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Parasitology

Exercise Pre-Test Attempt to answer the following questions before starting this exercise. They

will serve as a guide to important concepts. Recheck your answers after you complete this exercise and
answer the laboratory report at the end of the exercise.
Exercise 9
1. The most environmentally resistant form of many
parasites is a stage of development called the:
a. vegetarium
c. spore
b. cyst
d. trophozoite
2. The main host of Toxoplasma gondii is:
a. pregnant women
c. cats
b. mosquitoes
d. rats
3. The parasite which looks back at you when seen
under the microscope is:
a. Toxoplasma gondii c. Plasmodium vivax
b. Giardia lamblia
d. Plasmodium falciparum

4. Malarial parasites reproduce in:

a. lung tissue
c. brain tissue
b. red blood cells
d. placental tissue
5. Which parasitic infection is often associated with
fecally contaminated water (fecal-oral) or food?
a. Cryptosporidium
c. Toxoplasma
b. Giardia
d. all of these

Objectives
1. Describe the relationship between a parasite and a
host.
2. Differentiate between protozoan cysts and
trophozoites.
3. Explain why the female Anopheles mosquito is
considered a biological vector.

Any organism (or virus) that lives off another organism

becomes a parasite if that other organism, called the
host, suffers significant damage from this relationship.
Parasitism is one of three forms of living together, or
symbiosis. Mutualism, in which both organisms benefit,
and commensalism, in which one of the organisms benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed, are the
other two. Although bacteria, viruses, and fungi all have
members that are quite capable of causing severe damPARASITOLOGY

4. Explain why Toxoplasma gondii is dangerous to

fetuses and people with damaged immune systems,
but not as dangerous to people with normally
functioning immunity.
5. Describe the method of transmission of Giardia
and Cryptosporidium.

age to their respective hosts, a more narrow view limits the scope of parasitology to protozoa, helminths
(worms), and arthropods (insects and arachnids).
The unappetizing thought of having one or even two
animals using us as living quarters pales compared to
the conditions that allowed such living arrangements
in Europe during the Middle Ages. With virtually nonexistent sanitation, lack of bathing facilities and no central heating, people wore several layers of clothing for
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After completing this lab, you should be able to:

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weeks and months at a time. These conditions allowed

for a zoological garden of vermin to develop and thrive
within the folds of clothing these people wore.
These conditions can be illustrated by the account
of the death of Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of
Canterbury, who was murdered by agents of Henry
II in December of 1170. At the time of his death, he
wore no less than eight layers of clothing. As his body
cooled, lice, fleas, bedbugs, and various other six- and
eight-legged fauna left the body. To quote a report
from the time: The vermin boiled over like water in
a simmering cauldron, and the onlookers burst into
alternate weeping and laughter.
This exercise will consider several protozoan
parasites.
Most protozoan parasites associated with human
diseases belong to the class Sporozoa. Characteristics
of this group include the alteration of sexual and asexual stages of development and a resistant sporelike stage
of development called a cyst or an oocyst. The actively
growing and motile forms of these microbes are called
trophozoites. During this trophozoite stage, the protozoan reproduces, usually asexually, and invades the host
tissue. This is also the stage that is most easily killed
by body defenses, changes in the environment, or medication. The cyst, or oocyst, can resist drying and harsh
chemicals for long periods of time. Cryptosporidium
cysts easily survive the levels of chlorination found in
municipal water supplies.
Protozoan parasites are responsible for many diseases in tropical and subtropical areas of the world.
Malaria is making a serious comeback as a major disease after years of control via insecticides and drugs.
Now resistance to both of these control methods is making malaria a killer of over 2 million people per year.*
Closer to home, protozoans such as Giardia,
Cryptosporidium, and Toxoplasma cause serious diseases among various populations in the United States.
Giardia lamblia is frequently found in untreated water
supplies such as rivers and streams. Hikers who pause
for that refreshing cool drink may wind up with several
days of cramps, diarrhea, nausea, and flatulence. Even
more prevalent now is Cryptosporidium parvum, which
has been able to invade the water supplies of major
cities. The city of Milwaukee was placed at risk in 1993
when its entire water supply became contaminated.
A significant risk to fetuses is Toxoplasma gondii.
Infection from this microbe can be traced to undercooked meat and cat litter boxes. Up to 50% of fetuses
*Malaria is typically thought of as a foreign disease, but it has often
shown up in the United States. In 1988, two boys contracted this disease while in a New York State Boy Scout camp.

