

"...

avert

Our

BROTHER:

DEAR
....

for my

caul,and also for those

So called because
thunder-stroke.

of the ceremony

100

forge which

roubles which

of the consecration

of candles

you

you

intend

supposed to

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

322
to send

for the

me

borrowed

We

back

100

wedding, although you did not send them

roubles from Markiewicz, but this money
With

to

which

the money

I collected for my

and
bought for myself a feather-cover,
3 pillows,
I had
the cook.
There were
gaps enough which
roubles were
left,and they want me to give even
for
I

father for flour.

horse,and

neither

am

And

nor

upon

paid

to

caul

roubles to

Only

stop.

10

them, grandfather
Well, I got married, it is true, but
ice [notsettled]

write,Bronislawa

now

In

choir there

our

are

[Enumerates these.] On the

the others got married.

for
girlsleft,

few

water

upon

paid

we

in Trosinek
[with the parents of the
day of carnival we were
Michalina, grandfather and I.
brother-in-law] our brother-in-law,
last

"

His brothers respect

I

played also.
much

very

They

at

were

house, and later perhaps he

And

work.

And

is alreadymarried.1

America,

for I desire either you,

myself to be

or

you

are

they are stillfar

Jozef,a suit,and
dress at her

could

from

we

at

be

us.

the

wedding.

The

is 20

carriageswent
I, Jozef.

to the

thank

father asks you

send

more,
1

The

at

younger

for money

least

dear

you,

100

"

brother, for

to send

some

roubles for the

to

so
us

old.

white

wedding.

I greet

19, 1914

photograph, and

your

us.

years

had

May
We

are

dress,and I,

Michalina

rest.

were

They greet

youngest of them

the

we

brothers

His

14
....

wedding

your

of them.

Three

wedding.

wedding,

be at my

girlat

from

come

got married, only

ashamed

mother

gave

I, Bronislawa, and

you,

until you

brother,to

I will be best

country, since

our

I, Bronka, bought myself stuff for

this money

From

not

were

agreeablethat nobody
while

dear

grieve,dear

at mine.

man

that you

our

home, for

at

Don't

in

even

satisfied that Michalina

very

sorry

very

it is bad.

I will wait

But

Either

at yours.

shall be best

We

I, Bronka, shall be

in America

Michalina

or

us

is in

brother-in-law

our

I shall get married

me,

People envy

grandfather'shouse, for grandfather

perhaps he will will him [hisfarm],for he

write,dear brother,that

brother, about

Sunday.

on

Now

played the accordeon,and

will be in

pleasedgrandfathermuch.
you

house

our

of this luck.

because

cannot

His brother

much.

me

If you

cannot

Markiewiczs, and if you

send
can

daughter customarily waits for the marriage of the older,and

parents usually refuse

to

let the younger

daughter be married

first.

BOREK

send

send

more,

for

you

these

Michalina

with
lowna.

wishes

the

time, and
least

could

later

enough

did

you

our

Markiewicz

Wiktor

did.

learning.

are

singwhenever

I go to

I have

I shall

weeding

BRONISLAWA

which
law

thank

we

heartily
They will

you

leaving us.

are

won't
[grandparents]
the

[processions],
many

know

And

pained, and

the army,

from

dear

know

weeks
He

wants

to

to

you

but I don't want

until I get

whom

few

when

I should

to.

lend

we

it,for

now

father cannot
I

am

he

Your
....

borrowed

roubles
Now

notes
1

100

Because

she wants

we

and

prefersome

to

you

about

the city.

don't
to an

and

I will write

you

will go
me

to

soon

letters from
from

craftsman,and

'

[BRONISLAWA]

is lent.

Jan Switkowski

inform
to go

money

we

come

July
BROTHER:

crosses

in autumn

comes

16
DEAR

was.

ashamed

very

further.

craftsman

some

what

words, dear brother.

to

me

ones

[TOZEF]

it will be

marry

you

theater, 12

complain. I
Wladyslaw "abka writes

to

the old

far away.

brother,our

how

nobody

inform

we

brother-in-law.

our

I don't

I will wait

Now

brother-in-

our

lodging,because

merry-go-round,

so, my

for I have

the army.

yet.

Borek, write

understanding with

work, for

rent

and

1914

roubles,for

500

money,

Michalina

I shall write later on, where

money

yet.

more,

her

of them

I, Bronislawa
About

take

Pentecost:

at

news

received

We

....

at

earn

June 5,
BROTHER:

He

of those

15
DEAR

Bug-

is to wait for you.

Lord
God allows you

buy slippers.

to

with

singers
they quarrelledwith the organistand

I shall go

perhaps

on

got acquainted

[hiswife's sister].And

because

others

now

where

marry

there

more,

and
priest,

If

sure

very

May 15
I,Jozef,thank

brother-in-law

Our

came

roubles

money,

Zazdzierz

consumption

marry

singsany

none

in

as
boys usuallydo with girls,
Wladzio, Bugiel boasts that Staska

to

you

it

as

back, you

come

us

gave

she is sick with

But
to

Dear

lend

from
[Stanislaw]

roubles

323

....

Markiewicz

place
[from America], and

should

We

more.

SERIES

300
our

23, 1914

Jan Golebiewski

roubles.

farm-stock.

We

have

We

have

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

324

and

cows

she-calf

one

for Michalina

and

they

....

they sold the

Michalina
to

does

trade

bought

in

shoes, but

only

and

go

and

for

cow

lodging, but

anywhere

herself,but they began

Jozef, they [the parents]

me,

cotton-suit,for there

bought

rent

don't go

cow

For

orchards.

cloth-suit.

buy

to

Father

cow.

to

were

the money

want

not

pigs and

nice

left for

took

and

cow

the young

from

enough

not

was

hardly could calculate

Father

[JOZEF]
And

now

I, Bronislawa, write

you

father

did

inform

We

bought

but

already

and

600

helps

will be

give her

won't

we

for the money

God

Michalina,

which

you

and

so,

lost.

When

I intended

they

send

home,

at

worked

for 5 weeks.

and
slippers,

photograph
no

of my

with

offer

anything,

me

send

enough

tired with

am

single grosz

kind

and

now

go

her

want

we

add

anything

I could

it to my

name,

to

buy

to

sing any

work

go

for

I will work

was

I have

dress and
a

you

for I have

more,

with

the
is

But
10

it is too

because

for

one

those

you.

Michalina

away,

money

because

but

burned

and

brother, I

Dear

some

work,

to

to

later I will send

myself in

to dress

together

so

going

Lord

our

nice velvet

us

much

very

name-day,

buy

to

Perhaps

not

am

something

I will

me

if you

for the winter

I, Bronislawa, be

grieve that

cow

sent

side of the Vistula.

the other

on

Although

us, but

you

much, that

for your

watch.

person.

difficult to live all

for

also

least I have

at

thank

the
a

have

You

He

made

Michalina

time.

Don't

wishes

I earned

I have

lime

sun,

working

was

roubles.

100

gave

People marvel

you

....

not

We

second

envy.

brother.

return, all this will be given back

you
to

these

brother, we

Dear

sent.

you

words, dear

[for himself] and

office.
a

one

roubles.

12

with

horse

[communal-bank]

the

in

payment
once,

for

cow

what

you

....

few

ask

would

you,

sewing-machine
some

weeks, and

if you

roubles

our

offer

me

parents

took

[BRONISLAWA]
1

Michalina's

grandfather

farm, but he declined

had

do this and

failed to provide her with

selves in
old

to

difficult situation.

people is a

necessary

was

We

evidently expected
her father,counting

sufficient dowry.
see

to
on

retire and

will her

the grandfather's

So the young

organization.

help,

people find them,

here, as elsewhere, that the retirement

link in the familial

the

of the

326
etc.,has
a

neighboring

estate

between

curious

the

interest in work

and

point

living is

is not

farm

insecure
work.

tion is shown

farming of
The

It

proletariat.1
its

the
nomic
eco-

is shown

does

not

care

the fact that the

which

he

is his

earns

his

pleasure of
interest is objectified.The
same
objectificain his eagerness
to learn everythingabout the

his brothers

second

family.

spiteof

works

still he

situation,and
The

edge

complains continuallyabout

He

personal property.

the

Walery puts his whole

while the money

his own,

peasant

independent interest

his salaried work, in

about

own

is that

case

life into farming, house-building,etc., and

much

his

on

country

present

the farm-work.

only with regard to

from

already independent of

that this

and

purpose,

income

the normal;

the

in the

is

such

as

for

income

farmer-class

the

But

is above

paid labor

additional

needs

additional

need

on

season-emigration.A

through

or

does not

his children's

who

outside,by salaried work, either

be earned

to

peasant who
or

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

in America.

fundamental

happens

for the

that

of interests is that

set

find here most

we

of the

of the

possible

familial situations:

Walery 's relation to his father and brothers on the

In this relation
ground of the problem of inheritance.
Walery, the oldest brother,as againstthe father and partly
against Feliks, represents the old principlesof familial
the
act
solidarity according to which
family should
i.

"

harmoniously

as

whole, and

interests of this whole, not

justice accordingto
"

be

settled upon

This

relation

is

Cf. Introduction:

as

expanded

marriage of the father.

individual,but

his

which

moral

the

The

member

"Economic

the father should

pursue

ends
egotistic
economic
problems

own

the

"

and

the
of

should

against a merely legalbasis.

and
complicated by the new
stepmother is not
of

Attitudes."

another

an

isolated

family, and

the

WROBLEWSKI

harmonious

family.

coexistence

of the two

his

family

own

family.
2. Purely

and

Walery's relation

4.

sentimental

and
5.
which

goes

on

situation and

for their sake

to

his children,and

of the

progressivemanifestation

and

out

of interest in work;

he is the

and
are

small, and

they may be as
belongs to Olcia,and thus

paternal attitude

definite and

But

as

are

but

the farm
his

feelings

as

poor
a

the children

But

shaken.

he,

for half of the

his

feelingof pity keeps

strong.

After

of

the death

the

isolates itself in his mind

slightantagonism
son,

on

only rightfulproprietorsof the

older his personal situation
they become

Olcia his children

farm.

of the character

paternalattitude
of
head and representative
becomes
merely a guardian,

family. After her death he

his security
and authorityare

farm

nomic
eco-

the economic

work

to

an

"

his firstwife lives his

perfectlynormal;

the

changes in

the influence of

continues

sickness

the evolution

under

long as

As

change.

through her

firstwife

his

He

with

his wife's

to

stepdaughterOlcia
problem. (Seenotes.)

of the children.

no

it is
possible,

loses all connection

to

Walery's relation

as

intellectual relation between

and

Walery and Antoni.

3. Walery's relation to his
and death.
(Seenotes.)

tion
assimila-

contrary,

assimilated

becomes

sentimental

the

families is

husband, Walery's father,who

the

is

On

husband's

her

327

absolutelyher

of interests prevents

antagonism
to

SERIES

from

that of his children,and

between

appears

himself

and

oldest

the

though he stillhopes that the latter will eventuallytake

the farm

and

for him

in his old age.

children appear,

again,new
cannot

care

be

expected

children,and
from

to

him

his interests become

those

evident

it becomes

take

of the children

Finallyhe

and

his

almost

new

marries

that his
wife

son

and

sociated
completely dis-

of his first wife.

The

328

PRIMARY-GROUP

sentimental

is the

connection

only

left and

one

even

this

in the last letters.

weakened

seems

ORGANIZATION

Walery's relation to his second wife. (Seenotes.)

Feliks' wife.
7. Walery's relation to his sister-in-law,
This is only sketched,but in very distinct lines. There is a
whose
immediate
is certainly
marked
mutual hostility
cause
economic
antagonism, but it is prepared by the total
estrangement resultingfrom the long separationand the
6.

quite different
have

lived.

in many

see

we

Feliks

facts illustrate two

These

(i) As

in which

conditions

very

even
letters,

through marriage (to say nothing of

resultingfrom

that

is ceasing more

and

the persons

thus

community

of

relation.

third

more

to

produce

or

that

resultingfrom
is due
a

to

communities.

Ludwik
With

on

to

found
pro-

America.

and

At

ordinarycourse,
that the emigrant

with
any

strong and

rate, the

organization,exerts
the emigrant. Another

hi the Raczkowski

merous
nu-

Russian
a

more

good

letters
series,

of

Wolski.

regard

is also the

to

the religious
interests,
Walery's attitude

typical attitude

while
religiouslife;
The

and

familial

disorganizinginfluence
example of this is found

more

the fact that emigration

normal

more

is much

emigration

less identified in America

its weaker

life,with

member

new

longer since the old type of

disintegrate.(2) The estrangement

to

has become

Polish

the

difficult and

it seems,
difference,

more

like

between

consolidate

to

necessary

always with the expectationof return,

is

one

connection

brought by emigration to Russia

to America

relation

abnormal

an

words, the assimilation of

peasant family began

This

normal

marriage of Walery's father)

interest,are

more

than

family
generalphenomena:

if not
allied;acquaintanceand friendship,

In other

has become

the

his

and

individual

very

relation

of the

strong, has
to

the

modern

peasant.

mainly

Divinity,

as

His

social form.

expressed

in

WRCBLEWSKI

SERIES

329

vision, ecstacy, feeling of subordination,etc., is

prayer,

quitesecondary as compared with the social side of religious

priesthood,
reality meetings, public service,church-building,
attitude only once
find the former
We
etc.
clearly
expressed(No. 37). There are but slighttraces of the old
naturalistic religious
system and littleinterest in the magical
"

system.
social interests of

The

play any

to

of
activity

peasant
in
can

his

active

commune

to his
practically

acquaintances. He does not

and
organization
part in the political
the only political
group in which a
"

be active.

can

limited

are

neighbors and

relations with
seem

Walery

he is interested

But

as

observer

an

phenomena, upon which he

political
influence.
The form of this interest
exert not the slightest
is also typicalfor the peasant of the present time; it

general social

and

the transition from

marks

total lack of such interests to

and
the political
social
practically
the city workers
as
we
organization,
already find it among
and to some
the peasants, and expressed
extent
among

the effort to influence

in socialistic,
and
nationalistic,
interest in

The

plays and

economic

associations.

strong in

is not

amusements

so in peasants of his age, burdened

by
Walery, and is never
the heavy task of life. Social entertainments
are, in fact,
the only form of recreation which a peasant knows
besides
which may
be regarded also as
drinkingand card-playing,
"

forms
as

of social entertainment, and

independent amusements)

variety of

is much

amusements

Nevertheless

in the

case

of

are

in this character

morally permitted.

greater among

Walery

we

find

photography.
Walery's purely theoretic interests are
natural,particularly
cosmic, facts. It may
in generalpopular books on natural sciences
readingof the peasants.

amusement

(not
The

cityworkers.
new
relatively

"

turned

toward

be noted
are

that

the favorite

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

330

We

notice

in many

absolute lack of

an

other

series

the

"

interest which

one

which

one

we

prevails
the

term

may

"climbing" tendency. Walery does not try to get into

higherclass,although the fact that he is a skilled workman
and
(gardener)

enable

him

The

lack

relative degree of his instruction would

the

this

do

to

easilythan

more

others.

many

explained by the
conservatism
the
prevailing among
this province. Living for centuries in

level of the

the

could

be

of this tendency may

exceptional social
peasant nobilityof
analogous conditions,with
to

politicalcareer

few

middle

opportunitiesto rise
nobility,particularlysince a

closed

after Poland's

very

partition,and
hindered
economic
advance
by overpopulation,poor soil,
and lack of industry in this province,lackingthe incentive
which
to advance
was
given to the peasants proper by
was

liberation and

nobilityis
within
to

old

classes.

by social

He

And

is little to

there

any

achieve

by climbing. Walery tries perhaps

but rather by personalqualities
village,

the community

be the firstof his

than

land, the peasant

stabilized in its class-isolation than

more

of the

other

with

later by endowment

has

or

some

economic

influence.

pride in

his work, in his house, and

his

in general, the
vanity. And
garden-products,but no
problem of social hierarchyseems
hardly to exist for him.
No

determined

attitude

toward

the

higher classes

is

ever

expressed.
The

only other type

more

or

less

these letters is that of the father.

by

which

his whole

desire to live

economic

and

invalided

by

is

personal life up

tradition which
familial idea

behavior

requiresthe

and

to

and

fundamental

explained,is
to

resign his
unable

His

the

powerful
spiteof the

the end, in

to

claims

matters

manage

on

those

of the

control

the

when

in

feature,

father to be the bearer

general familial
age

outlined
definitely

he

is

of

partly

matters

for

WROBLEWSKI

SERIES

331

family.1 In his struggleagainst

has no course
other
the old Wroblewski
this tradition,
finally
than to resigncompletelyhis place in his own
family. In
thus live an unimpeded
can
fact he becomes
a stranger, and
the greatest benefit of the

personallife. By marriage he gets, it is true, into

family,but the latter has no claims upon him.
The

other characters,
as far

material,

in the

determined

as

another

perfectlyclear.

seem

farmer

Wr6blewski, a
His

WROBLEWSKI

FAMILY

THE

wife

second

"Klimusia," his third wife

Walery, his son
J6zef,his son
in America)
Antoni (Antos),his son (lives
in America)
Konstanty (Kostus),his son (lives
in Russia)
Feliks,his son (lives
Walery's firstwife
Anna
P., Walery's second

wife

Feliks' wife

J6zef'swife
(Aleksandra),daughter of Walery's firstwife

Olcia
Edward
Waclaw

Walery's children by

his firstwife

J6zia
Michal

17-57,
TO

FROM

AND

WALERY

IN

BROTHERS

THEIR

JOZEF
AMERICA:
FROM

55-57,

FROM

17-54,

POLAND,

WALERY;

JOZEF.

LAPY, January

17
DEAR

BROTHERS:

....

health.] Your
traveled
1

In

Kozlowska
never

IN

WROBLEWSKI

and
[Usual greetings

letter of October

for about

29 I received

on

1906

about
generalities
December

30.

It

months, and perhaps it lay in the post-offices,

this regard there is

strikinglikeness

between

himself

that Kozlowska,
with this difference,
(cf.that series),

called upon

2,

of the familial idea.

to be the representative

and
as

Franciszka
woman,

was

because
a

week,

and

in

now

very

and

in the post and

afterward

often

"Strike"

their demands.

Even

is

was

because
liberty,

In
we

all this is not

the

we

The

yet fixed.

would

is no

in the

peace

and

for this
'

land,and

everything

shoemakers

and

tailors.

country, the whole

we

time

have

more

formerly,when

as

write

now

Papers

truth,only

more

different songs

reason

short,thanks

In

trouble
terrible

even

other towns

many

Now

of the monarch

they

so

bad, but stillmuch

be

not

libertyof speech has also been given by

Polske

cos

was

working-

all equal in the country.

are

censure,

Highest Manifesto, and

"Boze,

in the

order

shorter

day.

citizens of the country, not

are

published without

are

8 hours

word, by favor

only subjects;now

were

than

no

and

higherpay

want

more

there

of the press, etc.

we

there

libertyare going on, because on October 30 the Highest

liberty
proclaimed concerning personal inviolability,

about

Manifesto

They

work

to

now

....

than

more

language "bezrobocie"

our

terriblydear, particularlywith

become

tumults

telegraphservice
in

means

stopped for

["stoppingof work"]. It happens

in factories.
Workmen
particularly
put

us,

among

day; they refuse

has

strike.

"zabastowka"

Russian

forward

All the trains

there has been

strike for 3 weeks.

as

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

332

can

to

God,

are

sung,

conditions

happen, because

thingshappen,

as

there

in Moscow

greatlyto the development of social

consciousness and interest in political
the peasants.
Up to this
problems among
time those interests in Russian
Poland
were
artificially,
by
patriotic
developed
classes. Indeed, the relative simplicity
and isolation
agitationfrom the intelligent
1

The

revolution

of 1905-6

of peasant life,together with

made

contributed

the bureaucratic

organization of the Russian

it hardly possiblefor the peasant to understand

between

that there

was

state

relation

any

the real interests of his life and

the more
general political
problems. The
self-government allowed, within certain limits,the settlement of most

communal
of the

the peasant had no

but outside of the commune
problems of everyday life,
social and political
all
the phenomena whose source
life,and thus
lay in the state and in the economic
organization law, military service,taxes,
officiallanguage,means
of communication, prices of natural
school-organization,
influence upon

"

and

manufactured

products
"

superiorand

undetermined

his attitude

toward

an

attempt

individual's

own

The

revolution

and

may

the

same

abstract

to

appeared

force.

the weather

problems and

and

and

regulated once
them

more

was

or

giftthe

forever by
or

powers

(Cf. Introduction:

in their treatment
"Social

the peasant that this assumed

be influenced directlyand
tune

as

in its organizationby human

unsuspected relations between

the facts of everyday life.

less like

fundamentally passiveresignation,with

sphere of interests.

unknown

him

His attitude toward

"

influence with prayer

of 1905-6 showed

to

times
some-

of the

Environment".)

order is modifiable

will; it showed
many

at

apparently

is goingthis year to school in

Edward

copecks monthly, but

50

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

334

; I pay

Lapy

learning

position[asgardner of

I leave my

when

for his

now

governmental railway-station]
probably they will demand
and
Both
the strangles,
horses had
now
they look bad.
my
winter

weather

Christmas

to

up
is

colder; it

don't remember

have

I for

send

salutation

you

In

our

mill

myself,when

the

one

or

us, and

from

on, when

in

they

grind corn, father for

we

the other has time.

the children

Now

salute you

"

We

wish

W.

WROBLEWSKI

you

Alekevery

February 8, 1906
DEAR

ANTOS

BROTHERS

that I will
because

probablyremain

I don't know

when

[buildthe house]. Every

I

church

grant it.

God

May

The

Year, the
I
sledges

buildinga

sandra,Waclawa, Edward, Jozefa and MichaL

good.

more.

New

chapel,and later

to build first a

himself and

on

go

about

written

I have

church

money,

already possibleto

whether

They intend

Lapy.

is

since

light. Now,

was

the

was

I should

that

sure

Kosxus:

AND

at my

remain

you,

althoughI am not very glad

able to do somethingfor myself

post,

I shall be

year

I inform

Now

....

hope to

do it and I cannot.

home, and

at

week

Now

ago

also

I thanked

and
[resigned]
place. They gave me one day for reflection,
my
after this they were
One day, then another,
to say something to me.
then a week passed and they said nothing. I was
that they
sure
were
trying to find somebody else. I was sure because last year it
if they intended
I thanked
seemed
to change me, although when
as
satisfied with me.
them they said that they were
After more
than a

for

week, when
asked

I went

whether

me

remain

on

I asked

for

I intended

different

am

not

improvements in

some

sure,

to remain

conditions,but

chief said that he

The
I

to the officefor a ticket to go

the

home.

He

has threshed

all his

and
hay from the riverside,
and I don't know
the riverside,

successivelytwo

service,and

to

obtain

moreover

them.

for fuel.

serve.

the
to

hope

willingto grant it. If so, I will remain, but

meanwhile
it is only a promise; if they don't

Everything else is unchanged.

at

I said that I could

not.

I did not

Warsaw, the chief

was

because

fulfilit,I will not

or

to

days

Father

grain,but

now

how

of frost and

stillprovidesfor himself
he has not

yet brought

impossibleto get through

have
it will be, because now
we

it is

three

days of rain.

But

when

WROBLEWSKI

Feliks will

If Feliks does

335

shall do.

we

not, arid father

or

come

alone.

the farm

how

I don't know

comes

summer

SERIES

not

I don't know

probably won't

be able to

I don't

come,

whether

know

keep

what

will

because father does not promiseto work any longeron the farm.
result,
sellit,althoughhe could take somebody to help
Perhaps he will finally
enough, but he does not intend to do it.
him, because he has money
On

....

should

do it

I want

very

there is also

farm

my

myself,but
much

nobody

in Plonka

which

church

in the

thought that
the other

shut

evening, was

through the window

there,took the

have

We

the

thief stole into the

The

in

hand,

Now

earn

can

robbed

been

has

nothing is certain;on

now

this littlemoney

church

to work.

and

money

fled

weddings here, although

no

it is carnival
WROBLEWSKI

W.

April2, 1906

19
with

will divide

We

BROTHERS:

DEAR

hi

you

....

thought

[swi"cone].It is a pity that you will

probablyhave no swiecone,because you are surelyfar away from the
church.
Well, it cannot be helped;you will probablyonly remember
Lord
will
God
But perhaps our
our
country and nothing more.1
allow you to return
happily;then we shall rejoice
at

least the consecrated

As

when

to the money,

give 10 roubles

I receive it I will do

will

to father and

will put it somewhere

thank

food

their uncle

until you
for the

keep by

the

me

and

remembrance

you

people have

Some

day.

wretched, walking
oxen

and

been

no

bought

sold also the horse

'The

[snow].2 As

upon

white

cow;

I wanted

because
opportunity,
which

storks

seen

cows

you

also to
are

I will

remaining 240,

the

my

or

children

promise. Spring

approaches,but althoughit is already April,weather

every

wrote;

Meanwhile

back.

come

as

is bad, it snows

already; they must

I wrote, I have

be

sold the

buy another,but there has

bad

bought, for

and
62

very

dear.

roubles,and

I have
I have

wishes, dividing the "Swiecone" with the thought of absent

in spiteof
of preservingthe family connection
evidently means

Easter

are
relatives,
and
separation,

in the

particularform

which

this connection

assumes

in group-

festivals.
The peasant
sympathy of the peasant with animals.
stories show that this sympathy developed to a very high degree. Spontaneous to
some
degree,it is also a vestigeof the naturalistic religioussystem.
1

An

example

of the

336

PRIMARY-GROUP

bought another
the other;
as

for

because

the

fetlocks

on

promises

him

have

to

turn

in the last

for that time.

and

songs

I don't

only

thieves

of the

stepped out

called,"Who

happily he

be found.
and

He

They

They
thefts

The

strikes of

the

shot

man

to

there at dinner.

it

me

of different

score

about

father.

other

robberies
rob

in

revolver,but

of them.

Father

horse

ended.

and

that is the

cause

This kind of detailed information

of the environment
common

in which

And

factories

noise,

were

not

of

wagon

present there

At

Highwaymen
robbers

in towns

come

and

they can

all this goes

since

on

stopped, workmen

the
were

of the present robberies.8

reminding the absent member

the family lives has

"universe

the

On

made

country.

our

them, and

trace.

Many

the end

sleptin the

people, but they

Plonka, stole

any

fortune
the mis-

At

father

with

two

were

the misfortune

So

and

and

us

went

last year.

out, and

the old

The

Jozik; he lent

horses,and

There

ran.

awoke

usuallydisappear without

up

she

you,

'

houses,kill or threaten with revolvers,take whatever

now

something tapping and got up and

something black under the wall

saw

the roads and

people on

turned

is

Sokoly,you

to

us

you

kept our

the bullet in the door.

disappeared.

terrible

attack

of

written

God
steal

is there?"

and

us

I have

heard

door.

missed.

to

came

are

hood
neighbor-

written

were

we

Plusniaki

from

corner

and he has

Warsaw

to

He

day people found

gram

and

phonograph

Lord

our

came

the granary.

near

and

the

on

whether

know

which

of the carnival

next

on
left,

intend

Wojciech,

go from
the

in the

I have

you

days of carnival

bought it in

He

from

and

When

barn, at the

played

whether

white

marches.

Now

barn

their

in Skwarki
of

had

longer.

Drop

daughter

know

Golaszewski.

the dinner

During

the

Perkoska,
I don't

near

was

this horse

bought

color

same

other

little

two-year-old.Adam

the

Frania

Kleofas

wedding

to

and

is

one

the

distinguishthem,

the

only

same,

this

legs,and

plow.

to

the

old, of

difficult to

be

even

is also

her husband.

married

to

would

his hind

where
with

it

is 4 years

He

64 roubles.

movement

plow with

to

ORGANIZATION

of discourse"

of the family

evidentlythe function

and

thus

of keeping

maintaining the familial

connection.
2

played a
was

cause

was

evidently different.

certain r61e in recruitingthe bands

the disorganizationof social and

mass

of the

moral

Although lack of work

may

of robbers, the fundamental

life brought by the

new

not equivalentto the traditional

people were
l
ife.
Nos. 757
notes
to Jasinski
(Cf.
organizingpractical
series,

for the
in

real

The

have
reason

ideals,which

social constraint
ff.)

WR6BLEWSKI

holidays brother

the

After

he

mainly because
children.
on

has

Feliks

church

no

is

there

remain

he cannot

Well, but

and

the

to

nowhere

farm, but
teach

to

difficult for him

there

work

to

because
either,

the

of what

said.

I have

I inform

Now

that in

you

The

papers

themselves

that

write

there

are

and

the

"Maryawitas,"

"Mankietniks."

They regard

some

the

prieststhemselves
70 such

to

50

faith

new

produce

priestswho

people have nicknamed

as
girl,a "tertiary,"

call
them

saint,

visions,and they believe her; they

her different

She dictates to them

Catholic

holy Roman

our

and
has arisen,
sect,heresyor falling-off
it.

337

coming

I believe that it will be too

But

farm.

SERIES

bishops,and they proclaima doctrine about her

that
she
some
was
immaculately conceived.
They have drawn
teaching. This
parishesto their side; peoplebelieve their erroneous
happens in the neighborhoodof Plock, on the other .side of Warsaw
from us.
Those
day. The bishop
priestssay three masses
every
seal these churches, but the Maryawitas
sent prieststo close and
won't listen to their

beat the true

All this is

"

priestsand did

going on

certain Felicia

at

what

is

going on

you

what

[thechurches].

to close

as
she-devil,

of

seamstress

bishop writes,a
therefore

and
priest-clothes,

her.

priestsfavor

it is clear that young

papers

It is a

present.

Kozlowska,

them

allow

not

It is

horror

of the world

there; perhaps the end

read

to

is not

in

far

away.1
1 wrote

for if I wanted

I could

to write in

Now, please,write
them

made

when

coal is dug out

short,whatever

whether

"

be

may

new

Are

there any

sheets

many

How

the mines.

the earth ?

under

country, although in short,

our

I should need
detail,

about

us

about

the passages

are

fall in
they [thepassages]
for

of the

sect

had

peasants
Vol. IV.

The

Christian
2

writer
about

part for centuries.

taken
"end

demoralization

representedthe

"Maryawitas"
of the world"

is noticed.

happens

stand ?

In

course

WROBLEWSKI

first heresy in which

shall have

We

dependent

the

details of this in

more

whenever

is assumed

It is of

or

to

us

W.
'The

What

props

of paper.

any
upon

general
eschatological

great and
the

ideas.

Here,
were

which

as

in many

other

similar

the constitution
of the

of

are
a

seems

as

if the interest of the

by the fact that the conditions

is evidently
those in which his relatives live. But the effect

not
purely objective,i.e.,

he asks

questions,it

new

common

determined

field of intellectual life and

whether
group-connection,

this

was

the conscious

thus

aim

or

tenance
the mainnot.

338

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

April25, 1906

20

DEAR

BROTHERS:

in service.

remained

I have

Here

we

....

have

full

blossom, storks,swallows
for brother

waitingnow
his

place and

They will

is

Feliks.

for his pay

Father

soon.

very

back.

come

keep us

and

tickets for

the papers

from

that

May
I don't wonder

BROTHER:

that you

....

but
ill],
such

I don't

thorns

if I had

done

with

always strewn

Work
finish

planting,we

much

Pal.

sell it,but

to

in

you

ought to

He

this; in other
life

in human

are

different

many

in

his servant
a

After

him

him

I inform

that

150

much

not

part with it for

be too
as

money

we

buy that
that
finally,

roubles for the field

roubles,but he does

hurry, because it would

as

farm.

my

I cannot

long reflection he said

gave

80

on

plantingpotatoes, and when

that he would

only if I had

home

at

buildingthe house.

only if I

I offered

from

not

am

will set to

Tomasz

garden.

I heard

all

trifle. But

I remain

you

he would

bear

[being

it.1

upon

field from

not

1906

so

me

to him.

flowers; there

know, probably,that
is going on in the field,
we
are

the

mischief

some

12,

wrote

presented

....

being sick,could
[you would look upon it]as

is not

Now

Kostus

why

that you,

conditions
the road

know
as

manner,

understand

so

Francisco.

WROBLEWSKI

21

DEAR

terrible

[Salutations.]
W.

[resigned]
the journey.

help every day. Now

[by myself]at Easter.
tion
[Descrip-

this!

from

you

am

for

happened in California,in the city San

has

looks for

photographsmade
photographs.] We know

misfortune

and

trees

potatoes,

alreadythanked

has

He

and

birds have

other

some

of the

God

and

waiting only

come

I send you

May

in the field oats, peas

spring; people sow

Later

agree.

100

near

roubles,but
could pay

expensive. I

he has.

and
back from America
Jan Gluchy came
intends to build his house in the garden near
Before he came
Stas.
sort of shack, but Filus did not
back, his wife wanted to build some
want
to give her a lot. He proposed the lot near
my garden
Now

but it was

too

you

small

bed, but
[adjacent]
1

Allusion

to

some

for her.

She

I did not

wish

incidents which

letters written to Antoni, not

set on

was

to have

we

cannot

those to KostuS.

having father

such

sell her

neighbor so

determine, as

we

near

have

an

and

only the

WROBLEWSKI

father not

I asked

sell;I

to

has

planted it himself.

the

pond,

this

but

was

SERIES

ready to

was

339
it

pay

Filus

Later

myself. But father

give her the lot near

proposed to
small for her, because

also too

there also she

neighbor. At last,after much begging,he gave them

the lot near
Stas Laba, and there they will build their house.
Now,
[abuse me], especially
me
as peoplesay, they hang dogs upon
Filus,
would

be my

Jan got the best of it in gettingthat lot.1

brother.
as to the marriage of Jozef,our

because
Now
to

the end

before
with

boy

from

upon

disputewith Feliks Gembiak

; he crawled

write you

later how

week

lives

took

to

Jozef is planting
I have

now

garden behind

into my
up

was

father

our

part of father's land.

with Olcia

already,he

Now, as I wrote
of Stas Gembiak, and

plowed the part of the garden

and

It

Kozly and is stillfarming himself.

potatoes for himself

house

home.

of the carnival.

his wife in the house

small

I returned

wedding, and after dinner

the

I went

the fence.

my

I will

this ends.

Spring is late this year,

trees

blossom

and last year

only now,

they

to walk

Wojciech [St.Adalbert's day]. Now I have nothing

interest to write,only I inform you, that our Michalek
began
the firstday of Easter,and he says that Little God ordered
on

him

walk, because

blossomed
of

more

to

at St.

enough,and

He

from

rose

like to walk

he would

the dead.

the whole

he walks

Now

in the

day

W.

yard

WROBLEWSKI

June
DEAR

First I inform

BROTHERS:

....

....

Plonka

the basement

for the

church

new

in

In

Lapy divine service is celebrated

has

well

you,

been

30,

1906

that here in

made

already;

Sunday, the consecration of the headstone will be

Now
celebrated.
whatever
he can.
everybody is bringingofferings,
If it is not very difficultfor you, I beg you to send a littlemoney.
The
priestproclaims every Sunday who gave and what the offeringwas.2
week,

They

on

will also build

in the

chapel as

in every

church.

church.

quarrelsof neighborsare the result of the system according to

which all the old villages
are
built,and which makes any increase of the area
the
singlefarm-yard impossibleexcept by buying from a neighboran
occupiedby
adjacent lot behind the yard. (Cf. Nos. 26, 39, 40.)
1

would

Most

It is a

of the

questionof family pride. By sending an offeringthe

prove

that they stillconsider

and at the

same

themselves

time that they

are

members

brothers in America

of the family and

in good circumstances.

munity
com-

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

340

Now,

in

Corpus Christi day

on

Bialystok there

was

the

the city,one
Jews. Two
processionswalked around
other
Some
[Greek] orthodox.
began to fire from
persons
with

revolvers

people,but it is

and

nobody

and

killed and

wounded.

many
Next

ruined.

few

shops,but they are

wherever
they could,and so
is stationed

the army

the

water

be

no

In

This

it ended.

Now

looked

Jews. About

at

600

all the

streets

some

have

we

of war;

state

with

lightning;rain poured down, and

People began to mow
grass although water

the

upon

The

Jewish shops; they

to

killed

the hay
meadows, but now
is also high, and it is impossibleto mow.

stood

the

among

day in Lapy local vagabonds destroyed

in prison. The
sittingnow
Jews fled

storm

marshes.

hay is upon

house

these shots.

by

Along

the

ours,

everywhere.

had

Yesterday we

arose

windows; whoever

they could and

stole whatever

Jews were
shops were
a

the

fired at

killed

was

[was shot at]. Other robbers rushed

the street

broke

that

said

called

was

army

procession.1 Panic

the orthodox

on

of

pogrom

will float.

In

the river

Probably there will

hay this year, but in the fields everythingis growing beautifully.

week, if we have fine weather,people will begin to harvest rye.
spring has

the

year

I intend

to

to

go

about

Edward

been

and

warm,

the harvest

will be

with
Cz^stochowa [on a pilgrimage]

time, but

this

know

I don't

how

early.

wife and

my

the tickets will

soon

come

I inform

Now
turns

work, he plows and

in

necessary

farming,yet under
work.

impossibleto

live,but the old

himself.

them

farming is going

that Feliks cannot

out

he does

Well, it
get along with the old people. Although
in short,he does everything
carts manure,

how

you

not

in this way

away

dress himself

give any

not

even

of the old

the management

must

does

man

does

He

He

give

and

his

he

money;

possiblefood.

the soonest

home.

at

on

and
possible,

it is

man

children,and

keeps everything

He

wants

to

that will

drive

probably

again sell [partsof his land]

It will be enough for them
himself and the old woman.
and gratify
both [theland will last as long as they last]. And now
the quarreling

happen

very

soon,

"

is incessant.

because
1

he

order

said,"I

It is known

preparatory
to

to

assure

authorities.

Why

and

did

the old

the

They

sympathy

or

there

is

were

directed
least

at

the

them

nobody

provocationfrom

were

at

he wanted

But

ground because

that these shots

the pogrom.

?"

they come

sell the

will

man

to come,
to work."

Russian

the Russian

passivityof

hooligans,

procession in
the

Russian

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

342

Up to this time all was done secretly;we did not

know
anything about it,neither I nor Jozef. Then I understood the
whole thingin a different way, and I told Feliks everythingabout their
gratitude?"x

your

with

for

me

done

brought their

meanness.

it

telling
them,

to his

in such

of the farm

father,the remainder

forbidden

have

you

them

tell.

to

during the fair in Sokoly,and

way

after his death

death,and

provoked

were

all,because

us

said that father had

secretly."2 He

father in some
They circumvented
father willed [theland] to them

this up

robbed

have

"You

they

me;

upon

anger

that

way,

it will be

to be

divided

he will

now

as
theirs,

own

giftfrom

equally. After that

over
they quit boarding with father and yesterdaythey moved
happens later I will inform
Jozef Pilat,and live there. What
I hear that they plan a law-suit againstfather and
in due time.

for

indemnityfor
letter that

my

them

you

them

of my

I told him

move

he has

he

now

it."

can

search for

an

this affair.

Perhaps this letter will

of Feliks?

[Perhapsyou

send him

this

I remain

lie lazyfor two

us

find itself among

with

but

respectfully
yours,

BROTHER:

On

Feliks

chowa.
1

This

It is worth
act

us

"

man

was

himself of the alliance of at least

his control without

making

him

with

was

seeing. I

of the old

23

"

wife

my

don't know

The

social wrong

"

is

an

enemy.

bad,
particularly

destruction

and

evidentlydone with the

one
son
againstthe others
It proves

strong morally, although he had

secrecy

day

whether

positionvery
pleasedwith his farm.

feel his

and

against me

writingalways the truth

July

....

he

opinion about

WROBLEWSKI

July

for

not

I don't believe it.

letter.]But

memorable

since

years,

the documents

24

forever

give

it,but
him, "If

he need

your

W.

DEAR

by

gave

I wrote

his full wages;

will concert

to

"

Please write

employment

me

answered, I must move

Well, and he came, making

now

already [in the bequest]earned

But

He

children."

that he

intended

refuses,that he

wronged.

you

will try to prove

They

that father

come,

they are

so

country because

good

and

manage,

etc., and

to

to corne, reflect well about

have

to my
a

to

it away,

pretendedwrongs.

I wrote

the farm

took

their

to

because

to

which

1906

will remain

Edward

in Czesto-

I shall have
intention
and

such

of assuring

of getting rid of

that the old

man

did not

legallyfull right to do

the economic

of the familial solidarity.

27,

wrong

is added

as

WR6BLEWSKI

it

opportunityagain;

an

it is far

last,for
will grant

from

enough

the

us

miracles,or
in

the first

was

Well, it will be

more.

once

it

as

Thanks

not.

be

I inform

Now
sends

about

you

for his wife.

money

wants

trouble

I inform
is

He

by

its

once

Now

good

so

too

Kopciowizna

you

are

of

to be

home

know

to have

Plonka, taken
the

one

you

the

on

day

same

mediocre, the potatoes

are

crops

the conflict with Feliks.

and

already how

they did

it

it

her

children,and he

He

does

each

moved

to

not

the

of

house

write

I told him

other.

the

If you

willing

secretlywith father,then how

here with

with

about

was

he

employment.

angry

wish

I send

On

father,how

she remains

in search

about

how

"

quarreled with
Now

The

letter,you

my

directlyto her,

Now

of

210

last year

as

I inform

received

and

address

my

I don't

York

of the cemetery.] Now

[Description
alreadyharvested the rye. The weather
have begun to mow
we
dry. Only now

have

we

good, dry, even

be

but

me,

of the basement

grain and hay

won't

New

consecrated.

was

that

you

summer

we

seeing

it at least

he sends

one, of the church

bad

day of the consecration

of

worth

the

God, whether

visited

we

sums

everythingthrough
other
people'smoney

about

cemetery

Smaller

send

to

photograph,although a

now

Lord

Jan Ghichy. He is in
Not long ago he sent to

roubles; I received it for her.

new

be

localityso renowned

that

God

to

probably also

it would

pleasesour

be in

opportunityto

time, and

But

us.

343

life.

our

and

SERIES

they

Jozef

to the old

went

Pilat.

place

anything,because

me

that such

thingsought

not

done

by cunning, but that he could have done all this so that

He
excuses
himself, on the ground that
everybody might know.
father forbade him to mention
anything to us about his having willed
[theland] to them.
this will any

mention

it away

move

But

from

hires harvesters

about

that lot.

and

long this will last.

how

he will do the

if the old

man

with

What

us.

duchy

In such

cases

the medium

does

ought

man

in America

of relatives and

the old

the

man

but
field,

I don't know

to bed

I don't know

goes

Feliks has received

to do ?

we

evidentlydistrusts
the

from

change it,he

not

there is in

mill; probably not, and then I must

Father is farming as he did formerly;he

When

farming.

whether

the

drives the crops

how

know

I don't

now

even

the

will still receive

I ask you

abilityof

attempts

friends.

his part

equal part

beforehand, how

his wife

to exert

an

already,and

to

control

manage
over

the

the wife

are

we

money.

through

act ?

to

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

344
In

father

and

more,

to have

opinionhe ought

my

ought

the remainder

divide

to

only this lot

and

nothing

yourself.

....

August

25
DEAR

BROTHER:

letter from

that

he

in the

I leave

dangerous to
you] to search
about

because

to remain

take

mean

so

must

to

has resulted ?

my

be

as

as

he.1

country

for my

promised; but he

man

And

abuses

also in the letters which

suffers
I said

Because

him,

he want

does

misery by
the truth

my

from

my

as

He

ought

and
life,
1

fault is it ?

known

what

work

Did

to

act

not

on

not

to slander others

consideration

and

farm
now

in such

But

get

me?

on

do.

to

if

even
so

well

farm-work

and

what

without

any

of his advice is particularly

we

have

the peasant gives

Esthetic Interests"),

proportionate to the prestigeof the adviser rather

In the present case
the advice of Walery

of the advice.

weighty because

that he

intend

you

he not know

there is

right,hi

abuse

he

personal influence of the adviser is great, because, as

the intrinsic value

more

whose

is

heard

his fault to his eyes.

But

(Introduction: "Theoretic

the advice

is the

the

what

And

[hiswife],saying

does

what

adviser for the consequences

pointedout
than

tellinghim

know

to

of an
responsibility
when

his

first think

than

unfair

ought

great

to

why

if he risked it he

The

well,

believe that

sake.")

I have

fortune,still he would

to have

will be

more

the whole

he did there.

do

come

(And he [answered]:

me

openly, that it is

This

him

then to

to come,

are

even

And

fault.

everybody ought

father gave

back

come

for
ceaselessly

he writes to her

thievish manner;

pricked him,

to remain

and

I don't

now

If you

well

in America.

then to

children's

rewarded

the will.

that he

me

says

slanders me
and
all,and he continually
is somewhat
guiltyin not having given him

what

me

ought

he

us

The

what

curses
"

it here

you

Felus,though

also:

he has

meanwhile

Whatever

He

but

and

regret it later."

you

father.
he

old

with

to him

robbed

He

are

you

also received

opinion it would be
but rather [I advise

justnow,

advice.

my

I wrote

move

where

1906

know,

you

in my

in America

first for other work

thoroughly lest

over

"I

your

but

27,

for other work

to search

or

away

meanness.

own

it

be

home,
work

throw

because

advice,whether

you,

I fear it may

could

you

for

the decision with

don't

But

me

he

I don't

America,

to

that

me

he answered

go

to return

spring,or

back.

ask

you

mines, or

Well

Whether

unwilling to

Now

enough.

Jozef told

....

you.

is

Judge

us.

among

he is the oldest brother.

WRCBLEWSKI

action,for
is

him

I loved

cause.

such

But

dear

now,
to

seems

earth

to

you,

native

upon

your

some

money

to

school

As

you

Lord

again in Lapy.

have

they

there.

was

whole

Waclawa

no

The

even

I walk
from

the

rides also

begin to

soon

their

on

go

photograph.

walk; he is somewhat

worse

be

beginning, but

was

ill;but

clever,and nobody

goes

to

fields;
everything had

was

favorable.

bad

for such

We

walk

well to make
in

got 23

did not

grow

to

now

alone
one

for
so

many

we

the pasture

villagepeople don't unite.

our

only

not

were

for which

road

Edward

father's enclosure.

about, which
a

In

season.

with

there

ones,

already

are

dry

near

but

23 young

Nobody

mornings, making the

some

stupid; all

the others

work, although it is difficult to get

laziness,stupidityand

Why,

Transfigurationof Our

in the

summer,

ones

worked
the

the

on

the small ravine

brought

because it is dry ; but

fields,

time.

Edward

big. Yesterday Waclawa

from

some

it.

so

during the

geese

It would

make

not

are

grew

6 geese

big enough.
to

had

pretty well, only Michalek, your

the weather

They

roubles,and besides

went

more

if you

this year.

herewith

you

summer-grain

more

wagon-load

tended

of them.

once

And

he will

Now

this year;

mediocre

are

crops

places they
a

look

will get better.

he

digging potatoes.
dug

home.

does not

He

but if the

money,

dry

everywhere.

send

It

above,

you

shoes, to fetch horses

in

all grown

harvested,because

some

has been

dried up

I wrote

penny.

pleases.

opinion.

my

preferto
a

he

he

be stillbetter.

summer

him

there

been

without

even

horse; he drives

is not
foster-son,

The

has

had

rather

would

you

through the marsh

see

perhaps

much

that

you

the water

the young

if you

pocket it would

in your

Edward

pasture;

as

for his

this,and

what

afraid to write

even

even

country,

I inform

Now

with

cover

bark

him

do

not

be the best to do

that

to me

seems

were

am

that it would

me

it

because

brother, I

him

this,let

of

I hate

now

stranger would

even

Well, enough

345

brothers,but

like all my

meanness;

brother.

SERIES

darkness

will

are
a

make

never

so

better
thing
any-

good!
Now, since the Japanese
but I won't

relate it

to describe

you
now

know.

You

all the

without

censure.

here,because

all that

ought

papers

there is much

war,

is

going

whole
on

to subscribe

write

more

here.

would

newspapers
If you

in the country,

news

read

at least to Gazeta

truth, because

they

be

papers,

sary
neces-

surely

Swi^teczna,for
are

published

346
Up

to

PRIMARY-GROUP

ORGANIZATION

the present father is

farming alone,and

complain that it is hard

the work
Last
consecrated

Sokoly the basement

in

Sunday
and

plows, he

He

there with

was

photographed them

carts

of the

children.

my

house, or rather before

in my

I received

BROTHER:

Now

I inform

unless any
about

that I intend
first,

you

house.

my

bought

it yet.

I do ?

circumstances

bought this

garden. As

could be done

in

some

Last

exchange, but
I could

And

year

I send

Lapy,
tower

both
say

is

Lapy

it.

upon
go

for

where

rosary,

to

me

convenient

wishes,either

one

When

Lapy

to

in the

now

I inform

not

that Roch

you

spoken with

him

to sellit.

not

the

thing

But

what

yet, but

with
to

small

the churches.
it is

Plonka;

work

my

chapel in

building now

are

or

have

we

the

I enter

One

chapelto

home

some

that he

peoplesay

brated
cele-

pretty.

very

came

in

near

evening rosary-serviceis

and this looks

by candle-light,
Now

I have

Tomaszek,

Now

now

returningfrom

because

pots
kop [5X60] flower-

to sell.
him; but nobody wants
[tohave this lot]near the garden,

photograph. They

It is very

directions.
the

some

useful

its

nothing but plan

short of money,

growing continuously.

you

this year,

expresslyto him, askinghim to sell

He
is willingto
pretext or other.
[togive him a correspondinglot]. If

nowhere

be very

arms.

your

often

I went

I have

also,from

at home

other,if he wanted

or

way

than

more

year

1906

29,

letter

I do

happen.

somewhat

am

only buy somewhere

it would

because

Although

to remain

the field from

to

it,but he declined under

can

WROBLEWSKI

misfortune,the bruisingof

your

unforeseen

for my

can

about

house

my

second

your

....

was

day

same

October

I learned

and

church

the

On

26

which

him

manure,

new

W.

DEAR

hear

long will this last ?

how

But

on.

goes

work.

to

I don't

weeks

ago.

I have

capturedwhen

was

crossingthe frontier and was sent home by etapes [with criminals].

for 60 roubles,and
Now, as to the horse,father sold it in the summer
today perhaps he

will

expensive,because
again and
Pilat.

there is

there to him

went

sold the

She

cow

lived in Pilat's house.

neither

on

me

nor

on

Suraz, if horses are not too

has left
fair today. Feliksowa

buy something
a

small

having
[Feliks],

also which

She

in

went

father before

father gave
like

things to Jozef
them, because she

sold her

swine, because

leavingfor those

she

forests.

called
That

is

WROBLEWSKI

she

just where

of

something
honest

No

an

punishthem
don't want

cursed

they have

with

there she became

done

have

would

much

347

live,with bears, not

to

before,and

ape

person

how

And

ought

SERIES

and

me,

was

altogetheran

they did.

as

She

men.

Whose

father!

ape.

fault is it ?
God

May

not

and
They think only about a fortune and money
and fasting,
anything else;they don't regardchurch-going
for it.

comfortablyin this world.1

Now, as to Michalek, he is alreadybetter and begins to walk by
has been sick recentlywith small-pox. Now
he is
himself.
Edward
and the autumn
We had a dry summer,
gettingbetter slowly
in the wells,and the cold is not
is also dry. There is lack of water

if

If it goes

far away.
in

Now

pogrom

as

the

like this

on

disorders

country

our

shall have

we

still go

on,

write.

papers

Now

have

we

proclaimedthat

of Warsaw

governor

state

whoever

of war;
does

localities where

the

of

state

And
subjectto court-martial.
probably,and I won't describe
It would

country and

what

that he is married.

news

changed and does

not

does

not

DEAR
.

are

very

letter from
1

sad that such

Kostus

peasant like Walery

in the

and

his health

Perhaps on

success.

that account

r.TT

,,,

I learned

about

1907

which

the misfortune

today

and

misfortune
and

us

I learned

is

marked

handworker

I got also

you.

that you

the peasant's idealism,which

much, and

all very

happened to

....

There
a

dismayed

news

is

somewhat

are

always

latent in all

difference in this respect between

like Wladek.

For

the character

of the

Vol. III.

There
sense

know

write.2

This

to you

the practicalattitudes.

is

[W. WROBLEWSKI]

BROTHER:

Typical expressionof

latter,see

in

happened
we

to

his native

February 24,
.

the

come

is you

about

thought sometimes

something, at least about

wrote

at

come

for 3 months
that
added

court-martial

general

it

be well if Kostus

brought the

has

exists whoever

war

the

not

his parents will be condemned

militaryservice,
prison or 300 roubles fine,and the head-minister

ic

robberies,

sometimes

call to

Roch

in the winter.

water

no

killingwith bombs or revolvers. Not long ago there was

where
in Siedlce,
the army
fired with guns for 3 days,
even

sometimes
a

live

only they can

is a proverb, "Whoever

that the individual is determined

and by marrying he

comes

under

gets changed," which

gets married
to

the influence of

a
an

largeextent

is justified

by his family-group,

additional group.

