Enginnering Geology - N Chennakesavulu

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C N Chenna Kesavulu, 1993, 2009
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First published, 1993
Reprinted, 1997-,2007(eight times)
Second edition, 12009
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CONTENTS
Preface to the Second Edition

Preface to the First Edition
1.
3.
4.
5.
IX
GEOLOGY
I.I
2
5
7
1.2
1.3
2
Vil
Main and Allied Branches of Geology

Importance of Geology in Civil Engineering
Scope of Geology
GENERAl.GFOlOGY
11
2.1
2.2
2.3
12
14
27
Geological Agents
Weathering of Rocks
River as a Geological Agent
MINERALOGY
39
a
3 1
Defiojtjoo of
Mineral
3.2
33
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Definition of a Crystal
Mode of Foanation of Minerals
Common Rock-forming Minerals and Their Abundance
Different Methods of Study of Minerals
Significance of Different Physical Properties in Mineral Identification
Diagnostic or Distinguishing Physical Properties
39
41
43
44
45
48
(j()
COMMON ROCK-FORMJNG MINERALS
61
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
61 I
61
65
Types of Rock-forming Minerals

Special Features of Silicate Minerals
Brief Sketch of Common Rock-forming Minerals
Important Details of Common Rock-forming Minerals
PETROl.oGY
5I
5.2
53
5.4
5.5
5.6
Shell Stn1cn1re
68
94
of rhe Earth
Definition of a Rock
Classification of Rocks
Sequence of Formation of Different Groups of Rocks
Rock Cycle
Civil Engineering Importance of Petrology
94
95
96
100
IOI
102
Gopynghted material
xu Contents
6.
7.
8.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Introduction
6.1
Forms of Igneous Rocks
6.2
Miscellaneous
6.3
Common Igneous Rocks and Relation of Their Constituent Minerals
6.4
Classification of Igneous Rocks
65
Stn1ct11res and
6.6
6.7
Suitability of Igneous Rocks for Building and Foundation

Megascopic Description of Relatively Common Igneous Rock Types
Texh1res
SEOIMENTARYROCKS
109
1 II
Ill
115
123
125
134
Introd11ction
134
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
134
135
145
150
Sedimentary Rocks on the Earth's Crust

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
Common Structures and Textures of Sedimentary Rocks
Descriptive Study of Common Sedimentary Rocks
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Introduction
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
9.
103
103
104
Metamorphism
Common Structures and Textures of Metamorphic Rocks
Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
Descriptive Study of Common Metamorphic Rocks
SIRUCTURALGEOLOGY
161
161
162
171
175
176
190
190
Causes for Development of Structures
9.5
9.6
Unconformity
Common Symbols to Indicate Some Geological Structures
I 0. IMPORTANCEOF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
II.
222
226
227
Introduction
227
10. I
10.2
10.3
228
232
236
Effects of Folding and Their Civil Engineering Importance

Effects of Faulting and Their Civil Engineering Importance
Effects of Joints and Their Civil Engineering Importance
GROUNDWATER
Introduction
I I.I Sources of Ground Water Supply
I 11 Advantages of Using Ground Water
11.3 Distribution of Rainfall
11.4 Porosity and Permeability
11.5 Classification of Rocks Based on Porosity and Permeability
11.6 Water Table and Types of Ground Water
I 1.7 Geological Controls on Ground Water Movement
I I .8 Fluctuation of the Water Table Level in Unconfined Aquifers
I 1.9 Ground Water Potential in Different Parts of India
240
240
241
242
244
245
248
250
253
254
256
CDpynghted rnaierial
Contents
12.
13.
14.
I I.IO Ground Water Exploration