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whose mothers were infected during the first trimester

of pregnancy become infected themselves. (See Fig. 9.5
for the life cycle of this microbe.) The possible consequences of such prenatal infection include miscarriage,
stillbirth, and numerous congenital defects, including
mental retardation. The most common defect is symptoms of retinitis, which involves pain, light sensitivity,
and blurred vision. The parasite can remain latent in the
body for years before it becomes active. Depression of
the hosts immune system acts as a trigger for this activation; therefore, Toxoplasma gondii is often one of
the diseases found in full-blown or frank AIDS patients.

Materials
Prepared slides of Plasmodium vivax in blood;
Toxoplasma gondii oocysts, pseudocysts, sexual
and asexual forms, trophozoite; Giardia lamblia
trophozoite, sporozoite; Cryptosporidium parvum
oocyst, sporozoite with merozoites
Malaria has a complex life cycle that includes the
salivary glands of the Anopheles mosquito as well as the
red blood cells of humans. The mosquito is considered
an example of a biological vector. The Plasmodium parasite must spend part of its life cycle within the mosquito in order to become infective to humans. Therefore,
if you can control the vector, you can control the disease. Although primarily a tropical disease, two species,
Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax, are
found in the United States. Plasmodium vivax will be
used as an example of the life cycle shown in Figure 9.1.
Inside the intestine of the female Anopheles mosquito, male and female forms of the parasite called
macrogametocytes (female) and microgametocytes
(male) combine to form a zygote, or fertilized egg.
Unfortunately for some unsuspecting mammals, including humans, a blood meal is required for this process to
take place. The zygote matures into a wormlike form,
which then develops into an oocyst. Within the oocyst,
hundreds of infective sporozoites develop. When the
oocyst lyses, the sporozoites spread throughout the mosquito, including its salivary glands and ducts.
When the mosquito feeds again, some saliva, acting as an anticoagulant, enters the feeding site of the
mammal. The sporozoites are carried to the liver where
they invade the hosts liver cells, reproduce, leave, and
then infect red blood cells (Plate 29). Once inside the
red blood cell, the sporozoite develops into a ringlike
trophozoite (Plate 30) which now develops into thousands of infective merozoites. The red blood cell lyses,
and the merozoites infect adjacent cells. During this
process, some trophozoites develop into the male and
female gametocytes, which are also released into the
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Fertilization

Mosquito
to human

Development of
sporozoites and
migration to
salivary glands
To
mosquito

INSIDE
MOSQUITO
Mosquito ingests
gametophytes
and they mature

Mosquito

Gametes produced

Liver transmits
sporozoites in mosquito's
salivary glands to blood

To
human

Merozoites
released

Infection of
red blood
cells

INSIDE
HUMAN

Merozoites
reproduce in
red blood cells
Liver acquires
sporozoites
from blood
Merozoites produced
in liver cells
INSIDE HUMAN
FIG. 9.1.

Life cycle of Plasmodium vivax. Note the dependence on the female Anopheles mosquito.

bloodstream. The cycle continues if the infected

individual is once again bitten by a female Anopheles
mosquito.
Observe the slide of P. vivax under oil immersion. Find
and identify the forms shown in Figures 9.2, 9.3, and 9.4.
Toxoplasma gondii has a life cycle that invariably
includes cats, which are its primary host (Fig. 9.5). The
microbe can be found in undercooked meat such as pork
(25%) and lamb (10%). From this reservoir, it can infect humans directly, or it can first infect a household
cat. Cats can also become infected by eating infected
mice and rats.* Since humans are not part of this parasites normal life cycle, we are considered accidental
hosts.
When reproducing in the intestinal tract of the
cat, some of the microbes differentiate into male and
*Recent research suggests that this parasite enhances its chance of
survival while in one of its intermediate hosts, the rat. When the rat
is infected, usually by contacting the cyst form of Toxoplasma from
soil or food, the brain becomes damaged. Such brain damage causes
the rat to be less aware of its surroundings, including the scent of
cats and the odor of its urine. This phenomenon allows the rat to be
more likely eaten by cats, thus continuing the life cycle of the parasite.
PARASITOLOGY

Red blood cell

Ring
forms
FIG. 9.2.