348
better,and

I learned
him

also your

letter of

other

misfortune
letter

and

that it would
have

send

chosen

If I made

cannot

get along

wanted

to draw

for

it,and

But

what

does

happened between

mind, let it be

as

anything

want

did not

do it.

you

from

take any

of it.

him

other

but

so

you

Then
remarks

[itwould

be

difficulties in

any

As

in

I have

does

Well,

never

you

either,and it is

I don't get any

any.

and if I take it from

what

none.

writing that

none

benefit

father,I

pay

yet happen with father's

can

that
said,it is possible

and

present condition,I don't

wrong

will have

us

one

no

us

among

might perhaps be able to prevent it,

it is high time.
think about it all together,because
prevent it alone,and perhaps you would not like it;

I cannot

....

were

you

neighbor. And
We

anything
should

we

which

some

quite ridiculous.

in your

bushel of corn,

farm, nobody knows.

will get

is

us

But

among
a

letter

own

unless he has
difficult,

property with you.3

If I want

like any

it is

Today,

you.

that nobody
possible
out

that

write

not

I made

would

expected

whisky.

or

had

you

known

only this,that if somebody has money

anybody to whom he may send it,he

has

it,and

beer

here, and for whom

idea, that

no

could have

it,and therefore

be useful

I know

to send

send

from

would

sending money.

without

singleday

also had

useful].2I had

that you

wrote

back

you

that this money

wants

You

your

condition,I

who

if I had

me,

reproaches,
your
in
keep company

some

I received

tell about

you

in such

....

to do it.

me

family.

Believe

anything, but

him;

to

came

great displeasureby my

you

were

you

to mention

not

anythinglike this ?
induced

when

reach you

his

4, in which

February

the last blow.1

you

littleminer

photograph of

us

that

that I caused

write

that I gave

"

him

also from

only,please,let

"

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

to deliberate as

it is necessary

soon

as

about

can

we

father and

the

farm.

Now,
not

as

before.
of Lent

Jozef,he got

to live with

want

of Stas

to

Gembiak,
I have
I

am

during last carnival.

father,but he rented

where

left my

home

married

and

he

moved

with

lodgingin

his wife.

about

He

buildingmy
W.

The

'

Walery probably asked for the payment

Cf. No.

common

house

serving as
the first day

house

WROBLEWSKI

letter referred to is lacking.

him.

new

is

since

employment already,and
will think

the

does

He

of

some

money

which

Antoni

owed

29.

Wrong because it looked

family property.

like

hint that

Walery

was

from
profiting

the

350

PRIMARY-GROUP

Bialystoksent

also

parishionersare
church

could

Now

hope that
Kostus

he has

for

do

How

himself

or

he

care

brothers

no

Now,

trouble about

it.

yet since you

are

necessityI
food-stuffs

hi

or

as

But

also

helped me
if there

than

more

yet I defend

stop and

once

dried

go

to

he
And

because

he went

Sokoly and thence

not

he

to

go

to

Ziencinki.

for

That

is nice,what

said,

If you

brother

has

altar and

only since
the weather

work.

Jozef has

If the weather
progress;

go

to

to offer

make
be.

not

to

and

he

with

railway
there
to

go

why
for.

family [to Jablonowo].

is human
to sin,but it is

It

his faults.
and you

put your
your

nothing

was

us

among

Narew
him

some

his whole

amend

giftto God

peace
But

with

he is doing!

anything against you,

and

his eyes

Lapy by the
Somebody asked

said there

He

church-festival

repent and

want

it may

whomever

here for

came

directlyfrom

Jablonowo.

came

devilish not
"

because

by preparing mortar.
the work would
rapidly,

in

I learned

more,

did

pieceafter

advances

to other

Lapy that brother Feliks

to show
weeks, but he evidentlydoes not want
any

then

somebody preparingmortar

were

Now,

yourself any

myself againstpoverty

well to do it now,

often

the walls

good and

were

7, 1907

either in
interest,

and

now

building,the work

be very

I must

favorable,but

least the

at

since he sells
as

to my

as

It would

St. Michael.

give me

field to sow,

Now

can.

that

once

be useful to me, it is true,

Although it would now
in such a situation,
it also.
In the last
you need

piece to strange people.

best I

debt, please don't make

ask father to

can

our

WR6BLEWSKI

that

to

as

for

more

October
....

does

Why

perhaps remember

29

is

Is there any

live there?

Does

could

leg?

your

you

us

He

country ?

our

about

brother, how

dear

father and

before winter.

mention

never

word, offeringsflow,but the

bringingbricks,otherwise the

hurry about

will recover?

you

father and

in

be covered

I ask you,

In

roubles.

100

not

ORGANIZATION

remember

forgotthis for

that your

offeringdown

brother,"or
he does

it is

Because

in
not

near

the

general with
want

to .see,

his father.
only his brother,but even
Perhaps he will yet change
his mind, but I doubt it,because in his letters to Jablonowo he wrote
not

againstfather

only curses
Now
to

as

to

our

and

father,you

against me.
wrote

that Kostus

America, where he could quietlyspend the

advises him

rest of his age

to come

with him.

WROBLEWSKI

This

that he would

know

himself

to work

he part with

I have

Although

be.

won't

not

And

go.

his

on

not

351

spoken with father about

it,I

why should he

farm, leave the barn, etc.

his

praisefor having

taken

but he

of you,

care

give him

could

farm, we

SERIES

P1

If he did not want

support but how

And

Kostus
work

might

can

deserves

himself hi

as

dangerous a place,and if God forbid! any accident happened to

him, with father in America, what then ? It would be very unwise.
And we could then give no effective help,because if we sent 10 roubles,
"

"

receive there

would

you

only 5,

and

it is

moreover

here,while from America, when

and that is a different thing

send 5,

you

money

receive here 10,

we

",

TTT

W.

WROBLEWSKI

N6vember

30
DEAR

....

building.

raised it up to the windows

I have

for this year,

for winter.

I pass

the

to

rather

bitch,so
did not

to

mention
banns

When

fortune.

of

anything

to

their

us, but

on

the

father.

our

All Saints'

Day,

policemancome

law-suit.
who
testify

dry

[money] for
it

for

to

We

wants

the

and

she throws

and

drew

her windows.3

to

this

the

somebody

begged

our

refused

me;

was

performed.

We

did not

know

to
not

she had

there will be
no

witnesses

to

priestto dissuade

marrying her,but even this did not help,because

stubbornlystood upon marrying her. On Wednesday,

6, the wedding

the

her windows

broke

and

not

tried to

persuade her

ends; but she has

I also

profitout

we

he

suspicionupon

verbal process,

children

heard

we

But

marry.

father from
man

that

banns, he did

tried also to

this time

how

wife

Her

us.

secretly. When

not

up

father

dear

our

About

the

be made

to

directlyto him with Jozef and

went

I will write you

broke

plowing in

took

He

home, but she

did

persuade him in different ways

he wanted
listen,
only to marry.
to marry

that

in order to rob

came

father gave

father,we

our

she

from

drive her away

our

you

my
work

[widow of Franciszek]Pilat,that

Franciszkowa

speak,because

I end here my

is clear and

autumn

I inform

news.

about

arrangements

some

The

and

10, 1907

you

there is yet

and

for the third time.

[ironical]
got married
Klimusia, or

is near,

winter, and

before

the house

Now

winter

because

field to be done
around

inform

Now

BROTHERS:

....

of

difficult to get

so

the old
ber
Novem-

anythingabout

to leave his property.

Ironical,
meaning that he is too avaricious and egotistic

Certainly the writer

or

his children did it.

PRIMARY-GROUP

352

it,but

it.

On

the

new

the old

saw

the very

day

couple and

: They
[proverbial

and

evade

time,but "Promise
and

us

but also about

since she dared

us

will turn

did not

also.

We

and
cultivate,

So he got rid of

he do it black

get it.

upon

ourselves,
cunning [avaricious]

She is a

marriage almost

everything that happens. We want

all,everything,and to keep to it,but we don't know

father

Of course,

I wrote

you

his eyes

back, although I know

What

meanness.

to

to

go

one

except Feliks,because

we

that he

in

was

that he had

leave

with

matter

there

was

for

for 4

his

That

?
.

news

which

more

than

expectedfrom
with

once,

farm, but he got

stubborn

then

alone, then

to us

and

with

tried to

I have

in words

'Expression
things secret"
peasant family

but

sown,
of

the

is clearlya
no

member

have

We

to make

refuses to do

he

jumped around

him

I don't

know

how

us;

him

only

with the
he

sow,

to

priest,

took

wildly,like

I intend

the

division of the

some

Szalajdy to

will.
[written]

1908

called upon

anything for

called upon

the field in

25,

waitingfor

was

people; nothing helps.2 Once

frightenus;

gives us

father.

nothing. We

refuses to take it without

what

and

write,as

Jozef,asking him

he refuses

his Klimusia

our

WROBLEWSKI

March

31
I did not

is also

.x

W.

....

went

family, that they keep

our

another, like thieves

BROTHERS:

it

family and

days and

weeks.

how

he has his part

with

Jablonowo

He

.us.

among

is the

from

things secret

He

it,we
white [in

only about

not

care

for this

us

be satisfied with

won't

we

not

to leave

I will tell you

show

DEAR

their heels

to

that he could

saw

to

face of

out.

already.

that

it went

lots to

guessed

good morning

say

man

in the

old woman,

to will

can

we

for you

toy";

lest Klimusia

you,

old

Uskowizna.

is a child's

stronglyas

as

for
writing],

violence.

and

church, and

that

so

give us the small

to

the

Jozef to

felt it deeply.].The

the riverside

will insist

with

went

we

from

back

greeted them

we

promised

for himself

coming

man

next

ORGANIZATION

an
a

but

ax

man.
mad-

Jozef

myself to harvest

it will be

later.

Jozef

feelingthat the family is disintegrating."Keeping

proof that there is no real solidarity. In the primitive
can

have

any

secret

from

people

proves

other members;

there

are

no

purelypersonalmatters.
2

Calling with the priestand

the father is morally wrong

not

the

with

that in the general opinion

in his behavior, that he ought to occupy

personalstandpoint.

the familial,

WR6BLEWSKI

advises

for father will

this,but it seems

to do even

not

me

will sell

he

would

not

Trusie

[the stepmother'sfamily]away

settled their whole

had

speak; if he

to

if his

children

own

dear

not

are

to

be

bad,

but

gave,

also drove

We

we

the

father's

Now

house, for they

least they only call

at

would

newspapers

be described.

spitupon

all this,
let him

to waste

be
all

it;

waste

for
him, only strange children,

to

strangers.

JozefLaba got his daughter married to

not
at the wedding, but
Lynki. We were

the end of the carnival

At

from

of Fortus

son

father with
under

from

write,whole

is determined

everything there is free

the

readily.

more

in this letter the rest cannot

necessary;

this,so

to

that would

me

saying that he

familyalready.

be much

would

There

often.

353

to

afterwards

himself
justify

take, and

SERIES

the

his Klimusia

hedge.

The

there,and he got so drunk that he lay

day he invited perhaps half the people

was

next

left out.
Although
Gozdziki, but we were
he always keeps away
father [in my
invitations],

from

overlooked

never

from

from

as

us,

Well, I end it,because I loathe all this.

[News about weather.] Now, a terrible thing happened. On

enemies.

23 in the

March
to

village
Somachy
Porowskis.
"They found

the

Porowski

attacked

revolver-shots,
they wounded

family,they
knows
next
saw

took

where.

This

I made

after

from

The

walls of the house

the

They

head

members

find and

and

of the

fled,nobody
The

frightened everybody.

the forest of Kruszewo

the house

of

and

Porowski, and

during the whiter, and

have

I learned

about

Matyski

to

will set to work

grants health,we

home.

on

the other

evening

....

frames

God

blow

could

they

in the

came

family at
a

bound

terrible incident

coming

window

with

and

all the money

day I drove lumber

[mourning]banners on

this accident

the whole

killed him

and

of robbers

a score

been

in the

in the field and

spoileda

near

spring,if
the house.

little by the cold.

Work

[3
approaches, and there is nobody to help. Although Michalek
of his
years old]promisesto help,stillI don't believe in the efficiency
help.
him

I will tell you

the

duty of helping the

grosz

to

Lord

God
1

The

about

something more
poor.

He

asked

beggar. She answered, "In

to

let your

him.

Mother

why

order

she let him

pray

recover."1

Now

foster-father in America

of the beggars are

magicians
"

bearers

of

either

beneficent

of God
personifications
divine power

"

or

give a

that he may

and givingof alms

beggar is a religious
personality,

tales most

laid upon

at

or

our

he

act.
religious

of the saints,
or

least instruments

In

good
of the

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

354
asks

often,"Has

very

good health,himself
pretty well

The

Jozefa as well.

and

already.

foster-father recovered

my

Edward

latter

school in

to

goes

He

yet?"

read

can

WROBLEWSKI

May

32
DEAR

first about
Lord

health,that

our

God

the

health; for

in rather bad

work

Highest,and

much.

She

strengthto work.

wish you

we

than

more

cannot

all in

are

we

the

also

you

Only

same.

she has not

today
our

wife is

my

able to

she

medicine

no

to

been

either; therefore

coughs incessantlyand

She

8, 1908

good health,thanks

year

much

eat

inform

always, I

As

BROTHERS:

book

Lapy
W.

....

is in

has

no

help

can

Probably it will end

much, neither doctor nor home-medicine.
badly. [Remarks about letters received and sent.]

her

springalready. All the birds are here larks,lapwings,

But
storks,swallows,cuckoos, nightingalesin short,all of them.
have

We

"

"

divinity. The

function of the

almsgivinghas

beggar is to

and

pray,

not

only his

but also

prayer,

acter
charmagical importance, compels the divinity. This religious

of beggary is shown

also by the fact that

churches,that hi the country the parishfestivals are

beggars in

towns

around

stay

the

meeting-datesand -places
of beggars, that "miraculous"
Cz^stochowa are the main centers of
be
accounted
for
This
beggary.
partlyby the fact that hi these placesand
may
these dates the largestcrowds gather, but this does not explainit completely.
on
The peasant gives alms more
frequentlyto the beggar before the church than to
the street; more
the beggar upon
frequentlyduring a parish festival than on an
in a miraculous localitythan in an ordinary church.
ordinary day, more
frequently
placeslike

This

is evidently because

prayers

and

of his mediation

to the sacredness

that which
than

the religiouscharacter

determines
one

on

before

of the time and

the value of

week

ordinary Sunday, in

God

the
a

day, during

the saints,increase

and

The

place.
A

mass.

of the beggar, the value

mass

proportion

is exactly the
principle
said

parishfestival

miraculous

in

on

of his

same

valuable

more

valuable

than

in

than

as

able
valu-

Sunday is more

on

an

ordinary

locality
character of the beggar is proved by the conditions
locality. Further, the religious
a

more

an

the
or
requiredfor the acknowledgment of his occupation. Only the old man
cripplecan be a proper beggar, not because of any consideration of social utility,
less consciously
these features are considered the marks
but because more
or
by
The proofthat no utilitarian reflections
which God destined them to this function.
though less able to work, do not enjoy so full an
play here any r61e is,that women,
of
their
function
the men.
The woman,
indeed, can
as
acknowledgment
begging
of the congregation or a divinity(saint),
but not a priest,
mediary
interbe a member
an
both.
The
women
beggars are, on
witches.
mischievous, magical character

between
bearers

of

of the beggar is perfectly

expressedin the

the

"

popular stories.

contrary,

The

often

the

religiouscharacter

(Cf. No.

261, note.)

WROBLEWSKI

springdoes

the

today, and
Some

in

feeding

Moreover

they froze

but

in the barns.

my

house

new

today to

even

building;
something
to

all the food from

old

my

and

father

our

for]is wasted

keep

few hot-beds
fortune

our

"

in vain.

garden at home,

But

out

runs

the
what

"

care

of

can

be

do

all [what

know

whether

spent, no

needed

so

will

that

you

could

extricate

to

time, and

much

father

has

money

I mentioned
At

bring a law-suit.
by shifts and

himself

which

the money

bargaining. When

me

29"

seen

I got from

end ; he told

not

be

can

worked

WROBLEWSKI

all the

Although

recover.

much, but after much

he talked without
that he

she

improvement

I inform

Now

wife is unwell

My

....

feels

now

June
BROTHERS:

one

done, since there is nobody

33
DEAR

to ?

have

we

have

only had

they amount

this,strange people benefit

after

of this

I should

in different ways;
us

can

I could

Lapy, if

from
what

now

because

I cannot

W.

been

and

....

commenced.

thingsare

themselves

seeinghow

at

to look

us

don't

hay.

no

unfavorably.

on

goes

barns

my

better,for

on

employment, but

if I could

These

to sell.

it will go

many

so

....

oppressedinside
among

already at St. Wojciech.

Everything

perhaps

good bargain; people come

As

blossoming.

....

to the

move

change nothing, because

of

and I expect soon

to begin building
alreadysown
ask father [forthe
capitalis exhausted, I must now
do nothing. If God
otherwise
I can
helpsme

debt],because

return

think

[day]

fields are

my

....

to

I wasted

all sides.

St. Stanislaus

There
was
stock; everything is empty.
flooded the potatoes in early spring

my

water

afterward
Now

from

blows

don't

blossomed

had

the orchards

ago

and

stillblack

are

355
have

favorably. We

progress

the trees

years

Cold wind

not

SERIES

he

last he

paid

it,
saw

it back.

roubles he sold the

Instead of the 100
happened then?
riverside near
Bociany to Roszkowski, from Ziencinki,for 300 roubles,
from America
and brought
because Marcinek
[Roszkowski'sson] came
But

what

That

money.

is the way

the debt without

from

Stas

Laba

on

with

selling
anything,for
which

surelyfellinto
borrowed,if he had no

money

it goes

the latter had

the claws
money,

or

not

us.

And

he could have

long ago he got

borrowed

from

him.

100

paid

roubles
But

this

Finally,he could have

by givinga mortgage on the meadow,

of Klimusia.

356

PRIMARY-GROUP

he would
a

also have

lot for

got

roubles;

100

roubles,but

100

ORGANIZATION

not

that the riverside is worth

gets rid of land and

with

remonstrate

rids

about

upon

and

The

broke

the

from

and

Jozef came

back

did I ask for the

going to give him

have

and

more

as

which

if for

recover

now

rich from

which

not

he is

no

it,seeing how

he think

his

give us

not
wants

helphim

of the

this sorrow!

In the
I have

spent all my

family]also

of the

house

E.

already,that

granary

and

barn

they remain.

I know

how

much

alreadywith

but if God

be done.

adorned

be

moved,

must

There
work

will be

The

it costs

all Ziencinki

much

in

to build a house

building

worst

health,with

us

house;
with

it will be very

work

the

1908

roof,but inside there

[News about weather.]

grants

because

22,

about

you

People praisemy

I have

J. M.,

Wroblewskis

the granary

move

money;

painseverything will
said

to

One
grow

A. A. W.

and

do; nothingyet is finished.

spring I intend

we

and

us

[Sends a photograph

First I inform
covered

from

shall

What

profitfrom

....

house, that it is

there

now

to finish it the soonest

griefand

WROBLEWSKI

BROTHERS:

to

this

family; describes the photograph.]

of his

buildingand

dying

November

is stillmuch

am

fortune,

lucky,for

was

were

34

of my

to claim

not

us

that it

strange people
labor.

of other members
[initials

DEAR

are

we

enemies, that they

in this way

of this

more

our

act

be best to

W.

said that

Does

if you

even

people not

there be

the fruit of

I told him

care

Perhaps it would

bear

cannot

him, and he

time, but

everything and there is nothing left

[thedebt]. He said that you had sent money

do other

possible!Let

does

the wood

he wastes

father would

hunger. Why
do

after

us

joke [solittle].But

dear

our

to

He

that he

so

wrested

man

roubles?"

too

live better?

justlybelongs to
[our own
money] until

old

The

was.

yoke

there at that

for the benefit of my

work

my

which

from

it

told how

and

They almost

his

and

not

was

to

yoke [forcarryingbuckets]

forward

Jozef went

so.

brandished

man

they separated.

so

"Why

may

old

fortune

says

dear father

our

time.

same

the

Jozef with

pole. At last Jozef sprang

him,

bad.

pole.

the

Everybody

this way

In

father,for wasting

sold somewhere

for 300.

one

400.

of it at

fought. Father jumped

Jozef took

big a

so

us

he could have

or

moving
and

many

is that
some

have
The

it

inconvenient
them.

to do

Now

everything

358

PRIMARY-GROUP

As
have

I wrote

the funeral and

beg you,

that

if you

I should

it for me,

get rid of this debt.

because

the

moving

and

lend

borrow

I must

36
how

wrote

Jozef had
be

buy giftsfor
that time.

don't know

health.
she

once

If

could

2, 1909

which

you

according

it.

to

Probably somebody going to

We
gave for the holy mass
we

were

for that money

because

it

was

shall be able

Meanwhile

that

you

how

we

much

now,

which

sent

you

useful to

very

perhaps to

remain

we

I, Olcia and

"

indebted

us
our

prove

and

to you

more.

did not

we

very

hope

roubles,but it will probably

18 at which

permits,we

way.

you

it.

32

....

I inform

Christmas

paid

it to you.

January

you

If God

all thank

he

acted

we

WROBLEWSKI

letter in

the

and

children

my

some

send

on

I thank

Now

Now

we

for which

celebrated

was

roubles

80

difficult to send

somewhat

gratitudein
we

those

use

will take it and

Jozef.
at

....

suit made

America
which

to

received

BROTHERS:

bank.

cash

February
DEAR

In

now.

somewhere

wait until I have

cannot

100

So, dear

though

W.

to

about

loan in the communal

[thismoney].

me

that I lack money,

But

of the barns

situation.

it is difficultfor you

for

like to let peopleknow

not

to

soon

do

obligedto ask

I shall be

case

bad

very

of the barns come.1

moving

probably

But

can.

obliged to borrow

the

could

you

in

now

am

shall be

and

money

brothers,perhaps
I

already,I

you

spent all my

roubles when

ORGANIZATION

my

expect her

long it

will

only move

wife

is still alive,although before

to live

through the holidays. And

last; but she

will

here to the

from

never

new

have

more

house

[before

dies].
1

This

of
anticipation

the funeral expenses

while his wife is stillalive,and

in

death are not a proofof any

general the calm foresightin speakingof her imminent
of feeling. It is the normal, traditional attitude of the peasant toward
coarseness
death.

Death

is

normal phenomenon
perfectly

in the naturalistic,
but hi the sentimental

predeterminedsocial and
it has

It has

sense.

religious
meaning,

so

for the peasant, normal

a

not

only

established
perfectly

that the individual

and

reaction toward

within the range of the

unexpectedpossibilities
very
open
traditional attitudes.
And the practical
of death belongs precisely
to
anticipation
of
life
has
the sphere of these traditional attitudes.
the
s
ide
Moreover,
practical
a

narrow

field of

nothing base hi the peasant's eyes which

unsuitable.
money-affairs
Osinski series,
No.

69.)

would

(Cf. Introduction:

make

connection

of death

"ReligiousAttitudes,"and

note

and
to

WROBLEWSKI

Springwill come,

to

it away,

during springI have

great task

to accomplish.

everythingout of this place before the sowingorder that nothing except the ground may
be left here.

in

I want

359

to clear

I want
season,

and

SERIES

the

move

sell the house

barns,to

somebody

to

who

will take

transplantdifferent shrubs which are good and to destroy

work.
not good, and all this will requiremuch
The
are

to

these which

and
nor
ready either;there are neither ceilings
floors,
also not quite ready. But if I can. prepare
the middle-walls are
at
house

new

least

is not

for summer,

room

one

can

we

And

shall finish the rest

I have

There

of the carnival

the end

from

expenses

now

if God

But

on.

then before winter

and

move,

stillthreshingenough up
will be much

allows

everythingbetter

at last of this detestable

neighborhood,with this

that
everything,

and

had

have

road, but there

will be none,

clear:

not

were

"It

of the

could

we

some,

would

many

about

the

home, being rid

[adjacent]

and

street

enumerate

weddings

the end

because

if there

even

neither

are

and

here,but of which I
winter is steady,cold and good sledge-

I cannot

The

enough

work

to

win, then perhaps we

to

us

shall be able to arrange

barns

we

be

not

and
visits,

nor

carnival

not

is

probably there
[Meaning

ourselves.

amuse

And

approaching.
should

suitable,"or, "We

not

be

able."]
W.

March

37
DEAR

BROTHERS

that I received both

on

Sunday
I

....

Antos.
God

for
post-office

the

once

What

is

misfortunes

and

paper

puttingus

the test.

to

people? Still we
"Oh
Lord, here

you.

I went

I received

the two

you

know

cut

that

me,
our

here

Lord

calamity,that being rich

gave,

the Lord

took

the

other!

For, as it is said,"Whom
bears them meekly, becomes
for

our

sins

or

burn
God

me,

in

inflicted upon

he became
away,

but

for the

happy."
it is said:

eternitypardon
St.

Job such

lazar,and yet

blessed

Evidently
God loves,

sins of other

God, because

to the will of

submit

must

after

one

came

giveshim crosses, and who

And
perhaps God punishesus

Lord

the

Kostus,

I knew

and

He

And

I thank

for which
letters,

sad

your

dear brother

you,

1909

from
by the writing that they were
you,
for
I was
had at once
not mistaken
a bad
foreboding
I found
about the breaking of the legs of
such terrible news

letters at
and

to

First I inform

21,

W.

be His

he

name."

me."

terrible

said:

"The

For

what

360

PRIMARY-GROUP

have

we

from

our

of

our

Lord

the latter

own

God.1

And

stillanother

great

Hardly did

brother

our

wife has been

risen from

only

her bed.

for the

brought the priestwith

be in the tomb
to

from

now

this,for

her

like

Twice

eyes.

I must

now

I must

am

wife.

only
I

am

owe

planning now

am

It will

stands.

And

alone.

to

requirework

this makes

to send

[my

reward

and

where

will

[my

leave them

for my
Write

with

now,

money

shall have

and

But

be]

that

children
and

now

go

barns

to

where

the

workmen, because
do

I build

this

bury

to

it is difficult to do

I shall live my

Everything is

will

perhaps drive me away], but I cannot

else.
somewhere
[News about weather.]
WROBLEWSKI

said Christ

spring,and
dear
1

to

This

our

I remain

Lord

world

to

in

in

his

will

and
rejoice,

disciples.And

the

heavy

world
sorrow

so

you
it

rejoicesat

will

weep,"

happened
the

after the death

with

coming of
of

person

me.

is the only clear example in this series of

the will of God.

314.

"The

everything

because

me,

31, 1909

Jesus Christus!"

BROTHERS:

DEAR

how

I don't know

March
be

if

nothing. Perhaps

last years

38
"Praised

do it

I cannot

here ?

own

house

new

everythingas

W.

No.

already to

[money].

him

time

sad, and

very

money

Surely I

sorrowful,for

me

children's property.

my

the

move

ice,as people say, because what

upon

so

short

soon

so

alreadywe

stillgreater debt

badly off for

very

....

try

look

we

thought that she would

we

contract

My

she has not

skeleton,and

I do ?

can

home.

autumn

there remains

now

the sickness of my

buildingand

up

another, one

in my

on

since

God, and

what

if it is necessary,

needs, and

it goes

now

dried

But

But

sides.

two

way

days perhaps. Therefore

few

Antoni, and

brother

about

misery when

one

and

Lord

long ago.

think

live,we

same

has

our

takes

brother's misfortune.

our

she will close her

when

time

of

out

years,

She

besides

sorrow

In the

ill for two

is if God

man

him.

get

befell him.
still,

health,everything is

for

misery

the worst

from

and

Fortune

Nothing.

[health]away

I have

worse

ORGANIZATION

There

are

few

mystical subordination

examples in other series,e.g.,

to

Cugowski series,

WR6BLEWSKI

March

On

died Anna

31

lived 46 years, after

I send
I

wife.

God

brother.2
him

unto

of

when

he

further life.

gets

left as

now

the

as

Lord

our

ice,
to be

not

bad,

moving the barns.

I will

before intended

with

it will be

perhaps somewhat

with the

garden

Now
When

I refer to

wife

my

difficult

now

end

sick neither

was

that I

is

if God

also.

brother

our

children

my

what

was

of living.
possibility
disposedhe is toward us all.
showed

his Klimusia

nor

selves,
themAll

although the priestpassed by twice with our Lord God.

the people from the villagecalled upon
us, but they did not
And

they did
[him]. That

renounced
1

us

The

not

is

God

good father!

also,because

notice.

he would

The

funeral

disowned

not

speech,the

second

us,

to honor

come

is evidentlyimitated.

form of this announcement

of the beginning of

has

He

call.

burial,although I asked

either for funeral and

come

am

belongs to
and

way,

in

better

he

some

are

we

this,with God's help,

shall be able to do something

well

father,how

our

It is true

his

do

we

We

give us

will live.

I begin the work

situation,

with

When

better.

this will

and

wife.3

my

is the condition

that if

perhaps keep

to

life.

grieve about

us

us.

live in

can

could

we

in such

be true

us

everythingthere

because
....

are

Now, although we

will grant

God

let

of eternal

not

my

befell you,

hope that he

him

by

which

what

there is a

support with

some

this world

crown

can,

you

misery, let

but with the children

children,

grants them

of

me

of this

out

will find

if upon

give us the

will

He

leavingof

heavy test, but

health,whether

Perhaps

good health he

Gonsowska, having

the misfortune

to a

Kostus, write
is his

Antoni, how

And

indeed

us

death, and

brother

Dear

of the

news

grieved about

puts

our

Wroblewska, born

the sad

stillmore

am

361

provided with the holy sacraments.1

long illness,

today

you

SERIES

The

part is

he

but
Him

has

in the

firstpart reminds

typicalofficialdeath

keeps in his whole correspondence about his wife's death within

ual
sanctioned attitude,with sometimes
a slightindividsocially

man

the strictlimits of the

sentiment.
3

With

brother
would
creates

or

(Cf. No.

note.)

35,

the strong familial

sister greater than

probably be much more

active community
an

and sexual attachment.

This

feelingof

the Polish

that to husband

frequent, were
of interests which

explainsthe

or

peasant,

an

wife is not

it not

an

attachment

to

exception. It

for the fact that marriage

strengthens the

fact that whenever

mere

sentimental

the husband

or

wife

to live with the family of the other, i.e.,

when
no
comes
separate household is
his or her position
is very difficult,
because the old familial connection
constituted,

of the other remains

3

This hint of

stronger than

the

personalsentiment

by Walery with reference

to

his wife.

new

and

marriage connection.
one

in No.

43

are

the only

ones

made

362
Holy

most

Sacrament.

believe it ?
him

that

wind
so

The

waved

least

at

saw

it for almost

But

muttered

He

send

even

for the

wishes

you

that

DEAR

WROBLEWSKI

alone

and

moved

built

floors

ceilingsand
winter.

in

the

The

sties are

to make

brothers-in-law
make
before

he

came

to

if I make

fence from

whether

and

help;

has here

He
no

it

to

the

opportunity
My

you

He

at any

rate

too

now

bought

ours,

not

much

behind

shall

we

cross

but

Now
....

luck also.

Before

plant flowers
1

This is

Pentecost

in his

garden.

was

I inform

relative not

it and

I don't

then
know

WROBLEWSKI

you

13, 1909

that I had

some

by the priestin Plonka

refuse,although I had enouj

I did not

to

from

us

invited

proof that the father hi fact

of the family. For

assist at

too

the barns

June

40
BROTHERS:

and

no
a

at once

W.

DEAR

have

stripnear

not

refuse,but

shall

we

to drive

way

the road-side.

....

gate-way

everything. Now

Plaksa.

it

cross

barns

he did not

....

roubles,in the hope that

the whole road, his own
and

I will

no

both

I put

now;

will send

are

before

If I have

Piotr Pilat for 70

he will have

chimney and

days, only brother Jozefcould

some

done

the

the

finish the rest

I made

them

for he will have

at once,

good

very

house, I

for

had

we

disputewith Kazimierz
littleroom

and
....

of the field

come

house

away,

Although there

between

of the

helped me

his mind

up

edge

photograph

and

the

cleared

still only until

house

new

buildingslook

the

on

place; everything is

shall move,

the side of the road

here

....

live here

we

we

farm

My

because

house

new

bare

on

there;

are

the

to

move

16, 1909

Holidays [Pentecost]we

the Green

In

BROTHERS:
to

be

me

or

on

holidays

May

stoves

the

will not

they

39

barns

I told

something, and

W.

stands

can

when

approaching merry

I know

Resurrection,because

for either you

intend

who

know.

did not

[mourning]banner

the

days.

two

know.

Lord's

merry

alone

villageknew, he

whole

it ended

our

said that he did not

He

perhaps he

I cannot
of

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

longer considers himself

funeral is unheard

of.

mem

WROBLEWSKI

of my

work

going

was

the

carriage.

me

We

ran

the

them

the

he had to

give what

I wanted.

road

had

he

him

I gave

Pilat

to

give me

my

road

bed

the old
house

the

bad

place there
for

borrowed
and

roubles for it

exactly as

for the

moving

minors

who

rather

I did

I have

praisingme

and

be

that

I shall

I live

the barns

road.

in

as

look

enough; they blossomed

good

and
....

there

quite secure]; let

much

people

small

bought
do

to

The

house

bee-hives

together looks pretty good. I send you a photograph

It is the front- wall,3 windows
house,although a very bad one.
sort

of

and

fifth in the side- wall, near

veranda;

other side-wall
7

about

two

the roof two

upon

windows

and

ordinarywindows

rear

big ones

near

of

it;

by

also two

the

wind,

windows.

in the

gether
Alto-

[News

the door

weather.]

[Two letters,dated
house, the

minute

my

in

W.

new

all

"

door; before the door

turned

vanes

in the

and

the

have

fruit trees

few

still

already

are

The

manor.

had

this

fourth

70

therefore,the

have

this year;

it

paid

it,because

want

also.

from

cross

had

ridiculous;he

"common"

bought

He

property;

now

be his

that I would

order, but

proper

gate

had

considered

It looks

it.

in

the

Pilat's

to

bought.
want

saying

look bad

well

he

everything

and

idea

I did not

But

not

old

He

have

[in

part

not

opposite the

he would

was

keep what
and

me

does not

have

Well, for this

his house

expensive.

combination

proposed

before

then

enough

said that the road would

garden with the

my

rather

"

is

56 roubles

he barked

Though

common.

hillside

to

up

had

He

it is

the

near

[with the road] and

grown

grant

I had

land for the road.

some

anything, because

it for

God

Feliks for the funeral

without

him

pain. May

buildings. Well, after long bargaining, I exchanged with

Plaksa

are

with

us

have

Upon
I sold

me

weeks

else it will be

or

directlyback, because

Kazimierz

Piotr

took

leg. Three

my

without

left

brother-in-law

from

he

overturned

upon

house

trace

no

more,

man
priest'scoach-

....

hay-harvest,

new

the

and

walk

cannot

the work

and
priest'ssister,

away

terrible blow

livingin the

I gave

much

the

bring

to

mare

before

recover

nothing

of

I got

finished

363

....

are

and

the

and

passed
to

Lapy

to

Suddenly

home.

I had

When

own.

SERIES

transfer

descriptionof

new

May
of

16,
the

and

June

barns,

house, etc.]

an

13, relate the

exchange

of

moving

land

with

W.

into

the

Plaksa,

364

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

September

41
DEAR

BROTHERS

I had

waited

Kostus

has

carried

half of it!
these

are

know

how

There

in

probably about

than

it will

If it

her.
alreadyinstigating
do

with

the

because

other

death

that when

there

would

would

be

be

it will be.

To

anywhere

into

leave these
if it were

remain

alone with

the world

little ones

at least

have

his way
he

of

is in

give a good income.

which

be

can

this farm

how

be bad.

To

could

farm
not

go
I

upon

without

marrying Olcia, that it

told

He

for

which

there is a town

could

to

good
And

sold most

near

that there have

me

permission,but that

state

it,whether

enough

further and

manage
and

bought, in what

Kostus

there

be

can

Still I believe that if he found

gather money

how

fact that Kostus

The

know

I don't

along,though

asked

agricultural
products ?

before and

garden

lived,it

had

way.

to ask about

surely will know

if the

better

this.

I want

good sale

possible.

before her

me

to

us,

Although different difficulties about

I stop
exposed, it has been refused.) Here

whether
country it lies,
a

people have

any

been

about
[writing]

If she

nothing

of my

priestabout it.

situations and

property

Now

often talked

as

impossible. How

could live

one

long with

told

now

will be

There

alone ?

the

possiblein

it is not

it is.

also be

I shall

everything looked

and
so

People are

soon

the children would

would

it is now,

as

is possible. I asked
such

And

as

it and

I don't

what

be

won't

misery [not so bad],but

difficulty.(Peoplehave
been

house

new

terrible envy.

only half

surely she

7, and

7 morgs

know

so, I don't

happens

late wife foresaw

I built the

these

this small bit of land

to extort

sleep. My

not

with

the

even

I have

take half of them.

can

And

children.

people want

Envy does

Olcia

be, because

and

much.

very

fortune,or

morgs,

even

that brother

news

pleased me

such

60

places; and

40

curious

I have

Could

the letter for which

you

This

big farm.

away.
are

more

the

I learned

long, and

so

bought such

almost

am

received from

:....!

29, 1909

the

town

also it is necessary

to

buy such

pay

is not

farm,
And

the rest.
far away,

to cultivate those

it

can

plants

easily.1

has bought

farm

creates

W.

WROBLEWSKI

between

the brothers

new

community

of interests and

letters

full of agriculturaldetails,advice, information, experiments (mainly

are

omitted
animated

here).
as

it

In
was

strengthens the familial connection.

spite of the
at

the

passage

beginningof

correspondenceremains
separation.

of time, the
their

All the following

as

366

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

have

horses,one

two

calved now;

for the milk

for

calves

....

old,two

the other 3 years

6 and

I send to

which

I get 6 roubles

Lapy

I have

7! roubles,

I got

both have

cows,

monthly,

old

sheep and
and that
turtle-doves,

....

pigs,4 hens, a dog and a pairof

is all my farm-stock.
[Describesprices,probable crops, farm-work,
in Lapy and Plonka.]
churches
weather, new
3 young

ones,

Now

there

are

new

house, Boleslaw

one,

Jan Gluchy

America,

to

is in

still have

new

where

there

there

Now

if she lived.

of debt.
be

can

new

for the third time

to the

place.

new

nothing,there it is.

was

comfortable,everybody says
pity that mine [my wife]is not

roubles

few

built

Roch

one,

it nice and

only it is a

manor,

Gluchy has gone now

America
again. I moved

there is nothing,and

I have

Now

one.

village;Jozef Laba

our

Gembiak

Stas

one,

new

new

Roch

and

it was

Where

in

changes

many

But

the

bad

misfortune

it looks like

that
there

and

latter would
for

that I

be
me

trifle

with

the

with such a difference of age.

Now
all of them
children,especially
like to learn,but there is nobody to work
for them
would
[Advisesthem to keep bees; sends wishes for Easter.]

W.

WROBLEWSKI

April 23,

44
BROTHERS:

DEAR
....

I received

....

for [Easter]eggs,
picture-patterns
no

such

America

yet.

[Weather, farm- work,

you

sent

was

sown

me

too

much

not

help.
as

we

of it.
1

An

in

are

with

you;

invent

the
have

we

anything.

called

seeds
has

"pop-corn" which
yet come
up, though it

not

her

mother!"
work

no

disorder

is work

instance

She
a

He

from
are

not

doctor,he

says

gave

medicine

"May

and

it not

women

nature

at

home,

of the

and

every
what

does

advises
be

that her left lung is weak.

her, she stops to rest

growing. I don't know

enough for

coughs

thingsbut all this

said to me,

He

In the introduction

all of us, for Olcia

does different

of the purely formal

etc.
health,prosperity,

condition.

my

good health,but

in the fresh air.

lack and
There

about

with her to

I went

there is almost
At home

more

you

since carnival.1

her to work
her

crops.] The

to

letter with

long ago.
that

I wrote

thank

we

always the first

up, but the cotton

sprang

I inform

Now

is

for which

your

1910

with
Now

moment.

will

there is

introductorynews

come

nobody
about

WR6BLEWSKI

367

SERIES

work; everythingis torn and worn, and there is nobody to make

woman
[as
anything. I hope I may be not obliged to look for some
for I am
in
not very willingto do it.1 As long as this one
was
wife],
to

less,althoughwith difficulty;
it is indeed a misery; there is nobody either to govern
to
but now
or
I give directions and leave the house; when
I come
work at home.
The one
cannot, the other [the boy] is too
back, nothing is done.

good health,we

going on

were

or

more

lazy. They are quarrelingcontinually. [Sends vegetable seeds

be tried in America.]
WROBLEWSKI

W.

May

45
I thank

BROTHERS:

DEAR

somewhat

clearer to

what
letters,

at

am

there

home

absolutelystrange
reasons

we

see, there is no

to

if this idea

Even

and

sexual elements

He

average.

that

Olcia

as

His attachment

peasants.

by economic
of

men

sible
pos-

of such

sometimes

panied
accom-

the idea of marrying

the
considerations,
almost

are

rather low level of intellectual

development, while Walery is certainlya peasant a little above the

if the love-element
was
absent, this idea of
originally
Finally,even

marrying Olcia made

the

degree of love

some

in

are

culable
Incal-

an

of the unlawfulness

mentions

two

is

because, as far

hardly absolutelylacking;these

were

alwayspresent hi peasant marriages,even

moral

only

me.

is less probable,
supposition

fear of remarriage among

mainly determined

was

are

at

He

remarry.

such sentiments

There

after Olcia's death, and

itselfopenly,because

inferred.

be

can

to

to Introduce
Olcia,or his unwillingness

any

express

wish

to entertainments,ceremonies,fairs,
etc., and he had

sentimental

and

not

peasant'straditional attitude.

example of

feeling.Still,it
her.

he does

that

trouble for

of his first wife,as

the remembrance

hesitate to marry

Olcia does not

him

your

locality
you

It is bad

much

Too

of change into his life. -But the latter

he does not

to

by
the

to

his attachment

"

element
because

why

be interestingto know
deterred

not
certainly

from

debts.

graduallygettingrid of my
is nobody to keep the house.

It would

much

it is

farm-work.] We have this year

[Weather, crops, prices,
Thanks
to God,
and work enough, but too littlemoney.

to eat

least I

are

Now

and in what
prices,

the

i, 1910

letter.

I learned

America.

there,what

grows

settled.

enough

about

me

for your

you

....

are

,T7

TT7

to

must

influence the conscious

look upon

man

have

idea and

her in

new

way,

as

if we
developed,particularly
its expression
in words have

upon

woman,

remember
upon

what

and
an

the feelingsof

the peasant.
Some
death
He

in

indications
a

much

mentions

this may

have

more

can

be found

informal

also in letter 48.

personalway

been caused

writes there of Olcia's

that of the death

of his wife.

her part of the inheritance,but

At any rate, it
only by the usual familial attachment.

also that Olcia wished

is probable that his

than

Walery

for
feeling

Olcia

to will to him

was

only half-conscious.

368

PRIMARY-GROUP

what

But

would

else can

be

Now

and

better order
what

mention

all this

even

so

[my wife]were

If mine

be done ?

well,and

is in

farm

ORGANIZATION

me
rejoices

not

buildingsnice

the

about

wrote

you

living
everything
much, althoughthe

the

of

comet

Halley.

it,and different wicked speculators

spread
of
in
There
it.
Our
is
editor
Gazeta
various rumors.
nothing true
that there is nothing to be feared from it,because
Swia.tecznaexplains,
Among

the

people also

us

moon

moves

know

the earth and the

miles from

50,000

does

one

harm

no

other; what damage then can the one bringto the other when
from
miles away
the earth?
of Halley moves
the comet
3,000,000
to the

sky,but

the western

live next
learn who

of

what

is

us

so

after sunset
it any

see

here at the

Perhaps you

about

had

You

it above

saw

the sun,

appointedtime,and

the equator.

nearer

we

more.

wrote

you

....

I will do

year

don't

we

now

Now

it in America?

in March

it is now;

where

I don't know

very

so

see

if

we

shall

we

good idea,

this tune

the sun has turned

done, for during
much off from the earth,or rather the earth from the sun, and a second
trial ought to be made.1

but

be

it cannot

now

Now

to

as

the machines

which

you

bought

and

which

are

so

know

expensive don't they

scythesand sickles there ? With these

do much
tools you can
But you ought not to
during the summer.
if one
lose hope, even
perhaps the next year
year disappointsyou;
will be better.
One always works more
his own
[land]
willingly
upon
"

has

and

more

difference

hi

it makes
pleasure in everythingand particularly
old age; you can live more
easilyto the end on your own

IlandJ

W.

[Letterof June

WROBLEWSKI

filledwith questionsof agriculture

at home
entirely
and
of the visit of bishop,conAmerica; one of August 5, with news
firmation
of Edward
and J6zefa,arrest and imprisonment of brother Jozef,
of
December
and advice about
by mistake; one
i, filled again with news
and
gardening.]
farming
19,

in

46

January 8, 1911
[Usual beginning.]The

BROTHERS:

DEAR

holidayspassed,we
children had great joy.
questions.The
your

the

and the
[Christmas]
pine-tree
I answer
to bring in the hay.] Now
[Difficult

decorated

to

Their idea is probablyto

them

of books

to

consult

map,

of reference.

by askingsomeone

measure

the

lengthof

shadow.

It does not

because

When

or, whenever

occur

of the total lack of any tradition about the use

information was
needed it was
always sought either

possible,
by observation and experiment.

WROBLEWSKI

What

income

well, if it

pretty

be

can

afraid of

the

under

were

done,

for

not

darkness

our

also

Perkowski

angry.

and

it is not

and

pumpkin

which

upon

Now

to

as

probably be

for his

was

written:

the

autonomy

no

shop

pears

grow

than
W.

of

Kingdom
a

upon

and
is

with

to work

God

to work

helpsyou
If I had

fine,but

much

so

that for you

more

upon

of my

so

came

land

own

myselfto
if it

Even

I think

such

[themortgage],it is the

I commend

situation.

nor

upon.

to pay

....

poods,

"

will

willow

[Proverb].
always so [as this
how

it will be

fall into pieces,

Perhaps it will soon
I like to work, but only if there
elsewhere.

farm, and the

upon

shop

this farm.

then neither here

something

are

Poland, it

[News about farm-work, crops, prices.]If it were

year],it would be only half a misery,but I don't know
in the future

They

the autumn

In

which

of the

instruction].

opened

"Village-gardenerW.

than

sooner

Roman

Lapy"
prosper

Jews?

going badly.
weighed more

....

him

I gave

the

to

go

in

It would

[lack of

The

year.

Association

the expenses.

peoplepreferto

making the Jews

in his house

''Consumers

name

covers
scarcely

if

369

Plaksa; he is ending his third

is Kazimierz
village-elder

shop in Lapy
but the
exists,

SERIES

most

it is also
farm.

If

Lord

our

pieceof

sure

bread.

I believe that I should

the will of God

to

agreeable

in

am

feel

bad

paying [the stepdaughter'spart of

cash, instead of givingher land, in the case of her

it would be difficult to find a loan, because I don't know
marriage],
as the father
myselfwhat and upon what I am [what is my position,

inheritance

heirs]. The

of the

worst

the affairs

manage

what

hi

another

think it a

freely. Even

would

man

is that my

do in my

I did not

pitythat

hands

now

I do

situation

go earlier to

Now

tied,so that

much, for

WALERY
stork's nest

fell down

last summer;

I cannot

I don't

know

[probablyless]. Now

America;

difficult
The

are

it was

at

present it is too
WROBLEWSKI

rotten

with rains.

March

15,

there is none.

47
DEAR

weather

[More than half the letter filledwith

BROTHERS:

news.]

Now

as

to the fast in our

farm

and

country, the Holy Father,

On all the days of the

exemption for 7 years.
whole year except the eve of the day of God's Mother, December
8,
and Good Friday,we can eat milk.
On all Saturdays of the year, if it
or

the

Pope,

gave

an

PRIMARY-GROUP

370
does not
we

happen
eat

can

to be

the

On

meat.

than

ORGANIZATION

of

eve

all the

holidayor quarterlyfast-day,

some

Sundays during Lent, we

eat

can

meat,

all the

On

Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays in

once
a
Lent, except Good
Thursdays, we can eat meat
day. The
Holy Father gave an exemption for the Kingdom of Poland for 7
He did it last year,
years, commuting the fast for other good deeds.
in April. The
The
published it at once.
priestsdid not
papers
even

more

once.

the whole

publishit;only when
to

habit

proclaimedit.

it secret

keep

they
meat, only

about
and

Tuesdays

people learned it and it was

in Lent

Thursdays, and

Nevertheless
milk

eat

we

the other

on

days

fast

we

WROBLEWSKI

and
temporal life,

her

and

It is sad

going.

moved

been

instead of

For

to these younger

day, not for a week, but for eternity.She

she will never
but she came
come
back, and now
The

Now

because, thanks
so

to

there

are

intend

Laba

there

almost

it,we

this funeral

as

moreover,

do

can

the house

and

spring comes,

this ?

more

And

of it!

will be

nothing

can

from
me,

my

but

late wife

it

was

home,

I must

do my

is

typical. The

fasting remained
shows

old customs

after

the

as

Olcia

among

she

whole

without

modern

any

influence upon

independence of

the
And

Barwiki

and

her, but

not

was

full

peasants is very

evolution

away,

Feliks

I believe

formerlyreceived
Stalugis
wanted
to bequeath it to

example of Wr6blewski, who

also the relative

of the church.

much

work,

roubles

from
Stalugis

possible,because

not

of fasting. The

matter

as

[nothing]

of
persistence

'The

us

will do

Who

60

sad

her.

without

work.

the inheritance

church,

Oh, how

back.

....

that they will receive from

often to

went

has

farewell,not

us

much

than

more

that the

to claim

at

who

one

are

I bear

time

easilydrive poverty

more

will cost

rumors

is empty

also

we

this

bade

ones

it is to think

which

Even

painful

Olcia ended

the second

me

and

morning,our

eternity,toward
news.

sad

today

you

is left to

What

mother

to

sorrowful

painfulblow.

such

to

announce

16, at 4 o'clock hi the

March

Today,

16, 1912

Jesus Christus!"

be

BROTHERS:

news.

This

March

DEAR

old

Sundays, Mondays,

on

48
"Praised

the

keep

we

W.

for

impossible

fasts in

21

well shown

attitude

the isolated peasant

as
religion

old.
in the

spiteof the exemption,

in the church's

custom

years

from

toward

communities.
the sanction

WROBLEWSKI

But

far

as

and

half-brothers

the younger

to

371

asked,her part belongsby the rightof inheritance

I have

as

SERIES

half-sisters
W.

May

49
BROTHERS:

DEAR

I inform

Now

housewife

new

home.

at

the house

Perkowska, from

Anna

Plonka.

her from

I took

Horko

where

daughterof Horko's son-in-law,and 30

is a good seamstress, because others learn

is the
she

she does not

longerthe
can

one

same

as

her

buy

to

dresses

new

of interest

nothing more
a

from

the

May 7, on
good enough, although not

her.

the order

no

letter from

had

happened with

least the order

it has been

of St.

eve

home

only that

be

he grows

in

taken

WROBLEWSKI

Less

better,because

marks

have

change

Now
up

to

at

this time

is

little money

and

is somewhat

more

result.

to see

it will be

Now

something.

lazy. Perhaps

he

more

It would

will

not

improve

up

ceremonial

marriages,but

that

May

W.

2, 1912

wife

new

was

easilyfound when
again. Although my occupations
position
a

somewhere

go

bad, only Edward

when

marriage

our

Stanislaw,and there

I wrote

at least there is some

numerous,

easilypossibleto

long time.

is

I have

big wedding-feast

is somewhat

bad; and

very

"

Now, if only good

better,I hope

I mention

that I had

since I took my

necessary,
more

me,

for

no

am

home

[Weather, farm- work, crops.] Now

you

at

the present

August

had

are

Although

at

to

up

50
BROTHERS:

She

sewing-machines;

two

W.

DEAR

is Miss

Moreover,

enough, for

in the house.

to write.

performed on

was

And

it will be

harmony prevailsat home,

She

old.

years

glad of it,because

am

already

clothingis substantial enough

soon.

terrible confusion

I have

1912

formerly lived.

than

more

Now

stock of

Her

and
becoming different,
there has been

it is

me

long ago.

was

be sold.

even

need

no

look pretty, for

14,

that I have

you

....

W.

and

less social

importance are

the lack of any touch of romance

this as an unusuallymatter-of-fact

and

WROBLEWSKI

always attached
of any

arrangement.

wedding

to

second

ments
announce-

PRIMARY-GROUP

372

ORGANIZATION

October

51
DEAR

BROTHERS:
Now

in Plonka

consecrated
window
have

next

of the
shown

which

rather

or

such

been
at home

it does not go

she has

as

[roubles]
every

I get 30
....

at home

and

the chancel

also with

She

the

children;
had

never

bad;

by sewing
digging,
weeding,harvesting,

for the

WROBLEWSKI

March

52
BROTHERS:

DEAR
....

there will be

for the present there will be peace,

write,this
then?

misery

is unavoidable

shall all

We

long enough

to

see

about

news

These

such

30

is bad

at

roubles
And

home.

be

living.
I became
farmer

clothed
I got

nor

and

as

son

my

is

calve.