11.11 Effects of Excessive Tapping of Ground Water
11.12 Waterlogging
257
260
STRATIGRAPHY
26)
Introduction
12.I
Aims of Stratigraphy
12.2 Principles of Stratigraphy
12.3 Geological Time Scale
12.4 Geological Divisions of India
12.5
Major Stratigraphical Units of India
12.6 Importance of the Study of Stratigraphy from the Civil Engineering
Point of View
261
262
262
264
267
284
EARTHQUAKES
285
Introduction
13. I Earthquake Terminology
13.2 Classifications and Causes of Earthquakes
13.3 Seismic Belts and Shield Areas
13.4 Earthquakes and Faulting
13.5 Earthquake Waves
13.6 Intensity of Earthquakes
13.7 Magnitude of the Earthquakes
13.8 Locating the Epicentre of an Earthquake
13.9 Determining the Depth of the Focus of an Earthquake
13.10 Effects of Earthquakes
13.11 Civil Engineering Considerations in Seismic Areas
13.12 Plate Tectonics and Earthquake Distribution
285
286
286
288
288
289
290
291
293
294
294
295
298
LANDSLIDES
300
Introduction
14.1
Importance of Landslides
14.2 Classification of Earth Movements
14.3 Causes of Landslides
14.4 Effects of Landslides
14.5 Preventive Measures for Landslides
300
300
301
303
306
306
15. GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS
16.
XIII
260
268
308
Introduction
15. I Branches of Geophysics
15.2 Necessity of Geophysical Investigations
15.3 Principles of Exploration Geophysics
I 5.4 Classification of Geophysical Methods
15.5 Well-logging
308
308
309
311
312
329
GEOPHYSICAi. INVESTIGATIONS OF CIYII. ENGINEERING IMPDRTANCE
331
Introduction
331
332
345
16.1
16.2
Electrical Resistivity Method

Seismic Refraction Method
c,opvnghted material
xiv
Contents
17.
ENGlNEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
356
Introduction
17.1 Different
17 .2 Tests for
17.3 Tests for
17.4 Tests for
356
357
358
362
Engineering
Rocks Used
Rocks Used
Rocks Used
Property Tests for Rocks

as Foundation Sites of Constructions
as Building Stones
as Aggregates
18. DAMS
371
376
Introduction
18.1
Importance of Geology in Dam Construction
18.2 A Dam and Its Parts
18.3 TYPes of Dams and Bearing of Geology of Site in Their Selection
18.4 Purposes of Dams
18.5 Geological Considerations in the Selection of a Dam Site
18.6 Stages of Investigation in the Selection of a Dam Site
I 8,7 Case Histories
376
377
380
381
383
384
396
398
19, RESERVOIRS
4JJ
lntroductjoo
411
19. I
412
19 .2
19.3
19.4
19.5
19.6
19. 7
Considerations for Successful Reservoirs

Capacity of the Reservoir
Effect of Evaporation
Water-tightness and Influencing Factors
Reservoir Silting
Seismic Activity in Reservoir Areas
Landslide Occurre;ices
20. TUNNELS
412
412
413
420
425
425
427
Introduction
20. I Purposes of Tunnelling
20.2 Effects of Tunnelling on the Ground
20.3 Lining of Tunnels
20.4 Economical Aspects of Tunnelling
20.5 Geological Considerations for Successful Tunnelling
20.6 Overbreak
20. 7 A Few Examples of Tunnels of Interest and Importance
Bibliography
Index
427
428
429
429
430
430
440
441
443
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1
GEOLOGY
Introduction; I. I Main and Allied Branches of Geology; I. I. I Physical Geology;

1.1.2 Mineralogy; 1.1.3 Petrology; 1.1.4 Structural Geology; 1.1.5 Historical Geology;
l.1.6 Palaeontology; 1.1.7 Economic Geology; 1.1.8 Engineering Geology; 1.1.9 Mining Geology;
I. I. I 0 Geophysics; I. I.JI Geohydrology; 1.1.12 Geochemistry; 1.2 Importance of Geology in Civil
Engineering; 1.3 Scope of Geology; 1.3.1 Academic Importance of Geology; 1.3.2 Importance of
Applied Geology in Different Fields.
Aims: The aims of this chapter are:

1. To introduce the subject.
2. To list out the main and allied branches of geology, explain their subject matter and to briefly
indicate their relevance from the civil engineering point of view.
3. To explore the scope of geology in terms of its academic significance. It is purely meant to inculcate
interest and curiosity in the subject matter.
4. To give the importance of geology in the fields of: (a) exploration, estimation and exploitation
of economic mineral deposits. and mining; (b) ground water studies, town-planning; (c) civil
engineering, and so on.
INTRODUCTION
Geology is the science of the earth (geo = earth, logos = study or science). It deals with different
aspects of the earth as a whole such as (i) origin, age, interior structure and history of the earth;
(ii) evolution and modification of various surface features like rivers, mountains and lakes along with
their causes; and (iii) materials making up the earth.
Geology is a relatively recent subject. In addition to its core branches, advances in geology in
allied fields have led to specialized sciences like geophysics, geochemistry, geohydro1ogy, glaciology,
seismology, oceanography, rock mechanics, photogeology, and remote sensing.
t
Similarly, based on the applied importance of geology in other fields, related subjects such as
engineering geology, mining geology and so on have come into existence.
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Textbook of Engineering Geology
1.1 MAIN AND ALLIED BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY

The vast subject of geology has been subdivided into the following branches for the sake of systematic
study:
Main branches:
Allied branches:
Physical geology
Mineralogy
Petrology
Structural geology
Historical geology (stratigraphy)
Palaeontology
Engineering geology
Mining geology
Geophysics
Geohydrology
Geochemistry
Economic geology
1.1.1 Physical Geology
This is also variously described as dynamic geology. geomorphology, etc. As the name suggests it deals
with: (i) different physical features of the earth, such as mountains, plateaus, valleys, rivers, lakes,
glaciers, and volcanoes in terms of their origin and development, (ii) the different changes occurring
on the earth's surface, like marine transgression, marine regression, formation or disappearance of
rivers, springs and lakes, (iii) geological work of wind, glaciers, rivers, oceans, ground water, and their
role in constantly moulding the earth's surface features, and (iv) natural phenomena like landslides,
earthquakes, and weathering.
The main cause for surface changes is weathering. This is a natural phenomenon resulting directly
or indirectly due to changes in the atmosphere. It disintegrates and decomposes rocks. This aspect is
of special importance from the civil engineering point of view, because colour, appearance, strength
and durability of rocks are adversely affected by weathering. Thus even granite which is considered
ideal for most of the civil engineering works becomes weak and friable on thorough weathering.
rendering it useless.
Civil engineers deal with structures like darns which are artificial barriers to the natural flow of
rivers. Proper understanding of the geological work of a river and its features will lead to their better
utilization for engineering applications.
1.1.2 Mineralogy
This deals with the study of minerals. Minerals are basic units with which different rocks and ores
of the earth are made up of. Details of mode of formation, composition, occurrence, types, association,
properties, uses, etc., of minerals form the subject matter of mineralogy.
Knowledge in this branch of geology is necessary for a civil engineer because the properties of
rocks -(which he is going to make use of in different ways) are to a large extent contributed by the
properties and composition of their constituent minerals. For example, sometimes quartzite and marble
resemble one another in shine, colour and appearance. But quartzite by virtue of its mineral composition
is very hard, tough, strong and durable, while marble disintegrates and decomposes in a shorter period
because of its mineral composition and properties.
Geology
1.1.3 Petrology (Petro = rock, logos = study)