Ringlike trophozoite.

FIG. 9.3.

Merozoites.

Male
gametocyte
Red blood cell

Red blood cell

Female
gametocyte

FIG. 9.4.

Microgametocytes and macrogametocytes.

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Immature oocyst

Litter box
Changing
litter box

Oocyst

Infected
raw meat

Congenital infection
FIG. 9.5.

Life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii.

Sexual
form

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Once the oocysts and sporozoites are ingested by

other animals, including humans, they invade the cells
of the intestines, and spread to the cells of the heart,
brain, and muscle tissue (Plate 31). In these other animals, there is no sexual stage as in the cat. As host immunity is stimulated, large numbers of tropozoites (Plate
32) (also called tachyzoites) become contained within
protective coverings produced by the host called pseudocysts (Fig. 9.8). As long as the immune system remains
efficient, these pseudocysts remain intact, and further
spread of the trophozoites is blocked. If a person with
pseudocysts has a severe immunodeficiency such as
AIDS or has a poorly developed immune system, such
as a fetus, the pseudocysts either never develop or they
break open, allowing the parasite to spread (Fig. 9.9).
Giardia lamblia was first described by
Leeuwenhoek over 300 years ago. (See Fig. 9.10 for life
cycle.) Students are often startled at their first look at
this parasite whose arrangement of paired nuclei in the
trophozoite form gives the appearance of them looking
back (Fig. 9.11). The trophozoite parasitizes the upper
portion of the small intestine where it holds on to the
intestinal wall by way of an adhesive disk, much like a

Cyst wall

T. gondii

Asexual
form

Small intestine of cat showing sexual and asexual forms.

FIG. 9.6.

10 m

Trophozoites or tachyzoites within pseudocyst

FIG. 9.8.

in liver.

FIG. 9.7.

Diagram of oocysts and sporozoite forms.

female gametes, called micro- and macrogametocytes,

the equivalent of eggs and sperm (Fig. 9.6). When these
gametes unite, a thick-walled oocyst is formed, which
is then expelled in the feces by the millions. In the soil,
each oocyst develops into two oocysts, each containing
four sporozoites (Fig. 9.7). Once the sporozoites form,
the microbe is infectious. Since the oocysts are resistant to drying and remain viable for up to a year, they
can waft into the air when cat litter is changed. They
undergo further maturation and eventually become ingested or inhaled.

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FIG. 9.9.

Pseudocysts in brain.

Development into
trophozoite in
small Intestine

Cyst in
large Intestine

Ingestion
via drinking
FIG. 9.10.

Excretion into
water supply

Life cycle of Giardia lamblia.

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Cattle

Contaminated
feces
Oocyst
Male and
female
gametocytes
produce
oocysts

Flagella

HUMAN

Intestine
Sporozoites
released,
merozoites produced
FIG. 9.13.

Contaminated
water

Human ingesting
oocyst

Life cycle of Cryptosporidia.

Nuclei
FIG. 9.11.

Trophozoite of G. lamblia.

Flagella
Cyst wall
Nuclei

Median
bodies
FIG. 9.12.

Sporozoite of G. lamblia.

suction cup. If they break loose, they are carried toward

the colon where many of them develop into the inactive
cyst form (Fig. 9.12). It is this cyst that causes disease
when ingested. If the trophozoite form is swallowed, it
will not survive the acidity of the stomach. (See Fig.
9.10.) (Plate 33)
Cryptosporidium is also an intestinal parasite. Its
method of transmission is similar to that of Giardia
(fecal-oral), but it is even more resistant to control methods such as chlorination. Its life cycle is similar to that
of Toxoplasma, with various animals acting as intermediate hosts (Fig. 9.13). While only annoying to healthy
people, severe, uncontrollable diarrhea and death can be
the result in AIDS patients. Young children and other

PARASITOLOGY

immunocompromised people are also at high risk for

severe symptoms.
Humans become infected by drinking water contaminated with Cryptosporidium oocysts or by eating
food prepared with such water. The usual host for this
parasite includes cattle, with up to an 80% infection rate
(Plate 34). Poultry, sheep, even puppies and kittens, also
show significant rates of infection. Once in the intestine, the oocyst releases sporozoites, which then invade
the intestinal wall. The sporozoites divide into merozoites, which continues the invasive process (Fig. 9.14).
Some merozoites develop into male and female gametes.
When these gametes combine, they then produce the
resistant oocysts. The oocysts then leave via the feces
and the cycle continues (Fig. 9.15).