Only

shod, and

family.

own

that, if God

it,for he is lazy in
hard

us, and

allowed

times.

every

Now

me

be

are

left.

don't

give

enough for

And

If I
to

not

then

she

cow;

everybody

well hi order to get

count

saw

is no

that my

way
son

out

our

of it.

would

be

live until old age, I could

possibleto
am

live

we

shall

we

go

shall be

we

obliged to kill a

line,careless.

when

we

lazyboy, the farming

entangledin this miseryso that there

spend it with him, then it would

will have

been

I must

we

still not

are
a

moreover

two

now

even

papers

you

monthly

earn

if

is

that

shall

way,

together,and

from

none

I have

now

the slave of my
and

get

all

Where

awful

some

misery awaits

singly,but

which

Even

could neither rise

must

terrible

later.

or

it seems

that, as the

seems

Although

ourselves and

expenses.

it

sooner

come

enjoy any delights,then

separatedfrom you, not
no

but

Now

soon.

very

perish probably hi
it

but

[war]. Everythinghere

somethingnew

expected bad times

We

wrote.

you

7, 1913

live stillin the old way,

We

....

perhaps soon

see

by the

for herself

earns

W.

others,for

Well, the service is not

now

to pay

we

[More farm-news.]

etc

as

the

Jozia says that she

my

month.

have

I do not

and

one

also,but

money

from

once

for

badly. My present housekeeper,

before,and

than

it will be
roubles

150

1912

ances.]
acquaint-

....

compared with

as

than

wife,keeps good order

chemise

munificent

about

church

new

villagegathered

praisedmore

all cleaner

they are

Our

church; other villagesgive

ourselves

priest. Now,

have

we

year.

new

have

we

[Weather,crops, prices;news

21,

bear

it.

Wherever

at home

But
he

I don't
goes,

he becomes

he

still

PRIMARY-GROUP

374
Edward

ORGANIZATION

the stork for the first time

standing or lying,
and I, on the contrary, see him always flying. Yesterday also I saw
the first stork this year flying;surely he will bring something this
every

Such

year.

My
he

is my

luck.1

more

miserable

is not

work

enough,

lazyfellow

keeps well.

these older

childhood,and

since

and

boy

strong

because

energy,

them; and there is

one

is

Waclaw

youngest

will have

and

sees

year

even

ones

BROTHER:

I thank

you

for your

time.

It

pleased me

....

grieved me
described

you

true, but up

the

at

something about

so

you

are

the last moment

to

How

times

(in this

to succeed

could

the

discover

all his

them

voluntarily.
let us

But

is

talk about

not

begin with the oldest.

us

he

wishes?

going on

as

It is but

enough

hi
particularly
1

We

have

other

At

first it would
the health

instance of

an

very

The

children
this

to

what

laziness of which
have

inherited

is
interpretation

toward

and

how

he
weak

never

very

competition.

at

if we

that the
if

man

Is

everythingwith him

seem

to have

to

Let

ourselves.

we

could

say

idea of his

an

appear.

There

This
is

yes.

his children,

of his wife and

to

and

know

general belief that the good

are

who

or

success.

bad

omen

belief is the
code

whole

of

be avoided.

complains is certainlya result of heredity.

organism from their consumptive mother.

hereditaryphysical weakness

there is a definite defect which

omens

others,

certainly
try to shorten

background of the magical hygiene of the peasants.

prescriptionsas

are

sufferings.And

real factor causing the foretold phenomenon

"

that if

nearer,

people,only about

Walery happy

danger

say

those

should

it is

long ago,

even

looked

he would

Is

look at

to

once,

their firstyears, in order

here

and

you;

series of

because

believe that the

not

enough, if we

one

at
sufferings

see

it

I may

than

I learned

grieved me

about

mysteries of their life,we

could

because

help you?
only
think that perhaps there
life),

well

of them

one

I knew

10, 1907

which pleased
letter,

and

unhappy

more

hand,

own

I could

can

first sightseem

life of every

your

situation.

truly your

unhappy

hundred

same

from

you

imminent.

was

is

WROBLEWSKI

Tuesday, December

and

in

55
DEAR

bad

home, then elsewhere,if

at

W.

been

there is little energy

now

if not

Perhaps

have

clearly realized by
is usually one

puts the given person

peasant.

of moral
a

The

The
But

attitude

condemnation, unless

priorioutside

of any

social

WROBLEWSKI

not.
me

to be in his

ten

Americas.

or

not

about

to

his wife.
to

who

connected

say

that my

we

me,

come

I have

the

Konstanty.

shoulders.

our

I considered

made

marriage
have

know

We

To

live alone

difficult duty,

idea about

any

it.

choice,but because with marriage

painfuland irritatingquestions. I don't

most

condition

shrug

can

I and

you,

experiencedit can

has not

It is not because
are

Then

business.

no

me

nobody

but

happy? Certainly
somebody ordered

if

But

skin,a scapegoat, then I should be glad if there were

You
think probably that I make
suppositions true

As

you.

seemed

much.

"

about

"

know

Feliks I don't

About

375

the flower of her age,

Marysia, in

Further, was

SERIES

is the

bad

it is far from

worst, but

being good,

Let us mention
skies,instead of brightening,
get clouded.
only one, the least important question. Every beast has its lair,
wander
about
the dog has his kennel, while we
must
strange
the

and

and

corners

depend

dream

even

about

the rest.

There

write

You

the

landlord's

kennel.

And

upon

our

own

remains

condemned

to live far away

well,but
from

it is useless to

I don't know

Konstanty.

that he does very

caprice,and

cannot

we

speak about

how

he succeeds.

believe that

I cannot

man

his native country could feel

really

happy.1
I

astonished

was

whether

I had

longtime
longtime

not

to eat.

know

probablyfrom
one

and

another, "one

my

sisters would

be

when

our

father tries to harm

us

"

for all and

question,

opinion to forget for

equal to forgettingfor

father has disowned

in every

brother's letters

our

last letter the

your
In

Particularly
now,

our

own

reading in

forgotten you.

one's brothers

when

near

in

possibleway

ought

we

then at least let us

unifyourselves materially,
and then it will be easier
as closely
as possible,
and our Lord God will help us.2
life,

if

be united
to bear

as

us,
you

be, all of

to

And

all for one."

"

we

us,

cannot

spiritually

the burden

of

[JOZEF WROBLEWSKI]
showing the nature of the peasant'spessimism.
Whenever
theoretical reflection takes the placeof action the practical
optimism of
the peasant changes into a theoretical pessimism; the less of active energy
we
find in an individual or a group, the more
pessimismprevails. (Cf. Osinski series*
No. 78, note.) But religion,
tudes
where the practical
rather than the theoretical attifar as uninfluenced by the Christian terrors
are
as
expressed,is optimistic,
1

The

of God's
*

letter is fullof

meaning

as

wrath.

A good

expressionof

the

peasant'sown

conceptionof

familial

solidarity.

376

PRIMARY-GROUP

ORGANIZATION

56

[No date,probably 1908]

DEAR

BROTHERS:

write another
and
a

it is

to you

smaller

soon, and

week, but

every

sometimes
Is it not

true

is easier to

on

the

in

nice,but

was

together
"

he

ago,

for

"old

now

the
not

question of that
earth,or

even

the

from

the

it rained

related

simply

in their

And

thus

wife would

and

home,

own

we

he

can

a
come

and

church.
to

But

we

And

you.

if both

of you

"Odpust" means
punishment for sins
1

talked of
12

years

people
be

can

no

upon

he would

having talked and complainedabout bad

shall have
I

now

we

certain good deeds.

The

peasant

time

renew

back

went

at once,

each

my

there from

comes

enough

they will begin

talk about

to

request

believe that it is worth

be suffered

on

earth

Hence
conscience

confess and

the identification of
excludes

last letters of Stasia in the Piotrowski

If

total remission

During the parish

and

commune

"indulgence"and

perform

"festival."

conjugal infidelity
absolutely. (Cf.
series.) Besides

it

while,let him send

in purgatory.

or

Kostus.

to

literally
"indulgence,"that is,partialor
to

festival full indulgence is granted to those who

Ignacy

way.

build

when

therefore

the

hell,"and

it is sad in Plonka, for nobody

generalnow
Lapy, because they have then* own
chapeland soon
to

odpust

for him

arrange

"Dante's

hot and

and

how, about

In

of

and

when
parish-festival

same

time.

During the day

"

luck, after the end of the divine service

his

come.

autumnal

together

come

for his dear

now,

it in fact.2

merit

true, for

it is not

driving the cattle into the fields. Evidently, there

were

regularly

may

I,Franciszek

come.

Franciszek

times."

back

came

promise

for the second

day.

morning

seldom

we

had

we

St. Michael's

people from farther districts did

about

it will be

winter,because

Wednesday

Last

in Plonka,
[parish-festival]1

course

her letters

is goingto America
village,

our

work.

weather

yearly

it is the best to go there for

says

box

impediment

some

much,

Jan Laba, from

came

or

I would

me

difference.

no

I shall write

change

may

cost

for

pay

myself whether

know

I don't

He

same,

America,

to

something

for if you

of letters makes

largernumber

or

It does not

doing it now.

am

probably the

wife that if I go

my

preceding letter that

in my

I wrote

murder

and

the

wronging of

it is the only sin which he never

Even
in the tales,hi which
excuses.
helpless,
all sins occasionally
find pardon, there is no remission of infidelity.In this
of handworkers, is much
more
respect the conscience of townspeople,particularly
lax. The relation of the master's wife with the journeyman is not always condemned.
the

almost

WROBLEWSKI

here

for
ship-ticket,

me

have

he must
ticket,

SERIES

377

that if one

peoplesay

without

goes

roubles,for if he does not

200

show

ship-

50 roubles

And if it is true, I could

leavingthe ship he will be sent back.
hardly gather 200 roubles,unless by sellingall my household effects
when

I should

auction,and

at

leave

few roubles for my

would

is

for work

if I don't

going, for

then, I should

first I ask you

$1$

earn

America

It is a

I should

longerin the mines, for

is no

Kostus

And

But

son.

my

thinkingabout

be worth

not

wife and

it is worth

advice,whether

all.

like that at

not

like to have

for

day, it

pity that

piece-work,

too hard

never

JOZEF WROBLEWSKI

December

57
DEAR

BROTHERS

proved

same

of

going to
as

nobody ever

or

who

man

As to

another.

me,

I don't

....

and

whether

In

I shall be

one's self and

silly

to go

during

beyond

10

years

controlling
my

work.

always have
Piece-work

PerhapsI

could

when

I had

The

real intention

your

was

the

sea

broken

far from

to

feel

have

become

impressionthat the
quite another matter.

not

the best

visit you,

would

attract

be very

me

much,

to

it insufficient.

it still and

want

about

anybody's
I should
possible,

boss considered
I

to

something bad

unaccustomed

if I worked

Even

beingfullyrecovered.

in search of bread

truth,day-work does

Now

pot

I shall be able

all,for

the
is

proverb:

then a "something,"
letter,
but such a "something" that

word, like

able at

tell the

To

the

only of the America from

back.
I was
laid up, but worse
not actually
is lyingin bed thingsare soon
decided in one
sick in my lungs,coughing,catarrh,
me, I am
it

but
beginning,
now
myself when

know

made

directs the bullets."

God

better than in the

am

for

comes

stupidwho

not

I received

usually,
got

throat,headache.

sore

when

stillthink of America

for with
still,
way

was

At the moment

me.

and

you,

call it

we

while I could
which

with

true

man

aims, but the Lord

shoots and

"Man

The

13, 1909

always.

find it.1

As to the news,

piece. Wincenty K. (from whom

father bought the mill-wheel),
of
became
our
half-insane because
He
troubles and a few days ago cut his throat with a razor.
money
walked
1

On

there is

after this about

piece-worksee

sad

verst, and died under

Introduction:

"Economic

fence

Attitudes."

near

his home.

378

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

is

it

And

Stefka

news.

was

G.

of

would

but

people

if

got

for

sick,

not

was

did

not

even

been

it

We

find
and

shorter

more

zation

and
of

more

peasant

in

letters

many

ceremonial.

less
its

the

social
life

in

character;

general.

that

statement

It

is

an

mediately

the

immediate
it

shows

the

that

his

truth,
was

it

more

enough.

WROBLEWSKI

marriage-festivals
sign

left,

There

cold

was

the

leave

the

There

JOZEF

to

hours.1

tell

none.

beer

without

as

12

To

in

soul

strange

stupid

so

persons.

had

What

o'clock

10

gay

wedding
us!

pity

at

last

not

60

even

God

began
was

also

The

But

there

there

is

Szolajdy

It

for

brandy

There

man.

Advent.

festival

general

in

better

be

from

who

groom,

of

bottles

boy

evening

whole

the

Thus

only

beer,

the

an

now!

are

the

in

10

course

beloved.

were

at

honest

such

before

there

and

except

Sunday

marriage-festivals

morning,

was

married

last

the

on

he

for

pity,

marriage

progressive

are

ing
becomis

losing

individuali-

STELMACH

Jan Stelmach, the old

perfecttype
a

who

man

without

he
life,

position.In
to

tion,
instrucwith

satisfied with
perfectly

his

this respect the Galician peasant differs from

Russian

the peasants in

owing

some

Except for the usual troubles

to be

seems

is a
letters,

climbing tendencies and

any

definite class-consciousness.

of country

writes these

peasant farmer,with

of Galician

indeed,but

SERIES

and

greater national

Poland.

German

freedom

and

because

Perhaps
of the

industrial progress of Galicia,the

insignificant
relatively
pride and a strong
peasant there developed a particular
becomes
he gets a higherinstruction,
Even when
class-feeling.
he is seldom ashamed
a teacher,
an
a
official,
priest,
remains and wants to remain a peasant. From
of his origin,
the advice which old Stelmach givesto his son and daughterand after
in-law it is evident that he considers,
consciously
the peasant form of life the
reflection,
and morally.
sound, physically

most

normal

and

interesting
varietyof the familyproblem.
We see that the Stelmach
family,except for some
slight
harmonious
remains
much
so
more
misunderstandings,
There is also

an

"

than the Wroblewskis

or

the Osinskis.

even

But

this does

and community are presolidarity

served.
On
the contrary, there is already a far-going
as shown, for example,in the questionof
individualization,
(realdivision of the
marriage and in economic matters
property; independenceof the son in America). But the
individualization goes on without any struggle.The old
for instance,voluntarily
resignsany active control
man,

not

mean

that the old

of his son, and

with

joy his

givingadvice. He welcomes
although the way
daughter-in-law,

limits himself to
unknown

379

380

PRIMARY-GROUP

in which

the

ORGANIZATION

performed

marriage was

the traditions.

He

asks his

never

for money,

son

that the latter is well off; he has

he knows

of the

desire of the

all

although

sufficient understanding

children

other

to

contrary

was

get better

to

individual

positionshi America, and not only does not

protest against their plan of emigration,but asks the oldest
there seems
In short,hi this matter
to help them.
to be
son
also

rational

more

find

holding to tradition,we
with

the

's

in Stelmach

of the

knowledge

helped to develop this

THE

attitude
of

Instead

American

we

find

STELMACH

Ewa, his wife

J6zef
Jedrzej
}"his

sons*

Piotr

Wojtek (Wojciech)
1

Kaska

"
_

his

daughters
.

Jadwiga J
Sobek, the husband

of Kaska

Julianna (Julcia,
Julka, Ulis),the wife of J6zef
Julianna'sparents
Makar, Julianna'sbrother
Magdusia
/

Hanka

Julianna'ssisters

Krzysztof Zak, uncle

Rozia

Stelmach

Stefanska

Jagusia Sasielska
Zoska

of Ewa

(Zosia)

(Wojtkowa)

born
stubof the

proof

conditions)has

Jan Stelmach, a farmer

Michal

the

Perhaps familiarity

attitude.

FAMILY

in

acknowledgment

emigration (ofwhich

of

phenomena

an

its power.

of

limitation

inevitable

others.

in many

family than

Stelmach

self-conscious

and

|his daughters

382

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

glued and put it under

loosens

and

up

moisten

and

it is easy

sad

it with

difficult to find

good health,but

all in

are

glue

needle,to read it,then

borders

to

of the seal.

and

thief.1

condition

our

is meanwhile

little

know, when there is one thing another thing is

lacked milk during the carnival,
and our cow
to
was

because,as

lacking. So

the

warm,

it will stick up,

dare to send it in a letter,

So don't

it

it is nowhere

We

to open

it becomes

to

nobody will know

because

When

glueit up, adjustingcarefullythe

hold,you need onlyrub it with a potato

If it won't
and

arm.

your

you

we

February, and we were

watching whether she
would not calve.
On the night of February 26 to 27 I went
to the
I found
the cow
stable to see whether
the cow
not calving,and
was
calve

the end

at

of

The

strangled

pushed her
chain
So

had

honor

cow

be

not

had

torn

had

pulledthe chain,but

cow

The

in those

sorrow

have

He

may

her horns.

with

strong and could

was

we

other young

herself loose and

broken, and the

days, but God

cow

gave

the

strangled.

was

it,God

had

took it away,

glory; he afflicted us, but he will also comfort

and

us

Walkowa

Stelmaszka

[wife of the paternaluncle, Walek

to
Stelmach] intends to send her daughter Agnieszka to America
write that Borek did not answer
Borek [probablyher brother]. You
Aunt

It

you.

because

was

there,and he
if you
1

old

The

him, he would

of the family have

it is written

whom

the whole

the

to

or

had

this

whom

neighbors,or if the

To

if you

But

many

letter to read

isolated the community

from

often to

some,

very

large,extent

if there
privateletter,particularly

with letters from Brazil during the

a

thought that

strong feelingof

addressed.

villageclaims the right to read

refusal to give

he

of

means

that there is no

e.g., the

The

and

obligedto support you.3

greetingsfor
case

work

no

him

upon

opening and reading letters,

privacyabout letters
letter is always at least family-property,
and allthe members
the
read
it
will
to
of
of the person by
right
independently

The

peasants.

among

be

evidentlyused

has

man

be remembered

but it must

fellow-countrymentumbled

afraid that you

was

to

came

many

This

interests the community.

news

for emigration to that region.

craze

is considered

are
was

almost

the external world, the

rarer

The

offense.

an

the news,

more

the less the

feelingof privacy is developed.

2

ThP

According

relative.

fftnr""l" '"

But

to

f^prrty th^ar^f
the

there

the relation of
group,

duties

too

many

every

claims, and

exists
solidarity

has duties toward

toward

ihp

dpatji Q^a_rhilH
should

principleof solidarityBorek

only secondarily

and

individual

are

aftpr

among

the group

individual;but

individual

an

received

the situation is abnormal.

first of all between

as

have

whole

members
and

individual

the individual
of

the group

the

has

duties

as

mally
Norand

group.
a

toward

his

whole

the
The
has

another

STELMACH

don't wish to go to

farm

only we

more,

make

happy and bless

you

don't need

you

write you

SERIES

greet you

to write to him.

warmly.

very

May

We

won't

Lord

our

God

dear children!

our

you,

383

Your

parents,

JAN and
And

brothers

also,your

we

and

EWA

sisters,
greet

STELMACH
brother

you,

and

sister-in-law,
very warmly.

Wojtkowa [wifeof Wojtek] Sasielska,

greet you, my
nephew Jozwa [Joseph]and my niece Julka [Julianna].As I happened
be
here
when
letter
and
to
came
as they answer
your
you while
I am
here,so I greet you and wish you health and happinessfor your
I, your

aunt

household.

new

September

59
SON:

DEAR

We

....

write

we

now

again to

and

you

that her sisters

before to you

wrote

to

her 50

aunt, and

to your

We

aunt.

your

before

wrote

each, and

your

aunt

have

written her that the sisters calculate that either Rozia

them

[thismoney], or

here to

that if she wants

ifshe

to collect these

give it

it to us, let her send

the

consul

beg
nicely,
If your

us

won't

in

will collect

aunt

instead of

givingit to

it to

So when

us.

because

they

individuals
duties

abroad.

helphim, each
to

bear

it,and

pay

we

aunt

gives

by the consul.
beg

whatever

you

very

it costs.

letter,do

receive the

as

far

as

aunts, let her rather

your

both

are

with
as

your

members
each

best,because

of the

other.

same

group,

Therefore, when

give
we

not

the

happens on emigration,their reciprocal

in which

measure

they

are

cut

off from

the

personal,variable,voluntary, relation takes the place of the

Claims on help are, as a matter
of fact,much
less exacting at home
who can
At home
individual
who
needs
a
single
help finds many
abroad a singleindividual who is able to help has often
one
a little;
A

the burden

Raczkowski

aunt

let her collect it,but

[thismoney] for herself,

to be real,just in the

social norm.
than

and

so

money,

to do

name

isolated from their groups,

basis.

common

our

give

come

to your

If your

of attorney certified

power

will

give it to them, but

not

mother.

your

immediately connected

are

are

cease

to
i.e.,

her sisters and

you

individual only because

them, let her

to

now

she won't

I wrote

to

let her do it,but

herself,

crowns

100

certifyit without

aunt

your

to us,

And

crowns.

100

crowns

[toher],because

it will be lost

give[thismoney]

to

were

let her rather

But

are

country for these

our

to pay

and

27, 1909

of

supportingmany

the situation of Adam

series,

who

are

after his

in

difficult condition.

marriage.)

(Cf.

384

PRIMARY-GROUP

send

letter to you

best,that
and

and

aunt

your

Zosia

ORGANIZATION

another

give this

may

us, and

to

money

60

what

Lord

our

God

but

on

was

left free from

....

We

Here

and

Urban

has

wrote

young

STELMACH]

I did not

would

Urbanowa
married

at

in the house

once

who

Rozia

Krzysztof Zak

wife.

put it there.

firstleft the field

willed it to
Rozia

100

write

Rozia

askingher

she did not

25

crowns.

these

crowns

as

dare,because

He

gift,and

A hundred
crowns
heavy payment.
of the land, and leavingthe sum

is

would

mean

disavowal

not

similar request.

of the daughter.

He

would

rightsto his wife if her inheritance

2

The

too

small

"Economic

That
to

it was

them.

part of the

R6zia, being in America,

took the land from

comparison with

her

were

real,e.g.,

gave

also to

mother, but

to your

was

the

probable

certainlynothing but

completelyhi the will,as this

is proved by the
a formality
And
this explainsold Stel-

hardly have asked his sister-in-law

aleatoryelement hi economic

Introduction:

triflehi

her at all

wish to omit

request of the sisters to give this money

mach's

to

give together

intended

wanted, in fact,to relieve the heirs who

value

your

[Stefan-

if Stefanska

mother

received

Rozia

will

glad

crowns

this

thought that they

They

your
100

ordered

But

and
[othersisters],

Zoska

be

is the

cash].

the forest to Rozia

near

gulden each.
They would

Aunt

formality; the grandfather did

[who

put it,because

won't

now

Stefanska

Aunt

heirs in

bank, and

Maruta

Wola, and

the government

grandfather evidently thought that Aunt

money.

hi

the other

Jagusia and

give these

to

speak

you

of Lukaszek

worked

the other aunts

But

them

no

gathered less than

is also dead.

because
directly,

her

answer

gulden, i.e.,100

needed

our

her part of the inheritance

will pay

of the heirs to be put in the

The

have

we

field

happy and bless you and save you from

is
[wifeof Urban] Chudzicka, our relative,

M.], that

of L.

grandfatherhad at
ska],but finallyhe
they are to pay to

in

the

good health and that

hi

heir,takingthe land and paying

money

5, 1909

village,
[the crops]. Wola

hail has beaten

are

you

you

asking who

to us

main

make

God

May

[the daughter

see

EWA

take it away

[God's]punishment,but
glad that

very

evil.

dead

Jagusia

are

us.

any

did not

He

us.

gave

other sides of the country

last year

to

gathered from

We

CHILDREN:

DEAR

50

not

November

....

he

do your

you,

[JAN and

to

beg

We

aunt.

to your

to

cede her

piece of land.

life. For the consequences

Life"; "Religious and

of this element,

Magical Attitudes."

STELMACH

will let them

[thetwo

givethem

one

to

good,

You

to

had

had

you

answered

there,but

come

him.

not

If you

until

spring.

striking
; well, that is funny !
already they don't want to
work, and now

[workmen]

that

long ago they

that

us

let him

could

you

say

....

Not

....

"have

or

[son]wrote

Michal
it

But

to them.

this money

think

word; perhaps
[illegible
they
wronged"] the aunt, so she ought not give

of them.

slandered"

"have

perhaps what she will do, whether she

other aunts] send her these 100
or will
crowns,

will ask

You

inheritance.1

385

SERIES

no

are

repairedthe stable;
work, but requirea higher pay! We have now
for the horses,another for the cows.
made two stables,
one
People
we
where you are there is a big stench,the whole
say that in that town
is covered

town

smoke

with

with clouds

as

EWA

JAN and

STELMACH

[The first paragraph of the followingletter is of the ceremonial type

the mens
to the firstpart of No.
speci58) and is printedas No. 4 among
(similar
of peasant letters.]

January

In the last letter I asked

send Michal
answer

and

If you

me.

money,

you

You

or

at
ship-ticket

never

say

well

there,so they are afraid to go

know
it has been.
yourself how
Sometimes

one

for the
which
both

in the
ship-ticket,
aunt

your

sent

of them

If he
same

you.

So

to

You

if you

now

It would
you

at least

word

of

praise,that

worked

each

back
sent

it to be

it is
you

other.

then

he could work

be well if you

understand

so

at home

not, and

sometimes

you

little

them,

there to you
as

have

even

of

America, and here

and

came

way

any

did not

one

least to

They quarrel with

in Prussia

succeeds

is passed in vain.

summer

to America.

them

to

I should

whether

me

think that it is good there and

send

may

shall go.

one

to Prussia

Wojtek

to advise

you

....

30, 1910

the

back

for the ticket

for
[tickets]

better,on

that

in writingto them, the course

which you consider
praiseit [praise,
the best],because people think it strange, that you don't take either

side

Zosia

The
are

cousin.
upon

the

situation
the
The

own

has

of

fact, that Jagusia and

is only her
R6zia, while the writer's wife Ewa

additional

sisters of Aunt

Stelmachs'

nearness

an

interest from

claim is therefore based

personalrelations.

not

the

upon

but
family-relationship,

386

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

of them.1

If you

for us, and

her sake
Sobek

had

taken

perhaps better

and

she does

gulden. Think

to

live and

on

well."

so

that

well.

on

her

paid,and the

But

Now

and

Baj [goodbye; probably imitates the

his letters].

CHILDREN:

DEAR
did

you

think

not

that you

us,

because

evening.
there

are

this

they

parish, so

Christians.2
1

come

we

Many

send

mere

of kindness,but

of familial relations
home

money

the rest

only

for

Christmas.

you

to

This

connection

Prussia,they
cold

annoys

labor

long in the

wafers.

Although

in the

of
registers
are

you

but
Christians,

are

"

raised hi this series.

certain individualization

Indeed, by sending

by this distinction.

helpshis family immediately

America

reach

to one's relatives is
sending of ship-tickets
than
the
more
so
sending of money

familial duty

be manifested

significance.A

between

only the wafer

anywhere else,but the

an

and

we

tumbled

here, because

from

them

because

it is difficult

The

entered

are

August but

winter

from

come

consecrated

you

in

as

whole, while by taking

immediately and

he evidently helps this member

of the family only mediately.

frequent. Not

was

to

seems

the emigrant

family-member

not

people forgetthere that they

home, for that questionis never

one

did

[there],
yet

this in

31, 1910

22, and

boys

send you

family.]

letter did not

our

to work

brothers

adds

you,

because
pleasant,

It is explicitly
stated here that the
act

writing to

and

rise at dawn

must

also wafers

risk

we

since November
falling

children,we

Dear

now

is not

The

they will

that

them,

been

anywhere.

out

go

wrote

not

who

to you

wrote

somewhere

condition
have

snows

so

moved

have

Our

upon

and

answer,

you

to

We
....

you

STELMACH

November
....

is

will get

you

EWA

son

62

But

the whole

JAN and
Gud

hundred

advise your

from
[Greetings

be well.

paid,and

her sad.

will earn,

only

to be

of

country hi order

our

makes

can

you

in

for

brother

twelve

on

easier

debts

sister and

interest

here, you

"Sister,

come

everythingmay

The

This

been

contracted

we

to work

it is necessary

this is past.

have

Kaska] requirethe debt

put 72 gulden aside.

to

wrote

never

how

also,it would

her, because

get
of

interest to be

72

for

not

husband
[son-in-law,

if not, then

Kaska

same

religiousvaluation
from one's
is true

own

of any

particular
importance in

old custom

of emigrants and

and

parishhas

patriotismis

value than

object of religiousor

other

this respect

wanderers

local
more

to

was

carry

attached
a

one

very

from

magical

to earth.

little earth

It

of their

STELMACH

forgetthat

don't you
As

God.

long

believe in

why

wanted

you

when

don't believe in

absolutelyto

you

to go

and

to the

Lord

our

God.1

I asked

of the Stefanskis

give the address

to

wanted

mother

your

and

us

387

that you believe in one

parents, it is evident that you
disown
parents, it is
you
your

to your

God, but

this that you

to answer

you

speak

you

Lord

our

from

evident

as

Christians

are

you

SERIES

and

....

at

answer

mines, whether

and

once

had

you

write

to

work

no

where

People say that there in Pittsburghit would need a dragon

you are.
in fine weather no sun
is to be seen.
to hold out.
They say that even
If it is true,

....

rather to another

move

city
JAN and EWA

63

STELMACH

March
When

CHILDREN:

DEAR

long a

time

Wolka

from

thought different thingsabout

we

how

my

son

married

ran

away

son-in-law

"One

had

you

write to

and

away

run

ancestors' land with

under

their heads

them

in the grave

played the
in

r61e of

him.

talisman

I intended

and

buried

were

said,

thought that

of his sons-in-law

they died and

case

about

therefore don't write to us, and

which

peasant

this peasant

daughter." Then

[tolearn]which

so

said that he

He
I knew

And

daughter.

his

from

in Wolka

Maksyn

his

how

me

write for

I asked

you.

gettingon.

was

sellinghis horse and asked

[Maksyn] was
I said that

Wojciech Maksyn

did not

you

....

....

28, 1911

had

to

was

to
run

be put
their

far from

native village.
1

The

real

very

unity
psychological

evidently exaggerated, since

separately.But
influence upon
environment

drop the
connected

him.

who

man

has

easily,because in his

more

than they

are

the level of instruction is rather low.

are

dropped

changed

or

exert

real

the attitude of the

upon

traditional attitude will

one

conscious

own

reasoning they

any

influence stronglyindividual

seem

more

the

toward

an

against the

with others which

socialistic ideals.

by the

life while

the socialistsof the lower classes

among

real necessityand

believed connected

of the social environment

traditions is usually determined

to

Thus,

rejectedwithout

feeling,
simply because they are
rejected as incompatiblewith
behavior

dropped

in reality. This will happen particularly

if,as is often the

case, intellectual factors in general tend

many

be

may

of the subject himself and

the evolution

traditions

of the traditional set of attitudes is here

attitudes

this exaggeration itself is significant,

for it must

toward

others

various

On

individual

the
who

that he must
prepossession

were

other

has

man's

own

logically
hand, the

dropped some
dropped all

have

Sometimes
a
here.
states
explicitly
of
this prepossession,
dress,
change is sufficient to arouse
very trifling
e.g., a change
of the old way
of farming, the dropping of magical beliefs,
etc.
traditional attitudes

"

as
precisely

Stelmach

388

PRIMARY-GROUP

and

away
to

from

and

us

much

very

already to

you

advise

and

they earn

and

intends

reaches

to

you,

his work

good

well

he

when

try

as

you

then went
And

get

you,

then

the blood

there the

be His

and

the

returned

in

so

to

farms, but if you

you

if you

and

to

grieve. And

bind

don't

much

as

as

they look

that

themselves
don't

So

nor

don't lace too

much

so

up

tightly,

so

grieveeither

took

the Lord

gave,

healthy

work

and

will

grief;you

illness.

nervous

where

dear

with

have

stench
no

and

gas.
of

intention

sun

The

never

that

away,

praised

shines

brightly,

healthy life is on

most

going on

farm, then

at least

the air is better

JAN and

EWA

64

STELMACH

[May, 1911]
DEAR

[Thanks

CHILDREN:

....

for his

name-day.]

We

had

little

for the wishes

sorrow

lay sick with measles,Jadwisia, Marcin

than

you

have

country

our

neither

are

you

Pittsburgh,people say, the

the air is saturated

was

But

which

sick from

are

you

they

Lord

has

goodness here,because,

body is ill. And

The

is dead.

son

when

in

name

There

move

and

him

it is strait here.

time

no

this letter

Even

lace their corsets

women

like wasps,

is checked

little

your

will have

you

there

and
iron-factory

an

the will of God

yourselfto

hi

good health

might succeed

Trenton

help against a

can

in

would

There

people in Trenton.]

you

are

you

I wrote
I

before

to lose the work

again,because

doctor

Commend

squeezed up

in

in

with

were

when
illness,

for
tightly,

works

Julka,don't grieve,for

no

can;

you

not

and

We

Brzyskiis now

leave

not

country there is no

our

who

those

nervous

worry.

as

from

so

of other

anything

to

to America

sick,and

you

back

come

know,

you

find

him;

wife.

Trenton, N.J.

to

does

He

home.

so

before
to

to

get information,

to

....

wanted

write

comes

there now,

written

Pittsburgh

Chudzik

If he

[Gives addresses

wages.

must

Kuba

home.

could

you

left your

neighborhood, and they are

our

enough.

come

wife

have

you

who

you

that

your

now

health

no

from

with

people from

are

it is not

have

you

away

move

But

daughters.

that

that

move

to

you

Trenton

of his

alreadyknow

we

pity you

which

ORGANIZATION

to go

to

because

and

which
hi

ones,

and

so

the

summer

will pass.

sent

week

three

Wojtek

Wojtek

Prussia,but he remained, and therefore he

the smaller

one

were

was

But

more

sick

he could

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

390

65

February
We

CHILDREN:

DEAR
much

so

learn

will go to

that

see

But
are

autumn

have

March

there

taken

the

to

about

grow

they

The

weep.

the

is to

be

militarycall; 206,065

The

people

Sokols
in

present.

villagesare

beginning of

war

her

"

but

will

ask, When

also

now

Jozef come

to

us

to

come

"

formerly

them,

to
absolutely

want

would

not

be homesick.

war.

But

who

you

Wolka
least

her children

and

to

cheeses

he

is

farms

The

emigrant who

reasoned

home

write

America.

to

then

two;

even

If I

war

dowry
with

enumerated
and

among

him

his son,

I would

knows

he will

Julcia'sfather.
and

has

one

little. One

man

another

said

to

gift at

whether

was

daughter
told

that

their relatives in America

in America

as

you

go

he

become

me

farms

farmers.

And

this in spiteof the fact that

will

never

(Cf. in this

return.

series.)
so

general among

experienceof
there

cost

fanner

tradition rather than upon

no

well

much

send

about

pretty

on

like to have

becomes

fear of war,

had

I asked

so

who

But

of the analogy of interests.

respect Wr6blewski
The

the

home

people at

far.

getting

at

It is perhaps because

avert,

You

perhapsonlyafter

will be left after the

through him.

walk

I cannot

he

be better

if my

[married]rich,and

it may

later

or

leg did not pain me

and I would
brother-in-law,

your

few

that

that

them,

her two

....

and

told

who

called

She said that she sends

of

one

Here

knows

stronger and

were

send

graph
photo-

you

to

Well, I

had

our

tremble

they

work, and she said that they are gettingon well.

be well] if one
that [itwould
[of your brothers]went

boys

an

in

letter and

that

wrote

do not

you

received

we

daughters. She

two

often

them

upon

Stefanska

aunt

your

of

go,

be

to

are

even

afraid that

so

called in

soldiers

for

waiting

are

they

us

among

the

In

up

to

insurrection.

reservists

kept

but

war,

fear.2
From

the

you

up, then

about

here

been

the

When

and

war

lightly,and

war

that

war

army.

country, but
from

of

afraid

so

people talk

they write

they speak about

there

farm.

children

your

country

our

hi America

even

had

keep

you

thought that only in

when

glad that

very

if you

as

pigs,and

farm

is

pig; it

keep poultry and

to

you

poultry and

are

....

....

23, 1913

war

an

which

undetermined

tradition of the horrors of

war.

upon

old,only half-

experience. Particularlythe Galician peasants

since 1866, and

the calamities
is

the peasants, is based

then

not

the peasants pray

but

on

that

account

trying
God
more

one.

every

War

Sunday

is
to

awe-inspiring

STELMACH

alone,and that he intends

but he did not

know

SERIES

to have

which

391

daughter come

one

greater efforts
Poland.

regrets that his

3, 1913,

in America

to meet

EWA

do

church.]

new

April i,
CHILDREN:

DEAR

I received

....

Wojtek

went

for the

amusement

an

[season-workin]Prussia

to

but I don't know

you,

the papers

....

copies,I shall have

four

whether

make

not

acquaintances from

66

received my

you

from

you

holidays. Piotr and

March

on

1914

I wrote

19;

letter.

it to

I wrote

you

ship-ticket for Piotr,but in leavinghe said that he won't go

Prussia [toAmerica],but later on from home.
His address is:

to send

from

Write
....

answer

you,

wrote

them, don't begrudge the five cents, and they would

and you would speak with one
I
another,like brothers.
to

send

to

you

because
been

lave

won't

be
.2

healthy, but

healed, and
[Weather.]

Dear

and
'russia,
id drives

others

healed, they

would

be

here in

our

glad

see

people

into the

away

"Zmijecznik" is
It is

The

manifests
arinciple"

jssession of the patient and

expresslystated

as

recorded

one

and

worse

have

work,

dies,

worse.

land.

Many

of them

some

go

fled to

miserycreeps into the

world.3
[Complains about

housesf
cost

disease,painfulbut not
particular
sick,or will die within a
seriously

case

in

cause

of those diseases,it means

that it cannot

it will express

the

it

Sidor

patientwill become

itselfthrough

This is the only

that

say

If the "evil

background of this belief is evidently magical.

aing the smaller harm

before she

you

wife of Wawrzek

frequent belief that if some

very

before.1

magical remedy.

dangerous,is healed, the

ertain tune.

The

as

people

country it gets

of

home

comes

that I shall be sick.

say

to

is called

others did so, because

many

Prussia.

to

vhavebeen

Turza

leg aches, and

my

which

good health,now

leave their wives and go in search

America,

no

from

or

people get separated,although they

many

lusbands

now

mother

son, your

Wolka

has

if it is

but it is difficult,
because
Tow

from

mother

your

....

medicine

a
"z*mijecznik,"

me

"imijecznik,"if anybody

to

STELMACH]

in America

sons

certain relatives and

efforts to build

Describes

America,

one

[JAN and
[Letterof May

from

our

of

be driven

itselfin

out of him.

it has taken

If hindered

in

greater harm.

materials where
a

that

we

find bad

wife's running away

by the Emigrants' Protective

from

Association

economic
home.

conditions
Other

in Warsaw,

cases

but it

PRIMARY-GROUP

392

living.]Dear
you

because
If

work and economize

children,

have

may

would

because
suffice,
wanted
Lord

their wishes.

God

as

[forany

he needs

misfortune],

their

live

be

to

modestly, in

So

can, that

you

always lacks something.

wasted

have

counts

even

satisfyall

to

and

It is best to live

much

as

hour

always having what

on

millions.

waste

this world

imperfect in

insisted

black

for the

help

some

is

man

man

ORGANIZATION

satisfied he

order

that it may
when

manors

they

May
health and happiness,the best possible

grant you

as

can.

you

JAN and

EWA

our

STELMACH

67
ask

[Beginninglacking.]You
house

who

of that Ludwik

the Dawik
[visited
both

but

had

[son]Kuba

the

he married

girls].Yes,

died, and

the Ludwiks

is the ablest among

who

whether

in

who

Dawik

called upon

in the house

Kuba

girlsof

all the

J^drzejmarried

of that Ludwik,

married

Dawik.

that

The

the

Jadwiga

others

like

are

in America
to
grandmothers. That Zoska who was
got married
[aman
from] Korowiska, and she is alwayssick. She has two children,

but she did

had

only she

buy

to

kind of

she feeds her children.

from

Dawik

her.

than

nothing more

The

who

only

she

does

milks

them;

bottle and

man

her

gave

bear

married

the

not

and

cow

her

with

this

got littlecomfort

which

money

them,

nurse

she

earned

in

America, and keeps until his death the field which she had after her
he dies,Zoska
will have the field.
mother ; only when
When

Jfdrzej got married, we

will because

make

weak

health.

So

[farm],and this

am

if I

as

mother

your

one

so

where

we

MichaL

Wojtek

to you,

crowns

1,000

To

Jadwiga
in

3 morgs

and
ill,

willed

sit,and

crowns

1,000

make

to

were

and
buildings[contemptuously],

small
pay

had

him

two

Zra.bki. If

we

are

in

morgs

he is to

well

and

Pelka's

near

to the
1,000

to

also

has

and
Zra.bki,

keep us

to Piotr

not

field

that

had

We

mother

your

willed the field behind

we

will.

these

end

crowns

and
to

[farm],to
get along well]

Urban's

[do not

remaining with J"drzej,then we have the right to harvest f of the

field and to have a place in the buildings. There are still600 crowns
of

debt,so

we

are

to work

togetherand

always proved that the husband

conditions

are

the

cause

of hard

was

drunkard

times husbands

but in good understanding.

to pay

or

and

this debt.

Perhaps

you

good-for-nothing. If external
wives may

ally
separate provision-

SERIES

STELMACH

think, the

be

don't

misery

the

throw

buy

away;

perhaps
our

country,

pig

for

and

May

as

Lord

our

Walek

God

forget

don't

America,

and

write

them

because

us,

you

but

speak

his

wife

they

don't

know
I

is alive

but

to

that

old

long

as

as

because

us,

whether

they

write

nobody

changed,

Even

two

alive

the

in

never

time,

next

died,

family

from

[Greetings

so

sons

they

the

among

older

got

misery.
children;

your

until

more

you

suffer

have

even

are

the

economize

alive.2

they

to

seasoning

and

are

we

or

killed

for

with

must

America

people

you

to

America,

bacon
work

son,

we

have

you

children,

bless

in
South

buy

we

always

as

write

and

us

envy

here

because

happy

won't

is

nothing

here

everybody

make

it is difficult

brought

So, dear
age,

when

hand,

on

[J?drzej]

he

So, dear

from

You

old

your

and

Maryla

to

for

can

you

is

but

much.

do,

we

kill, but

prices.]

[Enumerates

much

is

not

so

high

as

are

small;

pay

food

meat

did

we

to
can

Argentine.

i.e.,from

yourself,

food.1

and

because

worse,

even

able

seldom

prices

is too

you

what

very

The

to

be

because

us,

more

paid

won't

he

with

angry

be

is to

that

complained

even

as

which

sum

393

the

whole

family.]
and

JAN

complaint

This
food

buying

and
old

the

development
1

This

which

all

be
the

and

phrase
up

used
real

connection

by

toward

one

of

remains.
and
and
the

whole

farm

to

with
old
an

relations.
of

the

of

signs

are

emigration

form
the
a

of the

children

to

ceases

be

obligations

cease

to

be

of

having

feeling

but

of

him,
become

with
as

the

well

phrase
broken

sentimental

member

relations

social, and

tinuing
con-

importance

profound

The

active

toward

of

of

industrial

peasants.

nothing

an

only

whose

The

the
old

that

so

individual

family,

the

Until

fact

necessity.

it expresses

people,

man

for

the

difficulty

Galicia.

in

disclose

letter

STELMACH

peasant,

growing

the

seems

has

cloister;

other

rich

relatively

life, particularly

the

entering

from

land,

equilibrium

becomes

rest

of

economic

The

blood

prices

the

connections

family-group,
sentimental

the

high

division

forms

restores

giving

could

the

of

EWA

as

only

the

real

family

are

his

tions
obliga-

moral.

OSINSKI
In the

of

the

life of

neither
of

present series

above

interests

peasant

an

below

contains

letters of the
Of

men

should

not

written

expect

to

the

German

Thorn, in
and

emigration

and, naturally the

disintegratingand

of

felt.

this

is

strongly

situation.

Where

old forms

has

emigration

industrial

and

everything

into account,

powerful
The

The

and

cultural

profound

her

first

who

died
the

under

some

land

simply

than

that

forty letters

of

when

probably

was

she
of

system

or

common.

money,

four

was

familial
her

but

many

Wiktorya

are

left

present

394

influence
normal

individuals

serving
pre-

exceptions.

are

of Polish

taking

and,

incomparably
mother

dictated
is the
to

her

old.

community,

case

married

years,

precisely the

is the

years

in any

from

Germany

modifying

is

lives

more

emigration.

She

name.

raised; probably

never

this influence

we

munal
com-

miles

to

is manifest,

centers

husband's

of the farm, which

for

of life today

important personality

most

Osinska.
own

and

is

and

family

reached, the influence

not

complete.

family, and

forty

families, and

Communities,

perfectlythe

this

But

The

less

The

existed

the

because

women.

of familial

thirty or

have

sphere

life of

season-emigration

America

to

The

interest,but

frontier,some
which

whose

by

life.

one

"

represented

dictated

modern

by

family

level,and

primitive peasant

typicalimage

peasant

find the old forms

localityin

or

without

not

life untouched
near

modern

the normal

not

are

is

full and

very

particularly well

are

this

course

nothing particular.

is

of the letters

most

find

we

average

nor

woman

SERIES

husband
the

Wiktorya

by her,
real

in her

proprietor

her parents,

by

But, of
this

course,

question

brought
property

first Baranowski

is

is

also
now

and,

OSltfSKI

of the old type, very

woman

strong affection for her children

husband.

Her

"

from

son

Osiriski.

She

is

with
laborious,very religious,

for her

395

present husband,

death, her

after his

SERIES

stronger probably than

the first marriage

seems

preferred,though this preferencedoes not

hinder her from occupying the standpointof generalfamilial
hi economic
and from agreeingwith her husband
solidarity
between
She mediates
her sons, her daughter,
matters.
her husband, trying to avoid any
quarrelsand to keep
harmony within the family (see particularlyNo. 103).
She has not been taught how to write,but she is interested
instruction highly.
and appreciates
in intellectual matters
to

the

be

Her
with

one

husband

Antoni

strong familial,rather

tendency to despotism but

to be reallydespotic;much
than

to be

seems

fathers

other

some

justan average peasant,

attitude; with a
patriarchal,
sufficient power

without

than
egotistic
(cf.for example,
less

his

of will
sons

or

Markiewicz

series).
haps
egotism in a very high degree. Perdissolution of the traditional
it is a result of the partial
solidarity.Michal is reallyinterested in nothing except
his personallife;he is an egotist
in a passiveway;
he does
No. 103)but neither
not claim much
(cf Wiktorya's letter,
He
does he give much;
has real
he barely writes home.
for Jan,but no familial feelings.He has departed
friendship
His two

show

sons

further from
else in the
life as

the traditional peasant attitudes than

family probably under

"

in

groom

Aleksander

manor

anyone

the influence of his

house, and

his

early

earlyemigration.

of the old attitudes

preservedmuch more
love for land and
to his country,
farming, attachment
traditional conception of marriage,interest in the family.
But the real feeling
of solidarity
and community of familial
has

"

life is weakened, and

new

form,

are

all these traditional attitudes

directed

in

practicetoward

take

ends.
egotistic

396

PRIMARY-GROUP

This

is

tendencies

and

to

the group

and

it, but he develops purely personal

refuses

Jan Baranowski

of
partialdisintegration

is stillattached

individual

live within

to

of

frequent type

very

the
solidarity;
wants

ORGANIZATION

to

make

sacrifice for the group.

any

be

rather

man.
unequilibrated
He certainly
not only with
gives proofsof true generosity,
regard to his own
family his mother praiseshis good heart
the family of his wife.
but also toward
(He married the

to

seems

"

"

daughter

his friends have

that

seems

(cf.No.
lack of

72).

the other

On

consideration,
as,

Frania's

marriage, and

his effort

his letters.

to

get

nothing very
point of view, it
attitude toward

one

instance,in his attitude

much

as

money

toward
to

possiblefrom

matters

prejudicialfrom
is contrary

get

to

the

the

attitudes,and

for

individualistic

familial

hand, is

the other

us

of inheritance

spirit.His
stood
to be under-

familial

of attitudes

in

seems

broad

"

individualistic tendencies,

some

the

outlines
wife.

she

influenced

which

daughter, is, on

character.

This

prevailin his behavior.

typicalforms
psychology assumes.

harmonious

which

occasionallya

avarice,as in his haste

of the

Frania,

as

shows

standpoint. It
elements coexist
Jan contradictory

in

sets

of the old

then

he

acquired during his solitarystruggle for existence,

interactingwith the first;at different moments

different

its main

as

the

basis of familial

course,

hand,

some

Frania, on

from

only
generalthat

not

exploitedhis generosity

even

Although this avarice in

has

but

for

series.)It

that

See

his dissatisfaction with his share,

inheritance,

his part of the

and

Kozlowska.

of Franciszka

Her

the

is,of

disintegration
partial
contrary,

psychology

rather

is determined

in

by her familial functions,firstas daughter,

But

the

rather low) degree of

(still

instruction

received,and the individualistic tendencies which

her, as

make

her

well

as

every

other member

perform her functions

more

of the

munity,
com-

consciously,

398

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

service;he would
in addition

hired

in the

villageor

same

received money

have

taken

would

have

settled upon

would

only perhaps after

parsimony would
this problem was

to live

If
on

have

many

married, in
would

he

farm.
as

Aleksander
in

dowry

some

of them

One

have

would

did, others

spiteof

the

dowries,

than the parents were,

much

years,

attained almost

and

great

level.

But

work,

the

same

important as long as the

particularly
of
economic
idea was
that of living,not
of the family had enough
only each member

fundamental
advance.

been poorer

have

and

parents, taken

Of course,

bought land.

each of them

his

parents'farm,

the

returned

neighborhood;

land from

or

with his wife,and

and

have

his term, he would

served

the

as

helped the parents, perhaps worked

laborer in the neighborhood. Having

have

his

own

not

farm, the situation

all right.

was

It
tendency that of advance.
is evident that the old organization
gave no opportunityto
advance.
At best the next
generation could attain the
this was
level of the precedinggeneration,and even
more
But

and

now

more

the

comes

new

difficult. And

organizationis requiredto
longer upon

mere

"

it is also evident
meet

the

that

problem

new

familial arrangements

but

upon

new

based
the

no

idea

improvement of personaleconomic aptitudes. Actually,

and a higher technical instruction in
of enterprise
a spirit
various lines should
be developed hi the young
tion,
generawithout
to rise independently,
enabling each member
But
find
further help from
the group.
instead of this we
only partialand insufficient changes brought into the old
organization. Jan, having spent his time'iinproductively
of

until his twenty-sixthyear, firstat home, then in the army,

has

to

increase his fortune instead of marrying and

according to
is left
spare

the tradition.
to

the cost

But

him.

Michal

of his

living;in

is

no

way

sent

the

other

to
manor

than

serve,

he

settling,
tion
emigra-

in order

to

develops a

OSINSKI

psychology,

different

knowledge, and
calculates

as

well

acquires

his only

so

useful

no

technical

is also America.

recourse

after this neither

out, and

breaks

but

399

But

that since he is to emigrate he may

rationally
do it before his military service and
not
waste
unproductively. Later, the Russo-Japanese war

he

his time

SERIES

deserters,can

When

return.

in America.

littleproductiveutility
to them

gets

be of any

enough

to

in the

old

little technical

Jan, classed

nor

as

they finallyget their shares

shares are certainlyof very

of the familial property these

hand, Frania

he

real use, and

On

the other

but
instruction,

she must

be

not

provided for

by a dowry. Thus the result of these

inconsistent and partialchanges of the old organization is
task is reallyto provide for its
that the family, whose
way,

members

and

members

under

two

"

Frania

help

become

and

it would

from

the

less for all the

or

The

The

others

two

parents

if

even

live,againstall their habits and

to

situation would

be

not

better.

In

once

they

no

They

the group

separated

are

get

late.

too

isolated from

of their children;

two

provide for only

get it

or

group,

remain

to

their country.

America

more

Aleksander.

have

forever from

do

the old system, is able to

and

serious

from

which

went

and
and
to

the
traditions,

this way,

through

mis-

adaptationthe family loses all its real functions,and until

and
integrat
a
new
more
perfectadaptation is elaborated its disis a social

necessity.

THE
Antoni

FAMILY

OSINSKI

Osinski,a farmer

Wiktorya Osinska (by first marriage Baranowska) his wife

Jan (Janek)Baranowski, Wiktorya's son by her firsthusband
Michal (Michalek)]
,

Aleksander
Frania

"x

? s"ns

Of Antoni
,

and

liri

Wiktorya
,

(Alos) J

(Franciszka),
daughter of Antoni
husband
Frania's
(Adas) B.,
Marysia Kozlowska, Jan's wife

Adam
.

and

Wiktorya

PRIMARY-GROUP

400

ORGANIZATION

wife

Aleksander's
Julka (Julcia),
Uncle

and

Smentkowski, probably cousins of Antoni

Aunt

or

Wiktorya
Antoni, their

son

(Anna, Anusia)]
'

Anneczka

70-106

Nos.

from

are

68-69

whom

to

the

to

are

authors

in Poland

Osinska

Wiktorya

from

is associated

her

to

daughter Frania, except

of the husband

name

Nos.

them

inclosed

125-28

kowy

of the Polish
and

send them

parents and
I ask you

But

says, I shall receive

to her

when

farm

this

So I

(i) Shall

information:
much

(2) Shall
at

20

is over,

war

beg

you

I receive

for

I lose these

cents

value

I have

the reward
?

letter and

that these

myself
to

and

answer

to

you

which

I have

the time of the

regard

your

ho

and
send

me

to have

BARANOWSKI

to

Japanese war

letters from
your
and

and

letter,

demand.

my

I send

you

parents

are

Most

7, 1914

after

....

generosity

your

These

detailed with

this

or

each

I received

myself to

keep,

for better

I should prefernot
letters,

December

it I commit

to

get

advertised

beg

69
SIR:

is

ment
advertise-

JAN

RESPECTED

perhaps

your

for

as

has

or
hospital

some

money

written

old

parents

my

who

that,as

for each

cents

I get the letters back

guaranty, for should

this reward

20

in

it is true

they have

For

unhappy

to take

to

brother

the

the nature

letters from

100

Zwiqz-

letters from

lies wounded

or

23, 1914

to demonstrate

dear

my

whether

letters will be returned.

because

than

from

10

Their

in the Dziennik

has

address

more

alreadygiven his spiritto God

prisoner.

whoever

to your

I have

people.

wife's

my

that

advertisement

your

country should

and

Frania.

he

by her mother.
129-38 from Aleksander.]

I, signed below, found

SIR:

The

signing,and

November
RESPECTED

They

the fact that until her

to

68

in
from

are

the letters dictated

Nos.

Michal;

from

are

with

Nos-

in America.

sons

the mother's

with

addressed.

are

indicated in the notes.

as

Nos.
occasionallydictated a passage.
107-24
due
and
her
and
to
are
youth
informality
brevity

marriage she

Jan Baranowski, in

of the letters of the series

most

dictated to her

are

daughters

[68-138.
America,

.,

\ their

Frama

of them

res

the lett
very
are

good
from

during the bloody troubles until

t\

OSlfrSKI

SERIES

401

years before the actual bloodytragedywhich no pen

dear fatherland,and
embrace.
What
no
reason
my
brother

sister and

murdered, and
and

me

wanted

to be sent

perhaps

even

to

see

me

my

few

When

more.

of them

and

send

to

them

back

in

me

for
totality,

And

also,as I
inheritance [incash] or

remembrance.
have

to

an

calmed

wrote

farm

to

longed so

much

for

prepared these letters

bitter tears

So I

beg

I want

to

in my

you

perhaps already

I wept

thought thus: "Perhaps they are the last."

parents and

my

is

dear parents who

once

I read

to you,

brother

suffering! My

are

describe and

can

you

and

much

very

them

keep

in

I
preceding letter,

get, if this accursed

is

war

*
'

JAN BARANOWSKI

September 9,

70
"Praised

be

Jesus Christus."
I received

SON:

DEAR

healthy and

are

learned

said that
would
and

they would

die.2

But

I inform

Now

he had
ill,

alone.

The

sentiment

letters
and

dear son,

you,

be

to

are

In the

the usual home

same

used

felt to be
way,

so:

of

member

does not

character

men

the
left,
of

connection

hinder

the reality

rupts
of the family hardly interThe

material

side of life

it acquireslater by antithesis

which

the higher moral, religious,

aesthetic, interests.
intellectual,

it is a part of the essential human

more

you

The

was

harvesting

When

of his claims.

father

the

rake, and

occupationsof the other members.

has originally
nothing of the "low"

The

to

improper and

death

[patients],

Your

manage

son, it was

evidence

as

to

women

cure

be either.
health.

our

I had

building,dear

business is not

of the sentiment.

to

about

and

to reap

men

you

crying and
them] or he

me

surelymore

are

his won't

spoiled,so

to

came

[intryingto

persuaded her that there

to the

As

it and

eyes

pains inside,and

some

I hired 3

to build.

learned

surelyspoilhis

their eyes don't get

glad that

am

happily through. As to Antoni, we

was
stopped in Otloczyn [as having

got

trachoma]. First his mother

....

that he

ago

and

letter

your

that you

weeks

two

1901

task to support life and

to

For the peasant

fightagainst death.

affairs may
in this lighta character of solemnity,
assume
trifling
practical
sanctity. Cf. Introduction:
"Religiousand Magical Attitudes."

most

almost
2

The

peasant

possibleto him

occupies the

outside

lack of continuity and

permit the

previsionand

habitudinal

of his normal

conditions

proportion between

cause

and
and

limitation of the effects of

is particularly
strong with regard to the government.

Environment"; "Religiousand Magical

everything seems

standpoint,and

Attitudes."

known

The

environment.

effect in generaldoes

given

cause.

not

This attitude

Cf. Introduction:

"Social

PRIMARY-GROUP

402

buildingstopped for
all from

sorrow,1
dead

were

you

worked

carpenter, the

In the

3d week

and

mason

[ofas littleworth] as when

such

with these
and

men

the last

on

building,cost

dear
about

day

fifth and

of

here.

were

the carpenter

sixth weeks

the
was

I finished the work

This

August.

alone with

father's work

Your

and

whole

work, harvest

roubles,besides the carpenters and yourself,

all this building,as we
calculated,will cost us
be finished before next

still it won't

700, and

you

week

at

25

us

And

son

in the

worked.

men

dead

villagewere

in the fourth

And

Adam.

with

the

the carpenter worked

And

days

[new]house

sit in this

not

people in

if half of the

as

days

I could

weeks.

also.

father for

your

ORGANIZATION

for

year,

don't

we

sold the horse for 34 roubles,and father

also sell the cow
sold the pigs for 50 roubles and now
and the
must
we
wish to make

big debts.

calf.2

dear

Now,

whether
wrote

would

I shall

keep them

dear

pay

for it.

words.

or

hire

Michalek

somebody

to

reward

also

me

and

health

you

in

any

pay

you

clothes,

your

father to wear.3

You

dig the potatoes, and

for your promise! I

you

other

except

way,

rouble for my

with

do

to

to your

God

gave

what

give them

May
[reward you]

you

Jesus grant

to

son,

know

I don't

son,

me,

thank

We

with

dress.

May

by

these

our

Lord

for your

Heaven

you
not
can-

good

[WIKTORYA OSINSKA]
November

71
The

SON:

DEAR
....

....

day before St. Michael, and

moved

we

remainingfurniture
except

the

roubles in

with

father drove
our

beds

Because

It would

the

and

worked

at

It is

and in this way

property, like the horse, the pig,or

an

inferior kind

build

to

house

horse

Clothes

or

would
cow

And

of property.

do not

the objects of

the individual.

be, in the peasant's eyes,

in order to have

good time

an

Cf. Introduction:

finished
us

1,000

primarilyby
"Economic

the cost

cover

house

the cow,

as

belongs
against

would

destroy
give a mortgage in order
action like that of sellinga
mortgage

To

the money.

on

constitute property in the proper

consumption owned

and

the building of the house.

the social value of land, the highest class of property.

valuable

It cost

for the peasant this is logically

impossible. The

the class of movable

the

cooking. The

All is now

quitesimpleto give a mortgage

But

on

the town

to

our

is stillleft in the bam

had

son

seem

land property.

to

him

washing and the stairs

all. [Weather; acquaintances.]

1901

carpenter finished his work

white-

of the house.
to

house

the

into

your

12,

but, like food,belong

sense,

the family,only secondarilyby

Attitudes."

'

OSIlsrSKI

I thank

Now

SERIES

403

heartilyfor the shoes which

you

bought

you

me

[beforegoing away]. They are so comfortable that I can walk as far

feelingthat I have anythingon my feet. Whenever
as I need without
I

I am
always remember
you with tears
very
that
are
acknowledges
good. May
everybody
you
very
in
be
America!
not
to
God
spoiled
May you
grant you

them

put

glad that
our

on

Lord

toward

God

first toward

always be good,

and

all men,

parents, and toward

us, your

toward

God's

as

Mother,

have

you

been

OSINSKA

WlKTORYA

December

72

describe

write

you

could

condition.

littleof your

very
not

back

come

to

receiving

on

how

did not

You

if you

country

our

1901

know

glad that, although you

not

were

we

22,

glad

were

....

write,you

why

We

SON:

BELOVED

DEAR,
but
letter,

your

to

up

Amen.2

the present.

....

then

to

even

married

[appreciated
you]
probablythey considered you a good man
So I thought
only as long as they did not profitfrom your work.3
he said the same,
and read this letter,
myself,and when Michal came
that you would have a good Christmas-gift
[inthe woman] ! We said

her.

But

other,I and Michal, that

to each
not

write

write

did not

write

the truth

us

[Michal and
we

your

I] spoke

She

is

to

be

got married

country and

our

only

on

women)
(particularly
the church
3

often when

going
and

as

the state

We

Shoes

to

church

put them

on

are

to

or

it you
habit

of

localities
in many
fair the peasants

only when

approaching

town.

originalobligatory familial and

The

treated

or

here.

wearing shoes regularly. The

to

their shoes

carry

earned

savings-bank. But

will put it in the

accustomed

And

Sunday.

don't

you

advise
we
parting. And moreover,
have any money
earned,send it to us, for

mainly for economy.

going barefoot is very persistent,
worn

you

before

so

lost;we

probably not

better if you

be much

It would

parents, if you

here it won't
1

back

came

now
guessedit. Certainly

truth,stillwe

the truth either.

us

little money,

you,

the

us

did

you

but although
[how illhe felt],

then

even

and

in the army

were

you

moral

of things which

have

we

solidarityis here already

communal

put into relation with

goodness and

studied

the religiousidea.

in the Introduction:

This

is

"Religious and

Magical Attitudes."
3

The

because

girl'sparents probably first agreed

they wanted

the condition

to

borrow

that he should

in generalthey have

not

money

take her from

changed their behavior

to

him.

from

give her
When

him

unconditionally

they got it,they made

Wiktorya supposes that

him after having got money.

America.

toward

to

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

404

keep it with
it from

you
and

you

steal it from

will

you

always find

will want

married.

get you

[was done] in the

as

you,

to

friends who

will want

to borrow

Moreover, they could

and
[Greetings

army.

New-Year

wishes.]
WlKTORYA

January

73
DEAR

SON:

thank

We

us, dear

wrote

Christmas

should

holidays. I

This money
so

for

holy

Father

back."

If

remember

Lord

our

for

you,

Jesus allows

there

Year

inform

Now

whether

us

alreadybeen

in it

celebrated,whether

there

And

country.
much

as

me

as

[to write

for you

them

every

If God

The

how

do you

Describe

honestlyand

because

by those

prayers

like

back, for last

America, whether

for
everything,

for
religiously,

going to bed

prayers

and he ought not

and

God.

to

are

she

Cf. Introduction:

reason

helpshim

break

grants

church, and whether

year

you

and

myself
dear

you,
I pray

Lord

our

rising

son,

to

become
which

member

to

you.

live in

Jesus

pen

OSINSKA

broke, the letter

for the son's livinghonestly and

the harmony

like

you

it is difficultfor

write

down, the ink is out, the

[Pleasantry
by Frania.]

mother's

shall

at all.

candle burned

is ended.

no

come

you

debts,we

our

WIKTORYA

The

that

so

times, and how is the divine service

and teachingslike those in our
sermons

are

me

day, when

festival.

when

70 roubles.

you

Year

few

country.

our

near

can

you

windows

to pay

income
are

you

as

since I cannot
long letters],.
I admonish
the New
Year.] Now

[Wishes for
this New

inform

no

Christmas

get rid of

to

to the

brought

He

once.

our

much

to

hope

we

for

your

amount

and

only expenses,

were

have

debts

our

us

8 roubles

zloty [i rouble, 20 copecks]

as

at

at

here

came

owing

were

took

we

if you

back

gave

drum

creditors]
may

health in this New

us

we

[toyou]: "Economize

so

[ofyour

one

them

the rest

and

merrier

to us, for we

use

Of these two

mass,

says

much

father gave

your

roubles home.

be

of

has been

carpenter,

we

you

[insteadof the word "tree" a tree is roughly drawn by

and make
ourselves merry
writes this letter]
during

tree

the sister who

the

that

son,

3, 1902

nicelyfor the 10 roubles. You

might make [from this money] a better

....

it

OSINSKA

religiously,

of the divine

nity
commu-

she has established between

"Religious and Magical Attitudes."

him

406

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

only

does

to wait

years

not

when

go

he will be called

and

called,he will

during the
be

never

able

[and if he

third

to

return

his

to

country]
And
state

now

beg

Antoni

as

also

she loves
On

the

also and

us

are

girlcame

back

came

they invited

and

America.

But

probably shan't

in my

asked

You

cheese]. When

would

have

I send

they read

godly image

of the

have

familyI send

package
You

he sends
1

The

of tobacco

wrote

you

to your

these

and

words:

expression of the

and
marriage-relations,

at

the

mortal

Aleksander

father

OSINSKA

same

and

"

When

hi your
3

package

of cheese

from
you

work
Michal

every

receive

and

your

sends you

of

cigarettes.
he would send you.
Well,

asking,what

always the

of respect instead
time

gomdlka [small

laughed. It is true
America],but if she

token

25, 1902

So instead

sin
a

"Remember

norm

to

one.

bless you

this

small medal.

you

image, kiss it,that it may

health and guard you againsta

found

will have

you

"

it to me,

is

one

you

[a cousin going

she left

it,I would

taken

you

member

when

none

to send

me

....

that I had

They

go, for there

May

home-made

was

they visited

household

75
SON:

you

there

....

WlKTORYA

DEAR

esteem

so
on
Sunday
holidays,
aunt, Antoni's parents]will go, and

place at home

my

for the

us

they [the uncle and

father is to go with them, but
to take

but
dresses,

this letter from

parents

from

into such

enter

she will respect you

I received

to his

after Easter

nobody

to

her mother.
agreeablepeople,particularly

very

invited his parents and

your

intend

Jesus. Then

day when

same

if all of you

as

Lord

our

the parents of Antoni's

joy such

if you

son,

[getmarried],don't look at her

did

only whether

dear

you,

the connection

presence

of love

as

between

of

God,

fundamental

religiouslife

ii
;

family life.
2

The

invitation for the holidays is a

proofthat

the relation between

the writ

side,the parents of their nephew's wife on the other, is

familial relation,although it is a mixed blood- and law-relation of the fourth and
and

her husband

on

one

fifth degree.
3

Both

the image and

the medals

are

magical value, while the medals

particular
is evidently because

image

have

Attitudes."

consecreted; if therefore the firsthas

are

treated merely

of the particularintention and

magical influence.

Cf.

as

desire of the mother

Introduction:

family-tokens,it

"Religious and

to

let the

Magical

OSIlSrSKI

and when

shall stand

we

economize
with

grave

much

as

death.

from

four whom

are

breast

God

guard

us

and

divide

it into four

If I

parts,

as

still[besides
those who

me

one, from

to every

heart.

my

love

[Wishes

greetings.]

and

[WIKTORYA

and

ANTONI

76

OSINSKI]

July 29,
SON:

DEAR

I inform

terrible storm.
thanks

dead

know

This storm
The

lasted

it rains often

long do

for those

pray

who

them
but

the

Two

and

money
one

who

brothers-in-law
another.3

May

believe too

much

in the stream.

and

trees

sink

was

to
no

kums.

this be
and

not

for

pay

rumors

the

in

to

other
him.

you,

my

to be overconfident

in

happen

America;
for

and

They

Ostrowite

for

accidents

what

away

killed

money

lesson

bad

America

how

us

even

son,

going

And

inform

priestsorder us to
[Referringto the eruption in

dear

you,
were

had

and

in, and

to

son,

for about

'in America.

men

dear

now,

America,

I inform

country.
had

you

is to

are

Martinique.] Now
our

ask

to be in

spreading,that it

are

damage, for only in

We

intend

you

July i, there was a

placesin our village,but,
on

good this year, but it is difficult to harvest them, for

are

crops

1902

in Lasoty ?
Well, lightningstruck him
Betlejeski
his house, and beyond Rypin a man
killed.
was
for 3 hours; it lightenedcontinually.

burned

and

in 3

lightningstruck

God, without

to

do you

But

The

that

now

you

....

in

and

longer[inAmerica],
And

except

son

Jesus keeps for

dead],I would givea part

are

"Work

[the fortune]into the

you.

dear

more,

my

Lord

our

calmlywait

Amen."1

nothing

you

take it away

could
you

send

can

[the fortune] among

divide

sudden

againsta

take

able to work

not

are

will

other words:

you

I won't

can;

you

407

judgment you

I send

Now

you

When

me.

I will

then

as

the last

before

for the holiest sentence."

SERIES

also
dear

himself,
even

were
man

of

one

son,

killed
not

to

friendship

[WIKTORYA]
1

Perfectly typicalfather's harangue.

following. As

standpointof
2

The

to

the familial

Cf. the address

the mother, cf. Introduction:

"The

from

verbal

rumors.

more

diately
imme-

personal

Family."

spiritof the letter is like that of the mediaeval

evidentlyderived

of the mother

standpointof the father and the

chronicles.

The

news

is

408

PRIMARY-GROUP

ORGANIZATION

October

77
DEAR

SON:

As

that your
as

we,

lot will be better.

blessing. May

You

with

agree

it,if you

always live

cannot

think

lonely,so

so

permit you [tomarry] and give you

parents,

your

wish, we

to your

....

27, 1902

parental

our

God, God's Mother and all the Saints bless

you! We beg Him most heartilythat He will grant you, your dear
wife,her parents and all of us health and His blessing.1This we wish
parentalheart.
you with our
And

for you
be

can

we

inform

have

been

the parents of your

only

not

gladlytestifythat

child,so

from

are

you

in

willing,

everythingthat

people of the whole

good house2
WIKTORYA

and

of

good conduct.
OSINSKI

July 29,
DEAR

SON:

....

Sunday

We

....

with Aleksander

was

late with

are

the

at

parish festival

and
joinedthe Scapulary Fraternity,3

harvested.

we

We

paid the debts

1

The

future wife and

by making

them

in

us, dear

son,

share

wrote

her parents

are

thus taken

June

in

and

to take a

at

had
at

on

for he

time,

no

father

once

maid-servant,

into the

once

but

Obory,

family-group
object is the

expected effects of the blessing,whose

the

1903

answer

week-days we

on

received the money

You

the

later

so

can
village,

ANTONI

and

78

for

be

they can

that it will be

guarantee

we

all the

but

we,

wife that

to us, obedient

always very good

expected from

And

on.

Lord

our

family.
The

The

that
presupposition
which
presupposition

same

he does not
3

know

whose

Religiousfraternities

mediaeval

traditions.

first exists

The

but

are

They

mainly

the originof
allows

man

is

guaranty

in America

man

to

of his character.

bring over

girlwhom

family he knows.
a

very

of two

are

in towns,

old institution;we

and

types

"

with

developsmutual

find them

and

in the earliest

without

insurance

social end.

(sickness,burial

dowry, widowhood) and philanthropic

activity(helpto the poor, nursing
in hospitals).In the country the merely religiousform prevails,
there is less
as
expenses,

occasion

for mutual

individual.
and

The

perform

members

determined

they

carry

feretories

during the funeral of

named

according

their adoration

"

to

during solemn

of the church

[moving
a

philanthropic activity remains

gather periodicallyfor
functions

they kneel in the middle

mass

are

insurance, and

member.

common

divine

prayers

familial

and

services.

with burning candles; at

At
a

standards, candles; they do

altars],
Most

of them

or

adoration
a

solemn

procession
the

same

develop choral singing. They

their particularreligiouspurpose,

object,and

means

of

fraternities of the Holiest Sacrament, Rosary fraternities,

lary
Scapu-

and those of particularsaints.

fraternities,

OSltfSKI

but the worst

is that there is none

Probably

shall manage

we

already help

can

sheaves

also works

Frania

whatever

send them

Michalek

was

As

he would

Now

sending money

for the

they

when

shall

back

come

you

illfor

was

we

week;

he

now

and
grieved,for father lay ill,
such is my luck, that I am
always at
was

so

work, but he

as

much

to

grieveabout

you

together or

and

can

you,
at

and

such

it will

reward

which

the

traditions.

get

heart is

probably

how

In
The

to America

wrote

proprietorgives after

that

to be

and

with

always in pain that

years

we

we

one

since

we

are

"dozynki."
as

not

are

might visit

there

is used sometimes,

him

dear son, not

me,

localities called

word

be, and that

comfort
grief[homesick],

many

some

to go,

not

always answered

country, that

our

us

it would

he

You

for him.

Festival after the harvest.

of the oldest pagan

to

But

son, ifhe is in

least all in
asked

journey,how

wants

care

persuadehim

to

means

heavily.

but my

You

another

all

his

about

beg you, dear

as

him

by

obligedto work

be

he is ready to
you.

tried

Michal, we

to

I told
particularly

[into the barn],and

littlefor okr^zne.1 Then

life has been

my

the

to the end.2

be up

all

"

grief. Such

in

and

work

journey

of

Aleksander

alreadyreach

can

back

Father
I

the

on

and

can

we

already recovered

has

work, he

to America.

back.

come

So instead

can.

any,

found; they all go

pull them

then

she

409

until you

willingto work,

will be stillmore

giveyou

alone

and

as

have

servant, if you

to be

in the heaviest

me

the cart

to

SERIES

It is

here, for the

one

extra

successful harvest.

is particularly
other letters,
pessimisticview expressedhere and in many
life.
On
the
his
the
to
reflect
contrary, hi
frequent whenever
peasant begins
upon
The

undetermined
he expects that in some
optimistic,
way
sufficient
to be no
there seem
his action will have the desired effect even
if rationally
Both the pessimism of reflection and the
natural causes
to produce this effect.
attitude as the magical beliefs;the
optimism of practiceare rooted in the same
and effect.
peasant does not give sufficientattention to the continuitybetween cause

practicehe is usuallyvery

In his opinion a determined

in what

he

why
evil

the
as

So long

begins

causation makes
and

fact

this is possible,
provided only those facts

way

with each other.

when

produce another

fact may

him

as

reflect,the

Magical Attitudes,"and

old-typepeasants

tend to

to

No.

see

connected

againstall probability;

70.)

There

is also another

emphasize unconsciously hi

against the good; it is the lack of any

shall

hope

way

same

note

later,the peasant
attitude is evidently sincere.
we

some

see

insufficient analysis of the process of

gious
"Relifear also against all probability. (Cf. Introduction:
to

idea of advance.

of peasant, with his strong tendency to climbing,is much

as

in

seem

he is acting,he is inclined to

if he does not

even

often

more

reason

their reflection the

The

modern

type

optimistic.Finally,

complains insincerely. But

here

the

PRIMARY-GROUP

410

married.

were

ORGANIZATION

Well, only the 24th

[Greetings.]And

is

year

going, since January.

for Michalek.

care

[WIKTORYA]
November

79
DEAR

SON:

received

We

not

glad,first because

very

saying with what, and second,because

for you

at all.

the

you

You

err

in

your

name-day, because

promised
harvest

it on

to send

lasted up

in autumn

to

it was

day, but

we

were

father
had

we

don't

we

care

could not

We

for first the weather

autumn,

fair;then

that

saying so

St. Michael's

1903

had .been illwithout

wrote

you

much

photograph for

but
....

that Michal

wrote

you

letter

your

....

20,

no

was

send

ill.

was

We

time,for the
bad, and then

dug the potatoes. Afterward father

brought fuel and plowed what was necessary for winter, and Alekfor his winter suit and boots,and we both [mother
sander went
to earn
we

and

industriously,and kept the stock. [Stock

daughter]worked
left.] It is easy for you to say that we
sold; debts paid; no money
don't care for you or begrudge a few zlotyfor this photograph! In
America
and calls: "Lend
for I
to you
me
nobody comes
money,

have

nothing

to

live,"or, "Give

that you

did not

worms.

Christmas
[Greetings,

work

me

my

for 7 weeks.

back."

money

But

wrote

always work,

must

we

You

like

wishes.]
OSINSKA

WIKTORYA

Now
[Inclosedwith the preceding letter.]
I, your sister,
did not forgetyou yet. I send you this flower as a token for these
....

solemn

holidaysof Christmas, and

[Wishes]. As to mother, don't write

not

about

care

which

you

for

we

she sheds

when

mother

can

weeps

than

that you

are

it ever
reward

never

More

I divide

you.

again,that mother

does

wafer

for all these

mother

I have

once

not

with

the

tried to comfort

tears

her,

in this country

[FRANIA]
80

May
CHILDREN:

DEAR

We
....

with the
You

joy.
not

see

and

photograph.

We

were

received your
very

wrote, dear son, that you

your

Holidays

parents.
are

I had

always occasions

the whole
traditionally

also
on

sad

together

....

we

even

wept from

Easter, for

[sad holidays].1When

which

family ought

letter

glad,so that
had

17, 1904

you

did

arranged

there is a revival of familial feelings,

to meet.

OSltfSKI

SERIES

the swi$cone* I sat at the stove, and

to make

I look

why

thought that there

swi$cone for you, and I wept.

You

sickly[inthe photograph].

so

nobody

was

wondered, dear children,

But

say so, but all those who

only we

Not

and sad.

411

also look

you

have

seen

sickly
body
Every-

you.

about Janek, who looked fatter and merrier

particularly
the other photograph. Some
people envy us that you write so
on
often and that on every holidayyou send something,either money
that you
don't forgetabout your parents
a photograph
or
inform
Now
we
farming. We had 4 horses; we
you about our
wonders

"

sold
2

of them

one

calves and

cows,

Father

bee-hives.

there is such

and

present;

has

young

cow,

one

sowed

rape

for

humming

I inform

Now

deon.

got 50 roubles,for they

and

This

below, for it rains often.

peoplehave

plow, but
God's

than

it

Rye is nice
it has

been

for

everything,thanks

accor-

the

to
too

wet

the

to

up

they cannot
God

to

20

blossoms;

up

is like the last one;

year

have

playing an

were

above, but

sowed

We

more

now

planted the potatoes,

not

planted and

we

them, and

the crops.

nice

grainsare

summer

present some

about

you

old, and

year

if somebody

as

sick.

were

and

to

Mother

[WIKTORYA]
81

June 26, 1904

you

about

uncle Smentkowski.

and

aunt

I inform

Now

....

On

[their
daughter]and

killed her and

in the afternoon

was

the

chimney and

it did not
of God
and

burn

On

Easter

out

someone

sanctifyand

tillthe

purify any
followingEaster.

festival. Easter

eggs

Swiqcone. At the

same

are

stove

At

and

4 o'clock

your

aunt

The

the four of them

Moreover,

all kinds of food which

by the priest. The

to

child.

the kitchen

among

work.

cannot

befell your

in through
came
lightning
throughboth windows, but thanks to God,
So we beg you, and they also,for the love
family [thechildren in America] about it,

their whole

them, that

old and

the Zwolenski

sittingnear

the house.

inform

ask

went

which

struck Anneczka
June 25 lightning

holding the child.

standingnear

was

are

she

the misfortune

the peasant

consecration,by
food

The

of the

same

also consecrated

Easter, and

the first meat,

consecrated

before being consumed.

is

dairy,and

and

is often

aunt

during the

uses

sick,and

year

are

secrated
con-

magical symbolism, is supposed

kind

which

is connected

custom

tune, there

your

They

come.

form

connection

with
an

family will

fasting: Lent

eat

spring

the old pagan

indispensable
part

with

alcoholic drink

the

of the

ends

after the fastingmust

on

be

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

412

will

what

write

not

after such

happen

now

from

grief,and

we

misfortune

Your

write

can

no

for tears

more,

could

aunt

....

drown

our

eyes

[OSINSKIS]
If I wrote

badly, excuse

you

for my

me,

hands

trembled

from

all

this.

[FRANIA]
82

July
Now

CHILDREN:

DEAR

inform

we

Zwolenski

child

[Anneczka]

Andzia

later to take

wished

took it and
Your

aunt

down

near

sat

to

and

her
Anneczka, telling

Anneczka

and

awaken.

And

into the

now

buildings] They

the

explainto

and

there

lived
did

lose many

not

Thence
And

hardly a week

they

I inform

moved
you

into her house.

sat

alive and

be burned.

called
diately
Imme-

peoplegathered. They took

into the earth,but they did not

them
you

in what

and

the Zwolenskis

manner

had

to live hi manorial

[longhouse

lived firstin the osmioraki

they could not come

got a lodging in the

aunt

your

and

there

The

child,and Anneczka

she would

manor-servants,

were

and

Zwolenska

her,so

alone remained
or

room

dug

the

aunt

lightningstruck,it killed both

aunt

to go away,

the child and

[theZ's

there

were

when
Your

to

house, and Zwolenska

the table with

near

ran

want

her.

to

the
from

came

firewood.

brought
to go

the child.

uncle

and

home

way

garden, while the

it did not

the stove, and

your

in the

Smenkowskis

to go

into their

down

The

so.

child for it wanted

it,but

they went

Anneczka

was

back

came

Zwolenska's

took

It

the uncle remained

the field and

aunt

killed.

was

in what

you

....

21, 1904

for 8

families]
;

understanding with their neighbors,

czworaki
[house for 4 families].They had
to an

when

the czworaki

things,for people came

to

the

about

the

same

house

burial,how

burned
and

where
uncle

down; but they

saved

them

the Smenkowskis
had her buried.

live.
It cost

[tothe priest].The priestwent to meet the procession,

boys brought her to the church, and there she stood upon a catafalque
Thence
the priest led and
churchduring the whole holy mass.
There
servants
were
brought her to the cemetery.
people,
many
in a [religious]
for she was
fraternityand bore the flag [during
him

20

roubles

Everybody
processions].
But

your

dowry

uncle did not

wept,

regret any

for

she

expenses,

was

liked

and

sayingthat

respected.
this

was

her

PRIMARY-GROUP

414

because
if

she is too weak

live,we

we

Your

and

you,

heavy work.

for

leave her

must

and

aunt

ORGANIZATION

uncle

they greet their

ought

to remember

warm

dress for winter

Although it will

least such

at

token

Frania

own

children.

Auntie

old age

and

that Antosia

says

send

[money] for

her

WlKTORYA

84
DEAR

but

don't know

we

certificate.
wanted

to

but

must

we

it when
knows

Is it good

died.

years

owed

was

go for

it,and

it was

not

us,

son,

We

birth-

got your

family,about which

you

you

know

that it is well if everybody

say

[past].But only those people

I

was

know

Prussia

either.

But
family-inheritance.

some

uncle did not

wish

my

She

that

came,

old when

4 years

anything about

not

father will do

Your

commune.

years

many

from

paper

your

worth

more.
1

Dear

can

family?2 I
says only that

some

there

to go, for he

my

there

money
was

said

nobody to
that perhaps

going for.

wrote, dear

You
any

How

1904

church-certificate,

Father

to my

parents live long,while

ago
to

as

of the

aunt, but she does

your

some

And

the mayor

family for

whose

parents
asked

his

wanted.

you

not

or

he finds time.
about

one

8,

priestsays that in his records there is nothing,

to

go

about

wrote

....

which

learn,our

know

can

You

SON:

OSINSKA

November
....

us, yet

[Smentkowska's cousin]greet

and

her mother's

cost

that

son,

were

shall not

probably we

see

I
grieved,and particularly

very

another

one

But

was.

This desire to give the girltechnical instruction already involves

we

tion
modifica-

of the

primitiveeconomic attitudes; the individual is no longer conceived as

to be the only basis
exclusivelydependent upon the family,familial property ceases
of individual existence,and there is a tendency to advance
along the line of an
improvement of work and income, not merely of an increase of property. (Cf.
Introduction:
"Economic
Attitudes.") But the whole attitude is stillevidently
for the technical instruction is conceived
as
a
gift,justified
by exceptional
new,
circumstances.
3

have

We

here

actual social group,

generations,
as

Roman

far

as

and

does not

depend

upon

the remembrance

of the

an

preceding

does the noble European family (heraldiccontinuity)

the ancient
or

of the ancestors). The ancestry is traced only as

family (cultof the spirits
duction:
between the livingmembers
requires. (Cf Intro-

strange;

Family.")

he is influenced

reading),
unexpected inheritance.

from

only
good proof that the peasant family is essentially

the actual,real connection

"The

as

his

or

In

the present

case

the son's demand

either by the idea of the noble family

by economic

considerations

"

the

is clearlyfelt

(probablydrawn

hope of getting

some

SERIES

OSINSKI

shall

perhapswe
we

left

much

other.

each

to

they have

am

and

you

listen

make

glad as this
As to

only

Michal

glad. Nothing could

very

r~

[for
now

has four will have

that

son,

further

us

raised the taxes, and

whoever

wrote, dear

You

bloodshedding. And

yet, if they annoy

the cows;

they will take

it is said that

to this

to go

another

one

see

America]. Already

shall go to

one

had

if you

should grievestillworse

415

me

so

[OsiNSKis]
don't write

Michalek, we

him, for he does

to

write to

not

us

if he had forgottenus.
as
either,
December

85
SON

DEAR

livingwill

learningand

roubles,but

55

upon

so
herself,

supper

When

cost.

she

Gulbiny30

years

and

ago

Frania, how
her

sent

we

there,we

how

much

lives

was

in

now

we

shall pay.

token

some

Now
Antoni

from

Dobrzyn

she has and

parents, while

to

you

persuaded

did not

learn
,

she wants

other people

will be

perhaps you

so

marry,

to have

happier, as

are

-.

r.,T

[WIKTORYA]

86

February 6, 1906
[Michal]:

SON

DEAR
....

and

....

thank

we

came

young

men

to

no

Anything

Introduction:

but

also I your

the money

this money,

today
we

your

of it is destined

for most
sister,

He

Marrying

be

may

evidentlydid

comes
an

assumes

year

the

February

on

don't
girls

expected of

I learned

2, and

Cousin

[Smentkowska]

Frania

the government.

that many

them, and probably

to want

seem

marriage this year.3

"Social

assumes

kindlyand heartilyfor

parents

our

come,

there will be

There

received

We
.

[Frania]

me

you

brother,and

parents, your
for

of

them.

I advise

and

agreed

of the estate

manager

Frania, how clever and cunning she is! When

would cost us much, and that I
her that [herlearning]
no

her

She learns

And

she said that I had

much

only dines there,and buys breakfast and

know

don't

about

daughter of Brunkowski, who

the

with

now

we

ask

You

....

18, 1905

Cf. note

to

70, and

No.

Environment."
not

the girlmentioned

marry

often

an

when, without

in No.

epidemical character
any

apparent

reason,

high proportion;then again,as

astonishingly

77.
in

parish.
weddings

village or

the number

of

in the present case, the

4i6

PRIMARY-GROUP

says

that she won't

dear

brother,that

well.

Now

until you

marry
I

back.

come

And

learningembroidery,and

am

I have

ORGANIZATION

time

no

write

to

I inform

it goes

for I must

more

to

[FRANIA]

87

February 18, 1906

DEAR

and

to go

few

now

here

we

be very

to sell [ourproperty]

us

glad to

see

for old people.

admitted, particularly
work
and [getcash]only for taxes
heavily,

to be
must

sold it and

then

placeto

Then

of the parents with

to do all the work

only a

It is true
and

the

fuel,and

persuades us that if we
[toAmerica],we should then have

that,if even
only two of
child],the two remaining would

one

that

father

your

say

we

and

But

admitted

not

were

go.

if even

you,

death,but perhaps you heard yourselfhow difficult

our

this is difficult to get.

even

write

....

should

We

to you.

days before

it is

You

CHILDREN:

....

no

back

go

Dobrzyn

you,

pretty

on

longingwould

[one

went

us

be able

not

be still greater

[OSINSKIS]
[Letterof
much

6, requests the children "not

it is a

as

spending of

the

and

money

that they receive the newspaper

Also

preserve

March

page,

America,

about

happen."
and

one

SON:

DEAR
....

for

You

wrote

you

asked

God

help you, and God's Mother

sad for

It is very

will be done.
for it

us

But

that
we

are

[inAmerica].

stole his whole

for your

fortune and

into the

and

room

it to you.

and

marry

Lord

our

all the saints.

wedding, but let God';

a good girl,
you have met

from

man

lived for

Gulbiny

only a

half the house

them,

I shed

with

her, for she

I thank

where.

them,

he

how

wrote

with

year

went, nobody knows

look at

to

May

Cze/stochowa,and

whether

one

adorned

flowers; we

intend

1906

24,

be at your

anxious

He

send

of

cannot

we

that you

us

blessing. We

our

happened alreadythat

got married

might

copies.]

May

us

so

Swi^tecznaat home

88

come

accident

some

Gazeta

travel

to

and

you

when

tears.

[WIKTORYA]
Now, dear brother,I send
to send

it to your

marriage
reason

season

seems

the boys

or

to

wedding, so

you

(December-February)
a

little tobacco.

at least I want

be imitation,or rather

girlsduring

given period
"

passes

certain
a

it to

without
common

come

tinn

no

to your

name-

single wedding.

attitude

kind of fashion.

I had

The

developedamong

OSltfSKI

day. And

beg

send

you,

SERIES

the

me

417

watch, for

don't need

you

it

now

more.

any

[ALEKSANDER]

89

October

[Michal]:

SON

DEAR
....

We

glad that

are

....

all

you

would

that you

dear son,

their not

to
[allusion

dead

were

good health for

in

are

you

write

when

now

for
grieved,

remember

we

that you

to us

surelywe

see

one

that if
established,

was

the age

whole

he

penaltythan
these have

only

from

Dear
to God

not

so

prison or

This

big

is

serve

is of

for
his

still greater

the war,
to

[a reservist

for
The

pay.

did not

who

7 roubles

earned

even

penalty

money

must

roubles

300

come,

[who

before

away

war] has

up

we

your

forgetabout
and

than
now

you.
once

parents, not

to

It is very

hard

shed

we

Thanks

forgetabout
for

bitter tears

be with you

cannot

we

to be in heaven

gettingon well enough.

are

you,

More

you.

brought you

at least merit

beg

we

won't

see

went

after the

he

years,

for Cieszenski

severe,
until

this,but

cannot

of

write that you

you

son,

for

some

painful

did not

army

pay

much

[ofprison].1

time

God, then God

have

months

it is very

world, for this year

battalion.
disciplinary

America

duringthis

after

waited

very

son, since you

his father must

back

written,

we

were

belongs to the

for these reservists who

punishment is
come

who

away,

comes

in the

time

in this

anybody

called]went

to be

him, and when

we

another

we

day and

Dear

evidentlyforgetus.

shan't

had

alreadyjourneyinghome.

were

times

ten

you

thought that

we

writing].You

this letter of yours

read

we

....

letter.

your

something curious,so

us

thinkingthat perhapsyou
impatiently
So

received

We

....

1906

29,

us

that

that

we

May

we

together

[OSINSKIS]
1

Prison

for offenses against the state, for violation of

in general for offenses which

considered

administrative
chooses

When

state

sum

curious

occurred

toward

incident
four years

the expenses

imperialfamily, there
talk with the

condemnation

except for the loss of tune.

the district chief of that

certain

imply the

punishment
offenses can
usuallybe

prison. A

the Russian

do not

serious

policeordinances,and
of social opinionis not

was

some

converted

for slight

into fine,but the peasant always

characterizingthe peasant'sattitude toward

ago

in

commune

of the

provinceof Piotrk6w.

the peasants to contribute a

in the celebration of the jubileeof the

proposed to

commune

involved

hesitation.

others,stepped forward

Prison

Finally an
"

and said, Could

we

old peasant, after

not

"
sit instead ?

some

4i8

PRIMARY-GROUP

ORGANIZATION

April 26, 1908

90
CHILDREN:

DEAR

received

We

notification

Friday evening when

Good

on

letter and

your

....

back

came

we

the postfrom

the

of Jesus]. So we
read
passion[service
commemorating the sufferings
only about your health,for we were
very tired for it rained the whole

week,

even

first day of

At

Aleksander

once

[holyimages, etc.]and got

Lord

God

about
so

divine

Easter,after the

the rest.1

So

Sunday morning.

on

reward

Thank

God.

them.

We

you.

went

letter

thank

We

the

on

learned

we

the

tokens

heartily.May

you

our

remember

you

for these tokens and

more

only

and only then

service,
the third day for
on

that
glad,dear children,

are

once

you

read your

we

for your

letter

nicelywritten.
Dear

to America.

would

But

and

we

all be there and

and

3 years

helpus

God

[thefarm]; but

here.

him

so

could

we

militaryservice].Moreover,
from

back

bringshim

better,but

worse.

how

it will

be, for it is intended

the

chief of the

And

is not

it be left ?
the army

to

and

does

write

it won't

that

decision

Gulbinaks

write, he

know

don't

communal

if the

not

this

upon

ifhe escaped
[forever,

[service]
we

to have

district asks.

for

throngs of people are coming

the papers

So

You

happily back, he would

more

this army

about

there

no

whole

now

and

America

him

see

....

Michalek

would

if he goes

While

and

takingAleksander

Well,perhaps Frania could remain

now.

even

think about

work, for whom

our
we

keeps

he does

as

that you

write

children,you

"

be

yet
when
that

answer

[Aleksander]could

perhaps be exempted. But if people say that sometimes he [Michaof himself,then nothing can
be done, for though he
lek]sends news
does not
and

write
uncle

your
to

goes

himself,Ulecka
does

not

wrote

uncle that he

to your

give the letters

that everybody learns

so
Lisiecki,

to

us

at

home

there,

was

to

read

but

at once

[OsiNSKis]
The

fact shows

how

difficult and

writing of letters with the peasant.

how

much

familial attachment

the peasants themselves

important a

This must

matter

are

be kept in mind

the reading and

if we

to appreciate

are

and how
is impliedin frequent letter-writing,

consider the frequency and

length of letters a sign of this

attachment.
As in Russia

men

the number

of eligible
age, there

when

he is an

he is

supposed

only son,
not

to

or

are

when

of recruits needed
different kinds
he is the oldest

of
son

is less than the number

exemption.

out

man

and his father is at

be able to support his family.

exempted because of defective health,and

is

of young

exempted

an

certain number

of the remainder

age when

is also

number, fixed for

OSltfSKI

SERIES

419
November

91
CHILDREN:

DEAR

[to see] what

waited

have

that

decided

he

the matter

the decision

It will be very

children,that
to be

don't

well

painfulfor

no

will go

the communal

at

away.

meeting

and

me

more,

you

even

as

inform
often

as

tears

I bred

as

you

and

painful

glad that

we

are

beg

you

heartily,

in my

now

larly
particu-

I have

once.

know,

you

can, for it is

than

more

you,

We

us.

no

it would

It will be very

help it. At least

you

Then

so

him, for

cannot

I shed

you,

and

without

us

is alive

said it.

big money

it is

there is another

now

longer young.

write

us, but

troubles with
work

can

we

cost

hard for

no

enough,

forgetabout

many

are

we

alone,but

succeed

you

Now

we

he tried to settle

Smentkowski

uncle

possible;it would

be certain.

us

made

was

whom

and

came,

they

i,

for

answer,

Aleksander.

December

others

and

Particularlyyour

exemption was

for

On

of

our

[inhabitantsof Gulbiny] said that Michalek

writes.

dear

will become

serve.

away

when

the Gulbinaks

not

late with

are

nothing,for the officialswith

went

and

mayor,

and

must

could do

Father

We

....

1908

15,

had

so

old age, when

all of you

left me,

[WIKTORYA]
March

92
You

CHILDREN:

DEAR

write

that you

us

....

painedat

being alone,and that Janek intends

our

should be very
us, and

should

we

there alone.
accident

or

glad,but

Frania

your

also.

As

community

each

man

ought

must

are

son.

God
other.

Lord

grants

God

not

"

health

shall hire

he built his

paid much, and

and

of the family situation

And

serve.

because
eager

to

Aleksander

as

the

to

Thus
some

anyone

for the
fail,

without

commune

real

knows

reasons.

place of

other member

of his family situation,evidently the

exempt

time, for

in the

certifythat

must

commune

for
life,

Ochocki, for

time

health

or

we

it is difficult to get

so

even

year

house, will help us

from

somebody

through
sickness

some

During this
us

We

if he remained

forbid!

beforehand, is selected by drawing lots.

the efforts to exempt

another

be

now

be exempted

commune

"

to us.

sewing and will help,and Stanislaw

exempted because

to

if

so

much

very

losses

any

Michalek

help each

alone,if our

the rest, we

each

commune

can

about

are

to come

to have

you

father carried bricks when

must

of the

two,

are

happens, you

to

servant

the

you

will leave her

whom

grieve still more

Now

shall still manage

don't wish

we

9, 1909

young

members

man

of

Therefore

that the old

man

has

PRIMARY-GROUP

420

for

any,

either to

everybody goes

work.

And

Frania

married

so

America, or to Prussia
this year alone,for we
don't

shall live

we

although

this year,

alreadyand begged [tobe

after

ORGANIZATION

Aleksander

allowed

[boys]have

some

her].

to court

We

for

season-

wish

to

called

her

on

sad

too

are

get

now

Perhaps next year, if some

good party
her
she
lest
won't
marrying,
might complain about
appears, we
oppose
later on.
us
Then, if we cannot get on alone,and if it is impossible
to find a good servant, we
hope that you will help us [and come].
for yourselves,
and may
But now, if the work is better,earn
Lord
our
God

help
dear

our

left

bless you,

and

you

Michalek,

son

that you

Mother

from

man

Frania

glad that

very

envied

find some,

obligedto

was

are

we

pretty well,since you

succeed

? rabbits ?].
[poultry

God's

of

Czestochowa,

have

you

keep

having

your

and

so

many

so

young
and

many

she will receive

August
CHILDREN:

When

grieved,but nothing can

much

If you

to fortune.

cannot

back

come

bones

about

should

we

be

find your

and

the world.

glad
own

since,alas! we
weather.] You wrote
you,

Bendykowski.
K.

Zygmunt
to believe

Here

to rest

way

to us

as

everybody.

have

we

well

to

us

as

gift

Perhaps

for

May

tobacco

if he will take

took your

way.

time, if our

Lord

so

many

fathers' soil.1 And

you

our

as

our

old

years,

so

you

Lord

God

and

help

honey through

will send
it is

now

work

[Crops;

children.

it,we

address,but

he will do

submit

must

like to scatter

together,dear

send

23, 1909

find another

some

not

can.

you

We

must

we

worked

our

be

cannot

Trabin

should

here,on

If he goes and

from

as

letters,
we

your

be done.

be pained for

must
we
Although it is painful,
God allows us to live longer. We

read

we

....

....

very

ones

[OsmsKis]

93

were

to

she had

them

Rypin

DEAR

begun

and
farming [literally:
country-housekeeping]

yourselfwith

occupy

from

and

children!

Dear

none.

us.

Zieleniak

you

some.

impossible

did.

[OsiNSKis]
1

were

may
as

ever,
Typical arguments of old people against emigration. This attitude,howcompletelyduring the emigration fever to Brazil. People of seventy
gave way
seen

going with their children and

explainthis difference.
it seems,

almost

emigrants

were

not

farmers.

In the

hesitate to go to America.

to

go.

Two

settle in Brazil upon

to

all of these old emigrants to

parents of manor-servants,
that series)do not

The

incitingthem

even

Brazil

same

way

were

reasons

land, and,

manor-servants

the old

or

S^kowskis (see

PRIMARY-GROUP

422

ORGANIZATION

merrily these holidaysand

parents and

your

another

one

sister who

your

once

more

longs for you.

May

God

than

usual.]

less formal

wishes;

during this solemnity remember

if

Oh,

kindly
could

we

see

mas
[TypicalChrist-

grant it,Amen.

[OSINSKIS]

96

January
CHILDREN:

DEAR

words.
and

First,I inform

parts

or

[Aleksander].

while,for

worth
you
to

have

I often

weaker,
last hour

in

gettinghim
we

more,

would

Then

she had

already some

we

how

and

now

we

longer with

will also

require your

jaw.

Now,
as

us

me,

will

how

am

bequeath
and

half.

you,

with

none

us,

Alos
be

not

So I

beg

for I should

like

disturb

not

weaker

now

like to die in peace,

and

when

this

that I still try to get Aleksander

God
dear
soon

will allow

children,we
as

to succeed

me

beg

possiblehow

do you

advise

Frania

dear
so

children,that
she

once

you

decide

you
to

opportunities[to marry],rather good

despairabout

off,for

it would

might

you

Easter,

better

only a

answer

die, that

Lord

also know

have

we

you
our

parents, inform

your

she knows

whether

be

happens.

I should

I inform

of this

out

there.

you

sick,so

I don't know

free,but

it often

as

Now

comes.

after

this to you,

it would

money

all before

on,

fall

sending

to

came

you

[my will]later

me

to marry

perhapsyou

so

money,

1910

these few

you

somewhat

are

children,reflect and

dear

with

peace

that you

some

in American

much,

very

if it

For

you

to

inheritance]to them, i.e.,to Frania

of the

[your parts

intends

whether

you,

I suppose

earned
economized, i.e.,

you

it

I ask

money.

any

that Frania

you

this occasion

on

father,write

I, your

....

10,

do, for
but

ones,

educat

we

lingered,wishing to

us

[OSINSKIS]
1

and

The

letter is

the economic

wish to
various

important

situation.

dominant

the integrityof the farm

assure

feelingsis involved

complicated,not
of family

for the understanding of the relation of

The

as

after his death.

continuity of generations,and
standing

in

the

village and

the wish

situation is complicatedby the fact that the farm

one

son

complex

(Jan)is the

right to the inheritance.

old man's

that his family may

community.

the

that

the love of the farm as the object of his work;

exclusivelyeconomic, but partly social idea of property; the ide

The
and

In this wish

is

"

future

family-lif

factor in the father's attitude

(Cf. Cugowski

have

it

series.)

is reallythe wife's property

stepson, having therefore

moral
particular

OSltfSKI

SERIES

423

February 28, 1910

97
CHILDREN:

DEAR

You

....

send

not

about

you

have

we

ask

not

it is not

and

but

money

some

enough.

made

even

12

our

such

and

taxes

are

This year

house and two schools will be

priest's
will be continually
required. We have

so

money

we

are

nevertheless
from

nothing

must

we

they

our

own

sell

receive

only,so

while.

Therefore

can,

speak,half

were

copeck with you.2

everything,and we
with your
us

this

debts.

in

here

built in

So

own

are

very

country,

And

much

have

we

you

at all.

help you

time,for it is alreadytoo difficultfor

us, old

hired

some

not

dear

we

but
a

old,

send

can

you

money
it back

pay

would

you

it is not

worth

children,as

would

pained that

cannot

we

commune,

is 17 years

could

way,

others.

money,

we

share

thought, dear children,that

We

our

stillsome

[indollars],
so

sum

our

various

happens. Moreover,

find your

must

you

the

also

big income,and the

us.

we

[earned]

this cost

perhaps get

if

then

often

as

for

could

We

and
interest,

farm,

our

easier

money.

at

to

for if you

30

it will be much

by borrowing, but
would

pay

spent all our

we

free,and this year

roubles [a year]. He

trying to get Aleksander

servant, whom
but

"

yourselvesthat

fuel and

expenses

many

children,that

and

you,

could

we

economized

we

wrote

we

there is not

morgs

know

house, and then

Later

barn, as

different and

for you

own,

debts.

some

it is true, dear

But

built the

we

built

we

from

Why,

of

money

long ago since

so

money

much

so

roubles.1

2,000

whether

us

....

last

our

had

you

you

paid

stillhave

trouble

You

forgive

must

ances;
people. [Acquaint-

weather.]
Now

The

both

together,would

twelve
2

All 'the
was

is easy,

on

in peasant

mere

excuses

are

very

4,000

greater and

greater

which

the

equallydivided, as

were

in America,

sons
a

good farm of

roubles.

trifling.The

expenses

enumerated

except the house,

reallysmall.

old

wishes

man

separatingthemselves
the right of

sentimental

organization,could

remains

to

the family interests they have

between

connection

its property

also.

individuals,without

explainthe family
after the group

the familial property

preserve

from

in
participation

connection
never

contrary, this sentimental

and
solidarity,

before,are
Borrowing money
by mortgage
of paying the interest is hardly real
long term, and the difficulty

life. The

from

of inheritance

if the property

about

built nine years

feels that in
themselves

have

country

our

Everywhere shops [consumers'associations]

probable share

is worth

morgs

which

the

is the

sum

in

that

you

spreads out.

movement
1

inform

we

hi its whole

is only

This
an

intact,and
separated
shows

active

group-

social reality. On

secondary effect of the

has disintegrated.

that

the

group-

PRIMARY-GROUP

424

set up, and

are

few

ORGANIZATION

circles.
agricultural

into

Well, and

if somebody

in

comes

villagehe won't be able to recognizeit. There

is this brick-factory,
so in one
place they dig holes,in another again
they cover holes,so that it is difficultto get to the lake where the mill
years

and

was,

the

his

near

The

palace!