Sporozoites
within oocyst

Late stage of sporozoite development with

eight banana-shaped merozoites.

FIG. 9.14.

FIG. 9.15.

Oocyst of Cryptosporidium.

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WORKING DEFINITIONS AND TERMS

Biological vector An animal, such as a mosquito which
allows a parasite to spread, in which the parasite must
spend part of its life cycle and where it is able to reproduce.
Host The organism in or on which a parasite lives, often causing harm or disease.
Intermediate host An animal in which the parasite
goes through a developmental stage.
Macrogametocyte The female gametocyte of the sexual stage of protozoan reproduction.
Merozoite The motile, infective stage of sporozoan
protozoa.

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Microgametocyte The male gametocyte of the sexual

stage of protozoan reproduction.
Oocyst The encysted form of a fertilized zygote or egg.
The oocyst tends to be resistant to disinfection and releases large numbers of infectious sporozoites.
Parasite An organism that lives on or in another, derives nourishment, and often causes harm or disease.
Trophozoite The ameboid, asexual form of certain
single-celled parasites.

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LABORATORY
REPORT

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NAME _________________________________________ DATE ____________ SECTION ____________________

A. CRITICAL THINKING
1. What organisms other than protozoa would be considered parasites?

2. Why would proper uses of insecticides, proper water purification methods, and proper meat and poultry inspection and handling significantly reduce the numbers of parasitic infections or infestations?

3. Differentiate between the asexual stage of parasitic infections and the sexual stage.

4. Why would changing kitty litter be a possible danger to a pregnant woman?

5. Why are parasitic diseases a greater threat to the immunocompromised than to those with a normal immune
system?

6. Differentiate between an intermediate host and a definitive host.

PARASITOLOGY

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B. MATCHING
1. a. accidental host of T. gondii

_____ active form of protozoan parasite

b. zygote

_____ resistant form of protozoan parasite

c. cyst
d. biological vector

_____ intermediate animal or host needed for a parasite to complete its life
cycle

e. definitive host of T. gondii

_____ fertilized egg

f. pseudocyst

_____ male and/or female form of a parasite

g. gametocyte
h. trophozoite
i. Giardia lamblia
j. Cryptosporidium parvum

_____ humans
_____ cats
_____ eyelike paired nuclei
(Answers may be used more than once.)

2.

Match the diagram with the parasite

a. malarial merozoite
b. malarial sporozoite
c. malarial trophozoite
d. malarial microgametocyte
e. Toxoplasma gondii sexual form
f. Toxoplasma gondii asexual form
g. Toxoplasma gondii pseudocysts
h. Giardia lamblia trophozoite
i. Giardia lamblia sporozoite
j. Cryptosporidium sporozoite
k. Cryptosporidium oocyst
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C. MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. The sexual reproductive stage of Plasmodium takes place:
a. in the human liver
b. in red blood cells

c. in a mosquitos intestine
d. in blood plasma

2. The first site to be infected in a human by Plasmodium vivax is:

a. the liver
b. red blood cells

c. nervous tissue
d. blood plasma

3. The merozoite form of Plasmodium vivax is found:

a. in the human liver
b. in red blood cells

c. in a mosquitos intestine
d. in blood plasma

4. The oocyst of T. gondii can be found:

a. in cat litter boxes
b. in the soil

c. in the air
d. in all of these

5. The definitive or final host of T. gondii is:

a. cat

b. human

c. cow

d. rat

6. Which of the following can cause fetal damage?

a. Plasmodium

b. Toxoplasma

c. Giardia

d. Cryptosporidium

7. Which of the following is found in contaminated water?

a. Plasmodium

b. Toxoplasma

c. Giardia

d. all of these

8. Eight banana-shaped merozoites can be observed:

a.
b.
c.
d.

in the macrogametocyte of Plasmodium

in the sporozoite of Cryptosporidium
in the trophozoite of Giardia
in the pseudocyst of Toxoplasma

PARASITOLOGY

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