[heir;estate-owner.
established

Half

store is set up, and

everythingwill

they

Now

have

we

health

and

holy faith

not

leave you

and

beloved

will

news:

star with

Soon

count

our

the western

sky,on

common

bakery.

people from

t"

side.1

write,only we wish you

dear children,God
and

Remember,

our

Now

of interest to

nothing more

and

it.

ment
beautiful environ-

common

another bit of

happiness

our

Many

town.

comet, appeared in the

so-called

or

under

dug

Gulbiny.

to

to build also

And

intend to go to America.

such

now

Trombin

intend

be like hi

have

they

factoryhas been rented by the dziedzic

-honorific title]from
Trombin, and he

telephonefrom

for

forge is fallingdown,
[the manor-owner] has

Piwnicki

Mr.

our

fatherland,then

Lord

our

God

will

help you

[OsmsKis]
98

August
SON

DEAR
....

much

It is a

news.

and

inform

us

him],we

on

for

that

us

that you

should

never

has

hand.

own

[JAN]: We
pleasurefor

year
Does

thank
us

know

keep

passed since he

he want

world,you know
a

paper

you

long for

son,

you

as

you

can

and
your
come

to

back!
and

also,dear children,to
to

drag our

intend

if you
visit
1

money.

old bones

us

to

This

news

and

us

you,

about

As

any

old
So

here
the

it.

see

ask you,
years
some

impressionof

son,

Why,
be

should

We

for

we

but many

more,

people it is more

we

for many

people come
weaken

us

his

to the news

write,dear

glad to

cannot

but for

to

with

?
[Health,
altogether

us

You

be

would

in America

is evidentlyadded

painful

do, dear children,though

we

the world.

Many

depended

few words

in the usual way.

Michalek

see

[ifwe

us

forget

It is very

you.

nothing bad befel them.

remain

this winter.

wrote

different books.

fatherland

least don't

to Michalek

forgetabout

than

more

read

back

came

as

having written

at

anythingabout

weather; harvest.]
And
so everything is going on
of the

that you

alive,for

are

for

you

2, 1910

also
that
dear

such

glad

difficult

dear children,
.

still,
you
time

and

could
then

the refusal to send

OSltfSKI

go back.
but

We

beg

be merry

for

425

dear children,
come
heartily,

you

don't wait tillwinter

it would

SERIES

for

if you

us

it is nicer here than in

now

God

May

us.

to

can,

winter,and

grant it to be accomplished!

[OSINSKIS]

December

99
CHILDREN:

DEAR

inform

We

father and
I don't

[because Frania

care

I would

for that water

not

alone in

house.

our

which

Frania

could

still see

at

go

and

in my

Janek

at

but

"

what!

am

we

sad

Were

around, I

see

and

it not

after you.

I should

I did

have

live

to

[pictures]

you

speak with
probably see

I shan't

alone,

are

very

household.

I cannot

time, but

any

old age

I look at the walls

hung there

now

into the world

once

children,that

expect, dear

married],and

is

for this farm

more

any

that

you

....

5, 1910

you.

Michal

in this world
dear

Now,

painfulfor

to

us

be without

politeto

present very

photograph and
greetings.]

have

When

he

Frania.

took

her

It is very
away,

all

we

often,and he is up

to us

come

to the

for

they sent you their

yet. [Weather; Christmas wishes;

They wonder,

us.
no

about

you

her.

stillthey visit us and

But

wept.

inform

children,we

answer

[WIKTORYA]
i

January

100

CHILDREN:

DEAR

We

by
He

pray

to God

that he

His holiest will

grant

thank

We

we

you

for your

inaykeep you
be

must

the wafer.

and
guardianship,

separated far from

if not
to be again together,

us

hi His

letter with

7, 1911

in this

one

since

another,may

world,then

to be

happy

in the other world.

I

am

very

another.

that
glad,dear children,

When

Janek

was

in the army

you
and

are

so

wrote

to
well-disposed

for money,

one

Micha-

lek

always spoke for him, that we must send him some, and now
Janek
This
got easy work for him, and you agree also with one another.
much.
And we beg you, inform us whether you have
rejoices
us very
stillmuch
to pay for your house,and how are you gettingon with your

farming [probablyonly gardening

Now

we

letter from

inform
Alos.

you
He

that

and

poultry-keeping]

togetherwith

comforts

us

your

letter

[by saying]that

we

got also

he will be free in

426

PRIMARY-GROUP

October.
have

We

God

May
and

them

Christmas, called

on

and

remember

we

time.

[Weather.]

star-evening[Christmas
with

and

us,

then

your

on
[night-service
legendaryshepherds].

pastoral service
of the

always visit
week-days

on

this

to

the

On

in commemoration

church, we

at

are

we

so

the

to

Sunday afternoon,but

you

live up

to

us

[theson-in-law]were

Adas

with

went

When

grant

spent the holidays alone.

eve] Frania
mother

ORGANIZATION

them

we

and

also visit

they
alone,and

are

us

long for

we

often

you

Your

lovingparents,
[OSINSKIS]

[Letterof May
America.]

explainingagain why

1911,

10,

they

June

101

CHILDREN:

DEAR

did not

We

....

for the Radomski

waited
we

cannot

have

that he had

and

sore

feet.

something
does

did

we

pained at,

was

visit

it,but

if it is so,

alone.

now

Even

said

he

as

sometimes,
has

Janek

I don't

then, dear

our

it is difficult to get

summer

us

said

nothing from his father,

and

help

know

son, it is not

us

mentioned

anything, only Radomski

respect his wife much.

not

to believe

Adas

we

[from America]. But

are

we

in the

now

learn

for

at once,

you

us

almost

there,for

and

and

not

to

come

17, 1911

only Radomski, his father,who

saw

to be

me

to

I learned

But

Frania

Only

little. So

yet.

America,

to

went

another.

me,

him

it is difficultfor

servant

and

seen

not

boy

answer

go

learned

to

whether
very

swear

ought

pleasantfor

mother

your

[WIKTORYA]
February 17,

102

The

Jesus Christus."

wfiichfound
about
when

dear

Lord

our

Lord

wrote

God

life. This
husband

we

and

inform

we

good health
health.

God

This

gives you

at such

and

you

that

health.
your

And

you,

little son

we

sends

your
you

from

it

parents.

learned

we

rejoicedus,

bless you
And

letter

your

which

your

be

"Praised

the most, dear

letter about

help you the best possibleand

wish

received

we

success, and

rejoicedus

lengthin

children:

dear

letter to you,

our

Then
in

us

your

that you
our

of

first words

1912

children,
dear

success.

for your

also Frania

son,

May
further
with her

greetingsand good wishes,and

in

OSltfSKI

generalall

relatives and

your

SERIES

427

acquaintances. May

God

A*1611'1

[OSINSKIS]
February 6, 1913

103

[JAN]AND

SON

DEAR
letter and

am

son,

beg

DAUGHTER-IN-LAW:

glad that

very

to
disagreeable

that you

me

don't send

you

sheet at all at

home, for

much

displeasureto

would

be very

such

me

thanked

and

had

good

for happily I
letters,

learned

write

received

wrongly and

did not

father to send him

letter also from

quarrelas

you

when

this money

than that.
Dear
requiremore
son, you say
and you count
dear this farm, but if you
little?],
so
are

expenses
save

much

such

large taxes

school

more

Dear

and
[clothes]

get any

to, so

collected.

for

all,this

Aleksander

big

he must

now

are, and you

Now

would

not

son,

give

don't

answer
letter,

even

was

so

without
1

An

his wife

helped

in order to be able to exist.

have

you

know

too

it at all.

small payments,

great the expenses

how
is

So

nothing to

envy.

all,for I wrote
When

it only

father sends you

only then

angry,

dear

stamp, but I had

empty

his parents.

us, the

God

mother,
OSINSKA

WlKTORYA
be

covering

with

got what

He

Your

Don't

what

....

this letter at
know

knew

living and

us

all,for there

answer

did,only he
he was
able,
so
[thatit is

possibleto
expensive,and

it

and

year

would

you
at

envy

beg you,
myself; they don't

from

one

Michalek,

is collected from

either.

money

also spare

here,dear

were

this

priest'shouse, then

money

must

roubles

30

Now

imagineat all,dear children,that

for if you

son,

not

fuel costs

did not

don't

were

larger. Formerly
everythingwas not

for

money,

built,and

was

farmers.

him

largerand

now,

about

if

and did not

too

dear

My

show

I did not

your

it is very

complainingletter.

it read, and

pained. We

asked

health,but

I should have
they had received this letter,
bear from them, for your father and Aleksander

much

but he did not

such

I received

....

in

are

you

wrote

this letter,
got it myselfand

he

grant it.

and

children,for
no

you

this letter

for it.

money

perfunctoryletter

sending

my

written

by Aleksander

in the

name

of

greatlyabridged in
For example, the latter
comparison with those in the letters written by Frania.
enumerated
the
"relatives
who
and acquaintances"
sent greetings.This
always
and two
content

The

greetings at the beginning and

other letters written by

of the letter depend

on

thg son

the person

and
who

end

here omitted
acts

as

are

show

secretary.

how

the form

and

428

PRIMARY-GROUP

ORGANIZATION

March

104
DEAR

CHILDREN:

We

much.

too

Lord

barn
is

gram
us

what

we

do

and

have

we

threshed

develop

[co-operative]
shopsare
which
the

asked

you

interest until the

let
reflect,

it remain

Why

should

you.
you
go

better

to

whether

to

are

visit you,

for you

Write

for

for

common

is in

money

give

to

So

year.

I ask

nothing ?J

I intend

to

me

whether

it is

ready

money,

and

and

cannot

than

more

will I send it to

only then

me,

for

Jewish trade,but
your inheritance,

whole

after

swarming

and

come,

I would

be

not

to

death

my

reading this letter give it to Janek, for

separate letters to you both, so I wrote

After
write

know

in the world.

more

Answer

to you.

before

you

bad, that

it,they refused

remained

[prepaid]ship-ticketor

myself to

see

to take

these roubles

for you

come

is

country,

our

swarming of the bees, so write

a

yet

can

will prepare

glad

with

go

has

give them

we

work,

only,that industry

to kill the

tillthe end of the year;

after the

to you

I wanted

our

to

Now, as to
it would be well,but the

you,

When

in the barn.

you

in

more

they wish

money

advise me,

moreover,

inform

We

and

savings-bank,and when

any

in the field.

it will succeed.

to send

us

work

success.

does not annoy

country, for you

our

more

set up,

whether

weather

all this remains

so

[becauseof the censure].

don't know

The

our

dry, we will go at once

everything. This only

get

there about

news

commerce

we

to

exceedinglycheap,
is the

to God.

already about

think

We

grants the soil

God

in the

enough, thanks

about

you

....

succeed well

us

inform

We

....

12, 1913

it does

it upon

pay
a

single

sheet.

[Your father,
OSINSKI]

ANTONI

September 3,

105
CHILDREN:

DEAR
....

hear
are

nothing. We
with

angry

Now

we

us

inform

don't

know

for not

what

having

that

you

here

['sdeath]. Janek remembers

promised to
a

upon

farm

come

back
could

we

to

wait for your

We

....

happened

sent

the

is

farm

country.

buy it with

your

but we
letter,
Perhaps you

to you

money

to sell after

Szczepan

write

it because

So

if he

wanted

money

and

it certainly.We
our

to you.

1913

to

Janek
settle

Janek could

r
1

This is only

pretext.

The

real

reason

B.

is given in the followingletter.

pay

PRIMARY-GROUP

430

ORGANIZATION

but father told me,

money

now,

stillto

live,and

is

money

ro

her counted

re.

"'re

to

^et the interest from

that you

dues

don't be angry
you;

w"

)ok after

as

^u

and

and

once,

this

off there and

few

So

sum.

beg

you,

which

products].

that you

still we

years

grieve. That

don't

all,for there

at

money

have

long we

[only natural

well

for

how

won't

shall be able
dear

my

is yours

children,

won't

be lost

anything,nothing will be missing.

it myself [literally:
I shall be in it]. And
now
manage
if

even

at

rather

are

without

Aleksander

stipulated from

your

don't know

we

he is afraid to remain

Fr

to

that

don't

we

add

It is very

dear children.

can, my

painfulfor

to be able

not

me,

to h

:lpyou, but reallyat present

dear

Now,
bred

alone

sufferingand

my

I have
I

children,remember

God

you!

could,I would
to

is
us

see

through

So

by

beg

now

If

that

thing
every-

speak to
disappointment,at

once

this

nity
opportu-

any

bones

my

you

have

I not

May

paper.

I feel
I

children,

to speak merrilywith.

nobody

world, for

small

were

you

that,for all

shed

surelyI shan't have

less diseased.

or

when

have

who

mother,

I have

tears

you

me,

but

you,

this

in

you

more

least

at

flyto

nothing.

least,your

at

many

about

to comfort

do

can

me

how

knows

troubles

nobody

now

more,

least

[WIKTORYA]

[GULBINY, September

107

I, your

sister

health

Don't
much

nicelyor

be angry

there

country

with

[inletter for mother

brothers,inform

dear

are

me

what

is the

to

He

miller mounted

killed,and

was

the

upon
so

for not

me

of

on,

windmill

and
as

continually

good

to you

beg

you,

country, for in

were

without

it.

He

Bozomin

In

our

Karpinski

accidents.

if he

cover

in

am

down
to

1901]

having written

in your

lies

date]

same

news

Upielsk half the villageis burned

also that

you

frequent misfortunes

nearly killed by his horses.

was

In

Franciszka, write

9,

fell down

soul.
the
tie
am

[FRANIA]
1

The

firstof Frania's letters show

happenings in

the community

the neighbors' life the peasant

community.

people,except

The

town

and

characteristic interest in any

neighborhood.

With

extraordinary

this anecdotic

child gets its first introduction

interest in

into the life of the

child lacks in general this interest in the doings of grown-up

those of its parents and

teachers.

Cf. also Borek

series.

OSltfSKI

SERIES

431

08

November

12, 1901

I, Franciszka, your sister,greet you and inform you

for 4 days
that I was
and
digging [potatoes]
success,

about

that I should

zloty [60 copecks]. hoped

skirt for myself and for mother.1
I

at least for

earn

it rains and

But

winds, and they [theparents]have stillpotatoes

least [so I cannot
elsewhere,where
go to work
inform

who

you

taken

was

cold

are

week

paid].
[Enumeration.]

the army.

to

second

there

dig,for

to

my

I earned

"

at

Now

am

[FRANIA]
December

109
dear brother
sister,

I, your

noble

for your

and
with

care,

have

can

him, began
and

watch

to

for my

He

cry.
him

sent

I inform

When

confession.

going

he remained
Michal

The

the

life.

But, dear brother, Alek-

learned,that there

with

was

festival

priestbegan

here

wept that while Michal

was

nothing for

was

promised him

to

processionin

beautiful.

very

about

you

Plonne

preach people wept

I inform

Now

sometimes

at

was

if

as

Michal

will be here

and

comes,

[Christmaswishes.]

cannot

you

Dlugie [as the Count P.'s groom] for a year

I wrote
and
the day when
on
you this letter,

in

was

he

me

grieved, that Michalek

was

death

to

whole

Janek, that

dear

you,

sent

heartilyfor your gift

token which, keeping it

you

none.

parish festival.

were

You

[youngerbrother]when

sander

at

heart.

Jan, thank

3, 1901

they
that

more.

mother
mas,
Christ-

at

Amen.

F[RANIA]
1

The

earned

money

destination.
particular
1

The

children

are

hired

at

work,

as

See Introduction:
taken

very

additional
"Economic

income, has always

some

Attitudes."

early to the church; it depends only

upon

their

the
having holiday-clothes.The powerful influence of church-ceremonies
upon
in
And
child
is
festation
manithus
childhood.
the
excluded
from
not
peasant begins
any
standing
there is a gradually growing underof religious
life,
except sacraments;
of the ceremonies, but
has

some

character

the child has

taken

firstcommunion
children of

of initiation
a

particularinitiation.
is the preparationfor the
no

community

the

same

classes,who,
intelligent
social life,the peasant
than

only

importance
even

child of

for the peasant

if admitted

much

as

well

not
as

which

but, as
this,the

before

children

ceremonies, are

people. Here,

child shares

higher class.

to

process

first communion,

part in the religiouslife of the community

has not

into the personal religiouslife of grown-up

spheresof

The

as

for the
initiated
in other

earlier the interests of the

PRIMARY-GROUP

432

ORGANIZATION

May

HO

Now

that I send

small

you

brother,that
glad

cross

be the first

I would

give you

to

something

I inform

Now
time

has

He

write.

to

you

it

Aleksander's

rabbits

help

and

you

wrote, dear

you

I should

heart,but

be

I have

in

everything.

wish

to take it.

you

cousin did not

our

I inform

token].

whole

my

sign. May
about

you

....

with

honey but

small bottle of

[tosend

more,

divine

nothing except this

I have

sister,
speak to you
through [ourcousin],for

I,Franciszka,your

25, 1902

stock, for he has

no

pigeons. [Greetingsand

wishes.]

[FRANIA]

only seems
try also

[JAN]: You

BROTHER

DEAR

to you

I write

so.

better.

to write

that I don't write

say

characterfully.But

I remain

with

well; but it
dear

you,

brother,

respect.
F.

Appreciate my
brother

Dear

Jablonianka gave
I had

to

writing!
Michal, I,

giveit

me

but asked

peace,

She

to her.

always

always for

that

you

address,and

your

that she will be my

says

Stefka

sister-

forbid!

in-law,but God
If I wrote

no

sister,inform

your

anything bad[ly]pardon

me.

[FRANIA]
September

112

Now

I inform

continuallybreak
burned; only

Not

out.

burned.

villagewas

dear

you,

....

Gunsk

In

5 houses

long

ago

In

burned
courtyard [allthe farm-buildings]
villagewhere something has not been burned

whole

you,

dear

brother,about the air.

they don't

remember

asked

You

journey.
Her

We

so

before

dear

me,
sent

health

....

such

was

good
commune
no

it cost

passport]

few

dry, and

days

is no

I inform

life

sent

[Smentkowska]

did
to

not

receive it.

Aleksandrowo,

her 14 roubles
When

the

ago

parents

our

Frania's

was

the

chapel are

And

in their whole

She

the

down, and there

but evidentlyyou
letter,

she had

year

It is very

brother, about

you

she got to the

for
police,

fire;half

on

villageand

Bozomin,

1904

country fires

our

Strzygiwas

the whole

left.

are

brother,that in

24,

sian
[bribingRus-

she came,

we

did

OSItfSKI
what

know

not

give her and where

to

so].

her

honored

still we

But

place this

whose
killed,

cousin

nothing

shall be thankful
Mother

God's

send

to

you

whole

during my

another,if not here,then in heaven

Now, dear brothers,I inform you

one

read him

I will write

me,

he said

this letter of yours,

them

letter yet.

one

"God

about

them

I don't

But

that

we

and
see

may

When

jestabout

not

mind

God

Aleksander.

"Let

so:

gift.

your

reward."

life. I will pray

and
giveyou happinessand blessing

to

glad and
[the one

so

for
kindlyand heartily

except these words:

you,

to you

[we were

her

forget the other

fill].

to

came

433

to seat

cannot

Now, dear brothers,I thank

I have

SERIES

it at

all,and
pigeons and a

of my
I will give them
a dinner
they only come.
of my
rabbits,buy a keg of beer for them, and bake wheatsupper

may

bread."
....

[FRANIA]

May

113
Now

I, your

I inform

you

....

words.

write
sister,

dear

you,

Michalek,

few

the strawberries

passed the winter well.

them and I hope that they will bring fruit. If our Lord God
I weeded
Before the
grants you life and health,you will also try them
house

I made

which

you

the

brought

some

sowed

Only

the flower-seeds
I need

fence,for

parents say that before this

our

to fall down.

wants

one

next

shall make
was

the Count

things,and

But

bring material,and

Dlugie [where M.

and

Dlugie

work.

is left,
we

money

from

me

barn, for the old

new

shall

we

year

flower-beds

round

poultry spoilmy

shall build

in

small

that

to

17, 1904

year

So this

shall build.

we

Then, if

hedge. Now I inform you

groom] they are alreadysellingthe

will go

the

away

in

July.

Mr.

we

Bozewski's

that
small

brother

will live there

[FRANIA]
January 18, 1905

114
DEAR

BROTHER:

We

....

which
much

found
of

in your

us

in

good health

them, for they were

difficultfor

and

received

....

me

to

see

what

written upon
was

first letter,
that mother

family,mother

but
....

tells you,

written.

should
don't turn

we

letters from

two

could

not

such dark paper

And

inform

as

to what

you

about

her head

you,

understand
that it was
you
her

wrote

parents

[worryher]for

the

PRIMARY-GROUP

434
is not

mayor

in the

in the army.

hardly walks about

dear brother,that

she

Now

walked

you,

our
myself,even
to write, for Michal

not

of Michalek.

address
and

brother
and

you,

sent

He

small

you

for each
I

is dead

villagenobody

about
10

send

and

were

Father

myself,
told

and

took

me

the

everything

cigarettes,
5 for each

of you.

can

it.

America

to

brother
gifts,

token, but

this

about

you

you

this letter

I write

went

will inform

handkerchief

satisfied with
our

Zieleniak

enough when

the house.

parents don't know

from

In

and mother
village,

I inform

Now

ORGANIZATION

You

be

won't

of

perhaps

nothing more

you

nobody married, for

all went

to

the army.
Pardon
have

no

for

me

such

sending you

letter

[withoutstamp],but

at all

money

F[RANIA]
the

On

villageon

our

day when

the priest
went
letter,
visitation [kolenda],1

same
a

this

I wrote

_,

__w

Now

....

brother

brother

Dear

in

to you

and

heartilyfor

you

that she bred

directly,

weeps

all want

to leave her.

that country, for now,

And

although

__,

I say
us

I could

I have

not

much

gladlygo

to mother

and

up

now,

that I will
when

work

and

she is

livingin

for my

earn

..,__

gift,dear

your

I would
sister-in-law,

singlehour [atonce],but when

go, mother

old,we

thank
sister,

I, your

through

must

sit the

day, hi the evening I get scarcely

30 copecks

whole

[FRANIA]
Il6

January

[JAN]:
in a hurry

BROTHER

DEAR

at

but

once,

Czechoska
thanks

to

but

was

and

....

God, is

13 banns

were

in

our

only at

was

no

Pardon
.

with

then I had

parish

wedding-dressesfor Stanislawa

to be at the

of

having answered

for not

Czechoska,

was

Here,

wedding

except weddings.

news

that

me

24, 1907

On

asked

one

to

for if I went

Sunday there
every wedding
everywhere, I

Christmas
(i) Christmas wish, song, gift; many
songs have this
visitation
of
the
after
Christmas
word as refrain; (2)
probably
(originally
priest
during or before Christmas),during which the priestinspectsthe parish,examines
the parishioners
on
religiousmatters, and gets giftsfrom them.
1

Kolenda:

There

were

no

weddings

at

all the

precedingyear.

Cf. No.

86,

note.

OSltfSKI

should have

SERIES

435

left for

for now
at weddingseverybody
clothes,
enough,
pays largely[tothe bride's collection].I have indeed work
but in the country the pricesof livingare very low,so that my work
no

ill

is very

money

much, but

very

if I

that

see

brother

Dear

paid.

I should

it is not

worth

wedding.

here

working
help,I would

has

betrothed

your

like to be at your

that mother

married, so

Michal,

and

pleasesme

Dear

brother,

if Aleksander
to

go

but

you,

gets

I don't

when

know

[FRANIA]
April 25,

117
BROTHER:

DEAR

here

comes

with

should remain

an

with

it

As

me.

his fiddle.
old

girl.

is,I live

But

I have

nobody

I think

sleepearly,and
so, and

long for

pityour parents,

for I

you,

I should

and
little,

sew,

for there will be work

Well,I
least

one

with

me

of you,

go at

Our

can

for

will

head

of you

one

almost

weep

parents

to you,

once

enough

for with

must

weep

this needle I
I won't

everything. Now

at the farm.

to

go

If I did not

orphan.

an

every

old and

burst,I

were

I think.

grief,so
are

can

even

is it possibleto

But

fortune,while they have raised us ?

and pray to God that he will bring here at
of

to the mercy

will bear it as

I must

alone like

is needed

money

parents

consume

am

easilyhappen that

myself with

often that my

earn

our

prison.

until Michalek

marry

mind, if at least

speak with.

to

even

to

it could

so

never

in

as

not

me

But

If it lasts longer,I shall

day.

leave

write

You

1909

for I

don't

long terribly.Goodbye, and

for writingthis,for I have nobody to whom

can

be angry

complain.

sister,

Your

FRANCISZKA

118

February 28, 1910

dear

Now,
intended

to

remained

on

for I won't

brothers,I also
but

marry,

the
marry

farm,
a

[asmanor-servant].
1

Marrying

you
so

man

Even

manor-servant

who

that

write

I shall

has to pass

if he
would

words

were

be

the wandering life of the servant, not

And it is not
girlin a contemptuous way.

be

better

now

from

if Alos
to you,

....

to another

manor

one

you

craftsman,1and ifhe wanted

step downward
his

an

to

it would

probably come

But

manor

few

pen

for

farmer's daughter.
forward

dependence,is put

economic

matter, for

(blacksmith or carpenter)usuallylives better than

to

by the

craftsman

small farmer.

in
Two

436

PRIMARY-GROUP

settle upon

good farm, at least

there is not

you,

for

their

to

So

gets

did2 and

us

I shall

to

income, for when

Moreover, mother

complains often

earn

home

at

am

his

wife,he

back,

conies

will be able to pay

our

parents

as

you

I have

bad

myself, for here

I must

always do something
for she is no

now,

the household.

I must

only enough

Alos

probably leave

little for

will go

brother

I wrote

as

will be the suitable part to everybody.

with

dowry

more

Meanwhile

us.1

what

But,

parents have

our

when

perhaps

needed.

are

2,000
now;

money

help,he will pay

If he
more

much

so

expenses.

with God's

ORGANIZATION

And

else.

longeryoung,

so

not
busy myselfwith
like to pay me
anything,for he pays the servant, while I always need
besides everythingelse. Now, if you have no money
a little money

Lastly I
so

show

cannot

you

yourselfanywhere, particularlya

always

am

it is very

father also would

sad for

alone,you

so

Therefore

me.

all scattered

are

find

I must

young

about

person.

the

world,

other way.

some

[FRANIA]
1

August

19
DEAR

and

BROTHER

visit

would

Perhaps

us.

cause

the

to

be in

will

you

great joy,for

me

wedding,

at

SISTER-IN-LAW:

AND

this is

to have

hope that

we

wedding

will be

husband.

He

is the

Michalek

knows

him

factors determine

this

wandering life of

community, with

our

in autumn.

(i) The

determined

You

to have

none

wedding

died, so

inform

who

you

our

school with

the stable life of

social standing; and

future

I invite

farmer

social factor; the fanner

the

of Michalek.

him.

was

affairs

is my

Trabin, schoolmate
to

appreciationof

and

painful. My
betrothed

I must

for he went

3 brothers

kind

intentions will be fulfilledand

miller from

servant:

very

of my

August, but the father

got crossed,but

beg you also,be so

just for my wedding.
I

come

something

2, 1910

against the

as

is

him,

member

of

(2) the love of land and farm-

work.
1

For

this

the brothers

reason

husband, whoever

he may

cash is firstof all reserved for girlsas

cash and will be able to pay.
mortgage

Aleksander

want

be, will have

Of

its farm and give him

course

no

take

to

cash ready to pay

dowry, while Aleksander

Frania's

the farm.
her

brothers off,for

will get

dowry

the family of Frania's future husband

the necessary

cash; but

we

know

the

in

may

peasant'shate

of debts.
2

There

reproaches
which

is bitterness
are

made.

is only sorrowful.

in this

The

phrase

letter contrasts

and

letter,although no
the preceding one
(No. 117),

in the
with

whole

438

PRIMARY-GROUP

bread
as

and

salt

token

already!

And

brought before

his arm,

upon

ORGANIZATION

and

This

was

was

us

and

progeny,

with

big kerchiefs,

small,for it has finished 7 years

very

If you

scene!

child,enveloped

us

the child

professorwished

our

had

been

there you

would

have

seen!

Then

inform

we

without

collection.2

any

in order
you

to send

After the

wedding

the token

you

wishing you

now,

that the festival lasted for

you

in

night and

went

we

the

to

remembrance, which

and

FRANCISZKA

March
BROTHERS

letter

your

and

heartilyfor
cannot

this money,
to

prove

except by thanking you

time that

we

to reward

gave
a

you

brothers

once

[money] for

hundred

you

sister-in-law
for your

inform

we

we

We

good heart,
at the same

you

at which

holy mass,

thank

We

now

And

more.

will

beg God

our

country.

fold.

[Weather; crops.] There

There

and

gratitude even

our

you

received

We
....

[wedding]gift

dear

27, 1911

SISTER-IN-LAW:

AND

your

....

senc

Yours, loving,

122

DEAR

we

good.

every

ADAM

....

day,
rapher
photoga

is

hi
nothing interesting

again that there is

be

God

the

give peace, for it would be the worst misery to our

He rejoices
that he has only 7 months
If there
to serve.
more
inform
We
only peace, we should live perhaps tillhe comes.

Alos.

are

rumors

to

May

war.

Merciful

about

also

the trouble

of land

morgs

and

the mill is not

from

in the country and

to the

the

buildings,
we

windmill.

250

us

in
life,

and
1

from

few

the peasant

proves

in the

This is not

attitude.

not

as

years

which
But
we

the whole

pointof

new

very

the farm.

This, as well

standing

roubles of debt

they willed

we

We

keep

view.

farm.

our

mills have

bread

been

from

away

took

we

if only

hope

to

over

our

make

shows
description,

As

bad; only

Moreover,

we

his parents when

from

Lord

income

constructed

is not

old fashioned.

"

the millers.

barn, a stable which

good

you

have

We

stock,for the

some

steam

these took much

have

with

have

large,because

dwelling-houseis

have

which

were

God

grants

health

us

everything all right,wi

that the wedding

was

firstrate

Evidently both bride and bridegroom had

high

community.
in accordance

collection would

with the tradition and shows

probably have

that the real meaning of communal

been

felt

as

a
a

somewhat

advanced

humiliation,but this

solidarityis already obliterated.

OSltfSKI

for we
pleasantly,
happens, griefor joy, we

whatever

other, so

439

life flows

help. Our

God's

SERIES

love and
share

respect each

it

together in

concord
and wishes.]
[Greetings

A[DAM] and F[RANIA]BRZEZINSCY

123
BROTHER

DEAR
at

you

for

once

had

pretty well,we
in autumn

had

we

When

nothing. If only God

some

Our

way.

We
.

what

But

ones.

God

sends

grants

children,up

to

a
we

and

the

answer

It

going

was

then

suddenly

horse

died,and

do ?

It won't

misfortune

did not

back, and

can

health

us

1913

farming.

our

debt

our

died, and then in May

Lord

our

of

paid a part

always befalls the best

back.

trouble with

some

fine colt

[-IN-LAW]:

SISTER

AND

July 7,

the

come

do

can

man

shall manage

we
life,

present, get

this

well

on

Zygmunt alreadyexplainshimself well enough. They

and wishes.]
joy. [Weather and crops; greetings

are

in

enough.
whole

our

A[DAM] and F[RANIA]B.

TROMBIN, November

124
DEAR

BROTHER

misfortune

some

SISTER

AND

with

the

[-IN-LAW]:

We

....

horses,as

4, 1913

had

this year

already,and then the

both had trouble enough, but

I wrote

you

We
wings of our windmill fell down.
have talked with each other,that
We
nothing could be done.
Lord

God

This

is

trying us, and

alone makes

we

life sweeter, that

our

and that up
respect each other,1
children

our

well.

alreadystands
send

you

As to
for

take
Now

If

to the

could

we

live hi

present

livelyand

are

get

His

everythingto

we

our

grow

some

will.

good harmony and

Lord God has kept

well.

more

Little Walcia

money,

would

we

their

photograph.
the windmill,probablyit won't be worth repairing
any
mills

are

built in the towns

[thegrain]there,for they have it at

we

They

alone.

steam

now

commended

our

inform

you

that

have

we

Again the attitude of "respect" as

that hi the firstletter "love"

there is no
later,
colder,
only that

subordinated

to

such

mention.

norm.

once

milkshop
co-operative

basis of

not

the firstsexual novelty has

the respect

everybody prefersto
and more
finelyground.

and

conjugallife.

is mentioned, while hi the

It does

mean

more

And

in

our

it is significant

second, two

years

that the relation has grown,

disappearedand

the sexual relation is

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

440

village. Adam
[Weather.] We
know

inform

won't

parents, and

about

you

dear

brother

particularlymother.

Write

own

you

can, for mother

me,

she

name,

despairsmuch
and

only pets Zygmus

there at home

again and

she weeps

and

from

often and

not

her

she

for

and

I don't

now

I received

BROTHER:

urgent work

looked

it in my

When

which

hand

and

always for the words

ship-ticket is

the

on

your

I did not

dear

with

Easter].

[I did

which

I read

whether
you

there

I went

America,"
that you

wish is

on

you

I would

letter

Gulbiny;
1

The

Aleksander.

mother
From

wrong.

holidays I

at

was

Sunday [before

the last

priest[who consecrated the Eastertheir [new] house hi order; the priestconsecrated

favorite
the "w$cone [Easter-food]
and my
the

[ate]in

days.

But

not

was

go

to

America

[from you] and

after the

only that

the

whether

when

anybody got

girlwho expected you

more

the growing longing for her other boys.

than

from

was

I had
about

do you
our

like

country

married

in

in vain to marry

has lost her practicalinterest in life since the farm

this probably,

glad
rainy.

I told them

holidays,that

ship-ticket.Only

know

very

cold and

mother.
continually,
particularly

I don't

I know

him, but

rightor

inform
where
Now
leave,I told the truth
me,
the most
all the placesyou have been, in
[tolive]among

abroad

sick.

companion

my

to

and

or, "The

were

go with

I would

that in the

I1

called away.

was

for
further,

my

at

ever
When-

readingit.

to

instead

1902

I had

myself well],for both holidayswere

amuse

to come

thought that

justafter

I settled

They remembered
received

to

from

wish to read any

parents.

I arrived

always that

read, I

brother,I inform

our

not

began

I don't know

food] left. They have

it,together with
sausage,

me

"Prepare

April,and

succeed.

Now,
home

in

letter

hindered

way," but

I read this I did not

is going now,

write

well.

go

....

I took

how

FRANIA

DLUGIE, April27,

the moment

and

indifferent

125
DEAR

to

knows

who

as

comes

leaves at once,

nobody

anything is bad[lywritten]forgiveme,

often,so it does

I
our

comfort

When

you.1

there is

you

Now

ours.

ADAM
If

milk.

remember
sister,

littleand

her,for Alos is somewhat

to comfort

know

we

about

Walcia

for the

pay

political
questions,for

papers

your

to

treasurer,
than

in my

you

elected

even

there from

more

beg

was

Aleksander's

was

given to

coldness,comes

OS1NSKI

her

[or"whom

expectedin

you

SERIES

vain to

441

marry"] took

clay-dabber

some

[brick-maker]

MlCHAL

126

May
BROTHER:

DEAR

which

cannot

you

alreadytreated by
but when

I inform

to the

at

much

not

am

doctor,and

making],for

it is

I inform

about

you

be done

nothingcan

cold that

so

As

to

"

watch,

stop again,

springin

our

country.

our

sometimes, and
well,for laughing [lovesnows

even

for

the

not

....

better.

"

It is

villageDlugie.

our

trouble,in

to my

the potatoes in hot-beds

improve it

to

for it

anywhere

go

of this

....

it wants

now

bad,

present it has been

out

and

pleased with it,for it has been

brother,about

dear

you,

night it is impossibleto

Now

possibleget

as

frightenit perhaps it will know

Now

soon

"trinkejnglassBir."

even

indeed,but

it

I have

as

may

you

10, 1902

good health

you

....

happiness,that

Up

wish

....

O.

frozen.

are

spoiledthat

so

but the people

village
itself,

consideration.
village. First, card-playingwithout
any
time
from other villages
to ours
[toplay]. At the same
People come
drinking,fighting almost every boy with a stick in his hand, a knife
in

the

"

in his

pocket and
that

than

more

suspect
from

400

returned

roubles

exactlythat

the

did

who

man

he went

to work

are

from

me

and
so

"Social

criminal offense loses

going

once

as

and

that
[saying]

I shall

the most

who

man

usual

The

main

has been

cause

O.

of peasant suicide.

to

condemned,
He

for he is always reminded

settle in any

other community

or

in the peasant farmer-villagelife.

opinioncan

become

the most

tried,for

even
can

never

try

to

tion,
of his condemnawithout

the system of "legitimationpapers" prevents it.

indicate that social

(Cf.

factor here is the fear of the

forever all social standing.

influence in his community,

be

I should

hunger, and that

MlCHAL

it is difficultfor him

to

America

any

seems

the one, but

was

robbers

many

and

becoming known;

to

stillto die from

Environment.")

dishonor of condemnation,

suicide

[who

yet discovered

that he

man,

were

[Wishes and greetings.]

did [don'tmarry] until I see you

Suspicion,just or unjust, is

Introduction:

one

I don't

taken.

Dlugie,but they

from

him

brought with

the money

It is not

rate.

to talk about

Antoni

as

hard

for there
killed,

exert

any

were

and

tions
propor-

hanged himself.1

and

Everybody dissuades

America

killed and

was

neighborhood, at

Only don't do
have

from

these robbers

it]. People began

[Itassumes] such

in his bosom.

revolver

The

his past

peasant's

powerfulelement

PRIMARY-GROUP

442

ORGANIZATION

August

127
DEAR

BROTHER:

....

good health,until
But

was

had

no

....

hope

in God

sad that I shan't

home.

I read

that

you

rejoicedthat
work,

and

presentlyyou will get better.

you, dear brother,and also that I

see

Therefore

I asked

father to

give me

to ask
Warsaw, but father said that he wanted
roubles,and father and mother say that I could go

50

they preferit

to

going

my

America,

to

militaryservice. But what can

could,dear brother (I don't dare to beg
have

work, but

no

give it back

I dare

with

to you

I do in my

thanks,for

hope

also very

am

sit at

now

Warsaw, that

to

not

to go

pay

misery ?

If you

complain that

could),help me

in God

to

to lend him

you

for you

you,

say, if you

only to

grievedme.

must

for it would

before the

you

in

were

few roubles in order

to

go

you

this

that

i, 1902

and

God's

I will

Mother

that I shan't

always be so badly off. And I add, dear and beloved

brother,that I should gladlyremain at home, but father always says
for myself,that he has already fed me
that I ought to earn
long
enough.1

In

respects he is right,but if I get into the world,I

some

shall

perhaps find

have

some

if

way

few grosz, but I cannot

Lord

our

as

go

and
trifles,

rejectmy

nothing2 yet if
"

even

the blood

each

other,I
Now

valise.

or

have

finger.3And

my

shared

I could

don't wait for

ought

to

members

is

economic

advance

the family
3

Alludes

his brother
*

as

Half

member

to

when

of the

familywho

is not

by hired work

is insufficient to feed the whole

necessity; but
for

productiveuse

most

everything,

you

brother,when

so, dear

anything,only help me.

his living outside

earn

the farm
a

giveyou
see

we

will

idea that every

when

course,

know, when

mere

here this is not

livingas

to the work

an

the

aim, which

of each

member

more,

be

cannot,

as

once

If you

at least with

you

The

home

at

brother,don't

You

with

also many

are

dear

Now,

another,although

could,I would

from

There

delay,if you only can.

time

buy clothes and

[lendmoney], to the parents, then help me

I don't requireyou
few roubles.
to send
me
your

I wrote
a

sewed.

health.

me

give you everythingback with thanks

have nothing more
to write,only I beg you

kind and

so

don't

[money] one

needed

you

and

prayer,

of

sort

some

grants
I must

am.

them
or stuff for shirts and have
shirts,
other

God

money

and

absolutelyindispensable
is relativelynew.

family additional work

case.

to

Of
of its

It is the substitution of

leads to the desire to give the

of the family, in the interest of

whole.
the fact that he tried to
the latter

was

persuade his parents

to

send

money

hi the army.

proverbial,
probably originatingin

the form

of blood

brotherhood.

to

OSHSTSKI

live there in
have

for
misery yourself,

work, but only if I

myselfany
Pardon

for 30

more

now

me,

dear

beloved

to my

better than

even

But

am

I cannot

dress

recentlyto America].

went

what

me

I said to her

kiss you

as
kindlyand heartily,

well and

haps
per-

sweetheart.

my

MICHAE

128

February 21,
I have

BROTHER:

DEAR

her

on

something

me

and

you

working for.
roubles [a year]
I

her,to pardon

see

to write

I embrace

dying with hunger,but I

know, dear brother,that I like to
not

am

[probablycousin,who

Frania

departure,and

443

brother,for having written so badly,but I wrote

I bow
low
something else. [Wishes.] And now

beg her,if you

Please

you

what

know

thought about

and

For

luxury either.

no

SERIES

waited

for your

....

....

O.

1903

letter for

I don't know
what is going on
days,and weeks, and months
with you, whether you are ill,
or whether
you got so proud after your
marriage. I make different suppositions. Forgive me my joke,dear
brother [about the marriage; Jan was
refused by the girl],
ultimately

for

Zosia S. will also

perhaps my

her name,

for she is in

be

would

America, and

ready perhaps
I inform

Now
me

could

only follow them.

have

no

hard

to hold out
to earn

look
my

as

work, and
others

littleabout

go, but if you

the

the

send

out

me

I shall

also

went

write well

were

hard,

be twenty.

soon

if I

keep

Mother

says

and
ship-ticket

mates

if I

enough. They

ought

to

I should

be

able

be

glad

at least to

groom-work longerin
head [upsetme]
be better if I did not

it would
if I

and

this

the top of my

by

you

prefer to work

militaryservice,or if not, then

world, for

to go.

me

who

bachelor,so

companions

my

I should

if it

even

do, for

it will go

allows

Those

I don't mention

yourself

brother,that

America, and

to

littlebefore

hands

Father

go

stilla

are

you

to take her for

dear

you,

leave

and

me.
despise[reject]

beg her,she

will allow

me

to go

MlCHAL

March

129
And

now

beg

you,

dear

there to you, for here I work

brothers,help me

at home

and

as

in

hired

some

O.

6, 1906
way

laborer,and

to

get

even

PRIMARY-GROUP

444

so

me

enough for

hardlyearn
or

money

with

clothes.1

my

When
ship-ticket.

all my

Moreover,

also to visit America.

I want

going, so

are

ORGANIZATION

Dear

brothers,send

there,I will

come

ions
compan-

work

it back

thanks
ALEKSANDER

OSINSKI

November

130

I,dear brothers,bid

Now

for
kindlyand heartily,

greet you
will allow

us

about

parents and

our

day when
happen to

to

about
does

mother

our

there will be

about

or

me,

another

one

see

for you

know

beg

don't

you,

that there is

God

forget

hardlya

what

me,

will

healthyand alive,and

are

you

Lord

our

tears, either about

whether

you,

whether

more.2

shed

not

to comfort

nobody

I don't know
any

me,

[on going to the army] and

farewell

you

15, 1908

mother

our

[ALEKSANDER]

I learned

BROTHERS:

DEAR
sent

me

roubles.

20

This

I don't wait with

to

me.

at

once

and

Lord

thank

I inform

Now

will be

oath

brothers

to show

me

taken

and

to

The

army.

only on
America

goes

its

century,

on

where

(because every
communication

usually did

without

On

May

21,

is

our

our

typicalsign o^
in the

Cf. letters of Stanislaw

unit.

not

severe

often reallya

know

was

to

by letters
how

to

to

was

was

above

separationfor

the

possible.

life even

It

was

much

be

to

seems

to serve

At

if there

to

seven

social

fifteen years

soldier,who,

of
discipline

as

smaller than

no

war,

the number
now.

or

the Russian

moreover,
army

that time going to the army

was

custom(

of the nineteenth

prolongationof the term),

of

means

the

of its relative rareness,

furnish

other,certainly
1908)and not only

of the distance,since the emigration

was

when

in the

serve

any

that period in the middle

the army

write,and

and unreasonable

to

(no war

than

expectedin

disciplinarypunishment brought

meaning because

community

absolute

more

such tragicfarewells.

peasant taken

when

more

service.

parents'account

or
separation,

is easilytraced back

source

more

the most

familyas

possiblewar

of the length of the

and

his

on

separationis felt as
of any

account

account

on

Perhaps

find this farewell also in other letters of peasants going to

We

Russian

you

series.

Markiewicz
2

answer

hope that it will be somewhat

we

dissatisfaction with working

sister-in-law.

my

....

but

useful

very

gratitude

my

about

you

of the
the beginning disintegration

not

you

....

The

and

letter that

they will be

for

rejoiced
me,

17, 1909

your

answering until they come,

dear

you,

will allow

God

from

....

....

you

[SIBERIA],
May

KANSK

TOWN

131

and

was

meant

the fact had

still

of recruits which

446

PRIMARY-GROUP

here in the

same

if

anybody

he

will be

killed

attacked

and

I inform

the air is cold

but it would

cost

to

much,

they would

living. And

beg

me

30 roubles

we

were

the other fled.

.

advise

here

me,

only

whether

alreadyfrom

home

now,

I may

to come;

journey alone,without

ALEKSANDER

SIBERIA, March

133
On

BROTHERS:

DEAR

....

roll-call I had

brought

already gone
I read

When

to me.

to

had

not

of the
so

Lord

perhaps our

until I got the

to see

us

would

letter,you

another

one

sad

believe

not

sister will

our

school.

who. went

with

is the

of the miller.

son

did

Obory, but she

than

40

from

home,

morgs

think

that

won't

come

earth
1

and
That

parents.

want

of land.

She

he

is

back

from

I know

my
how

is,Aleksander

did not

to

grant

Brz. from

also

was

well

[togive

won't

wish

years,

so

manage

As

it.

will be released from

it to

to work
am

very

as

be

Trombin,
him;

he

from

man

more

far away

too

the

farm, I

me], for Michalek

in the

earth,while

accustomed

Just for that

the army

to

the

to

me

knows

him, for it is

want

dear

[home] to

go

will

the Bible

as

and
young

to

Adam

there

the

Now,

him, although he is rich; he has

father

more

any

under

holidayswere

my

that Michalek

Year

New

old

as

advised

you

I think

On

not

and

worked

I have

to

us

certainlymarry

in 3

So

soon

me

....

also,for

[Michal]

militarychief

that Janek intends

brothers, I learned
wedding [of Frania]. Perhaps our Lord God
there

1910

long a time, dear brother,and

knew, dear brothers,how

If you

roof.1

native

will grant

God

that you

commune

the decision will be in the office of the

weeks

28,

it,I learned firstthat father had already

[inthe country]for

been

O.

Easter-Sunday after the evening

sleepwhen a letter from home was

the decision

the governor

sent

to

for 3 months

leave

give me

and

been

free,but they did

is finished

for the

alive;

have

Many

convicts

you,

twice

home

prison

bayonet,and

harvest

And

already.

very

the

leave,for they wrote

on

the

with

that

you

the

near

closed,and

are

return

knives.

to set the

They wanted
one

won't

with

guard

on

he

street

butchered

or

killed

We

the

on

stood

we

by day.

Now

go

Once

succeed.

not

himself

either shot

so.

evening all the shutters

In the

way.

shows

ORGANIZATION

am

so

to the

awfully

the sole support of his

OSINSKI

for I

homesick in the army,

shown
[Moving-pictures

am

when

receive

you

this

447

from

away

the

I cannot
soil,

work

in it.

regiment.]

the

Now, dear brothers,you

SERIES

that you

wrote

letter,send

me

help me,

can

few

roubles.

beg you,
Perhaps they
so

will be useful for my

I will go
journey,or if not, then in the autumn
leave
I beg you,
dear brothers,don't forget me
on
dear Janek, who
have
served.
You
know
how
particularly
you,
it smells here; particularly
bad
almost
during their Lent
one
....

dies.
ALEKSANDER

[Letterof March
the

from

17,

did

army

shows

1911

succeed.

not

that

the

Letter

of

plan

have

to

January,

him

announces

1912,

GULBINY, February

134
DEAR

First I greet you,

BROTHER:

....

I inform

that I got free from

you

What

parents.

was

for I know

that you

Moscovite

bread

not

to let

and

in America

to

America.
is half

whom

rich

been

owner] lives

what

only the

Uncle

Sm.

end

soon

that you

only 3 years
factorythey built near

you,

the

even

dear

As

....

farm-yard!

go

have

there

prettiestgirls

brother, don't forget this.

and

I could

to

here,bring

to

the old

old

know

does

all,dear

You

Jablonska from the

lyingvery sick. For a

not

you

there

I need

come

All the

here.

news

to rise

so

to remain

me

you

of this

Frania

Perhaps you

when

his life. And

would

and

is

and

Siberia,while

girl,so

it to you,

I inform

girlfor myself.

some

is the

able to eat and

will
so

beg
jest.]

wrote,

you

probably he
for

this

dear

my

also eaten

me,

wants

stillalone.

am

So I

you

villageis dead, and

away

house, she

relate about

to

pretty and

I inform

he has not

her

describe

good it is. Only

for here it is difficult to find such.

[The request
about

from

wife,and

to

came

have

end, everybody invites

married, only I
some

her to me,

Now

go

how

farther in order to find

brothers,are

gone

know

you

won't

you

17, 1912

also your

and

slaveryand

it well,because

without

night and

somewhere

are

know

me

this

joy,dear brother,I

my

and

treated

am

want

day

released

home.]

arrival

that I

O.

we

don't

whole

but

[manor-

Piwnicki

him

and

his estate.

recognizeit.
the mill and

year

know,

Mr.

And

of the

end

our

not

people

What

that

was
a

forge

448

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

which

stood

from

have

inform

nothing

when

me

bring with

and

they take clay

[Weather.]

that spot.1
Now

pulleddown,

been

the mill have

near

will

you

If you

write.

to

how

and

back

come

perhaps find

I shall

you,

of interest

more

much

money

somewhere

you

can,
can

you

nice

piece

of land
Your

well-wishingbrother,
A. 0.

July 12,

135
DEAR

BROTHER

I will pen

....

at

present, for I
Do

more.

you

excuse

for I

me,

....

After

so

in my

hope that

to the

up

I will write

present I have

troubles

many

other

much

foot,for

on

also

I have

I found

two,

Bronislawa, but

of these two

Probably one

name.

words, not

I marry,

as

walk

the

and

few

soon

I must

now

out!

forgether

and

mine
my

girl,but

Bronislawa

named

one

of

the horses

alreadyworn

As

know, dear brother,that

you

in search

ridden

yet married.

not

am

to you

1912

will be

letter I shall invite you

next

wedding
brother,
well-wishing

Your

O.

ALEKSANDER
1

Rather

an

parents)than
improvement

of

expressionof
approval. The

of the manor,

as

factory,provokes a mixed
work, of admiration

peasants

well

for the man's

country

accompanies

lord becomes
any

endeavor

into

make

standard

same

should

to

diminish

comes

and

or

as

"like
that ?

begins

his standard
classed

The

the

a
"

This

to turn

of life. Such
parvenu.

man,

half aesthetic,

for the sake

and

from

the

expenses,

conversion

afford

of

tional
tradi-

of

of

number

aesthetic

an

not

argument

unproductive expenses,

suitable for him

He

be too

to

known

when

tain
mainmay

eager

to

rich enough to

is always "Is he not

values which
if not

to

grandfather before him.

attitude is particularlymarked

into money

tune

feelingof commiseration

same

household

his father and

The

Jew."

same

country lord, in the peasant'sopinion,ought

standing,to

of life as

The

in general any

improve his farming but it is

money,

afford this

an

entrepreneur.

productive value.

the

opportunity of

new

aesthetic environment

an

to live according to his social

at

of the

is slightlydespisedbecause
of

of carriage horses, etc., and

servants,

appreciateany aesthetic
purely agriculturalline,
the building of a
particularly
to

in the

progress

any

cleverness,and

greater income

the

as

ready

are

because
feelingof satisfaction,

disapproval. The man

he depriveshimself

half moral

value

(cf. corresponding letter of the

commiseration

industrial undertaking of the manor-owner,

but every

and

to

new

proprietor

used to maintain
his predecessor
in the country,

is immediately

OSltfSKI

SERIES

449

136

September
[-IN-LAW] AND

SISTER

DEAR
....

that you

wrote

long in such

so

though

are

you

of the

name

write

were

rich

write

us, old

to

but not

now

few

another

quite

manner.

making jokesat

or

for

in order

me

as

don't

us.

You

takingjust anything I would rather

And
if
quieter[lessdistracting].
country

and

farm, for

the old parents who

I inform

of
priesthood]

the

and

in Trombin

from

here

to

I cannot

in

act

on

the old

is now

September

you
you

dear

who

in Radomin.

[Weather;

Radomin.

destined
even

for you,

come

to

soon

That

soon.

will be
to

come

can

our

pity

I do ?

can

5oth anniversary[of
for

was

so

years

many

will
[procession]

company

farm-

brother,that

different way.

29, is the

priestF

country.

our

whether

you

will be left alone,but what

that

you

now

the

good wife,and instead of

wish

you

to be

not

know

know,

to you

come

people,

help, and

even

rich and

prison

first

everything,whatever your father

than I get married.
Perhaps I shall

sooner

the

in

much

you,

We

this

well among

very

from

grosz

from

justnow

came

all this costs

for here it is difficult to get

you,

living,

get your

will receive

you

having

you,

people [speakingin the

time to look around

no

boys, and

expected
in

cannot

You

[our parents

grieved that

country,

clothes to be made

some

in earnest

are

even

other

last among

much

BROTHER:
of these

one

1912

parents]for help.

I needed

even

We

but

in

letters and

free and

young,

[thearmy], I had

two

know, dear brother,that

You

and

sent

for money.

asked

say]you
been

had

BELOVED

24,

work.]

The

worst

go

of it is

digging of the potatoes. It rains almost every day, the potatoes

rot, and it is impossible to hire anybody. People want
50 and 60
copecks a day, and afternoon luncheon,and a bottle [ofbeer]to be put
the

out

for them.

This is too

expensivefor
Your

us.

We

dig alone

must

well-wishingbrother,
ALEKSANDER

November

137
"Praised
DEAR

wife,to
be

be

celebrated

We

signedunder, invite

marriage-ceremonyand
on

16, 1912

Jesus Christus!"

BROTHER:
our

0.

Wednesday,

to

November

the

you,

togetherwith

your

wedding-feastwhich
27,

1912,

in the house

will
of

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

450

Mr.

another

in

Bozomin.

in

Jur.,

describe

shall

to

life

our

you

with

remain,

for

respect

you,

ALEKSANDER

[Greetings
weather

on

from

the

sister, and

BROTHER

SISTER-IN-LAW:

AND

the

to

up

such

if

only

and

photograph,

beg

he

the

would

very

be

healthy,

to

until

with

the

don't

see

and
you

to

that

health

now

his

wife

seeing

about

you

before

great

The
the

invitation
date

offense.

of

is
the

evidently

wedding.

purely
Nevertheless

As

in

the

to

send

it to
all.

at

that

us

he

and

now

health;

me

America.

haps
per-

bid

We
tells

always

dened
red-

Julka

married]

[Weather.]

My

from

shall

live

they

wife

where,
any-

learned

wrote

[after being

hurrah!

with

he

full

got

opportunity

no

for

whether

talk
of

have

we

favors

moving

my

we

few

you

alone.

but

pardon,

and

cold,

anywhere

go

heartily.

pleasure

When

felt

of

you

that

she

Now

be

you.

and

ALEKSANDER

the

1913

I have

now

think

don't

health.

us

your

know

and

Only

Michalek,

Then

near.

kindly

me

about

us

is

glad

politely

together

stork

let

won't

letter, for

inform

write.

not

goodbye

very

work

soon

does

beg

also,

you

would

she

another

in

gives

you

on.

and

catastrophe]

some

that

we

perhaps

you

our

said

God

I inform

merrily

waiting,

long
Lord

[about

letter

live

We

First

wife.

my

present.

after

liberty

your

with

together

20,

pen

....

about

news

January
DEAR

0.

JULCIA

sheet.]

separate

and

parents

and

138

words,

detail

letter.1
We

us

in

more

formal,
not

as

to

the

letter

invite

would

JULKA

will
be

hardly

O.

arrive

considered

GOSCIAK

father

of the
of

taken

once

an

and

father

the

Galician

average

son-in-law

the

and

The

son.

while

family,

is

cordial

more

son-in-law

the

The

peasant.

of familial

standpoint

the

his wife's

to

is

writer

The

SERIES

than

that

evidently

solidaritywith

has

son

has

relation

become

more

GALICIA

TO

at

regard
less

or

estranged during his stay in America.

FROM

139-41,

GOSCIAK,

JAKOB

SON-IN-LAW

AND

IN
IN

SON,

HIS

AMERICA

[1913?]

139
"Praised

be

DEAR

about
dear

Jesus Christus."

SON-IN-LAW

health,

AND

crops.]

success,

daughter, that

Czarnocin

but
....

whole
because

and

so

must

we

but

enough

to

they

say

have

they

now

proud,

tried

[crowns], but

7,000

that

to

find

know

very

crops

wait

what

be

it does

will

please

not

better

something

buy,

to

and

father.
that

in

gives them

therefore
It

this is

not,

or

they

pleases

He

and

women

it is true

further.

your

old

....

whether

beautiful

son-in-law

those

somebody

don't

we

dear

you,

[land] from

buy

....

possible

I inform

Now

[Generalities

DAUGHTER:

DEAR

YOU,

well

me

that

says

so

are

it is

worth

dear, and

little.
And
who
broke

write

to

us

that

says

people

Tomek

is

grove

between
the

about

ended, and

worth

something,

1,000

for

Patoniec

in

And

because

morg.

behave

there

And
?

the
it

so

are

was

write

Answer

that

land

land

now

so

America

arm

and

it is true,

have

we

words.
him.

Wojtek

Lesny
don't

you

So

you

don't

write

lawsuit

with

our

to

mine.

dear

here

not.

How

pine

lost much
alone

land

there.

answer

the

divide
We

it, for the

is very

about

that

you

worth

or

came

and

and

wars,

will be

some
me

from

it is true

I inform

now

it resulted

even

an

that

say

America

ourselves, and

lawsuit],but

broke

it, whether

that

it.

man

young

people

about

say

Wojtusiak

here

anything

us

anything

[on

And

that

you

Wojtek

leg.

And

us.

I inform

now

They
does

is
ask

Jozek

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

452
And

I shall write you

now

words, sincerest truth.

some

Believe

truth,because your mother herself

he is farming
ordered me
to write a few words about
your father,how
It is such a father.
he began to call upon us and to ask
here.
When
in order
for a loan of some
to buy a calf,we
lent him
us
money,
what

me,

pig

for it.

Hejmejka, and
suffice.

And

took

did
cart

he

do

and

he

when

mother

to dare

not

with

once

to send

even

money?

[? ] and

told

it to

it did not

more

to

bought

there sold

any

would

describe all

to

me

He

of

none

money,

liquor

for this

you,

she asks you

and

drove

he

Szymczyk, saying that he

spend everything in drinking. Your

to you,

lacked

and

mare

everything to Placiak,Josek and

this

at

long until he spent it all,and

so

what

home,

went

drank

it he went

he seized

when

Because

he seized this money

When

did he do ?

gulden. What

25
a

I shall write is the very

JAKOB GOSCIAK

March

140
I sit down

law, and

you

write

as

you,

table,I take the pen and I greet you, dear son-inabout health and success:
daughter. [Generalities

my

and

write

you

that

say

that

there is

and

not

send

you

you

any

since you

ask

whether
walk

barn,and
to

they

no

more

And

spring yet.

token.

small

trouble

and

I hid
with

them

to

burn

would

what

bank,

And

us.

The

money.

to

now

lend

Answer

with

it?

it to
me

I wrote
and

it.

them, because
Hejmejka

you

anybody

because

how

now

sent

you

now

you
in the

[hethinks]

liquor,because

heller]for

father

liter.

said

do

with

to

and

ago,

put it into

or
village,

I should

long

And

he

this
now

savings-

let it remain

it.

was

that

in that other letter about

to

but

God,

here

for

your

did

father wanted

your

money

I have

in the

And

Well, I hid them

them.

40

have

And

it is

we

we

to

me.

Jasiek paid it back

Whether

at once,

about

it gnaws

buildings,because

Bodziunys

shall I do
or

my

should

now

and

that

us

healed, thanks

useless,and your father wants

got dearer,7 szostkas [i crown

obliged to insure

down

write

how
us

shoe,because

enough

to drive

to

It is

planks whether

[angry]. And

me

you

But

wrote

once

leg is healed.
a

now

you,

address; but

but rain pours

snow,

reach

not

write your

are

vodka

home

how

letter did

don't be contrary to

never

yet in

take them

to

Christmas

my

I had

know

so

no

any

those

ask about

my

have

we

wet

cannot

sent.] Probably
I don't

and

know,

1914

to the

letters received
since

10,

now

at

you

and

gruel

We
the

me

is

still

stupid

useful

to

But
words.

you,

it
And

of

enough
You

if I

now

you

went

want

to

to

we

for

you
you

lot

but

on

you

shall

money,

of

for

this

it.

sent

which

on

it

all
us?

to

promises,

man

And

But

help

you

the
will

money

be

also

write
tot

wise

while

you

nicely

very

farm-stock

buy

now

America

give

greet

to

And

this.

get

thank

want

The

so.

us

umbrella

have

nothing
I

her

put

work,

to

necessary

money
at

had
for

So

sent!
when

enough,

be

have

you

If

rejoices.

would

laugh

people

she

much

how

is

it

will

where

But

ashamed,

man

it

with,

for

work,

nothing.

really

are

which

need

won't

And

bread.

and

potatoes

lady

your

this

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

454

you

dear

you,

know

son,

that

you

land.

nicely
JAKOB

GOSCIAK

few
will

MARKIEWICZ
The
in

Markiewiczs

the

of the
in

country

has

which

the

the

Warsaw,
of

ancient

almost

from

come

difference

the difference
individual

differences

find

We

series,but

nowhere

rise within

to

tendency

family

to

rise above

Markiewicz

situation
a

their

in which

its fixed

classes

fluid classes

of

lower

and

families,and

Their

their

origin, the

have

much

important

more

ordinary peasants
justified. For

to

it

classes

and

happened

ency
tendinto

general
society.

society,with

together
is

in various
to

their

class

can

than

with

the

therefore
in

its

that, thanks

within

of the

society, with

new

frequently
455

the

of Polish

consequences

appears

of

in

in its

the

situation

of the old

the

climb

kept

familial

change

to

The

only peculiarity

tendency

is

when

mixed

are

much

fullypresented

begins

the characters

the

situation,

other

representative

of individuals,

proportions.

in

class.

own

is thus
middle

of the

family

their

the

generation,the

moment

class

own

faster

explain

feature

universallyand

so

of

seat

aspirationsare

situations

analogous

influence,

familial

fundamental

at the
interesting stage, i.e.,

most

It is

if this

and

in

Wroblewski,

the young

of character

the

Wroblewskis,

this may

whole

The

of

is much

of the

Walery

the old and

between

understood

mind.

Unlike

"climbers."

are

Life

class, and

same

attitudes.

of

Markiewiczs

better

the

Wrob-

neighborhood

river, is the

in that

than

the

on

part

cultural

from

movement.

in their social environment

who

This
the

the

lying across

and

like the

not

nest.

isolated

nobilityliving

Vistula

Plock, but

family

strong intellectual

rather

the

industry, but

no

of Plock,

of peasant

near

lives is not

family

town

family

province

their

lewskis

as

of

province

border

are

SERIES

as

the

especially
past that

456

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

of

branch

in wealth

familyof peasant nobility,by

and

and

education,rose
two

even

the ranks

to

of the

three

or

gradual advance

of middle

highest

noble

ity,
nobil-

families

in this way.
Even
if the
now
reputed to have grown
made
and acquired
a fortune
as
a whole
family Markiewicz
bility.
education,it would graduallyidentifyitselfwith middle noare

this climbing within

But

would
the

take

at least three

the old familial

while
generations,

individualistic hierarchy could

new

hierarchy
climbingwithin

be achieved

in

one

generationand it is doubtful whether the aim of gettinginto

the middle nobilityis consciouslyrealized by the family.
that the isolation of the peasant nobility
remember
We must
as

class is four centuries old and

horizon
Thus

of its members

the

above
or

the

old

social group.

they

tendencies

unconscious

interests is

sphere of

their class and

do not

are

typical

completely inclosed

do

They

Jan,
not

understand

tend

to

rise

the conscious

of their children in this direction.

his

familyto occupy the highestpossible

his family as a whole, not
place within the community
another individual in particular,
his own
not even
or
one
which he does not dissociate from that of his
personality,
family. All the efforts of Jozef and Jan are concentrated
Each

of them

longer reaches beyond their class.

older brothers, Jozef and

two

peasants whose
within

no

that the traditional social

wants

"

upon

this aim.

They both economize

making littledistinction between

as

their

own

much

as

money

possible,
and

that

of their children;they both

buy land wherever there is any

of income;
opportunity;they try to profitfrom every source
they neglect any showing-offexcept in the traditional lines,
to dress their children,but spending large
givingno money
their children
sums
on
wedding-festivals.They endow
very

well, but

want

them

to

make

good

matches.

They

but only as far as instruction

give their children instruction,
helps to attain a higher standing in the community itself,

MARKIEWICZ

provided it does

and

do

They
America

possiblein

as

money

and

farms

from

their own,

tragicappeal or

and

father

aim
to

generallyin

more

back

come

and

buy good
they begin to

girls. When

less

or

much

as

has become
either to

complete estrangement

son.

of

traditional

is not

Jozef and

with

circle,but

Jan, have

to

understand

their individual

no

have
turn

their familial attitude

their love

and

pronounced
allows them
individually
better

gather

to

in

sons

in general to
tendency and seem
far-goinglife-plans.Their ideas

and
the

than

their

sphere of interests
the discoveryleads

mothers, wives

two

conscious

no

to

determined

such

order

that their sons'

different

The

other

first how

at

rich peasant

marry

understand

between

understand

any

457

lead to ideas contrary to the traditions.

not

not

have

can

SERIES

for their children

them

needs

and
and

to

pathize
sym-

their

new

tendencies.
of the children

Each

has

somewhat

different attitude.

Jan'sfamily the three sons, Michal, Wiktor, and Maks

present the most perfectgradationfrom a typicalpeasant to
middle-class attitude.
a typical
(The fourth son, Stanislaw,
In

is not

characterized
sufficiently

seems

to

but

be

more

or

peasant, without

Perhaps
that of

he is too
farmer.

less like

does

middle

usuallydo,

class

littleambition
the

to

he

maneuvers

cities have
come

as

no

back

His

hates

hatred,and

not

Wiktor.)

his father's

even

young.
He

in his brothers'

even

to

to think

whole

the army

try,

become
about

is interested

interest for him.

members
a

And

few

nothing

of the

sergeant.

in

He

lowerhas

so

orderly. At
Russian
farming;

becoming

only

is

tendency to advance.
sphere of interest is
with a trulypeasant

his

and to take his father's farm.

not
strong familial feelings,

and
solidarity,

as

Michal

letters;he

only of
purelypersonalclaims.

an

highest dream
He

has

love but

is

larly
particualso of

458

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

is also

Wiktor
father

The

his brother.

or

career

the line of peasant lifein the

a

farmer.

he

But

him

the

tendency

to

he

These

peasant.

become

and his father;

limited

instruction,not

which

than

so

desires

that he intends

sense

stronger personalclaims,which
him

less

to

his

lies in

remain

already certain points which

has

from

between

much

peasant, but

to

tinguish
dis-

(i)

are
source

(2)a tendency

much

of

nism
antago-

to

general

(3) a

minimum;

the necessary

to boast about higher

get into "better society,"

in
(evenif they be those with a Russian official,
relationships
certain
spiteof his hatred for the Russians),and to assume
of the better society. But this will cerforms and manners
tainly
after his marriage he settles down
be dropped when
well-to-do farmer.
a typical
a farm, and he will become
upon
in the beginning of
Maks
has littleof the peasant even
in America, and almost nothing after seven
his career
years

drops all the peasant ideals one

interests,
agriculture,
property, communal

spent in this country.

another

after

familial
members

(withoutlosingattachment
solidarity
of the family) and while keeping
"

tendencies
the

"

He

of his father,developsthem

typicalmiddle-class career.
Still more
varietyis shown
of them

Two

Alfons

"

and

individual

the climbing

line,in

new

the children of

among

Polcia

along

to

have

"

not

the

Jozef.

smallest

interest in anything outside

of

contrary, they

peasants in full consciousness

of

the

fact.

want

remain

to

But

since at

climbing tendencies, it
toward
the

who

them

contempt

is rather
toward

and

the peasant and

rather

peasant life; on
time

same

the

that

show

is not
a

negativefeatures,as only

mother

she rather favors

proud

mixture

lower-middle

they show

father's
The

contemptuous.

Alfons,while

Pecia
the

the

seems

helpsher, although she

Stanislaw

the

no

attitude
shares

Polcia,

of her.
of the attitudes

class,which
the

the

of

results in

characters
superficial

MARKIEWICZ

class have

of the lower-middle

in his

undecided

and

America, but

to

has much

regrets it. He

assimilated,and
Stanislaw

going
back

comes

459

is

hesitates between

life-plans.He

remaining a peasant,

he goes

been
lost.

peasant characters

valuable

and

SERIES

after

vanity and

peculiarly
marrying

America.

to

very

many

year,

Finally
and

then

strong personal

tendency to instruction,which does

superficial
not develop either into professional
agricultural
instruction,
instruction along the
in Alfons, or into professional
as
into a serious "sport,"
technical line,as in Maks, or even
claims;

as

As

in Waclaw.

merely

external

the

Pecia, she

to

strong character

to

necessary

to

have

(dressand

distinctions

class; she is

the lower-middle

seems

assimilated

manners)

climber, but without

climb.

She

marries

of

the
a

man

generalculture,but instead
of pushing him in the line of a middle-class career, drops with
the qualities
him into the peasant lifeagain,and has not even
requiredof a farmer's wife. Her laziness and vanitymake a

littleabove

peasant

are

impossiblefor

career

Waclaw
most

the peasant level of

Elzbieta

and

the
perhaps psychologically
and
morally they
Intellectually
the peasant class. Their sphere
are

interestingtypes.
completely outside

her.

of

of interests is totallydifferent from

that of their parents and

line of life very

they take their new
Waclaw
with
seriously,particularlyinstruction and
economic
social activity. But they have developed no new
environment

and

"

"

basis of
to

life;they have

begin

imitate
business

regular middle-class

Maks;

Elzbieta
But

woman.

connections

ought

they

or

Waclaw

career.

to

do not

self-consciousness

become
do

ought

teacher

to
a

or

it,and thus arises

an

They

remain

perfectlytypicalat the present

in the old class by their familial

and

economic

and
while intellectually
interests,

interior conflict which

moment.

the energy

not

morally they have

is

littlein

common

with it.

460

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

The

letters of Michal

fullythe peasant'sattitude

show

in
militaryservice,particularly

toward

This attitude is universal; we

Aleksander
of

J. Wiater, No. 664; and

to

share it.

to

the peasant is shown

Russian

still in the

shares

everyone

the fact that

by

so

letter

is supposed

or

militaryservice is a great

the

army.

find it,a littleless strong, in

and stronger
letters,

Osinski's

That

the

annoyance

peasants

many

preferto leave their country forever rather than to serve"

Markiewicz
and Michal
Osinski.
No
for example, Maks
other manifestation
of the authorityof the state interferes
so

much

peasant'slife.

with the

It is not

the

difficult to understand
First of all,in Russia

the army.

peasant'shatred of
is completelyisolated

he

family and community and finds himself among

foreignpeople whose language he does not well understand
(even if he was
taught it in the school),whose faith is

from

his

cultural level is lower

whose
different,
dislike him.

who

is driven

He

for it is a
often to Siberia,
to

the

scatter

fear of
the

Polish

revolution.

relative

far into the east

policyof

soldiers

over

the Russian

life finds

harsh

and

continual

empire, for

is for him

himself

trifles which
Instead

to

in the

control; all his

prescribed;there are innumerable

permit him to forget his dependence.
are

work, which

Russia,

government

whole

the

of

and

Further, the peasant accustomed

libertyof country

barracks, under

his own,

than

acts

never

of farm-

meaning, which has a great

he finds drill,
varietyand requiresno particularprecision,
with its efforts to attain mechanical
precision,not only
monotonous
but absolutelymeaningless. Not
only are
three

or

there

is nothing

since the
and

four

of his life lost without

years

cause

oppressors

since in Poland

to

full of

compensate

which

for this evil

"

he is servingis the

of his country,
this idea

was

any

no

cause

no

benefit,but

patriotism,

of the enemies

idea of military honor,

developed only

among

the

462

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

Weronika
his

Julka

daughters

Mania

(probablymother of Jan'swife)
Zi61ek (Zi61kowski)her husband
Jan Zi61ek,the latter's son by his first marriage
Grandmother

Zi61ek's sister
relatives in Poland, in America, in Prussia,in

Other

MEMBERS

FROM

142-225,
MAINLY

WACLAW

TO

ARE

FROM

MARKIEWICZ

PARENTS,

AND

JOZEF,

178-84, FROM
i87,FROMALFONS;

200, FROM

WIKTOR;

ANNA;

188,FROM

FROM

201-11,

142-71

ELZBIETKA;

STANISLAW;

FROMPOLCIA;

FAMILY,

AMERICA.

IN

MARKIEWICZ,

THE

FROM

THE

OF

Petersburg.

MAKS;

172-77,

185-86,
189JAN;
FROM

212-225,

MICHAt.

ZAZDZIERZ, January

142
SON:

DEAR

that you

are

felt and

in

went

be.1

and

As

shall

24

was

sold

We

there

address.

are

Shall

thank

God

[yourmother] have continually

I always remembered
very badly,and
anxious

were

for you

There

is

Brzezoski,but it is not certain

succeed, because your uncle J. P[rzanowski]
America, to

W.

God

to Bremen.

forbid,what

him
I

bought

of

ass, but

an

Now
[proverbial].

I write

meeting it will

You

expenses.

during the harvest

Thanks

of it this year.

for the household

roubles for him.

dog's worth

towo

enough

earn

we

grinding,there is much

to

and
....

you

both

we

pursuitof her

the horse.

got

dream,

about

the trick will

whether

we

dreamed

that Teosia fled to

news

letter

your

good health,because

in

even

that

received

We

7, 1907

God,

to

asked

about

summer-grain.

I sold it at once,

that from

you

We

for it

Wincen-

[men] going [toAmerica],and they beg for your

We have in our farmgiveit to them or not ?

dozen
we

....

stock 3 nice cows,

will be

some

young

Elzbietka

And

His

mill.
1

to avoid

is

name

Elopement

character of

has

3 rather

good hogs, 5

ones,

and

boys

from

so

is very

rare

among

push forward

we

time

Tokarski,from

to

time.

Rychlin.

our

One
His

came

to

condemn

there

winter

lot and

our

age.

if to the

as

sister says

the peasants, and, in view

marriage,the familyis supposed

its control.

Before

geese.

that if we

of the familial

severelysuch

an

attempt

MARKIEWICZ

[him],he has

want

SERIES

roubles

400

in

bank

and

greater certainty. She says that he had

in

not

please us,

not

either.

him

nor

that

he

shop
he

show

can

in Lodz.

But

call upon
which I wrote

absolutelywants

while

for

we

are

Stas

us.

did

you

to go

to you.

not

or

them

can

about

So he

Is it worth

think ?

do you

How

him

to

anything favorable; that

find

cannot

only said

hurry, we

463

[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]
DEAR

BROTHER:

Send

from

here for the

take money
with

us!

let it rather

But

Answer

and

at once,

about

In

Answer

at once,

our

because

I would

I would

wait
ship-ticket,
daughter of] Gasztyka

in

money

later

on.

going

am

there

longer

to

you.

than

big grinding,
day and night

because
little,

much

clothes,
linen,and

spend

not

else I shall

or

back

you

of March

the middle

I will leave about

the

pay

I shall take of

the middle

dear
healthy,be healthy[goodbye],

Be
to

what

there is

windmill

years.

or
ship-ticket
money,
journey. Why, there is so

remain;1

also try America!

me

the

write me,

because
living[food],
Let

soon

I want

If I

Topolno.

America, and if I don't succeed,then

and

son

of March.

dear brother.
to

now

As

[the

marry

succeed, I shan't

to

go

I shall go.

[SXANISLAW M.]

February

143
DEAR

SON:

thank

We

which

need

Goszewski

it

they refused

absolutelynecessary

was

moved
to

for not

you

....

January

on

gave

so
interest,

accept any

having forgottenour
satisfy.Mr. and Mrs.

to

We

22.

from

you,

peace

once

And

An

went

expressionof

touch, even

for

the money

their

up

did not

W[aclaw] who

over

to

them.

Pecia,and

We
In

baggage.
to

want

so

go

bring him

will

[more] money

when

now,

back;

we

to
a

comes

shall have

these debts
about

himself
the old

treated in the Introduction:

it

turn

once

I write to you

and

And

America.

for all with

now

to Bremen

will at

we

often Mr.

very

them

only thanked

we

helped them, when

they moved, to pack
bidding them farewell,we all wept. Tadek

Ojcow; he mentioned
[wooden]horse from

10, 1907

to

Teosia.

Torun,

Your

to your

of economic
qualification

"Economic

short time, money

which

Attitudes."
has been

is rather the reluctance of the father than of the

son.

uncle sent
uncle F.

F., and they

quantitieswhich
The

telegram

we

have

peasant is reluctant

put aside.

But

in this

case

to

it

464

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

her

sent

in Torun.

policeturned the girlback

the

photograph,and
It is said that

they wrote

letter to Brzezoski

they give the permission because of

daughter [and of her behavior]. And Stas cannot
to

for

come,

he would

as

like to marry.

son, send

Dear

to her father

us

wish

find anyone

ANNA

And

SON:

now

are

we

have

them

Lord

God

will

that you

happily back

come

may

althoughI
I pray

our

family home.

to your

oftener,because

letters to you

write

1907

son, that you

your

all

now

10,

family. But I don't marvel, because

and
than once
here, I weep [foryou] more

longingfor

are

sad, dear

very

....

such

MARKJEWICZ]

March

144
DEAR

of their

photograph

your

[JOZEFand

the

him
telling

it won't

be

We

difficult

so

[toget]to Plock, for you know how it is in winter

always snow
have no post-office.
cold.
We
go there seldom, and here we

and

"

received

We
next

day

You

ordered

dear

damaging

think

needs; what

that

send

you

ask

You

when

son,

about

have

are

went

away] because
"

says,
a

good

young

dear

you,

him,

help you

way

here.
This

to

earn

some

see

on

clucks

not

was

whom

hundred

roubles

the brother

system the delay would

an

have

economic
formed

We

will also

for
no

asks

bought

that you
a

may

good

Lord

our

find your
business.

Pecia's dower.
as

thing
Some-

Pecia did not

It had

receive

cates
giving of interest here indi-

purely social attitude.

reason

boys

give her

May

in America, and
The

all

who

I meet

to the Vistula

her marriage, interest is added.

the substitution of

[herman

Dobrzykow

for
evidentlydestined originally
to

for her

more."

spring we

looks in at

when

and everybody
possible,

happilyonce

in the

hen

regret much

the best

him

and forever.

weeps

Everybody

it

household

our

once

as

bee-keeping is again considered

apparently been advanced

it promptly

to

love,nearer

Now
money

does

wishes you

us

it for

Walentowa

another.

Pecia,and

some

She

shall make

we

safe for you

you.

without

can

you

and

will take

away.

Stasio often

cow

God

grant
for

overcoat

ties

and

son,

God

May

she has

as

home,

money

America] ; Antoniowa

in

much

as

will be made

taken

glad. They thank

very

grandmother.

been

[who
about

earn

you

perhaps we

now

....

her chickens

them

made

you

the

on

Franus, and 8 roubles of interest.1

children
[material]for dresses,so I

health,send the

your

Don't

safe.

and

and

sent

you

and

for the

buy

to

us

roubles which

100

to Pecia

them

gave

now,

day the

one

it at once,

bought
And

we

on

for the payment

Under

the old

of interest.

MARKIEWICZ

Elzbieta's

kum

in

year.

said
[god-brother]

....

the

honey

one

we

So when

land]and

can

you

465

that he

got 80 roubles

Lord

God

set up

an

our

....

[some

shall will you

SERIES

for

bringsyou back
orchard

hives
bee-

and

[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]

July 4,

145

in America

was

Franciszek

for his brother

who

son,
But

marry.

great

know

the

everythingthe
it the best you

be

to

and

we

spend

can

and

your

If

marry.

"

If you
intention

that it is not

send

fact.1

in

surprised,that

you

of

with

spoke about
on

America].
want

girlwith

to

good

marriage is subject

pleasedyou,
you

their

you

newcomers

wish

only

Alfons

autumn

Mielczarek

years

young

May

strength. We say that his

mothers
[ofthe young men

the state

if she

But

then
our

it

well.

very

whole

heart

myself [wishing]

nothing. So

consider

girlis orderlyand good,

the

Plock, let her give you her

shall get
where they live,so we

If she is from

....

if she has parents

acquainted with

Be

not

of

think

helped the

In fact

only rejoice.

can

his

it well,because

best

might

don't

the

it at all if she is only

bless you,

God

son, be careful.
In

wife

not

us

don't oppose

we

Lord

that you

accident, that
train,and it is true,

Dear

fathers and

[many] conditions.

our

address

write

you

Consider

education.2

we

You

[forhaving received and

Dear

May

but

The

use.

no

you,

America] and

to

went

thanks

to

question.

is of

intention

him.

by

accident

keep you
any
intends going to
seriously
God

his

terrible

killed

was

buried

from

answer

about

....

Seweryniakwho

So

heard

We

SON:

DEAR

1907

here,and

them.

don't marry,

send

[tomarry],then

do

money

your

home, but

if you

the

have

not.

healthy,be healthy,dear

son.

[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]

December

146
DEAR

In

SON:

....

only in Pecia's home

1

This

our

home

her youngest

phrase is ironical.

Alfons

everybody

is

daughter died.

is not

treated

5, 1907

healthy enough,

Stasio and

seriouslyby

any

one

Kocia
of the

family.
3

Showing how

relativelyadvanced

question of education

raised.

the writers

are.

In

no

other series is this

466

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

Bialecka
ask

You

the

were

about

Teosia.

and

she is at home.

but

don't

She

home

came

only

weeks

quietlywith

very

Perhaps there somebody

her father

told tales like

gypsy,

all,because all that is untrue.1

[Weather;
your father,thanks to God, is not at all the

believe it at

Christmas
same

lived

god-parents. She

wishes.] And
he was
[hischaracter has improved]

as

[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]

February 24, 1908

147
We

received

healthy in body

and

soul,because

the second

is

DEAR

about

SON:

or
religion

whole

to your

And

I inform

in the

and

well,if you

Evidently, such

provokes the most

of the

Sometimes

marriage.

Probable

we

try

parents.

only additional.
do harm

can

you

best

as

reasons

God.

it and

Teosia's

as

only

ocean

to

come

If

us.3

flighthas

why girlsand boys avoid

stirred up

irregularities

any

in the wedding ceremony

irregularity
wonderful interpretations.

punish the whole

may

Thus, the feelingof familial unity is carried

before
responsibility

that there may

can

we

few

gossipand most

"God

meaning:

brings also

working beyond the

are

the smallest

mischievous

[a bushel]. Thanks

[children],

you

exceptionaloccurrence

an

gossip. This is one

it,for

is 7 roubles

leave
living[without saving],

for the sake of

in their

so

for
[property]

more

son, reflect

Dear

Consider

anything

of your

is

windmill; the barn

[forspace rented ?]and

more

much

that rye

you

there is work

bushels

everythingelse

For

man.

family.2

now

God

thing,and

to be

you

don't mention

you

the admonition

Remember

the true way.

step aside from

Don't

to

first

wish

We

this is the excellence of

passingalready,and

church.

faith is the

For

be

year

letter

your

The

far

and
for other social units,as villages

or

less admitted

not

family for

to

as

attitude is evidentlynot

is stillmore
responsibility
religious

the biblical heredity of sin and

so

an

your

acknowledge

sins."

common

isolated fact; common

only for families,but also

parishes. This has clearlynothing

to

do with

punishment: it is merely the manifestation

of the

group-solidarity.
s

The

tendency

new

to

advance

as

against the old interest in

expressedas clearlyas possible. Fifty years

of

by

family, which
servantnot

was

in cash.
as

was

and

too

poor

to

support

it was

livingis here

all rightif a young

all its members,

earned

member
his living

thus spared the rest of the family his livingexpenses;

there

the idea of his

even

Even

groom,

economic

work

ago

mere

now,

for the father

condition

the familial fortune for he had no wages

increasing
find this attitude,when Michal serves
we
series,
refuses to feed him (althoughthis refusal,in the good

in the Osinski

of the family, is already something new).

But

here, with

re-

MARKIEWICZ

you

have

buy

or

few hundred

farm

SERIES

roubles,I
for you.

somewhere

[add]my

will take

The

467

inn in

Dobrzykow

perhaps somethingelse

in

I received

SON:

health,but for another

intend

to

back

come

to

in my. hand

trembled
birds who

dare

to hold

to the

or

from

flyaway

did you

until he broke

hand

my

in

shook

their native

this

At

You

taught you

never

I don't

Well,

mention

How

ought

to criticize

that

later!

even

back !

come

of

Europe

you

"

of him

don't

recordingit. Why,

[mean] words

are

the paper

moment

place stilldo

such wretched

1908

sad, for you

us

sale,

that you

Bonaparte shook the whole

with the head of the Church, and later
know

off

make

for

29,

much
rejoiced

you

parentalexhortations.

You

became

cause

country.

our

to pronounce

clergy.

what

letter.

your

I will

MARKIEWICZ

March

good

the

is now

J6zEF

148
DEAR

and

money,

that you

know

forgot

about the greatest jewel,

religion,
i.e.,
only that after a year you
What
?]above us.
[raise
yourself
you give to the papers is bad, and it

about

is

learningso, for learningis everywhere

but [yourideas]are useful to you there,but won't be

pity that

useful to man,
when

your

And
with us it is
now
conjectural.]
don't absolutely
we
requireyou
money,
because

nothing more

I have
of

son

Jan,

went

family. Three

yourselffor

forgetabout

don't

to have

always

I try

to

to

of my

it has

as

to send

hundred

few
your

to

translation

been

As

when

any

roubles

on

to

cannot,

you

hand.

Only

later years

write,only I tell you

the army

sons

and

[Whole paragraph obscure

back.

come

you

use

you

the

there he found

Petersburg and

father's brother

are

Wiktor,

news.

there.

One

our

of them

the other a physician, the third

higher railway-conductor,
Stasiek up
professor. And in Prussia our family also got honors.
the present does not succeed [inmarrying]and Elzbietka also sits
is

I end

home.
as

to

why

son,

The

?
severely

gard

Waclaw,

are

you

the situation

angry

his income

of the

stillWaclaw

do it by working in America
on

so

May

not

you

nests.

J. MARKIEWICZ
and

why

do

you

family is

almost

us

answer

brilliant when

should increase the fortune.

he ought to do it by farmer's work.

he is regarded

as

at

forget,even

that it was
so
girlswept after reading this letter,

by peasant standards,and
but live

these words:

don't forget their native

swallows
Dear

letter with

my

to

losinghis time.

so

quite

measured

If he

cannot

ing
If he does noth-

468

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

gloomy in the house.

don't want
in you

to

And

that you

parents and your

love your

are

to say ?

we

I don't think it true.

to us, but

back

come

the parents, what

we,

You

I believe
J

country

[YOUR MOTHER]
September

149
DEAR

And

SON:

for

asked you

we

September

Dear

7.

but

answer,

an

Then

name-day.

except last year in July for my

and

the letters from

to

as

....

believe us, there

son,

answered

once

today,

day when we
complain about

did

complain about your negligence,and you

Neither letter nor postcard,nothing up to the present.

not

none

at

letter until

no

not

was

had

we

you,

we

received

we

7, 1909

us!

I don't know

happened. We have only this letter which you tell us to send

to the editor [ofsome
paper]. As for me, I fallasleepwith the thought
with the same
about you and I awake
thought; I end the day with

what

and

tears

Everybody

to you.

wait.
ask

begin it with

Maks.

They

allow

to read

us

With
worth
about

for

new

as

at least 500

They

are

all worth

don't

see

any

daughter]and
for her

old;

the

same

blessingof God
even

wedding

so

have

we

they came

horse,

roubles.

not

say

we

will add

Teosia

and

some

more,

Wacek

were

anythingabout

any

that

for
to

us

They had

them.

askingus

for

of land.

6 morgs

they said something

[little].
Well, God be with

to Franus.

them.

only

hundred

loan,so
I

[one
[roubles]
her

For

the meaning of this letter,

as

the young

generation,cf. Introduction:
how

showing the
"Peasant

contrast

between

the old and

Family."

moral value by being conceived as the

success
assume
a
may
blessing. Formally this conceptionwas introduced by the church
in its endeavor
to ascribe to God
all the good. But the content
is reallyolder.
of
Introduction:
was
a
between
and
Cf.
Prosperity
sign
a harmony
nature.
man
3

We

not

calves,4 pigs worth also

Franus
the average.
[son-in-

3 cows,

already,but

money

week, but they did

it is probably a lie. We heard

from

it has been

wagon,

some

give them

for

us

to

the letter.

given them

must

we

hard

was

yourself,but they did

The crops are

etc.
[roubles],
captain[ofa Vistula boat]. They bought

have

with

of

100

law] is
We

word

giving any

roubles,a

100

but it

me,

happened

Jan M[arkiewicz]in order that he might

that Maks
about your
wrote
having gone

everythingis

us

what

to

said

without

somewhere

understand

tried to comfort

at home

father went

Your

I did not

tears.

see

result of God's

"Religious and Magical Attitudes."

Dear

son,

much

very

Our

think

we

that you

work], so

no

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

470

Lord

have

it,for

about

much

work.

no

But

healthy,dear

are

you

grieve there perhaps

alone [inhaving
not

Consider

nothing to do.
has more
than
[left]

there is

God

you

has

He

it and

don't

Be

spent.

grieve.

healthy,be

son

[YOUR MOTHER]

May

151
DEAR

SON:

keep writing always about

You
....

roubles.
do harm

to me,

I should

increase the

neither

boy. But I
But
why can
Come
not

return

shine for you

Right

or

land

to

buy

to

that you
I

so:

100

don't

thought that

and

bad, dear

have

you

not

is vain.

[offortune]does
have

enough

not

give it back

here.

but if you have

[forsale],

other property open

will

will

We

roubles.

100

dream

If you

son.

Mielczarek.

well,perhaps God

"

whole

My

sit there since the star

you

from

these

you

home, while

money

back?

come

It is very

journey, take

now

money

it is

me

I send

more,

enough

should

Why

once

send

live

to

here.

to you

others

even

for your

with

yourself.And

but to

those

fortune,but nothing thrives with my children,

good marriage with my daughters nor [agood lot]with any

enough

back, but remember

them

Well, I will send

[1910]

no

give it.1
Your

father,
J. MARKIEWICZ

June

152
DEAR

In

SON:

home

our

Stas, it is always the same,

Janek; she has changed her
marry

and

....

rye

is average,

nice.
4

Our

the peas

horse

is

Plainlythe fundamental
the whole family,to arrange

the neighborhood, prosperous,

type of

The
a

to

play

an

can

dream.

nice
cow,

as

never

have

roubles; we
man

to

field the

nice,the potatoes
before,we have

have

we

our

sold

one

and

cow

pigs,ducks, of

all

is to increase the fortune

rich marriages for his children,to have

all hi

them

respectedby the community, keeping the traditional

with

his own,

ciently
themselves, suffi-

solidarityamong

active part in communal

positionof head of such

peasant

young

In

already.

life-interestof the old

ideals in harmony

instructed
father.

one

as

As

Elzbieta,she won't

to

as

views

good health.

good, the wheat

cattle

for the calf 4

attitudes and

very

nice,our

big with calves and

cows

got 60 roubles,and

of

not

is in

everybody

[1910]

20

and
life,

always obeying the

family is the highest one

of which

an

old

MARKIEWICZ

have

poultrywe
This

work.

building

and

100

We

must

have

they will build

on

than

all.

is not

barn

Later

more

SERIES

made

471

pieces; there
a

is

often

help Pecia,because

shack

for themselves

house,and Pecia has nice

nice amount

of

they are

of the stable.

rye, potatoes, peas,

hi

generaleverythingis succeeding well enough with us,

only we have the worst trouble with Stasiek,althoughI did not want
When
he came
from the army
he seemed to be healthy
to grieveyou.
for a few days,but then came
a continuous
cough, and pains in the
hands, feet,etc. everything. After he has been better
breast,belly,
for a few days,then all this returns.
Always nothingbut the doctor
and the drug-store. I have alreadyproposed to have the doctor and
So

etc.

"

the

into

drug-storemove

and

enough;

wept

than

And

ever.

about

house.

our

What

[settled
in]my

it fell upon

dear son, don't

now,

I do ?

can

eyes, which

about

care

yourself.For nowadays people are even

to get other people'sgood, but they keep

want

I did not

she would

new

have

asked

You

grieved

are

worse

anybody, only mind

too clever when
they

well their

own

long a time because I had hoped to write you

but she says that the lot which
[Elzbieta's
marriage],

write you

something

I have

now

what

for

so

him

with

be still had

may

scabs the children had.

scarlet fever.

hence

years

Very dangerous ones, for it

God, they are recovered

Many different people are visitingus now, as always when there are
Even
sometimes
the chief forester [from the manorial
at home.
girls
with his wife.
forest]of La.ck comes
Well, you can imagine how
and expensive]
it must
be [how troublesome
but all this is done for the
was

children.
father
it would

know, dear

You

to me

comes

Now, thanks

10

and

to

son, often when

says:

they

if Wacek

"Ah,

themselves,

amuse

came

what

now,

joy

be."

[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]

August

153
DEAR

SON:

As

to

....

we

let

are
our

The

present
With

very

satisfied.

Lord

God

If

bless you.

marriage about

your

only the girlis

We

all wish

complaints of old people about

generation,which

we

find in many

as

you

which

with

avarice

and

letters,seem

to

the

the dissolution of the old solidaritythe old

norms

want

you

[1910]

you

wrote,

her

to

singlevoice:

unreliabilityof the
have

real

ground.

regulatingeconomic

disappear,while the new norms, correspondingto the

economic
life (business-honesty)
have not yet developed.

be,

tions
rela-

individualistic stage of

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

472
"Whatever
consider

is the best in the

well what

[Crops.] Your
wings

the

on

father

windmill;

flour,Alfons is mowing
the

work

farther

who

you,

it will take

wanted

the

married

Elzbietka,but

our

is

us,

Wacio, what

house

she

for here people say

lives,

Stasio

about

But

she

did

not

is

grinding
all

push

She

has

whom

I wrote

him

want

occupied with

that she went

the

put

Broncia.

about

baker

betrothed

is your

Write

to

sewing a dress,we

write

You

She

you."

to

Franek

weeks.

some

Elzbietka

peas,

with

just now

went

on

already got married.

grant it

to do.

intend

you

God

world,may

and

to her

in whose

uncle

[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]

[September13, 1910]

154
DEAR

stochowa] I
much

are

God's

grieved that

Mother
don't

son,

are

you

for health and

be angry

having lent
[talksmuch

as

well

not

in

healthyenough,

am

that

returning from

After

-SON:

with

good

for you

this loan

all.

to

roubles,because

they

buy that house

will

from

will

we

begged
dear

now,

[fornot

aunt

in the

her your
and

And

your

money], for she has the mouth

knows
what
to say]. And
we
now

but

home,

at

us

good health

success

about

us

all of

as

place [Cz"-

miraculous

right spot

give Pecia

40x3

Jakubowski
[YOUR MOTHER]

son, mark

Dear

it

home, for why

should

in my

You

to

do penance

you

could

not

let money

get them

back

go

while

away

incident like this

lived in

roubles from
1

There

The
is

happened

house

our

during
Stasiek

us.

letter shows
no

mention

how
at

and

about

month

the

to

more

not

clearlywhat

are

enough

few hundred

of

zloty

with

ago

that it is easy

know

put it together. An
who

Mroczkowski

Mr.

he

When

credulous,and

left he

now

took

I don't

15

know

the control of the

the individual is lost.

family over
of
spite the father's formerly
attempt (hithe last phrase)to learn anything

family. The
"to consider

the other son, who

their wishes,and

pleasehis parents.

is bread

all of the girl'sdowry, in

advise him

totallydifferent toward

You

summer.

too

return

I lent 50 roubles to her brother

years.

10

favor you,

Here

it is difficult to

was

her personalityand

they dare only

there ?

how

for

expressed wishes,and only a discreet

more

does not

the order to lend

me

gave

Mackowa, but surelyyou know

and
to

house.

health

well,if your

Compare

the

parents agree
the matter

stays
son

at

with

well."

home;

No.

145.

The

attitude is

here the parents show

did
a girlwho

could hardly marry

this letter with

their son's wish,

MARKIEWICZ

he will get them.

when

need

If you
what

money,

She

any

for

livingwith

when

I did not

she met

her son,

bellywith

[orders].

such

more

Moreover,

said last year

filled your

and

473

don't send

you,

send it to you.

can

reproachedyou

settled in his house

forget

Andzia.

saying that

his food

if you

as

"

you

did

boarding! [Cropsand weather.]

for

pay

beg

Mackowa
[ironical]

Mrs.

....

not

SERIES

Y[our]f[ather],
J. MARKIEWICZ
November

155

Walenty in Dobrzykow built a small mill

[in competitionwith us],but he grinds [only]three

SON:

DEAR

....

his water

upon

quarters of once-ground flour

be later.

As

winter

If not

surelydecide.

butcher

boy, a

him

she will marry

whether

she will

know

don't

Well, we

day.

Elzbietka,she has

to

"I don't know

[1910]

how

from

it will
Lubien.

not, but she says that this

or

this one, then another.

I have

for my
[sins].Always new
enough now
guests, always some
fashions,always these new
things,so that my income does not

trouble
new

suffice.
And

know

you

is not

there,we

if it must

had, even
dear

son, I

for my

beg

100

money], so

we

and
cattle,

Your

father

the children

[somuch
But

when

the

palm

them, and they all need

speak to

200, but
must

nice

if I sell
says

or

cow,

that] it
aside.

put money

horse,but

some

it.

So,

of the hand!

I must

dressed,while
send it as

can,

hog, or

also

have

it must

gram,

be spent.

Well, we

We

gave

[must

have

nice

hogs, nice

for all this.

conscientiously

work

crack.

If you

Bicia

himself with his years

bones

to be

cannot

stillgive 200.

must

we

that my

so

father about

your

justexcuses

bad

in the

be

it must

He

and

says:

I may

"Then

....

only

shop, she

has

we.

must

work

pupils and

sews.

so

much.
Zonia

with

work

keep
?"
all this]

don't

Do I order you [todo

don't work.
farm-stock],
he wants
anything,he requiresit. As to the crops,

is not

Bicia

will

thing
everyis

tinually
con-

help

her

push thingsfurther and further. You write us

won't be the best man
[atyour sisters'weddings]. It is hard

and
presently,

that you

under

sometimes

But

thing
any-

much, if you can, send me a little money, but

Bicia [Elzbieta]is grown
up, Polcia is bigger still,

aside;[yourfather
and

from

it."

"When

so:

very

because
possible,

as

be put
Pecia

do without

can

begins to overtake

it is useless to
soon

[your]father always says

be cut out

you

needs.

Zonia

that

so

we

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

474
for

read

to

me

this and

unceasingHelp

forgetyou

not

Well, let God's

flow.

tears

my

Mother

of

trulylovingmother,

Your

[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]

156

February

DEAR

SON:

bought

We

you

for the rest two

the

he
her

will "walk
whether
half

A.

the matter

that

you

of

for

anything

old.

year

be

in

wedding, but

America,

till

not

they wait until

so

to

comes

wife]but

that.*

And

I don't

know

himself

when

don't

of Pecia's children

one

Stasiek is
he

remember

nice little boy,

died,a

[Stock sold and

bought, windmill, shop, money

wish
debtors, farm-work.] We
good health,
you

from

happiness
mind

out"

I wrote

received

when

own,

walking [insearch

and

for

one

to

roubles,and
Polcia.
[Sicknessof

for it is impossiblefor
[parents],
parents]. Let them rather set up a

[toher husband's

there

place of their
walking

brother

thank

we

stays with his family

and

to go

for Bicia and

he has

for which

[1911]

for Stas for 34

coat
[sheep]

Elzbieta,there is

to

Easter,because

comes

roubles

50

....

fur

one
dresses,

children.] As

after

received

We

and

good

in

success

T.,3because it is of

no

the

married, don't

Get

year.

new

use

[MARKIEWICZS]
June

157
SON:

DEAR

We

received your

again 50 roubles.

and

thank

them.

We

If you

can,

The

Thanks

even

social

standingof the family as

actual needs
particular,

contrary, understands

real eagerness
1

It would

whole; he

the

and

very

form

family. The
sympathizeswith the
of the

well and

to start

Evidently

to

safe

woman

woman,

earn

place.

is here
and

their

own

look

as

home,

the help of

girl,and probably

one

if she had

whom

one

even

not

ifin this

on

seems

the

of the

members

have

to

general plans.

girlwith Elzbieta's social standing

parents, for it would

enough

earn

if

you

littleunderstanding

to the fulfilment of her husband's

that the boy's parents needed

were

have

to

seems

member

the latter very

be bad

roubles,

[Health,weather,

lost.
man

[1911]

is exclusivelyinterested in the welfare

of any

to contribute

with her husband's

he could not

be

but
they lack anything actuallyand individually,

family whenever
no

200

will put it in

We

attitudes of the

man
a

once

allowed

that He

it won't

difference in the economic

most

of the

be to God

more,

typicallyexpressed. The

and
....

for this money.

you

send

letter

went

to

live

dowry enough and

case

the real

cause

son.

he did not

succeed

in marrying.

MARKIEWICZ

have

crops.] We
breed

pigs,22

....

than

horse,4

SERIES

cows,

young

475
a

cow,

bull of

young

turkeys,ducks, chickens;we

geese,

piecesof poultryin general,because

have

good
more

preparing for a
that Janek K.
at last marry
She did
wedding. Elzbieta will now
not want
him, but evidentlyit is God's will for her,for she despised
him, but he did his best to pleaseher again. But the wedding won't
be

100

than

sooner

We

can

buy

must

be done.

has not

He

ship.

government
grants.

September,because

the worst

thingfor

every

ask about

You

he is

are

we

far

as

Sandomierz,on

as

salary. It

her and

Pecia and

will be

give her

winter,first F., then P., then the

of money!
But now, thanks to God, they

God

as

nothing

away;

Franus.

They were
children;they spent a

the

sick in
nice

sum

in

good health. The

to the others:]
sleep[calls
are

about, Pecia rocks the boy to

"You, don't touch that," ''You, put that down."

children loaf

shooing them

off.

Franus, since he

mounted

She

is

boat

the

always

of

Mrs.

Jaworska,is sailing
up to the present as captain. He does his best.
Perhaps our Lord God won't refuse happiness also to that other
for Elzbieta is a good, honest,orderlygirl. Nothing is
[son-in-law],
amiss with her.
We
hoped something else for her. Well, nothing
be done.
Polcia is also a good girl,
but surelyshe will soon
become
can
it is true,
a loafer.
They singin the church in the choir,beautifully,
but

I have

the

more

do.

to

Well, let them

Stasiek wants

mother

farm]. What

do you

to

this?

to

say

marry,

but

What

know

that

only if we

shall

they have

[the

will him

do?

we

....

[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]

158

[August-September?]15,

DEAR

We

SON:

and

Elzbieta

Elzbieta,she postponed all this

idea how
about

great

it.

We

had

above
has

The

if she
case

to future

for

was

be

times.

Janek, but

As

letters

your

Well, you

she did not

have

no

much

care

done; she is not for him.

to

She won't

Perhaps at last she will

some
expenses, and he also,but nothingcan be done.
character as Elzbieta's is not easily
found, so it is no

who

man

girlwith such

wonder

regret it

Well, nothingcan

despisethe
choose.

received

1911

will be suited to her.

prizesherself much.1

Even

now

she

of Elzbieta is frequent in the lower classes.

its class the condition

already risen when

he

of

has

girlis much
a

worse

in Plock

was

In

than that of

higher instruction

and

taking

family which
a

boy.

better

The

rises
latter

and
position,

476
business

lessons,so

God, Zosia

she

profitedonce

will be clever also.

be done

can

As

somewhat.

more

work

Well, I

much

to

lap one

in,but

I have
it

spend

to

would

beg

helped.
the

or

not

on.

know

them, but what

for

be done

can

be

But, unhappily

I must

so

I have

that the

so

have

other

enough

great detriment

put

some

things

to

you,

teeth,but if not, it cannot be

either some
clothes
anything [and sell],

paid who

another

tends

the

familyand

the whole

calls for
cattle.

[have anything

about

anything

it,for

not

child,or

one

be

for

work,

roubles for my

few

must

from
[Greetings
in

if it would

if I breed

bought

boy

won't

for

you

enough

money

So

Even

be

must

what

another,but

over

and

alreadydecline absolutelyto work,

teeth

my

to

our

everybody. [Crops.] Everywhere only work

bones

for

Thanks

grinding,we earn poorly now, because such

[accursedbig mill]is built in Ga.bin as suffices for

executioner

an

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

something else,

And
do

to

father

your

with]

all this.

for all the relatives who

are

America.]
[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]
send
[Przanowski],
waited long enough.

Maks
I have

those

me

beg

roubles back.

100

you

I think

that

much.

very

[I.M.]

November

159
SON:

DEAR

nut, but

eaten

in

gave

him

speak

to

everybody is in

home

our

everybody pushes slowly his

Stasiek would

home.

our

In

be

glad

such

health

lot

only

bread, a knife,butter,a good

sofa to sit upon,

him

tired,""I don't

cannot,"

about
Don't

etc.

marriage is for him

"I

working:
speak

him

to

in this respect

am

about

secondary

this

or

make
life are

her fit to rise through marriage.

difficultand

find
difficulty

an

opportunityto

marry

above

of her

own

is that, after

fearingto

aspirationsare

But

to

marry

her class,as

above

refined girlis not

an

then

good match

old maid

more

than

which
to

is not
does

marry

transferred to her children.

the

enviable.

not

below

come,

her

to," "I

to

be

done,
rise

diately
put her imme-

better marriage,

the conditions
a

to

of

girlwill with
also

men

easilyreconciled

well

girl cannot

milieu in which

class,and thus her condition

waiting for

remain

in

worm-

somebody

want

the tendency to rise is strongly developed such

theirs.

man

But

the way

if

that

But

matter.

the level of her class,but only prepare

etc.,but don't

unless by marriage; instruction,

relative refinement,do not
socially,
above

as

It is not
but

to marry,

5, 1911

preferto

marriage with

The

usual result

she finallyresigns,

aspirations.These

478
1

PRIMARY-GROUP

60

January
DEAR

SON:

know

You

when

that

anything bad

big

cows

much

grinding,as
with

Pecia's children

are

neighborhood.

In

scabs.

is

him,

want

As

Well, it will be

lose.

and dancing
religious

Seweryniak,and so
Andrzej Kusio calls
and

another

comes,

as

from

top
goes

to
to

ask

roubles
Matusiak

we

who

and

cash

and

whether

been

and

boys

from

the

also,""And

don't

from

brother, I

about

sick for

in

out

our

sick with

has

smallpox,
than

more

in

don't know

We

have

at

wife].

she will win

she

sews,

When

Sunday

manor-farm, and
and

Pecia

it

or

sings

comes

little. One

amuse

we

selves.
our-

Elzbieta; when

she

[thedoor] is full of her from the

home

have

it will

her she does

wants

and

cuts

of

to

up

how

[in search

plays, they dance

to the room,

works

home

our

be, whether

and

helps Elzbieta.

teacher,but

new

Zonia

orthodox

an

friendlyrelations with her

[Enumerates 7 marriages.] We had
any

and

sum

Write
to

good health,and asks

the

us, asks
us

to

interest; and

whether

us

200

what

have

you

wrote

you

greet you:

"From

me."
....

YOUR

Dear

is,4

pupil [insewing],the girlof Jan

bigger than

learns.

are

spread

In

we

She

Fijolek,he paid us the

everybody paid us back.
Everybody who comes

you

is

average

and

her moments.

them

got married.

with

any

has

it will

she has

upon

She

school and

so
[Russian],

You

army

there

grants.

she passes

the kitchen

the bottom.

how

God

songs,

Polcia has grown

comes

the

Elzbieta,if anybody

to

I don't know

so

There

people lie

many

do

we

worth

are

are

justnow.

and

here

walking

Well, I don't know.

not

scabs

everybody is well enough, but

Stasio

later.

died

wife

Bulkoski's

the present

as

us,

continually. She lies sick also,with swellingof

lies almost

the liver

from

came

smallpox. Antoni

has

Maks

He

year.

Witek

news];

no

farm-stock

are

crops

ill,because

somewhat

Tokary, Dobrzykow,

Walenty's

Antoni's

Our

etc

Our

pigs which

cow,

young

roubles,geese, ducks,

100

there is wind.

as

calves,one

share it with

to you,

family.

your

have

we

thank

everybody is healthy enough.

home

our

griefto

[when

you

good happens

or

In

sufficient

grieve about

all

we

of

cause

1912

we

....

be such

don't

20,

for which

letter

your

....

with you

be

received

We

but
heartily,

you

me

ORGANIZATION

am

addressingthis

betrothed,in Gombin, in the house

and

PARENTS

letter in

of Pokorski

the

FAMILY

home

the tile-maker.

of my
Our

MARKIEWICZ

and

father

mother

betrothal.

The

SERIES

here

are

marriage

479

expresslyfor

is to

be

after

the

first

[preliminary]

don't

Easter, so

ShiP-dcket

March
I

SON:

beg

....

should

the

[STANISLAW]

161
DEAR

send

17, 1912

write letters home

oftener,for why
house everybody is hi

you,

grieveso much about you ? In our

good health,but in Pecia's house Felus has spent the whole winter in
gettingwell,for he caught cold. Well, now he is alreadysailing
upon
the ship. And Pecia,you know while she was yet [agirl]
said :
at home
"

we

I must

not

the

eat

for
breakfast,

with the corset."

myself tightly
show

themselves.

[Markiewicz]
roubles
an

that

Well, and

Maks

has

to this school."

'yes'!" If
here.

engineer,and he

as

And
intend

you

Don't

father

your

to send

"Your

him

answers

some

money

squeeze

sickly

Jan

thousand

some

roubles,that he passed

10,000

says:

I must

the results of all this

now

already sent

home, that he has there almost

examination

"

thick,"or

that she is married,she is

Now

boasts

I shall be

Waclaw
"

You

send it ;

is also

stupid,say

are

shall

we

going

place it

be

won't
do as your
afraid, we
grandparents did.
[Incomes and expenses;
weather.] And beware of these "engineers"
and locksmiths
and cabinet-makers,because both sides [the parents
here and

the

receive

and
letter,

worth

there]are

sons

read,because there

your
are

the

father is

When

same.

they [Jan M.]

give it to

there,they never

alwayssome

secrets

that

from

"

him

to

engineer.".
.

.2
.

[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]
162

October
DEAR

thank

SON:

you
Pecia

resort

to

instead.

also tried to rise above

After

There

on
families,

hence

down

the

her

Her

score

rivalrybetween

[1912]
which

we

....

The

weight but

falls back

tends to acquire an

is evident

for

last letter

her class.

marriage Pecia

successful farming.

while Elzbieta
2

keeping

her

your

pained us [inwriting]that

heartily.You

lacingand

and

received

We

20

imitation

into

teeth

are

purely peasant girldoes

not

uses

the

your

external

ornamentation

peasant

owning
ideals of land-

of town-manners

is

cial,
purelysuperfi-

interior culture.
the two

of social standing.

brothers,J6zef and Jan, and

Jan's family is

more

their

successful,and

"engineer," properlyapplied
used by courtesy of
higher polytechnical
school, is sometimes
graduates of lower technical schools,and hence again the irony and incredulityof
to

the envy

manifested

graduate of

the old

man.

in this letter.

The

term

480

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

for such is their habit at present.

aching,but that is nothing new,

our

home

was

very

was

sick.

I got sick

with

had
of

whatever

medicine

walk

can

from

bank.

We

pigs,a

has

you

once,

headache

head

pains me

With

the

put

Now

We

sold

We

sold

We

child,a daughter.
Be

than

more

you

will

whatever

you

can

earn

about

that

his

Pecia bore another

bushels

ask

always

says

America.

horse,

these from

[Crops.] You

here.

from

horse

littlestill. The

together

200

growing, a nice boy, he

god-fatherwill bring him

help

.will get it-and put it in the

we

health favors you,

be lost for you

10.

field of

weeks.

two

got 300 roubles,and

we

If your

is

Seweryniak died.

lay for

Well, they helped

danger that they

then the doctor.1

I

the

on

....

it won't
He

in such

Fijolkowski[Fijolek].2

to

September

on

alone.

was

and

roubles

100

together.

god-son.

and

already;

come

geese, and

and

send us;

your

and

littlebut my

will add

cow

400

and

church

home

come

bad, because

very

from

little better,but

I work

roubles

200

make

not

but
possible,

was

I got

and

money

lent

I could

bring the priestat

to

the way

on

terriblysick with vomiting

so

Jankowski that
me

for it was
different,

it is somewhat

now

In

of

Old

pears.

healthy.
[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]

Dear

son,

need

you

[on account

fear

not

of

possiblewar], for

only thing is that you should not

with your hands empty, because,you know, if you want
return
to pay
of
have
hundreds
some
off,you must
[your brothers and sisters]
roubles,and if you don't wish [to take my farm],then another farm
has also 400
will be bought, for Franus
roubles of cash
[and

everybody here

is very

The

calm.

....

farm].

could take my

JOZEF
1

In

for

care

of

case

afterward

Jhe body,

making

dangerous sickness it is the habit

the doctor; the

peace

immediate

peasant is

with

God

not

and only
bringfirsta priest,

for the soul is considered

care

and it would

help. To

to

be

than

to

MARKIEWICZ

important than the

to neglectthe opportunityof the patient's
worse
of his recovery
through
neglect the possibility

understand

this better, we

more

that

remember

must

afraid of dying, provided he has religious

help and

tune

the old

enough

to

his dispositions.

make
2

The

Note

the change in the

old peasant

fifteenth century,

adjectives,formed
the
their

names
were

never

from

But

the

this is not

done

160

the

man
"

or

names

"cki,

is called

"Fijolek."

which, dating

from

the

of the nobility (etymologically

of the estates). Lately the peasants (following

names

begun

No.

in "ski"

the endings of the

have
bourgeoisie)

names.

In

name.

ended

to

imitate

the form

in Galicia,
where

by adding these suffixes

class-consciousness

to

is stronger.

MARKIEWICZ

SERIES

481

163

March

and

Love

happy.

in

added

Jan's house

one

you

Dear

what

beg

sons, I

to do.

Advise

near

you

much

very

my

now,

dear

sickness.

May

Wacio,

to send

Lord

our

have

God

reward

often to

to do.

Polcia,

Fijolkowski

shall take them.

then

send

cared

you

me

for

once

in

me

for it!

you

Your

Dob-

more,
as

Miss

marry

few roubles for my

I hate to spend money

me

in,and

set

for Stas

care

what

us

Perhaps we

us.

teeth,because I must have new ones

Jwhich is put aside]. Perhaps you
And

healthy
for we
school,

formerlyin

instead,because Maks intends to

Buzanski
[Farm-work.] That man
comes

to sell the 6 morgs

intends

did

another

one

and that you don't wish

sincerely
Our whole familyis in good health,
girlsdied,but perhaps there will be

of the

one

don't know

we

saw

more

one

rowolska.
and

that you

another

evil,but good

another

only

God

another,as

one

love

believe that you

one

thank

We

SONS:

DEAR

26, 1913

....

lovingmother,
ANNA

164

MARKIEWICZ

April 26 [1913]
Alfons

SONS:

DEAR

sold

that

old

horse

bought

and

....

3 years

one,

young

but

his

old,good for eatingand for pullingand for

hip

somewhat

was

injured.

notice that at the fair Prussian

It

thing;
every-

difficult to

so

was

him

and did not know it.

Jews bought
Even
the horse's work was
a profitof 6 roubles,and
so, Alfons made
worth 10 roubles.
He [thehorse]remained
6 weeks with us.
And
Polcia].
Andrzej is callingupon us as often as before [courting

Surelywe

consider it and

must

gathered in all

sold; we

people, but

to

there

Jankowski moved
and

more

calmed

owed

will be

us

200,

but when

us,1 paid the whole

7 roubles for the sake of

order that there

"calm

To

Survival

natural

survived

is an

of the old custom

in money

roubles

pay

borrowed
he

to move,

was

borrowed

was

made

old

we

took

with

and

us

in

only 4 roubles
2

us

When

the lending of naturalia.

yielded

productive purposes

greater than

loans,but is rare.

to

came

expressionfor paying debts.

connected
for

roubles

100

and offered
back, and interest,

good feeling. But

the creditors"

return

200

he

had

He

won't

might always be good feelingbetween

product

expected, a

always those who

the Vistula.

shop is

Our

there is stilla little credited

roubles and

100

beyond

finish this business

the amount

Cf. Introduction:

agreed
"

more

upon.

Economic

than
This

was

custom

Attitudes.

"

482

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

how
astonished,

am

for you.

Only beyond the

write such

can

you

father and

grave

things,that

care

[partwith] their

mother

chUdren

don't

we

[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]

165

July 3 [1913]
I

CHILDREN:

DEAR

will

her maidenhood

now

will

he waits

else,and

have

We

if for God's

as

great

alone, and

working

won't

[forour

So

perhaps
Polcia,she

to

hear to

anybody

decision]
Alfons

bought

when
pullat all,particularly

she

double

she won't

children,because

my

sorrow,

for 130 roubles which

mare

mercy

As

have

we

here in the

was

know.

you

end

an

Andrzej,because

this

probably marry

to

come

betrothed

whom

Topolski,about

June, Edward

of

end

Elzbietka's

circumstances.

different

such

because

only now,

answer

....

pulls only badly. Alfons

going

has

now

enough to listen to. But he is worth much, for he is clever ! [Ironical].

I beg you,
loaned.] And now
[Farm-stock,farm-work, crops, money
in order to bring some
token [money from
children,economize
my
America], because

begin to

my

strengthdecreases.

refuse obedience

November
DEAR

Thanks

received

SONS:

We

God

that

to

everybody is in good
working
600

roubles and

giveher
wrote

the

on

much

very

because

health

and

only one

her

to

27

the money

good health,because

in Pecia's house

also.

[1913]

from
in

you.
house

our

is still

Franus

and

I told her that you

left with her.

are

the whole

100

refused.

is necessary.

but she demands

and

in

are

you

offended

note

feet

have in the bank

ship. As to money,
you [singular]
with [loanedto]Pecia 50 roubles,but you told us to

to lend

me

the letter and

roubles,so only 40

10

and

[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]

166

was

eyes, hands

My

Don't

roubles,but
But

you

are

think that I

am

her note,

so

she

right,quiteright,
not

good

to

much, for there are others also to

them all alike.
give,and it is rightto remember
a

little too

on

her,
take,
The

We
at the
were
Wladzia, Walenty's daughter, got married.
The
Swieckis' windmill
wedding. She married Guzinski of Plock.
back.
Maks
is burned.
[Przanowski]has not yet paid us the money
news:

We

have

bull,one

3 stacks of seradella.
young

roubles,12

bull,one

turkeys, etc.

We

chestnut
The

have

cows

horse, one

children

have

big with calves,one

pig worth about 50
gathered [leavesfor]

MARKIEWICZ

SERIES

483

they will bringwood

Wincenty Przanowski died.
have a little grinding,but not much
We
As to Polcia, she
won't be surelyglad [married]before carnival.
We wait for Elzbieta

litter. Now

[tobe married],but probably it will be

it is difficultfor all of them

Polcia,because

to

give [permission
?]

to

necessary

to sit at home.1
....

lovingparents

Your

and

family,

JOZEF and ANNA

167

MARKIEWICZ

December

I thank

which

received

We

SONS:

DEAR

for
heartily,

you

the sheep-skins
to line the coat
I

make

big expenses"

touching father's
is in all.

....

of

600

[ours]and

400

of yours

We

should

all

lost

He

Alfons.

ask

and

how

me

and
[Stasio]

50 of Pecia.

have

money

roubles

the mare,

on

roubles

600

are

There

but

for

of

and

then

is so

that
we

stealingis developed beyond

But

us.

Andrzej'sbrother-in-law
a

damage

of 500

roubles

the

Americans.

about

ask

of them

most

brought such

have

not

letters.

writes

an

According

to

marry

unwillingto give the

if such

right.

case

before the younger

younger

And

Elzbieta

is too

and

daughter
to

In

this

in her choice.
particular

the parents

are

give

so

dear

Lord

They
them.

work

no

God
From
did
You

enough, but

....

they would

it],

we

will

make

soon

the Polish peasants, the older

one.

The

give her

half-decided

case

are

therefore

any

dowry
a

before

the older has

family duty

to

wait

the situation is difficult because

Therefore
to

parents

before the older is married, and

away

daughter considers it

the younger

until her older sister is married.

are

to

measure.

avert

with Polcia

universal among

happens, they often refuse

received her part.

angry,

And

of

[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]

almost

custom

daughter should always

very

to the

trading

[somethingabout

shall do

we

[gether married].

end
1

head.

Well, at carnival

either to the left or

well

in

But, dear children,mind

As to Elzbietka,Topolski

nice money
in your

Wacus

much

had

wagon.

God

earned

They

if they had had

Still,

like the eye

health

your

and

Well, may

back.

came

horses

they stole

there

money

has [borrowed]200
Fijolkowski

....

more

much

Well, but people say that if the horses

152 for the horse.
in the summer,
he will be worth 200.
Well, perhaps our
will comfort

gave

the money.

us

gave

and

"

Ga.bin there

in

ours

100

the postman

You

bank

[Waclaw] and

in Radziwi

Alfons

money

the

In

when

justbeen

roubles,for

30

Don't
also,for father always says:
and now
we
can
buy what we need without

glad,and

am

....

had

we

letter and

your

....

[1913]

15

giveher

Polcia is tired of waiting and

away

before Elzbieta.

484
1

PRIMARY-GROUP

ORGANIZATION

68

January
DEAR

[Questionof gettinga passport

SONS:

[1914]

23

for

Stasio,to cross
[from America] 650

the

son
sent
boundary returning.] Rosa's
I did not
roubles,and Seweryniak's son 600, etc., but is it true?
it. And
count
Stasio,care for yourself. Dear children,we
you,
have
also wept on
and
Christmas
we
thought about you and we
talked [wondered] what
Alfons
are
doing there. But
said,
you
"They are better there than I am here,because these 3 girls[sisters]

beat

me

have

now.

God

forbid!1

and

cry." Such is the only son whom

least when I had you, Stasio,
it was possible,
but now
body
Andrzej got a basket [themitten],and there is some-

don't
At

else in his
a

from

man

young

Bodzanow.

near

[tomarry] at

wished

He

farm

has

it until after

Plock,

carnival,but

burn

"

claims he

He

at

once

Easter, in order not to

and Polcia
hasty]. She has other boys still,

postponed
too

Elzbietka

place

roubles.

me

his parents have

and
tailor,

has 1,000

let

even

we

[be

ourselves

also

[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]

169

April14 [1914]

about health and letter-writing.]

Here hi
[Generalities
that in America
there has been a very great
is [written],
terrible rains.
Write

at

us

We

are

about

once

Please

[cheating]
papers.

these gypsy

Andrzej. What
about friends.]

do you

to that

what

is the

news

being saved, because

your

speaks differently

news

anxious

very

because

answer,

We

shall

say

to it ?

our

and

with

you.

here

we

everyone

don't

probably get Polcia

[Weather; crops;
Your

papers

storm

believe
married

general

tfulyloying
[MARKIEWICZS]

Alfons

evidentlyloves farming,and particularly

horses,and helps at home

is without

and

any

personalclaims.

letters written before Stanislaw

home, he begins to play some

hi which

manner

his letter,but
matters.

In

almost

the mother

every

even

went

to

part.

He

rather

He

mention

After this,as

is not

unpracticaland

family there

no

is the least loved, as

be the result of the

numerous

is almost

America.

speaks of him.

probably is

This may

There

is

manner

at

of him
the only

is evident

son

at

from

the

all stupid,
is shown
as

by

diffident outside
in which

child worst

in the

of farming

he is treated at home.

treated,least loved, and

Bronii, in the autobiographyforming the third

of it is some
of this kind.) Perhaps the source
volume of this series,
are
cases
possession
prethe part of the parents againstthe child,assumed
either because he is
on
he was
not desired in an already too numerous
not standard in his traits,
or because
most

exploited.(Wladek

family.

and

486

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

and

dwindles

while

away

it will be with

for me,

heavy

I don't
so, "If

says

know

do without

cannot

heat

and
And

wedding

of

But

if you

and

you

have

last

buy

must

for the end

The

dry.

so

if you

So
don't

to spare,

none

water, this

things, since

many

August.

with

was

send

can,

send

is

it,for it
is

year

so

is with

one

promised the
a

me

them,

for

YOUR

LOVING

few dollars.

home,

at

are

we

outside

are

MOTHER

February

172
Those

BROTHER:

DEAR

how

anything

and this
[a good marriage-feastand bride's outfit],

be

must

the fields

upon

just decided today that

always
We

it."

do without

can

burned

August, but

of
he

father,because

your

there,you

We

look

we

will be at the end

[Polcia's]
wedding
not

Everything is

heat is terrible

The

roubles

50

which

sent

you

10

[1907]

have

been

Dear
brother, I have been everyreceived,but not yet the 100.
where
in
b
ut
the
I
a
ll
the
don't
succeed in
[visited
girls
neighborhood],

suitable.

findinganyone
Now

I want

in

few

mother

days

and

But
to

12

whole

our

Andzia.

Only

an

if perhaps

wait,but

[new

If he willed her
even

till autumn

write

me

what

these
or

you

Bialeckis

12
even

that

morgs,

he

married

the
in

at

I would

till carnival.
her and

of the carnival

grinding,I

wedding,
have

not

want

for I did

in autumn,

marry

how
at

not

her and
know

You

do you

wedding

in

this

and

our

like her

Zych

to

her

to

get

now

speak

then

I will

then I will go for this time to you.

Dobrzykow, but the wedding

[B's daughter] married
Jozef Klosinski.
Andzia

does

farm-buildings].So I will

years,

think about

in the last week

was

only in

much,

very

Dobrzykow did not

Mlodziejewskiwill give 6 morgs

it is said

you

[match-maker]to him, and

interceder

him; if he is willingto get her

with

spring.

family from

that

know

you

in the

to you

come

myself. She pleased me

before he builds

married

I sent

I will go

also,only

all.

at

Just today

her.

I shall

Andzia, Mlodziejewski's
daughter;

to marry

....

know

Probably

know

was

not

got

wait

I would

her very

well,so

like all this

in the house
very

of the

She

good.

acquainted with

her before

always grain to grind, sometimes

As
40

bushels

reserve

Y[our] b[rother],
STA[NISEAW]

MARKIEWICZ

to

lie

MARKIEWICZ

SERIES

487

*73

February 24,
DEAR

BROTHER:

An

awful

multitude

....

here to America.

from
wants

intended
him

to

of

brother,I will

Dear

Andzia,

I wrote

as

Pecia

gave

in my

her

people are
know

you

"

going

it is there.

him

The

"

boy

stopped him and won't allow

[Asks about the new
you.

States.]
but not

surelymarry,

you

how

you

from

comes

in United

landing

Wincentowo

but his father

the letter

until

conditions

boy, but he asks

rightnow,

to go

go

We

his

send

to

Ulicznyfrom

of

1907

until the autumn,

that

last letter

back, but

money

have

we

yet paid the

not

interest
The
for

feast

Zazdzierz

from

farmers

[forthem] ;

that you

say

to send

were

don't do it

but

STANISLAW

MARKIEWICZ

[June4, 1907]

174

date.]
[Followinghis mother's letter of the same
I have alreadyleft [the girlfrom] Dobrzykow,
And
Gostynno,
know

her since you

about

are

out.

Our

know

her, write

with

this

me

Maryanna

read

know

Well, you
This

to

Mania

Every

second

even

now

Bukowski,

be

to

have

you
but

to me,

not

celebrated
her.

to Mania.

with

You

Goszewski.

know

how

it will turn

until autumn.
I

to

now

greetingfrom them.

I don't

I go

As

much

pleasedvery

was

you

[Mania]. If they only keep their word, then

with

them, and

marrying.

my

only

yourselfhow

Write

bit
[separate]

to do.

Our

has nationalist ideas like

much.

pleasedme

Mrs.

anything about

will be at last the end

could

and

favorable

wedding is

and

called to the mobilization

were

you,

all very

They

of Mr.

to the house

They speak

in

15 roubles

crops

such

about
are

Mania

Gostynno

Your

herself.

accordeon!
time

gaily

brother,
STA[NISLAW]

MARKIEWICZ

[September13, 1910]

175
DEAR

BROTHER:

improve,

inform

nothing succeeds.

When
me

I have

you

at

once;

begun

notice that
then
now

the conditions

I shall go

going to

through this she

she plays the

beautifully
playsto me, and so we spend our

Sunday she

as

average.

myself,and

how

And

letter

it

ica]
[inAmer-

to America.

Radziwie

to a

Here
but
girl,

488

PRIMARY-GROUP

I don't
in

know

anything, for here, as

marrying

from

all,and

at

the army

in the

daughter, while
send

to

there will be
send

I don't

done?

of

none

See

succeeds

us

here, Ignac

came

he marries

succeed.

Andzia, Mlodziejewski's
already intended to write you

wait

stilla little. When

Radziwie, then

result in

no

know,

you

be

can

spring and

I will write

I learn
at

you

that
t

once

it back.

I will work

and
ship-ticket,

me

what

but
ship-ticket,

me

ORGANIZATION

STA[NISLAW] MAR[KIEWICZ]

176

October
know

I don't

BROTHER:

DEAR

what

as

rheumatism.

Just

littlebetter.

than once, but

me

stillworse

He

simply

clothes and

winter

drives

overcoat

for

earn

I must

for

go to town

business,now
take

nothing from

everywhere that
Every week I
the shop now.
back

father.1
1

The

while

sell about
As

soon

and

If you

go

bought

send

me

clothes

for
said

to the

away

And

nominallyI
earn,

so
own

they
thing
every-

put 60 roubles into

we
a
a

big

cap

expense.

But

father told

once

shop-stock for

my

needs.

I will

[from the

up

Father

we

my

in them

no

me

me.

goods. Mostly Elzbietka keeps

I recover,

America,

to

year

nags

and

lamely, because

spiteof such

When

the money

only

letter shows

in

roubles of
as

that

it goes

Last

He

stih1sick.

am

know

spend the whole

40

drives

counting,so whatever

120

this.

I would

I will draw

up.

debt

have

we

walking

am

to go more

the army

I have

he

children,only

rheumatism.

You

goods.

without

been

and

shop in Wincentowo, though

everything home

can

I have

of this

Now

money.

from

came

any,

will get into the household.

the

sheep-skincoat

give me

the other

of my

buy

afraid because

am

coming and

account

on

that he wouldn't

the small
take

is

winter

Now

ship-ticket

for 3 weeks.

to

but not

bought,

were

for

you

It will be necessary

want

Since

away.

me

enough,

factoryto

not

he did you,

than

warm

beforehand

often

father does

our

the present.

to

to the doctor.

I went

asked

lain in bed

I have

now

have

already,but I

be there

I should

and

long ago
a

would

healthyas formerly I

if I

do, because

to

....

were

23, 1910

because

probably throw everything

shop],pay my father the

am

tired

ship-ticketI will

total lack of understanding between

of the life with

most

gladly work

the young

and the old

generation. The father is not an egotist; he simply does not acknowledge

personalinterests of his son as separated from the interests of the family. And
lost the old feelingof familial solidarity.Only, the father goes
has totally
son

the
the
too

MARKIEWICZ

whatever

back

I shall

There

at home.

roubles,a

100

indeed, we
Tokary
lives
He

give
at

earns

gave

because

more,

roubles

roubles

40

hi summer,

month

Elzbietka

has

Lubien;

from

have

We

worth

take
Their

father

know

one

older is

and

mother

another
beautiful

surely try
write

"Send

you,

next

us

week

to

to

Lubien

sisters.

two

dead.

Their

her

me

BROTHER:

if

here in

and
I

perhaps not.

must

You

borrow

beg

you,

far in his

from

succeed

make

that in the
live they need
in

closed and

from

new

more

This

the

is

cash

Plebanek

I will

MARKIEWICZ

31, 1912
I must

what

shame

at

home

your

money,

that found

because

is

now

going

conditions

independence than they

isolated farmers' community.

would

the

400

Our

lent to

in his character
in

an

way

journey. So

then I will pay

in which
have

indeed.
and

he conceives

traditional peasant
strictly
economic

do

we

anything for

his family rise than

social and

When

there,I will

this,because

this attitude is connected

is particulary
unbearable

social standing in
family's

The

perhaps find me at home

[money] for the journey,so

give me

give me

give me

to

me

will

roubles

600

are

in

answer

won't

because
group-attitude,
to

want

letter to Miss

there better than

somebody.

write father to

his tyranny

learn

....

help me

Your

that he won't

stronger tendency
And

know

Father

father,though there

people,says

and

then
nothing [results],
money."

or

must

country.

our

hogs.

here

even

ticket

for you

home,

our

Topolski. We

December

leave the

were

is

If I don't

hand.

here

is in America.

name

is

of them

177

on

buy

They

STANISLAW

DEAR

He

shop. They

brothers; one

two

are

Lubien, but

in

has

Stasiek

courtingElzbietka.

I will go
He

yet how

house.
at our
already,for his sisters were
only there is nothing [no money].
woman,

Jaroslaw,asking for

in

knew

You

try,but today I shall write

I will

I recover,

to

come

don't,know

we

ed-meat

cur

roubles

120

reputationhe enjoys.
of them.
one
They are

what

he intends to

Now

Sunday.

on

they have

and

is

Now,

bought 6 morgs in
without
buildings.She
the shipof Mrs. Jaworska.

suitor.

Franus.

to

he has

and

morg,

Well, it is the brother of his wife who

butcher

roubles

100

did,and he sails as captainupon

in winter.

much

we

him

275

....

600

for 40,

cart

489

Why, there is not such misery

roubles of cash,we bought a horse for

you

about

are

must

she

as

owe

SERIES

you
with

ordinary peasant.

the progress of the

stand
and does not underhis children have

needed

forty years

to

ago,

back

as

soon

more

pressingI

from

anybody

to pay

will wait

and

because

I won't

must

So write to father either to

go.

thingsdon't get

give money

marriage,I have

As to my

now

myself what

of all this I don't know

marry.1

If

go

letter,and if not, then I will borrow

for your

debt

my

but

stranger, but I

some

don't,I shall be obligedto borrow

If you

I get to you.

as

from

money

or

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

490

....

and

WACIO

comfort

I had

I inform

which

in that

wrote

you

that you

you

thought that
at least hi your

us

heart

my

that
letter,

write

would

you

wounded

I did not

letter.

second

such

us

ask

You

word.

carnival.

And

now

So

spent

we

Merrily enough, only we

grieved for you
write us how the work is going on, and when will you

the

how

America].

how

us

much

so

know

sad

1908

4,

his intention to stay in

myself[probablyabout

never

comfort

ably
prob-

STA[NISLAW] MARKIEWICZ
May

with the word

to

nity,
opportu-

an

to do

178
DEAR

to me,

come

back
.

Your

loving sister,

E[LZBIETA]M.
[November

179
WACEK:

DEAR
We

glad.

thank

look nice

and

received

We

for it and

you

And

enough.

I send you

it.

I shall cut

whether

it or

plum trees, remind

1

The

because

The

we

now

me

boy's search for

he cannot

find

rose

photograph and we are very

that you are in good health
rejoice
ask about

you

put

out

wild
come

the

asked

branch.

wife lasts much

It grows

rose.

of the fruit

None

for

leaf of the

I don't know

; write me.

I will have

more

beyond the usual time.

combinations.

As

it done.

suitable girl,
but the girls'
parents refuse him.

is perhaps less his personalitythan economic

in harmony

leave it until you

once

1909]

your

twice during the summer.

nicely; it blossomed
trees which
you planted bore any fruit. You
rose;

4,

to the

The

It is not

The

reason

Stanislaw,acting here

with his father (or else he would

complain about the latter)evidently

have a correspondingfortune.
if his father gave
Even
him the farm, it would be impossiblefor him
the
to pay
brothers' and sisters'parts without mortgaging the farm, unless he got an exceptionally
largedowry. Therefore he would preferto settle upon his future wife's farm.
his personality
But in this case
beginsto play a r6le. If a farmer agrees to give his
asks

too

farm

to

much

dowry, while

his son-in-law,he wants

Stanislaw

he

cannot

himself

the latter to be strong, healthy, laborious,while

is the contrary of all these.

MARKIEWICZ

nut

does not

tree

I thank

him

grow

as] you
[persuasively

as

roubles

10

dissuade him

to finish it.

when

from

I have

mother

our

time

for

to

him,

let him

and

off this party

and

hi
[girl]

he does not
him

as

wish

it is time

write you,

can

Write

Pecia,and
Teosia,no bad

As to

whether

us

thinking that

time, but if you

while

with

was

the

was

is

news

mother
Grand-

presidenthas been

cannot

we

it

can

you

I think

marry;

therefore I

I
letter,

Stasiek,write

to

So write

you.

nicely.

grow

sittingmodestly after her travels.

sad in

very

to

few words.

good health.

am

long

so

soon

write

She is

here.

is in
elected.

today

the last

wrote

sad that I could not

to be heard

going. Only

As

to leave

not

can,

Gostynno, because they are favorable

much, but would like rather to go to
and

491

well,while the cherrytrees

very

heartilyfor the

you

SERIES

see

another

one

longingin foreigncountries,come

are

country

our

Your

lovingsister,
E[LZBIETA] MARKIEWICZ

80

[Date undetermined]
DEAR

WACIO:

maiden

for
Topolski],
for not
words

healthyenough
I feel very happy

and

his

even

having married
of

told you

all this about

him.

I meet
I

somebody accordingto
remain

can

I did not

maiden

for

Indeed

I did

marry

time passes

you

can

still

[probably

him

say

that he has
him.

marry

we

who

me

mean

know;

married,but

I work

time still.

me

short,he

In

I don't

now

I will get

sew,

to write

if

if not,

before,I have

as

embroider,and

so

the

away
MARKIEWICZ

ELZBIETA

181

March
DEAR

you

am

heartilyfor these few

much

And

him.

We

same.

marry

also

very

not

mind,

my

and Zosia.
girls[apprentices]

two

you

you

some

the

thank

acquaintances
approve

my

beg

that account

and

me

and

I thank

him.
I would

for

not

was

I wish

that I did not

companions

good advice.

character; just on

letter for which

your
and

I am
heartily,
a

received

WACIO:

beg

you

very

much, if

you

think

26, 1913

that it

might

a
ship-ticket.Instead of both
please send me
for your board, you would
have me
as
housekeeper if I went
paying
So, please
there,and I could earn for myself during the free hours.

be

better

All

for me,

plantedby

the brother; thence

their interest for him.

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

492
write

what

me

think

you

acquaintances are

to

about

from

go

here

in

because

me,

America,

to

May

of my

some

I could

so

along

go

with them.
.

ELZBIETA

182

March
DEAR

BROTHERS:

letter and
send

more,
so

the

do

to

more

home,

at

sellingthe

are

go for money

shop

once

you

Kiszkowski,
I

Why,

don't

send

me

183

MARKIEWICZ

[Exact date undetermined]

DEAR

WACIO:

truly,as

brother,that

to my

dawn

everything. We
offended

be not

even

if we
for

enough

be

not

told her that you

give a

to

and

to lend

night,it would

to

that she had

us

write

You

household,it would

true

to

If you

ELZBIETA

from

beg

you

tell the truth.

to

spent here 25 years! I hope it is enough.

ticket,I will

30, 1913

I wrote

writing this postcard

am

nothing

letters

your

ship-ticket.We

me

I have

have

now

I received

M.

said

gave

her;

her the whole

if we

even

us

prefers to borrow
that he [Franus,her husband] is not sure

in the
become

it is very

against the other, I

brother

know

you

what

for her

gulffor

that she got

badly

strangers.

It is

from

all

at

but

[ofliving?] and

she would

She

say.

has

Well, you have Stas there. Ask him.

when
[member of the family]writes
one

quite changed.

now

Although

that she

of his death

case

it is

and

to lend her money,

She is so unreasonable

note.

farm

worked

enough, because

ordered

I tell you

to Pecia.

money

much

as

as

bad

do

must

it.

she is my

I don't

lies;you

write

sister,but she is

are

my

without

woman

character
Dear
overcoat
one

Stasio,I thank
of Alfons.

you

also for

It is true

that money

thing,while mother

the sake of

us

is

so

having

sent

for

is necessary
But

parsimonious

for the

money

than

more

she is

for

so

all
Your

loving sister,
ELZBIETA

[Wishes and greetings.]And

Mrs.

but
J[aworska],
upon

once.

this

Franus

all this is not

flowingwater

has got his

enough.

[ofPecia's

When

salaryraised by
throw

you

thing
any-

it floats away
expenses],
r.r

.-

[YOUR MOTHER]

at

PRIMARY-GROUP

494

ORGANIZATION

86

[No date]
DEAR

WACIO:

I thank

about
havingforgotten
or

they
marry.

But

and

I won't

whether

they

me

but I intend

ask

one

to

me

the

I have

I intend

one

in

farmer

village,1

if

to

me

I don't

know

they don't

to, I won't get married

all,

at

year
MARKIEWICZ

187

April 14 [1914]

DEAR

BROTHERS:

it

about

arranginga tripto
Zachowo.

the first time

For

write,Stasiek,about

You

you

also

I write

Elzbietka.

few words

So I

to

beg you, forget

circle. Now
they are
joined the agricultural
the provinceKalisz,to visit the farms hi the village

villageis

This

first in all the

the

of

kingdom

Poland,

only the peasants there have good order in the fields and
telephones,and electric
home, but they have in the villageeven

because

not

lightin houses and stables.

years
10

wanted,

order

from

AFOLONIA

at

one

them, but

not

betrothed

want, they

of

one

marry

The

Wincentowo.

from

of them

to America

to go

I don't

anybody except

will allow

whether

me

and I had another.

the

marry

to marry

now

You
one

and

me,

hi fact I have

now

allow

allow

heartilyfor the postcard, for

me.

not; yes, indeed,I have

did not

you

it

ago

was

also to go

So I want

and

it.

Ten

journeywill

The

villageof first-rate thieves.

see

cost

roubles; the departure at the end of May

[ALFONS MARKIEWICZ]

188

[December
I think

Christmas

solemnityof
whether
we

shall

we

spoke

Dobrzykow

see

each

O my

This

singlephrase

peasant girland does

she who

not

kept the house.

when

us

shows
want

to

be anything else.

mind,

think about

would

for it is

it,but

consciously Polcia is still a

Her

mother

wrote

that it was

Evidently, she loves housework, farm-work, and country

village. The

type is frequent.

sacrifice these to any

Ojcowizna, land-propertyhanded
some

perfectlyand

mill in

^what

the mill of

about

to Gombin

Maks

remember

you

the

alone knows

for God

Do

1912]

before

Now

Stas.

always keep this

how

not

kept for

my

more.

going

thoughtthat

lifeand would

you,

other any

God!

like family property.2

1

to

I will also write to you,

between

once

wrote

yet

never

2,

generationsin

the

same

career

down

bring her outside of the

which

would

from

father to son;

family. Considered

more

if
particularly
valuable

from

MARKIEWICZ

him.

relyupon

I cannot

SERIES

If you

495

think about

it,put money aside and

We
will put it in the savings-bank,and perhapsGod will
send it here.
the church, it is a place the like of
help us to buy it. There, near
be found in the whole province. The new
which cannot
priesthad
abolished.
Lis of Gorki bought it from Kowalska
the tavern
for a
shop. They had
joint-stock
of Plebanek, but now
they
was.1

set

the

up

in the

shop

will transfer

it

stone

here, where

building

the tavern

....

[Your father],

J[AN]M[ARKIEWICZ]
I inform

BROTHER:

DEAR

to school,but

finish it I shall go
that Maciek

you

is not

It

J. has beaten

bad, but

he

that

you

must

we

there is
Ziolek

pay

threshing. When

are
no

Now

money.

we

I inform

[the grandmother's husband].

roubles

30

and

sit

weeks

in

prison
IGNACY

MARKIEWICZ

189

April20,

DEAR

BROTHERS

MAKS

I describe

Then

Christmas

first the
and

left arm

to

but

leg

her from

abuses

does not

up.2

(At present
brothers,but

dear

else than

his

and

death, and

And

if his mouth

then

after

written to his
2

The

supposed
a

member

marry.

of the

her property to
no

Well, if he
will shut it

we

I don't

know,

my

little time.

And

and
perfectly

or

Cichocki,the

acquiredas dowry.

of the traditions of the

is the

only one

he has

ever

son.

grandmother
to

man

?"

the carpenter swelled also before

earned
point of view than property individually
is
because
some
appreciation particularly
strong
patriarchalnoble family are preserved.
This letter characterizes the old

[her husband]

gets looser

the

the

She has grown

she groan

the moral
Here

then

grandmother is probably nothing

Ostrowski

he died

After

....

Ziolkowski

does

Why

this swellingof

signof death.

to swell

with him.)
friendship

live hi

we

"

to time:

to reason,

come

leg began

it is awful.

received.]

and

grandmother's health.

grandmother stillwalks.

....

time

of

state

and

rightarm

quarrelsome that

so

the

you

written
[Letters

STAS:

AND

1912

He

married
cannot

Zi61kowski

cannot

an

age

be assimilated,and

family. Properlyshe would

the family,but her marriage

property himself,and

at

claim

support from

she

was

no

longer

she is also estranged but still

retire and
hinders

when

leave the management

this because

Zi61kowski

his wife's children.

of
has

496

PRIMARY-GROUP

father of

before his death.

also swelled

Tomasz,

Switkoszanka

ORGANIZATION

died

8 weeks

Do

know

you

that

her

after

Dear
Maks
marriage?
to get the address of Jadzia L^czanka.
me
Well,
you asked
evidentlyI could not get it otherwise than by asking her good man of
a father personallyand
he, of course, granted my request. Please,
about
school,whether you are learning in it
Maks, tell me
your
already or when will you begin to learn. Nejman Felka's [husband]
....

....

in

was

house

our

yourself.
the form

It is

of

that you

different from

very

the conditions

note, and

those 1,000

something

praisesthe writingof

He

says that it is evident

letters highly. He

your

after Easter.

Sunday

on

what

which

on

it

you

improving

are
was.

Send

us

wish

to send

us

roubles
Your

brother,
WIKTOR

Maks, mother

begs

MARKIEWICZ

guard Stas against card-playingand

you,

revelry

August

IQO
BROTHER

DEAR

Pardon

MAKS:

me,

....

you

school-certificate for

your

that

it

need

you

there,do

school

badly.

present it,because

will

Don't

into the hand.

already in that state

how

in 3 pages

he treated him
to

keep

gun

were

in

am

I cannot

earn

exhausted

on

how

God!

see

from

want

your

it to show

when

I got it from
a

Russian

I took

care

the

you
1

for

it in the
you

of it.

It

was

hog.1 [Relates

that Russian

to go hunting, how
post-official

drunk, and

he

how

hoped to get permission

through this official'sinfluence,because these permissions
difficult to

get.]

critical positionthis year.

The

money.

different

unhappy

which

reserve

purchases,such
am

that

The

our

as

I had

from

Either the teacher

Dear

father is

or

leaving the
position,

some

brothers

to whom
official,

last year

so

indifferent

Maks
Maks

school-certificate with him.

may

to

so
was

clothes,shoes,etc.

of

last grosz

is bad, and

orchard

when
he smells
purchases,and particularly
pocket then he won't buy anything,and in that way
matters

last postcard

know, dear brother,how

think that is the way

got him

very
a

that you

I don't

But

sending

not

it is awfully dirty;it is disagreeable

to take it

he invited
and

long,for

I guess

not

you

so

for
please,

2, 1912

us

my
in

rouble in your
he draws

from

and

Stas, I don't

have

appliedformerly

MARKIEWICZ

that

doubt

love

you

letter you

and

don't be

me

excuse

497

as
sincerely,
brothers,and that after
my
will send me
[money] for a nice gun.
Well,
It is only a joke
angry.

me

receivingthis

SERIES

.....

WIKTOR

MARKIEWICZ

[August 2, 1912]
Further, to
bought

your

this

satisfied with

newly bought

and

smaller

is much

for

paid 220
and

and

does

did not

do

this,father

from

Far

not

money

does

need

strange you

not
to

to

well

is very

that

father has

our

brother,for not

dear

sleep,because

for

to

so

which

send

scythe.

the

tomorrow

him, why he
"Your

mother
grand-

Well, what
me

that it is

long a time.

Probably

but

Maks

hand

there is

intends to

the notes

awaits

nobody
send,it

first. Excuse

me,

is stillawfully tired

I will finish it and

work

same

our

grandmother

to

I asked

back

sent

writingcarefully;
my

mowing barleywith

from

back

to the money

as

back

of

totallysettled.

enough already? "J

to
grandmother said once

that it has been

And

give it to her.

is

not

the money

well

sell my

to

to the address

grandmother, he answered:

Even

grandmother guesses

intends

the matter

giving it. When

it; has she

send

is very

roubles for 3 horses

is 2^ years old. Then

roubles

100

instead father

200

yet given the money

of

to

that ?

do not

sent

you

we

together; the chestnut

received

probably that

think

even

fit

not

that

answer

Father

he

newly bought mare

has not

give the

say

you

believe

you

Father

The

one.

and

heartily.

you

and

mare,

color.

mare,

they do

slower.

mention, dear Stas,that

father

of black

mare,

I thank

horses

chestnut

except my

also,because

mare

for which

questionsabout

thoroughbred

one

chestnut

the papers

continual

sold all the horses

have

and

I received

STAS:

DEAR

me

lie down

to

.....

WIKTOR
Sta" has

probably borrowed

America, the father refusingto lend.

familial attitude stillmore

by

he would

could

not

the grandmother
be

be

The

subordinated

it

want

to

she is,through her second

that he wants
would

act

same

simplydishonest

is stillso

of Sta" not

as

part of her money

not

his

if performed

to send this money

back,

consider it

for the family-fortune.

of the family that her interests

a

whole, while

on

marriage, half outside of the family and

greater temptationto divert

mother
grand-

keep it makes

the father does

But

member

those of the family

to

be dishonest

personallyfor himself,but
much

for his journey to

father's unwillingnessto give the

keep it for his personal use.

dishonest; he does
And

evident.

it would

of his sons;

any

because

The

acknowledgment

and his open

her money

his grandmother

from

money

to

the other hand

thus there is a

familial purposes.

498

PRIMARY-GROUP

ORGANIZATION

December

IQ2
BROTHER

DEAR
I

inform

that

you

for money

[Thanks

STAS:

2, 1912

him.] Further,
already settled. She
sent

grandmother's affair]is

heartilyand wishes you every good. [A

page about the permissionto keep a gun, which has not yet come.]
Then, I inform you that mother complains about pains hi her right
thanks

most

that she cannot

so

arm,

also

you

grant her
before.

to

sleep.
slowly

recover

don't

But

grieve,perhaps God will

Michal serves
[in the army], as

his last letter he 'writes that

In

he

is

trying to become an
an
officer].O stupid

orderly [assignedto the personal service of

wretch!
He wants
to be appointedto keep a Moscovite's
I did not

clean!

if he is not

anythingto

answer

orderly,he

appointedan

this.1

backsides

Further,he

writes

will try to get into

that

hospital

[asservant]. Well, you see, he does not try at all to return home
[by being pronounced unfit]. My advice is lost. Cieslak's son came
him and tried to
He says that they tormented
back 3 months
ago.
frightenhim, but he did not change his behavior until they let him
illness.]You see,
[Probablyhe pretended or exaggeratedsome
go.
that is

farm-

[Marriages;weather, crops,

man.

work; wishes for

Christmas.]
WIKTOR
I thank
from

you

book

some

for the poetry "At

or

paper],and

beg

MARKIEWICZ

the

Crossway" [probablycopied

you

for

like this

more

one.

February

193
DEAR

BROTHERS

MAKS

STAS:

AND

mother's

times I

began to
send you any of these letters,
pain by these letters,
informing
....

write letters to you, but I did not

because I did not want
to cause
you
about

Three

15, 1913

and
illness,

the

time

about

the

slight
sickness of our dear littlesister Weronika, to which at the beginningwe
We
waited for mother's health to improve, and
paid less attention.
God the Merciful granted to our mother better health,so I started to
you

write you

letter.

But

["Swi$tejPamieci,"
1

at

alas! from

"of

sainted

same

the

memory"]

our

dear

The

Russian

conceptionthat personalservice is humiliatingis never

of orderlyis much
desired hi the
peasants (theposition

rarelyfound
frequent and

among
among

the Polish manor-servants.

the

peasant

evidentlyaggravated in this
Russian.

case

Among

nobility almost
because

the

man

of S.t P.

slightweakness

found

army)

the peasant farmers

Michal

-The

the

among

Russian

universal.
whom

little sister

and
it is

situation

would

serve

is

is
a

MARKIEWICZ

Weronika, some
and

said that inflammation

He

alas,no

that there was,

this

of the

to

called Doctor

lungshad developed,

of recovery.

hope

give her health back

his best to

499

stronger illnessdeveloped. We

....

Grzybowski.

SERIES

Nevertheless

he did

dear sister Weronika, but all

our

for the
useless,

On January 31, in the

deadly illness grew.
morning we asked the priestfrom Dobrzykow [to come] with our
Lord Jesus. He prepared S.f P. Weronika, who
was
conscious,for
death.
The next day, on February i, she lost her consciousness.
0
dear God, how fortunate it was
that the priest,with our
Lord
my
was

in time!

Jesus, came
February

Then

From

February

she recovered

i, she

raved

in fever up

to

full

she ceased to
consciousness,
to rise from her bed, saying so:
"Mother, I will
groan, she wanted
for I am
tired [oflying]."
so
get up, dress myself and walk a little,
Oh

3.

God, who

my

in Weronika's

health!

8 o'clock in the

joy in seeingsuch

imagine our

can

But

joy did not last

our

evening. Then

she

began

improvement

an

longerthan

until about

to lose consciousness

again.

"Stas!"
"Indiana
Harbor"
despairingly "Maks!"
and so she called
[whereboth brothers were],then again "Michalek!"
of her relatives and acquaintancesmore
than once.
one
So,
every
dear brothers,we did not expect that before her death Weronika
my
She

called

would

want

to

to call us,

all of us.1

see

February 4,

prescribed. About

she ended

1913,

light,in the

sister Weronika

eleven

time to time she asked

onlyfrom

the doctor had

which

About

her life as

presence

transferred

was

of
to

in the

for the medicine

o'clock after

calmly

all.

us

evening she ceased

The

the church

midnight,on
guished
extin-

someone

body of S.t

P.

our

February 5, at
day,after the holy

on

morning, and buried on the same

I mention
mass.
also,dear brothers,that at the funeral there was
did you
I ask you,
an
extraordinarygathering of people. Then
death?
receive the mourning letters,
informing about Weronika's
bodings
And
I beg you very much, tell me, did you have any signsor fore?
For we heard a terrible roar, but it was
as long ago as June.
10

o'clock in the

if

as

to drink

I wrote

you

about

it at that time

WIKTOR
1

The

death.
this

familial feelingis

Death

case

we

is no

do not

reported what
of the absent

more

know

always manifested
purelyindividual

by the peasant at the moment

than marriage or birth.
matter

the age of the child,and have

happened and what would

should have

MARKIEWICZ

that
suspicion

The

In

the brother

be agreeableto the feelings

relatives.

of the
death is a remnant
of signsforetelling
expectation
religion.Cf. Introduction: "Religiousand Magical Attitudes."
3

of

old naturalistic

PRIMARY-GROUP

500

Stas,I thank
Christmas, and I beg
Dear

the money

waste

name.

for those few roubles

you
you,

care

you

earn

which

in

am

terrible

ORGANIZATION

for

I received

after

don't play cards,don't

yourself,

by work.
after

sorrow

which

beg you heartilyin

beloved

our

God's

Weronika
YOUR

MOTHER

April 8, 1913

194
DEAR

American
about

As you

STAS:

wheat

this

cholera

[Rumors of war; family has purchased

drill;farming conditions.] You ask me, dear Stas,

BROTHER

permission to keep

First I mention

gun.

to

may

you,

stranglethe Moscovites with their laws and their whole shop.

know, this cholera of a "stupajka" [nickname for a Russian

from the Russian

words, "stupai-ka," "go at once,"
functionary,
bad
symbolizing the passive obedience of a subordinate] wrote
information

about

for not

they have

But

questions.

being

interior

1905-6 I

he

it down.

the whole

and

then

such

gave

kind

as

will

it in my

to send

Grandmother

from

name

groans,

but

good understanding. Ziolek's

with her.

Grandmother

groaning alone,and

the

to

me

the minister

it is

of the

If not,

beg Maks

With

sister

to

came

for up

they will

now

us

to be

we
so

America.1

walks

is angry,

I will

with

proofsthat

I have
to

political

angry

judge it

and

emperor,

in

opinion of

an

affair is sent

the senate

complaint to the

Opas is

But

....

shall write

interested

was

all.

proofsat

no

latter wrote

Now

true

in

and

mayor,

constable,and the
not

that

me,

both

live in

we

grandmother,

to the

groan.

Ziolek

to

stay

present she has been

She

is very

brittle

already,that Ziolek's sister.

Gostynin on a business matter, and

of Gostynin. They are nice and rich.
the girls
with the Kowalczyks I will try to get the favor

I went

with
well

to

I got

acquainted

If it doesn't end

of

one

of them.

[WIKTOR]
1

In order to

passport,

to

governmental permission(tokeep a gun as well as to get

business,to teach, to pass an examination, to go to any

get any

open

"wellin Russia to be politically

superiorschool,etc.)it is always indispensable
and
and
the
certificate based upon
to present a corresponding
thinking
reliable,"
be refused even
opinion of the policeand gendarmerie. The certificate may
without stated reasons, on mere
suspicionthat the individual has ideas which are
unfavorable

to

the "existingorder of things,"although he may

against the government

or

even

talked against it.

never

have

acted

PRIMARY-GROUP

502
it to the communal
rumors

Russian

that

American

of all this I advise

view

home.

money

is to

dear

you,

assure

with

he has saved.2

and
Stas,sincerely

conscience

my

on

you

country

our

the
equaled
rouble]. Well, if this happened

money
i

in

be

lose the half of the money

would

one

add, that here

I must

[$i is to be worth

money

than

more

bank

heard

are

ORGANIZATION

send
truly,

that I won't

I will put it into the bank.

neglectit,i.e.,
would give you a written evidence,for if I am

your

lose it and

won't

In

successful with

in

Kowalczyks
would

Czyzew, this

be necessary
I would

money,

show

to

money.

to show

for

there

even

more,

irretrievable loss.

[News about

no

Oh

have

5,000

cash

efforts will

my

great God!

my

farm-

orchards,crops,

need

It

sent

your

know
be well

It would

themselves,

money

of their own.*

bring me

it,
the

me.

stranger would

least 2,000.

at

to

there,so if you

although they don't

Stas,whether

dear

know,

I say

I needed

case

great help

bolder,because

who
[competitors]

are

least 2,000

at

be that much

that it is borrowed

will be

money

In

I don't

happinessor

implore you

an

help me.
friends.]
to

work; marriages of

[WIKTOR]
[No date]

197
MY

ask about

you

The

what

distrust in American

the Polish

of this kind

Rumors

from

misunderstood

emigrant who,

not

newspaper

to

it.

profitby

Often

This shows

money,

it would

And
such
Nor
he

girlso

would
were

her

individual

The

ought

control of the

from

the

commune.

Sometimes

sources.

they

the story of

having

and

spread such

may

come

returning
standard

no

to guess

in order
intentionally

news

their

dowry brought by

source.

the

girlKowalczyk is rich enough

humiliation

to

care

man

or

to take

the girlis not

husband

out
with-

for the amount

for the girlto marry

without money,
a man
But since in marriage the man
is not

in education.

member

of

family, and

the social standing of the family than

man

of them

of money
which he may
bring.
be considered humiliating for a man
without fortune to marry
not
far as he is personallyconcerned, because he would
give his work.

equal

to

you

conceives and believes anything;

impossible,

it is impossibleeven

least not

at

it be

but

the

that the question of

exclusivelyeconomic.
or

various

Jewish merchants

or

as

bankers, most

understanding the conditions abroad

the agents

Swatowna,

immigrants have proved dishonest,while

article;sometimes

the possiblefrom
for distinguishing
sometimes

this

is justified,
as
many

the immediate
from

come

About

me.

banks

savings-bank is under

communal

for my

me

lot awaits

Jewish,operatingamong
3

opinion about marriage,and

[daughterof Swat], My brother,my Stas,

Swatowna

know

I don't

ask

You

STAS:

DEAR

have

money,

as

since fortune has

more

provided
an

isolated

importance

for

for the social standing of the individual,the

it is a proof that he

comes

from

rich family.

MARKIEWICZ

I tried

know,

all this

and

hard

so

brought

to
me

SERIES

503

gain her favor; I took so

nothing. I should have

hard

many

steps,

all

right
basket"
[the
out

come

told me, she "gave a

there,for as this Miss Swatowna
because she loved me.
mitten] to Rudkowski
I
when
But, finally,
expected to end the business,then they [my family]began to find
fault with it,particularly
mother.
Well, I gave up the game, I
stopped callingon her. How
they must talk about me there now!
Swatowna
is stilla girl. I don't know
what will be the end of the

which

with

hopes

If God

Czyzew.

in the hands

of various
business
was

from

when

thingswere

there

go

again.

hated

[disliked]
me, but because

at her

[forreceivingattention

up

observation

want

found

occasion

some

pretended to
he wanted
well

me

and

for

come

as

was

to

could,and it seems

we

found

never

because

she

brokers laughed
[marriage]

I noticed that
still,
Mrs. K.
indifferently,
particularly

us

could

I do?

for he understood
with

different

I gave

evidentlyKowalczyk did

But

situation.

our

and

myself that

me].1 Worse

in this way,
came

to

she hid herself not

sorry.

quitea

also to look at

me

I said

greatly; but what

pained me

part with

to

All this is

bite,for there is a crowd

few times

different

from

to treat

efforts,
though

my

not

as

hid herself and

Kowalczyks began

that

there

was

Evidentlyshe

This

bad

so

her.

the

to

in

Kowalczyks

be the best there.

it is a hard nut

But

the

around, and the Kowalczyks themselves look upon this

I hear that they prefer me,
several sides.
but there

men

wouldn't

myself about

it would

helped me,

of God.

time

I still deceive

his brother

business,but

we

my

wishes,

Piotr.*

He

guess

that

tried to treat them

Well, we

that it pleasedthem

well

enough, and

this is often sufficient to

As the peasant is particularly
to ridicule,
susceptible

hinder

reason

her choice may

marriage.

girlwill hardly ever

be ridiculed.

The

marry
reasons

man
are

ifshe suspects that for any

various.

The

most

frequent

in Wiktor's case.
The occupation is also
as
position,
are
occupationswhich make a good marriage impossible

is the inferiority
of social

important.

very

for the
and

There

Among

man.

these

are

horses
catching stray dogs hi the streets, sterilizing
nection
in general occupationshaving a con-

cattle,serving in Jewish houses, and

Jewish business. (This last prejudicetends to disappear except hi

connection with personalservice.) There are other occupationsto which only a
slight ridicule is attached, such as shoemaking, tailoring,peddling. Another
are
of ridicule is a physicaldefect,however
source
slight. Similar prepossessions
less
them
makes
found againstgirls,
but the lack of variety in woman's
occupations
in Jewish houses.
pronounced except as against servants
with

It is

suitors

bad

policyto

dismiss

an

unacceptablesuitor

too

for
hastily,

the

more

girlhas the greater her value for each of them, and this influences the social

standing of the family. Cf. Introduction:

"Marriage."

PRIMARY-GROUP

when

them

I meet

they treat

also to them

in the

passing by.

They received

such

bashfulness

other very
in

was

rather late.

Pentecost.
her

She

letter.

So I have

will

you

well

greet you

well,and
She

will

know

of their

son

had

has

He

anything.

not

with

farther inside of America

went

BROTHER

DEAR

MAKS:

In

the editors of Lud

it to the

sent

for Pan

Polski

favor].

of Mickiewicz:

Tadeusz

of time

Waste

to send

whore

MARKIEWICZ

14, 1 was
a

you

You

wrote

and

paper

in Warsaw

I
a

bought

the whole

you

letter to the

You

Kowalczyks

MARKIEWICZ

POPLACIERZ, April13, 1914

199
DEAR

just then
from

it

BROTHER

STAS:

from

in which

you

was

days later

performed

He

worth

beg

meet

you,

my

at

some

father got

in Grabie

was

complain that

our

him

dear

my

at

12

dear

you

distance.

The

least 6,000 roubles.

have

wedding which
o'clock,at
brother

letter

no

was

news

be,

to

few

noon.1

and

Maks
....

I don't consider
Still,

brother,understand

affairs are
indispensable

neither of the girlsmentioned

orphan girllivingat
are

different

many

married

you

letter to

would

you

myself excused,but

February 1 8

on

I sent

....

expected that
how

When

last letter I told about

In my

me.

and

land

24, 1913

copiesof the

few

WIKTOR

And

yet.

come

Collegein Cambridge Springs,Pa.

collection of his poems

[inmy

August

....

They

asked

to write

grandmother's second

August

paper.

after

come

to, write,but fib cleverly. [News about

want

don't

I asked

about

me

and begs you

politely

198

and

passage.

asked

WIKTOR

MY

it

moreover

whole

said that you

uncle

deaths.]

we

perhapshe

with

greetedeach

we

briefly
my

if

as

Mania

togetherfor her

Bankowna.

Jan Ziolek [probablythe

husband]

and

was

me

to you

and

Miss

I went

them

upon

and

little

tried to treat

I met

to

me

spoke

I fibbed

come.

told

where

room
we

called

enough,

described

that

If you

marriages and
About

and

humor

and

April 2,

me

to the

I mention

when

you,

evening, on

came

good

very

Now

....

quitedifferently.Well, now

me

heartily.However,

was

ORGANIZATION

before,but

to

new

be

my

tion,
situa-

settled,and

acquaintance,an

girl's
dowry is very large,as

30 morgs

of

MARKIEWICZ

all the time and

they absorb

and

turning around

the

wedding-ceremony?

beginning of all this.

before

troubles

turned

council

court

the winter

grain sown,

the barn
when

filled with

neither cart
dear

and

it rains

"

ruined,for there

look and

you

whatever

usuallyleave

tenants

for household

or

for

are

I received

30

to

one

barn, it

except

you

look at, you

it.

And

here

and

part of

cow

it

in the stable

fences

be

cultivatingthe soil,must

building,

rain comes,

rains

the smallest

horse,

nor

the

repair.

must

even

it in the

the house.

near

begin farming now,

hand, neither

in the

affairs

of land with

morgs

everywhere. The

none

28, the family-

nothingat all ? The roofs upon

speak,in a deplorable
state; when

it rains in the cellar

are

only

is

into his

Stas,are so
in the courtyard and it rains

house

March

farm, and

Well, how
take

to

On

korcy of potatoes

15

only

was

imagine them;

rope,
to

rains

as

nor

well,and

performed

important

my

that you

sure

I received

straw.

nothing

he has

am

steps

series of these affairs and

to you

the whole

me

of Gombin.

communal

whole

has

one

brother,it

actual troubles.

my
to

over

to the

comes

when

dear

mention

one

believe that all this trouble

over

my

I have

I won't

only part of

describe

no,

Now

me.

do you

hurryingare

wedding, because

the

before

And

Oh

505

trouble,until

cause

of the altar and gets married.

and

SERIES

near

the

Wherever

short,it is

In

thing,whether
Is my

bought.

father able to

from A to Z, in spiteof his sincerest

buy me everything,
in all this more
than once
wishes ? Already my father has given me
the proofs[ofhis good wishes],
and I am
and will be gratefulto him up
to my

death.1

I understand

only now

exhausted

My small savingswere
it is to

what

begin farming when

be

So, please,don't

nothing ready

wedding, and

for my

angry

with

you
me

have

for not

writing.
As to the

wedding,

that the weather

first,

I mention

was

splendid

The
was
nice, the church was
day
very
ceremony
to
adorned
with green and lights;as many
people came
beautifully
look as on
imposing. The priestfrom
Sunday. In short, it was
Radziwie demanded
25 roubles for the wedding, to be paidbeforehand,
on

this

but he did it
1

The

wedding

am

familial matter,

be

must

because
splendid,

himself
establishing

that he should
from

and

become

upon
a

the familial

thus

of the

much

very

father's change of attitude toward

marriage is
in

and
splendidly,

the

did not
The

son's

place for parsimony. The

family'sstanding; the son must be helped
there

farmer.

standpoint.

We

clear.
is perfectly

son

is

no

his wife's farm, because

prosperous

satisfied.

This

it is to the family'sinterest
investment

of money

is productive

506

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

make
was

the whole

paid for

father

big feast; my

agreed. [Enumerates the guests, "only the

so

persons.] The guests

and

about
relatives,"

and

abundantly feasted,so

collect for

50

caul

the satisfaction

to

I have

what

you,

half

already upon

But

for this.2
in whatever

which

they

the

and

of God

help

plum and

many

and

in-law
I
as

and

mother

with

all this

father

My

order
old

the pen

to go

God

live here

much
in

even

and

can

in

the

I pray

to

me

further

of

that with
I have

farmer

satisfied with

their

daughter-

general

as

dear parents, to look

my

they

help

speedilyas I can,
myself to catch
prepare

aside I must

me

holidays and

pretty well.

of the welfare

marriage

given

possible to enlarge the

it will be

very

has

grandmother

will

I mention

big

cow

Meanwhile

this.

gave

young

the best

me

Lord

to

sources

are

Grabie, to

to

able

of this letter

to the end

come

I put

of the

one

help

our

cherry slips,so

is

orchard,which

mother

shall be

we

little

reward

life for them.

long

one

father

my

grandmother

always remember

I will

for health

God

Perhaps

can.

her

farm.

my

small cheese for the

one

Well, may

father and

my

also,then

future

little old

My

present except

pint of butter.

Him

hens.

10

to the

nothingup

did not

We

general.

harrow, a plow, a cart, everything new, one cow

Antosia's
[thewife's]grandmother gave
me.
calf,and

friends

nearest

richlyentertained

were

was

it
..

I describe

Now

with

because
festival,

because

as

soon

in

the steamer

once

the

at

more

corners

M.

WIKTOR

POLSKIE, July 5 [1914]

GRABIE

20O

MY

VERY

for

parents

business, and
here

They complain
the

work,

and

to work

have

They

health.

getting on
1

Old

feels

The
no

badly,

habit of

Introduction:
2

ask

come

that

nobody

hard
you

this

on

at home

there is
very

[STAS]:

SxASiECZEK

DEAR

to

occasion

it is hard

at

to come

if

once;

collecting
money

among

We

moreover

back.

well,remain

today

came

write

for them

help them.

there,and that
therefore

I
....

to

learn
you

to

to

our

you

providefor
that

have

also

you

lost your

Evidently, if you
still for

all

some

are

time.

the guests for the bride's dresses.

Cf.

"Marriage."

grandmother, by her second

obligation to help Wiktor.

marriage, has lost the familial feelingand

MARKIEWICZ

We

those

and

terrible lawsuit

and

the

priestand

things are

brother,what

the

going

507

with

[ruffians]
beyond the

Hams

Hams

Those

to have

about

are

SERIES

the

priestof Dobrzykow
Oh, thieves,thieves!

range.

judge are going hand

in hand.

here!

on

Your

brother,
WIKTOR

SOUTH

201

BROTHER

DEAR

both

unexpectedlywe

that
my

brotherlyattachment

my

letter addressed

say

that

with

here

I inform

So

There

I worked

day.

The

up

to

I found

mother's
came

day.

am

hope

to

get into

the 2d of this month

and

at

what

the

you

inform
inform
health

me

you

and

c.

about

hour.

or

....

I received
your

Krol,

it will

carshop for the

Whatever

you

ask

you

hearty
and

And

wishes

in

I will

me,

of

On

enough,

about

learn

live.

you

Then

work.

same

you

to

it is summer,

home, favorable

I want

my

8 hours

surely stop.

whom

send

oo
.

Since

present.

naturally,while

you,

general
gladly

happiness,

kiss you.

brother,
MAKSYMILIAN

[MAKS

Typical,disinterested revival of family feelings.

lives with another cousin.
for Maks
loneliness,
1

to the

with

I embrace
Your

$14

Chicago.

to

Leonard

So

hours

50 to

went

address.

success.

success,

cousin

letter from

and

about

in winter

on

made.

livingup

am

And

work, but

factory

your

$12
.

my

York,

working with Polish carpenters

am

doing, where

good

it is in

How

Kensington

I earned

glasswas

much

whom

an

this

time

same

are

I dare

glassfactory 8

factory closed

Chicago, I

with

busy

very

in

hot.

acquaintances and

paid 35

am

I worked

26.

how

on

uncle's son, with

home.1

supposition.

I feel

regularcorrespondence

friends hi New

to my

heavy, but

the

my

to South

I got from

so

proved by

to New
America, i.e.,

to

came

May
not

was

left because

There

then I went

week; it depended
I

that

you

work

So

it

will show.

13, and

February

address

less to establish

care

arranged

that it is so, let it be

America, but it is only

in

future

realitythe

whose

Fortune

1906

7,

pilgrims in America.

and

to you,

to you,

perhaps you

me

became

MARKIEWICZ

CHICAGO, August

cousin]:
[really

WACLAW

My

It is not

MARKIEWICZ]
the

mere

result of

508

PRIMARY-GROUP

ORGANIZATION

March

2O2

DEAR

BROTHER:

good work.

they

pay

if you

these

see

are, let him

that

him

property

help

get into

to

there

From

main
the

come

will

you

which

heard, the

him

the

for him

much

as

as

country

our

acquainted with

surely

where

you

can.

But
with

can

the American

language. Therefore

warn

you,

[advise]him

I wish

predominant in
playsno such role in

of work,

work, that is work

is his main

for others,is only

interest.

There

only

It is undertaken

work.

through

carshop.

big carshopin

capriciousin the beginning.

Poles

letters of American
With

MAKSYMILIAN

problem

The

in

find this work

then
carefully,

for he is not

carpenter's work

also to try

fresh from

comes

understand

be very

let Stasio not

is

is,I have

It

Look

in

as

in the future

there

me

I will

then
who

man

does not

and

last

me

worked

you

can

you

if there is nothing favorable

find good work,

difficulty,
habits

to

"Pullman."
inscription,

to me,

come

know

you

cars

also

working.

are

the

Stasio comes,

When

far from

not

for all lines.

with

cars

how

America, called "Pullman."

whole

splendidcars

most

wrote

steady

so

about

I intend

of carpenters

carshopfor

it is not

to work

how

know

carshop,for

thousands

described

you

works,

of America.

in the whole
passenger

you

letter

have

day.

50

in other

better

Moreover,

which

the

for you

much,

My hearty advice to you would be to

carpenter'swork, particularlyin carshops,for though

glassfactoryfor $i
steadilyto

very

then, when

pitiedyou

hold

letter satisfied me

remember

summer;

Your

27, 1907

this letter and

the lifeof the
additional

an

important in all the

Polish peasant-farmer.

is in the old country

as

of

means

is miserably

existence,and

of

means

hope of advance
supplementing an otherwise
no

this respect American

emigration,
paid.
of good and bad chances,
vast
relatively
range
effects a profound revolution in the psychology of the peasant, and the problem
of work
the central problem. Interests of the city-workman are
at once
becomes
added to those of the peasant, without supplantingthem, and the result is that the
impossible existence,and

of

workman

(i) He

has

upon

as

the only

for him

itselfbut considers it exclusivelywith

interest in the work

(2) he looks upon

the wage;

his labor,not

provisionalstate,

possiblebasis

of

as
a

same

as

much

as

tendency

while
possible,
to

of lifewith which

From

organizinghis lifeonce

to

and

of attaining property, which

man

with

good chance

an

from

end

in itself or

this results also the apparent

the American

workman

which

psychology and

workman's

rise,the good job will be either

getting a stillbetter job.

standard

means

respects:

regard

is

steady life-organization.The good job, particularly

for

of

means

in America, is for the peasant nothing but

get

in two

workman
peasant origindiffers from the hereditarycity-

no

forever,but

its

and
possibilities

its many

with

In

reproachesthe

he

must

with the
means

stinginessand

of
low

Polish immigrant.

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

510

can

foot to the

on

go

I don't need

factoryand

to pay

15

c. a

for

day

the

railway-passage.1
much
I was
pleasedwith
for if you
higher [subjects],

intention to learn

your
have

some

assured existence in this country.

did not

did not

and
service],

could

army],you
I got

that I intended

back

to

told it himself
he wrote

me,

my

existence is secure.2

your

stillin

was

him

to

father,mother, and

PetersburgI

America, and that

I asked

I would

therefore

to my

repeat

him

wrote

never

parents my

he
it],
but, instead of sending it by letter,

wrote

he

parents when

that he

back

came

home.

This

is

able to notice:

was

it and

about

troubled

much

in

country.

to

of

regret that you

[beforehis military
learningRussian [inthe

country, from

our

Wiktor

to marry

wholly [asI

decision

what

today boldly that

When

our

sooner

years

Englishinstead

letter also from

that you

I guess

few

learn

say

Wiktor.

brother

come

America

to

come

English,and even
instruction,
you will have an

began

to cry,

My mother was very

longingfor me, while my

and Wiktor noticed that father cared

little,
littleabout it. Then, my mother begs me much, in her firstletter to
back to our
these thoughts from my
to remove
head, to come
me,
country, while my father does not mention a word about my returning
it very

father cared about

home, only informs

And

the army.

me

with

joy,that

Wiktor

when

Wiktor

came

draw

the

to

was

healthyfrom

back

lot,my

and even
heard,exerted himself [toget him free],
gave
if
this
roubles
that
the
commission
to
effect,so
200
it would
exempted Wiktor from the militaryservice,

to

father,as

official

some

in
cost

Gostynin
my

father

back.
roubles,but if not, then the officialwould pay the money
did not exempt him, and my
father got the
Well, the commission
back.
Therefore he writes me
now
[when Wiktor, because of
money
200

health,has been

bad

back

sent

army],that Wiktor is there

[hispiteof]his joy, as my brother
In a
buy him clothes for Easter.

from

is there. From
the money
writes me, father would
not even
and

word, dear brother,I don't

than

more
1

He

We

had

tradition.
But

lived for

find here already

The

as

year
a

the

father any

in my

time

same

Maks

his chances

standpointvery

upon

of receivingthe farm

or

now

no

letter from

my

different from

is put

his father sounded

remote

cousin.

that of the peasant

purely individual basis.

followingparagraphshows.
a

with reference to determining what

of being established

returned,and the uncordial attitude of his father perhapshad

the individualistic sentiments

described in order to be with

questionof "existence"

evidentlyhad

heart for me,

I got

is not yet definitely

this standpoint
accepted,as the
*

were

formerly.3At

see

the

an

on

another

if he

ing
effect in determin-

in the earlier part of the letter.

MARKIEWICZ

with her

mother, written
with

me

to

tears

of my

the words

hand.

own

back

come

beloved

SERIES

to

511

She weeps

for

and

me

she asks

My heart grievesat
her wish
ready to satisfy

country.

our

mother, and

am

in the future.
As

to

questionhow

the

I look upon

religionand

dear
socialism,

brother,I don't bother myself profoundlywith either the first or the

Not
second.
with the former,because I know
this much, that I am
and I perform the duties of a Catholic as far as I can.
a Catholic,
I
time to pray, because every Sunday I
not devout, for I have no
am
I confess it to you alone
I worked
must
Easter
work, and
even
on
"

7 until

from

As

But

nevertheless

I desire to remain

I
politics,

to

am

I have

when
parties;

little interested

very

littletime,I

there it all ends

buy

in any

for

paper

DEAR

After

BROTHER:

waiting for

....

last a letter from

c., I read

succeedingpretty well,for
the "murowanka"
[farm with
roubles,but he has
for

me

to send

me

money

at

this

help.

some

to me

seems

this whole

I did not

so

sum,

refuse him

and

notes

it

during my

was

sending money

because

help in

this

general.) I

in

confidence

my

If you

stay in America.

comparison with Maks,

level.

is enough

of its immediate

to

himself

but
affair,

it

in my

wish,I

can

more

of

add that if I

father has been

rise only

about

tellyou
MARKIEWICZ

peasant, in spiteof his

means

of

basis of life. Economically he is satisfied to belong to the lower

wants

for

on
a highersocial
gettinga position
pendently
the peasant to appreciateinstruction in itself indeof it a
but not enough to make
application,
practical

Instruction is not for him

above

remains

Waclaw

socialism.
He

Plebanek

Mr.

M.
In

Dobrzykow

he addressed

f
1

in

perhaps I acted impolitely.I asked my father

firstnotes for 1,000 roubles or more, and promised to send
after receivingthese.
(Tellme your opinion about
once

for notes

ruined

not

They

buy

from
buildings]

stone

I received at

news

father intends to

my

1908

22,

that

now

questionof

asked

it,and

MARKIEWICZ

6 months

father,with rather favorable

my

are

new

questionsor

September

3,300

Catholic

"

205

to

death.

to my

up

"

like Elzbieta,his sister. Maks, on

socially,
theoretical problems as a matter

interested in instruction and

class,and

the contrary, is not

but
of distinction,

tion
instructhe peasant ideologythan Waclaw, and is able to make
life-basiswhich will allow him to get totallyoutside of the peasant class

he gets further from

a

new

economicallyas

well

Maks, but it does

not

as

socially. Waclaw
seem

expresses

that he fulfilledit.

his desire to do the

same

as

ORGANIZATION

PRIMARY-GROUP

512

206

December
DEAR

BROTHER:

am

much

very

grievedthat

1908

14,

in

are

you

bad

so

and
I should
imagine your painfulsituation,
time I would
be glad to helpyou, dear brother,and at the same
reach
the objectof my
each other in this
wishes to live together,or near
a

position.

foreign land.
where
and

But

only not

right

to the

that

have

drummed

write

to

good.

is their work

I would

in the

mill,may

wish

not

am

I will send

full

with

the election of Taft.

it after

town

work

am

as

think about

you

steadily,
only I
in

solitaryas

speed, as the

With

some

want

money,

here,because

forest

the Polish National

papers

everything is

me

bored

am

was

Chicago,

near

If you

to

will

you

that I

me

here,but

not

it,not

Nicholas
[tsar]

will agree with

carshops,they are

healthy,I work

do you

to the Russian

even

they don't

even

and

me

in this small

what

ordinaryworkers

not

factory

only the engineers

"

to the

then you
it yourself;

see

As

I hear

good work

the

In

protection[assistance].
Perhaps in the future

occasion to

but

bad

so

have

men

As

brother,but

to my

get it by my
have

few

very

three carpenters.

pity them,

simply impossible.

it is

now

working

am

we

God

well

can

Write

me

the Polish

Alliance and

Sokols
M.

August 16, 1909

207
BROTHER

DEAR

I received

WACLAW:
....

my

MARKIEWICZ

letter from

good

parents, and besides the letter I received beautiful giftsfrom

parents,

sewed

monogram

with

marked.
from

Witkowski's

brought by
I

joy I bought

for I intend

am

....

gold and
very

come

"

gold watch

pleased with

for $60

oo.2

these

I won't

to you

chain, my

six fine handkerchiefs,

and

silver threads

much

gold watch
to

brother

my

tokens, and

write you

more,

Sunday

next

MAKSYMILIAN

208

October
BROTHER

DEAR

WACLAW:

I inform
....

from

which

he had

much

He

Cf. No.

you

will

work,

perhaps profit. My
so

perhaps

kept this promise,but without

202,

note.

I knew

you

old boss told

some

taking money

5, 1909

about
me

today that

carpenters, and
from

the bank.

offer

an

if

so

MARKIEWICZ

send them

should

(i.e.,
you) who
bring him.
I advise

to him.

answered

speak

about

hoped

We

the business

while

steady,I could
So
steady work.

would

him

meet

drinking

carpenter

be

have

to
we

could

brother

would

....

foreignland together
and

if the work

that he

513

that I had

dear brother

to come,

you

I told him

working,but

was

He

SERIES

live here in the

in South

Chicago

glassof beer

MAKS

ISLAND

209
BROTHER:

DEAR

am

keeping.

....

me

your

for

money

the work
there.

glad to hear that

see

don't ask whether

So send it and
there

last,what

can

think

there

CITY, November

that you

are

you

[hoard]it well.

Describe

building,and

to send

want

you

smother

I will accept it.

18, 1911

how

how

long

do you

probably colds and snows

not
to catch cold and
not
to journey thence
care
[into the
about
world]. Write more
yourselfand the country. Are
I

satisfied with

Take

are

With

success

your

there is

me

no

live

other
you

news

M.

Finally,I shall inform

supposed

lost in you

You

something which

you

mistaken.

were

Well, and
First,I confided

something forever.

to a brother.
as
Then, when I noticed that I had
[secret],
I begged you [notto repeat it,saying]
that
badly [imprudently]

this

you

done
if it

and

that I learned

learn.

never

of this I have

because

my

would

you

through

comes

good
you

And

name.

it is.
Be

betrayed me.
which

memory

so

the

to

you

your

have, for

you

daylight,I should have

But

did not

you

to

about

care

with

pay

anything,

judge. I owe it also to the good

repeatedeverythingvery exactly.

own

you

MAKS

December

210

DEAR

from

our

BROTHER

country and I send it to you.

opened, but
from
our

our

know

country,

so

It is a

that it

was

we

pity to
a

today

letter for you

pleasefor its being

when anything comes

Excuse

me

everybody is curious
[Stasiekand I]tore the envelope and satisfied

how

parents write about

they had lately. The

horse.
says

you

curiosity.Your

which

received

We

WACLAW:

i, 1911

most

lose such

nice horse.

as

received

series of accidents

whole

important

big money
We

is the

news

about

he

was

worth.

also

letter from

that

Stasiek

home,

PRIMARY-GROUP

514
but there

bought

for

ours,

well

enough,

about

15,000

be

only daughter, and

Wiktor hopes
roubles.
people

are

help him
Now,

you

this

warned

her.1
a

how
an

she

oration

herself

to

that

[towalk

with

one,

the

which

just opposite the

have

in

St. Stanislaus

anything

for the present about

speak

his

so

to

of my

do

Probably

ought

that,as

she wrote

largersort of

H.

it

you

letter,

somewhat

occupation

shoemaker

answered

the

on

positionhe

her.

Enough

the first opportunitywe

important business
certain

shop,

buttons

sews

lady who has such

At

G.

the

to

here

house

to

can

speak

in Indiana

brothers

forever,

M[AKS] and S[TANISEAW]

MARKIEWICZ

VALPARAISO, August

211

....

of this month.

Dictionary,which
the

make

I must

Springs, Pa.

Refers

21,

1912

Chicago probablyon the 31 st

bridge
purchases before going to Cam-

I shall be in

DEARWACLAW:

spent

owing

this student

so

"

have

Your

mother
grand-

father has

our

long ago

answer,

With

on.

this Miss
I

more

Harbor

warned

goal there,

[danger]against which

College. She

about, concerning the purchase of

worth

and asked him

to
"priest" [seminarist],
her]again. So if she knows everything,

is,she works

shoes,puts laces in,and

won't

farm

Further,Wiktor

too.

think

educated

H. G. ; but I learned

fact,that not

to

betrayed,and dared to address herself to him with such

it is enough to give us an idea of her virtue.
But he
[sic],

had, that

she

relatives

bought.

you

same

her, I heard, a rather sharp

gave

he

do

What

proof is the

her
was

he will reach

roubles,for

well to Miss

so

seeks

fawning

accompany

that

something

1,000

time.

some

girlis young,

remote

means

intends

Czyzewice. Stasiek

parents have

land which

that

on

wished

out, she

turns

such

for

The

Wiktor

her

some

even

about

him

of his money

most
to

send

to

me

from

splendidbusiness.

Ziolkowska,and
asked

brother

Kowalik

Miss

neighbor Switek, near

our

my

the

those

because

Further,

carnival

says that it would

from

of land

5 morgs

roubles.

1,100

during the

marry

First,everybody is in good health,and

everythingis well.

father

my

ORGANIZATION

Among

costs

many

$18.00 edited

probably to the content

girlagainst Maks and told

recrudescence

few

of the peasant

others, I

must

in 1912.

An

older edition

precedingletter.
some
previouslove

of his
her of

buy Webster's

property interest.

Waclaw

can

probably

story of his cousin.

MARKIEWICZ

bought

be

for $12

time

I shall have

Valparaisoit

this

of

enough
would

cost

Before

reason

to do it.

to the

in the school

be

I come,

of

be spent for

can

year

Englishlanguage,

and

$150 while here

doing, if only for

$300; so it is worth

me

second-hand

somebody about

As

to learn it in 5 years,

Alliance

the Polish National

in

indispensablething in the school. As

Valparaiso,it is not an unexpected occurrence,

planned beforehand

for I

515

It is an

oo.
.

leavingthe school

to my

SERIES

kind

so

bookstores,so

and

try

both

can

we

to learn from

go and

buy

this book
MAKS

SMOLENSK, January

212

physiciansent

rather not
There

bad

so

23 of

are

all from

are

Warsaw.
whole

knows

year

as

with

this

In

but for the

little,
ear

not

bored, for

I have

are

There

from

have

let go,

the

He

at Pszczelin.

who

about
in

me

the

they will

what

will tear

for

was

tells me

I don't know

so

province of

good physician

from

away

jaw
MARKIEWICZ

May

213
I

BROTHERS:

DEAR

from

you,

thank

you

for up

to

because

Smolensk
a

I received

six

heartily. They will

the present I had

I have

because

waiting

am

....

....

to

Poles,but they

10

MICHAL

....

happen

it is enough.

good companion

Perhaps only a miracle of God

me.

will

have

we
are

alone

am
a

We

passes.
men

which

work

school
agricultural
time

Smolensk.]

to

hospitalthey give bad food, or

disease.

am

but only few

hospital,
do

it.

the

[Inverse.]

lyingthe third week

am

long I shall lie and what

province of Lublin;

school, and

this

wrote,

pen

to this accursed

other recruits

where
hospital

the

in the

taken

how

here with

us

been

with

sent

was

to the

me

God

further.

me

he

I don't know

already and

that I have

news

[Describeshow

army.

the sad

I send you

The

Jesus Christus!"
My
see you for so long a time.

heart wept that it did not

and my
Now

be

"Praised

BROTHERS:

DEAR

9, 1912

not

received

roubles,sent by

be very

not

even

copecks,here

costs

copecks.

in

for

money

from

anything sent

bread, which

letter

now

for

you,

for which

useful for different expenses,

everything is expensive,average
loaf of wheat

26, 1912

our

buying tobacco,

home.

boot-soles

country

can

And

here in

zloty
be bought for
cost

5i6

PRIMARY-GROUP

expected that

never

for if I had

now,

this

here, to

known

They

plague

forbid!

God

they make

send

We

run

the

they plague us

gettingon

not

badly, but if mother

she would

shed many

myself.3

walking like

am

who

is

writes

myself.

me

to the

He

says

frightenme,

tries to

do

He

something

that

for

serve.

I go often

have

I go

to

him,

that I

am

We

am

here,

and

painful to

so

I have

hardly succeed.

says

they

Smolensk

expiatefor you

Whenever

dog.

Till

worse.

to

conditions

is the result ?

[of

oath

Afternoon

come

for it is

much

Stanislaw.

I write home

probably

I shall

done

the

still

come

physician
he

seals

spoilingmy

that he is

writinga report and that he is sending

but there is nothing to this court.
He only
court-martial,

ear

did not

old

simply a thief,an
and

ear

my

have

after

to

what

man,

but
yourself,

but what
office,

the medical

to

knew

dead

tsar

for it.

more

I shall

tears.2

extricated

have

the

have

dear brother
that

it proves

as

never

I should

hoped

They expect

this year, and

You

serve,1 1 should

plague us so much, but it is

the barracks.
near
[exercise]

work

to

us

us

befall me,

instead of you,

to America

us,

lot would

bad

dirty Smolensk.

and

fidelity]
they wouldn't
noon

such

that I should

muddy

better if I had gone

ORGANIZATION

the devils know

or

anything bad

to

me

to the

up

what

he

thinks

He

present, except that he won't

hospital. I beg our Lord God and God's Mother for

it,because, although in the hospitalthey gave little to eat, yet it
with
was
possibleto sleepand to rest enough. I often see all the men
I lay in the hospital
whom
Only one, from the province of
send

to the

me

Lublin, has

been

know

whose

quite free

set

hair

fell out

Another, about
and

whose

head

was

....

as

knee,

your

free, but
1

sent

or

only

as

sent

the

of

head

home

for

home

months

expected either to draw a high

commission
by the recruiting

He

Korzuszek,

number
account

on

to

which

not

was

left

as

set

entirely

bald

[Describes

recover.

would

whom

him

exempt

to

or

of his artificially
provoked

be
ear

trouble.
3

This

complain
and

regard for the mother

is

one's parents about

the

to

somewhat

typical. It seems
militaryservice.

Cf. No.

custom

not

218; also No.

to

72,

other series containing soldiers' letters.

3

Stanislaw, like Wiktor,

served

short time.

military service,and
instead

of his brother.

misery."

Therefore
for this

was

free

set

he did not
reason

"Expiate"

on

need

Michal
means

here

of sickness,after having

account
to go

to

America

regrets that
"suffer the

he

in order

did

not

go

to

avoid

himself

predestinedamount

of

5i8

PRIMARY-GROUP

with

bursts open

ORGANIZATION

I regret it always,but it is too

in God.

Perhaps

desirable moment,
go

as

but
office,

to the medical

when

lose

hope

such

time

and

me

I.

to America

I don't

Meanwhile,

I don't

get sick during the maneuvers,

to

perhaps they will

There

in Moscow.

are

we

plan

to

and

desire,you
I

now

will grant

God

both

we

Well, even

late.

Lord

our

go instead of you

did I not

grief. Why

leave

in the

me

there it is
hospitalwhere you were, for,as people say
in Smolensk
Here
it is very difficult;
easier to be set quite free.
have been operated,or those who are
they let only the men
go who
those are not set totally
free,but only for some
time,
dying, and even
same

....

until

they

recover

written

I had

When

they consider

because

left here
....

although
shall be
at the

Dear

unhealthy
bad

obliged to keep guard at the post.

ask

brothers,you

me

needs

all my
to satisfy

if I wanted

happens.

ever

I need

money.
I

it will be better than

But

I need

whether

But

Every day

tune.

nothing good

in the army,

It is bad

told that I shall be

was

me

here, I shall stillhave

I remain

maneuvers.

because

to this passage,

up

ought

to have

it

really,

roubles

10

month; only then could I be a little free. But when I got those few
I don't demand
of you
roubles,they were spent I don't know where.
much
I ought to have, for you
work
for it.
must
to send me
as
as
a

You
a

rouble

few

anythingfor nothing,but
than for me
a copeck here,so

it is easier for you

receive

don't

there

be

kind

so

216
BROTHER

I inform

STANISLAW:

the money,
very

much

you

then

9 roubles 72
for

our

Austrian
and

It would

which

is

war

likelyto
ought

that

is sick.

They

to have

be upon
As

our

to

they
gone

war

Polish land.
me,

October,and

I received

I thank

also

letter from

it would

held
on

with

home

everything is good except

write

also that

the

up

November
Austria

It would

be also

you

I wrote

be

Russoabout

Indeed, people speak much

come.

If the

now

country.

me

of this

that

militaryservice
I had

they inform

just because
who

in the

once

sister Weronika

[i9]ioyear,
go

at

in

copecks,long ago,

largea help

so

letter

yesterdayin

our

MARKIEWICZ

you

....

them

me

January 26, 1913

DEAR

war,

send

get

roubles
MICHAL

that

and

to

soldiers from

they

i;

began

"

God

dangerous

bad, because

don't

the
let

forbid!

to live in

who

knows

MARKIEWICZ

whether

I should

be

not

SERIES

obliged to

519

the

to

war
Up to the
hear
nothing terrible,
that
Austria held the
only we
she were
for
preparing
war, and here the reserves
are

go

present there is
if

as

reserves,

also held.

whole

The

question is about

says that there won't

to the war,

with

us,

very

much

as

dear

brother

perhaps

should

we

that I did not

think

so.

Don't

God

help you.
better

don't go

that
But

in

going

but I will go

see

forbid!

knows

am

happen

again.

I regret

the contrary, may

Lord
our
worried,and I think that I should have
you;

so

on

America

to

They won't let me go. I

because it [ear]
won't
leak much,
office,
MlCHAl

BROTHER:

No

....

this savage
forest;among
[Rumors about the war.]
for the first time

saw

I had
and

not

MARKIEWICZ

the first look

made

God

soul

in their last letter that

swelling. They
the death

of

16, 1913*

such
life,
know

from

us

everything succeeds

Dear

brother

you,

that

wrote

to

Stanislaw,you

be

terrible
had

what

such

home,

well, and
ask

me

the

whether

They

they don't write to you

anythinglike that,only the

with

of the

as

of my

wrote

her

me

legsare
after

sorrow

average

parents

God

one

farming theywrote

grindingis
our

learned.

to the bottom

overwhelmed
And

happened at home,

that
grandmother is also ill,

they are

in

as

mourning letter.1

such letters!

more

dear sister Weronika.

our

I live

nothingcan

afraid,down
terribly

that

wrote

horde

letter also from

I did not

our

that

me

I got

me

guard

is to be heard.

news

Moscovite

in my

read it and

even

to go

would

March
DEAR

body
every-

America; there I could live and earn,

Well, I beg your pardon, Stas,for writing

217

But
If I had

what

another

one

more

once

Sea.

go to

to the medical

now

never

I envy

Black

God

war

Stanislaw,who

do, dear brother.

you

done

be

the

are

forbid!

with

angry

They

never

letters don't reach you

MARKIEWICZ

MICHAL

218

April8, 1913
DEAR

I received

BROTHER:
....

I thank

which

you

heartily.I know,

I suffer

goodness is in
1

The

letter

dear

the money,

brother,that

roubles,for
you

militaryservice,for you know

this accursed army.
They don't send

was

printeddeath-notice,seldom

used among

feel the need

yourselfwhat

in the

which

me

money

from

the peasants.

520

PRIMARY-GROUP

home, because

I write

about

I write

me.

ORGANIZATION

them

them

such

believe that I feel reallybetter in the army

write for money
don't send

home

me

they don't

for

any,

they

than

don't

know

my

worst

enemy

As

they

I don't

[my need] and they

well how

they

and

at home.

themselves

guess

grieve

not

may

feel ill in the army,

I don't

that

that

letters

it is in the

military

service.
God

May
not

for

dog

keep

ever

even

in the

serve

photographs.] Now

been

free and

set

cheerful

went

If

photograph and

that the recruits of 1910

March
we
were
26; even

passed more

only tune

goodness, may

you

on

away

such

[Sends his

army!

I inform

from

MARKIEWICZ

May
celebrated

We

here

20,

the Easter

even

for free

were

at

the

the

fireworks,shot

if with

as

fireworks.

queer

they

can

beer

everybody drank

is not

church

The

only

19 years.

don't know

As

what

to his son

writes

there

going

was

to

much

as

he

I have

had

is the

so

that

months

of 1910

home

for

this

summer

There

are

the recruits of 1911

four months
overtime
and

Kingdom

in Russia

of Poland,"

days

Dobrzykow.
stood

long

tune.

Warsaw

near

very

well in

our

country;

barleyhave frozen
In these days we
slowly
has passed,less than a half [of

and

service will be reduced

that

rumors

to

us,

they will

because

want

to

MICHAL

officialin Russia.

of

that all the oats and

to

Catholics

as

far to the

It has

from

ba

JThe

to

farmer

it is not

myself,everything is going on

camping. When
the time] will be left.

house

our

saw

good

for 4

very

nice, built of bricks.

at home.

news

in the army

big frost

from

as

now

It is not

letter from

no

bad,

life I

everything,and

And

wanted.

confession.

big, but

been

not

little of

gave
as

Easter

to

very

are

They

here,as far,for example, as

from

church

holidays have

let

beautifully.They

very

for the first time in my

guns;

be in the army.

been

celebrated

was

The

such

have

all the

We
people [civilians],
go together with the Russian.1
in the church
"Resurrection"during the night from
It

we

April 27.

on
Russians,i.e.,

Saturday to Sunday.
off

Here

1913

holidays
holidays,

....

togetherwith

more

....

2IQ
-BROTHER:

have

rapidly!
MICHAL

DEAR

asks

keep

the

outside
dates

they kept

those

get these expenses

MARKIEWICZ

of the limits of the so-called "Congress

of the

old

or

Julianiccalendar, which

is

MARKIEWICZ

SERIES

521

220

June
BROTHER

DEAR

STANISLAW:

My

....

We

into camp

went

Every day

camps!
don't
work.

day it

every

would

is the

the best
Thanks

the

God

to

see

that

than

More

serve!

half of my

service has

have

I shall go

home

leave,and

who

man

from

near

Send

me

it is

glad that

is with

This

Warsaw, but he

this will cost

much

things
if you

expensiveand
Wiktor

did not

know

it would

is

me

can

be

send

him.

to be

life.

one's
I

beg

I say

to them

Did

to

paid off,and

why they need

But

razor.

It would

be very

pardon for daring

to

I should

brothers, if it is

with
marry

in

Czyzew,

his chestnut
You

there.

how

Write

whether

?
.

but
once
mare.

can

land, and

upon

write you

MICHAL

than

more

own

money

not

Brother

it

drank

is useful.
not

If

spent their

Wiktor

in autumn.

good

marry

Wiktor

have

dear

sometimes

parents

brother

Pole

send.

your

happiness if he could
our

companion,

that of Maks.

send
possible,

at home

was

The

brothers;

only,

[asthis marriage]money

business

anybody

if so, don't

that he intends
I

photograph.

and

and

alive,

themselves.

photograph

that it is

went

[home], for

money

in such
you

write

keeps me

i.e.,
home,

silver watch

one-

will grant that

God

best

not

Well, what

the reserves,

giftfrom

you.

think

parents and

her

Indeed

send

to

it,for already when

with

whole

for my

for such

there;

agreeable to receive such

write

to

is my

does

Happily

God

my

these

for all these

serve.

with

army.

who

man

are

serve

slowly thingsarrange

photograph

me

not

of this.

Lord

our

satisfied

possibleyour

please send
possible,

remembrance

thus

goes

the

Lord

our

you

Moscovite

it

dear

you,

best, for

did

convinced

if

any

outside

Well,

the

that I must

year,

are

you

in this

me

the soonest

perhaps

I been

passed; perhaps

the other

am

from

army.

need

Happy

comes.

is the will of God

on

looked

surely be obliged to remain

mercy

also.

you

we

anything, all this because

in the

feel my

that

annoying than

more

somebody

bad

so

I shall

will pass

....

if

It is true

well it is in this accursed

once

done, if such

task.

do

to

slowly.

forbid to live in these

Highest, dear brother, you

God's

unless

3 years,

be

not

long, while

Moscovites

And

how

persuaded

wish

no

were

Stanislaw, I

hard

[drill]
are

tasks

same.

if it

as

seem

brother

can

these

worried, I have

am

God

....

task, some

1913

service is going on

but

20

some

here, but

work

May

on

24,

MARKIEWICZ

much
there

PRIMARY-GROUP

522

ORGANIZATION

September 26, 1913

221

I received

BROTHERS:

DEAR

the

roubles
was

copeck; justbefore the

useful

very

the second
there
it

was

was

rain and

But,

the whole

during such

wandering.
of the

memory

and nowhere
villages,

have

We

Thanks

nothing

is

wandered

God,

to

God,

NapoleonicWar,

than

worse

like

and

It

is easy

notice

to

that

Jews in

throughthe

these

[nickname for Russians]farm exceedingly

badly. What
draw-wells,only the

no

to

different
1812-13. We passed many
have seen any good house or barn, only everything

like henhouses.

have

help

soldiers say, last year

as

tune, and

it

in

the French

as

ways

so, thanks

bad.

nor

10

and

to me,

for your

not

misery,while

cold

no

terrible;it rained

desert,all this in

same

and

want

you,

heartily,and

you

If it were

Stanislaw.

passedneither good

maneuvers
no

to be wet

the

suffered much

have

paid

was

I thank

maneuvers.

dear brother

particularly
you,
I should

the

during

it

maneuvers

from

money

....

women

for water

go

"Kacapy"

is worse,

far away,

to

they
some

with

pit. And they sow whole fields with flax,as in our country
about these
Kacapy," I
rye, for example.1 I won't write more

only

say

ditch

or

"

that nowhere

is it

well

so

in

as

country, in the beloved

our

Poland
MICHAL
As

to

the watch

[probablybecause

and

razor,

of the

tax].

you

rightin

were

sending them

not

November

222

DEAR

BROTHER:

I received
....

they

inform

preciselythat
roubles,and
your

about

moreover

in the

money

conclude

not

callingupon
the

favor

that

me

father

our

which

mother

the

in

Jankowskis

of their

10

in

last

for he

Kielniki,and

daughter. They invited

Wiktor

had
him

by

the
letter,

even

to

you,
1,000

deposited

evidentlycould
that

wrote

in which

sent

Father

roubles.

of Gombin.

Czyzew,

home,

the money

in your

me

received

savingsbank

the business

received

wrote

you

letter from

22, 1913

he

now

asked

is

already

call upon

her.

Very well,but they put off the questionof marriage,I don't know why
other
whether they want
to get their sons
married first or for some
reason
They [athome] wrote also that this plague of a Ziolek
[secondhusband of their grandmother] nags our house [family].For
"

Cf. Osinski

No.
series,

131,

note.

MARKIEWICZ

SERIES

example, Chojnacki'sboy tends

pastured them

near

nacki,damaged
make

to

brother

court

of

Choj-

Ignac beat the

Ziolek persuaded
The

he

once

that
precisely

windmill, and

berry ["peach "] of a

'complaintagainst Ignac.

[to graze] and

cow,

"

"

This

for it.

boy

of the

wing

his cattle

windmill.

our

523

Chojnacki

condemned

the

of

weeks

prison,but father appealed,and we don't know

what will result. Father in turn lodged a complaint againstChojnacki
How
for damaging the wing
do you like our dear grandfather?
! Our
brother Wiktor
[the devil take] him
that he
wrote
May
latter to

"

"

slanders and
him

reward

blackens
for his bad

They write
I have

to

to come

me

God

May

this true
worried

hell upon

go, but

the leave does

get, for

to

me

family.

And

longer

few

earth, this Moscovite's

the service will be made

of

leave,particularly
our

on

grant

longingfor my

and

people,and Wiktor

intends to

mother.

dear

depend upon
I asked the captainhere and he promised to let me
he will or not, I don't know, although I have the full

go, but whether

right

before

muzzle.

certainlypromised to

alone

me

house

our

not

days at least,out

jaw, because

what

is worse,

People

am

of

very

they say that

that in the duma

say

Petersburgthe question is going on

Please

him

send

attain

to

as

from

Maks

to

best wishes.

my

possiblehis

as

soon

me

noble

May God allow

[to finish with the

end

college].
MICHAL

MARKIEWICZ

January

223
DEAR

I have

BROTHERS:

been

I got home

leave.

on

....

December

6, and

very

glad

sorry

that

I have

about

I left
my

dear

our

been

hope
now

mother

and

When

mother

off and

at home

in which

you

kowski.

Maks

abused
was

we

he

healthy,although

catarrh.

fully,for

recover

is

mother

now

stomach

always did, but

was

was

tenderly. I am
greeted me
very
illtwice during these two years since
Well, thanks to God the Highest,

was

good rely upon

our

he

as

to

mother

dearest

Our

30.

on

coming and

constantly from

dearest

December

in the army

everything passed
suffers

on

1914

n,

her.
has

received

father for the

our

whole

As

to

not

your

Oh,

been

our

God

may

she

grant

still
our

happiness,our whole
father,he complain,

ill for these

letter,dear

brother

question of this land

right in writing to father that

he

had

two

years.

Stanislaws
from
even

Switless

PRIMARY-GROUP

524
confidence

in him

than

justifies
himself,but
that which
the

mother

mother

as

he

what

thought
Father

in

but
less,

As

says.1

of

in the worth

guesses.

that it cost

score

ORGANIZATION

to brother

ice

Russian

Father

reallynothing else

was

himself

excuses

realityI

rouble.

think

for

doing

that it would

God

Wiktor, he is neither upon

the girlevery
Sunday,
upon

until

come.

them, dear
among
I

If he had

will direct his lot.

us

Ignac, Julka
brothers,they have grown
As

"

pity him

to

boy like a ladder.

good chance
and

Mania,

ought

you

would

on

water

nor

there
there
back
how

to wait

not

know

not

Ignac is perhaps the biggest

Lord
God give him health !

so.

May

he

so

have been

He calls
but
[insecure].
is nothingcertain.
himself on the ground that
But he excuses
is nobody to work
until I come
at home, and that he won't marry
from the army.
is partlyright. Well, but nobody knows
He
upon

than

our

fallinga victim for the sake of this [Chojnacki]

boy's
I came,
he had sat in prison,for two
weeks.
[Farm-

for

skin.

When

work,

weather

sickly. As

is also bad, she looks

crops.] Grandmother
Ziolek,he is healthylike a horse,only he has grown a
and

to

littleolder
MARKIEWICZ

MICHAE

April 20,

224
DEAR

You

BROTHER:

look

It is somewhat

photograph.
for you

have

Borek

W.

looks well also.

with

each

from

one's

other,and

do you

or

him

wishes
The

of Radziwie.

He

middle
10

know

wloka

are

old.

together?

the
1

The

The

to have

Do

live

Please
.

and

At

greetings
wedding took place on

married

Miss

old.

years

Both

her

[30morgs] of

writes

that she is

land and

are

Vistula,and

pretty girl,of

and

left

and
....

1,500

moreover

roubles
This

Poplacin.
brother

fortune,

cash for the

farm

lies quite

part of the river belongs to this land

father probably bought

"lesser cost"

the church

from

sister 17 years,

dead

give

Wiktor

brother

home

Oliszewska

and

write me,

Antonina

She has

parents

you

companion
together,

February 18, in

farm-stock,sold after Oliszewskis' death

near

in

right and good

her, but Wiktorek

height,19

years

not

are

photograph,
yourself
good companionship

quite like

Evidentlyyou

it is very

perhaps work

got married.

I don't

you

in the

young

in the

you

neighborhoodand well known.

own

best

my

difficultto know

fat;

so

grown

nice and

very

....

1914

probably refers

or

to

planned

to

buy the land in his

notarial expenses.

own

name.

526

PRIMARY-GROUP

Mother

God's
Believe
since

these

among

....

the

and

beasts

Moscovite

recruits,

the

leave.

this

from

free

get

with

went

from

returned

to

me

when

me,

grant

ORGANIZATION

wept,

even

the

wolves

not

was

jaw

was

sad

so

so

sorry

as

to

"

"Kacapy.

now,
return

From
....

home

write

they

that

they

have

lawsuit

field

and

about

the

trees

....

which

won

call
be
and

grow

the

our

better

upon

first

time,

the

witnesses.
if

they

range

but

made

lost

they
The

their

between

lawyer
peace

the

says

instead

second

time,

that

of

we

lawsuits,

the
for

priest's.
the

which

did

court

win.

must

It

take

They
not

would

money

time
MICHAL

M.