Petrology deals with the study of rocks. The earth's crust, also called lithosphere, is made up of different
types of rocks. Petrology deals with mode of formation, structure, texture, composition, occurrence,
types, etc., of rocks.
The composition and textural characters of rocks primarily contribute to their inherent strength
and durability. Rocks based on their suitability can be used as foundation for dams, for tunnelling and
as materials of construction. Hence this is the most important branch of geology from the civil
engineering point of view.
1.1.4 Structural Geology
The rocks which form the earth's crust undergo various deformations, dislocations and disturbances
under the influence of tectonic forces. The result is the occurrence of different geological structures
like folds, faults, joints and unconformities in rocks. The details of mode of forrnation, causes, types,
classification, importance, etc., of these geological structures form the subject matter of structural
geology.
From the civil engineering point of view, it is as important as petrology because these geological
structures modify the inherent physical characters of rocks rendering them more suitable or unsuitable
for civil engineering purposes. For example, at a dam site sedimentary rocks with upstream dip provide
a desirable geological set-up, while the same rocks with downstream dip make the geological set-up
most undesirable.
1.1.5 Historical Geology (Stratigraphy)
The earth's surface was always uneven and provided suitable conditions for the deposition of sediments
at some place or the other. Therefore, there are sedimentary rocks on the earth representing the entire
period of the earth's history. Proper investigations of these rocks reveal the chronological sequence
of formation of rocks, evolution-migration-extinction details of different plant and animal life during
the different periods of the earth's history. In addition, the climatic and geographical changes including
tectonic events in the geological past can also be known from these investigations. This kind of study
of the earth's history through the sedimentary rocks is called historical geology. It is also called
stratigraphy (strata= a set of sedimentary rocks; graphy =description) because this subject deals with
deiails and description of sedimentary rock sequences. This is a major branch of geology, having a
lot of academic and applied importance. From the civil engineering point of view also it is relevant
that except for the fact that older rocks are in general more stable (like shield areas of the Archaean
era) and more competent due to more compaction and cementation. Further, study of stratigraphy can
be utilized in predicting the underlying strata which may be very important in some specific civil
engineering constructions.
1.1.6 Palaeontology
If, under favourable conditions, animal or plant life gets embedded in sediments, it will be preserved
partly or completely. Such relics and remnants of ancient life preserved in rocks by natural processes
are known as "fossils". Details of the mode of formation of fossils, their types, occurrence, etc., form
the subject matter of palaeontology. Like stratigraphy, this is also an important branch of geology.
though it is not of much importance from the civil engineering point of view. But as fossils are rare
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Textbookof Engineering Geology
and throw much light on the past history of the earth, a civil engineer should know some details
regarding them so that he recognizes them as fossils. Whenever he comes across such finds during
his work, he should report the matter to the person concerned, for necessary action.
1.1.7 Economic Geology
Minerals can be grouped as general rock-forming minerals and economic minerals. Some of the
economic minerals like talc, graphite, mica, asbestos, gypsum, magnesite, barytes, diamond and gems
are useful as such or as raw materials in different industries. Some others like hematite, chromite, galena
and pyrolusite are used as ores for the extraction of various metals, the uses of which are well known.
The prosperity of a nation depends to a large extent on the rich reserves of economic mineral deposits
it has. (For example, Gulf countries are rich because of their oil deposits; South Africa is rich because
of its gold and diamond deposits.)
The details of their mode of formation, occurrence, classification, association, varieties, concentration,
properties, uses, etc., form the subject matter of "economic geology". This branch of geology, though
it is very important by virtue of its economic importance, is not relevant for civil engineers for obvious
reasons. It will be enough for them to know a few details as in the case of fossils, so that they will
not be ignorant of them as and when they come across these in course of their civil engineering works
like tunnelling and road cutting.
Each of the foregoing branches deals with specific subject matter and comprises the main branches
of geology proper. Further, based on application of geological knowledge in other fields there are many
other allied branches collectively called earth sciences.
Some of them described here are:
Engineering geology.
Mining geology.
Geophysics.
Geohydrology.
Geochemistry.
1.1.8 Engineering Geology
This deals with the application of geological knowledge in the field of civil engineering, for execution
of safe, stable and economic constructions like dams, bridges and tunnels. As this is the branch with
which we are most concerned, it has been explained in detail separately (refer to Sec. 1.2).
1.1.9 Mining Geology
This deals with the application of geological knowledge in the field of mining. A mining engineer
is interested in the mode and extent of occurrence of ores, their association, tenor, properties, etc. It
is also necessary to know other physical parameters like depth, direction (strike), inclination (dip),
thickness and reserve of ore bodies for efficient utilization. Such details of mineral exploration,
estimation and exploitation are dealt with in mining geology.
The importance of geology in mining may be cited with the following example. Sometimes, the
lodes or seams of economic minerals suddenly get terminated. This might happen either due to the
natural limit of the ore body or due to faulting. Geological studies will solve this problem and, if it
~opyngh
ma n81
Geology
is due to faulting, the continuity can be traced by ascertaining the direction and extent of displacement
caused by faulting.
The geological knowledge helps in planning the method of mining or quarring a deposit in an
advantageous way.
1.1.10 Geophysics
The study of physical properties like density and magnetism of the earth or its parts, to know its interior,
forms the subject matter of geophysics. Broadly it is subdivided into general (or pure) geophysics and
exploration (or applied) geophysics. Pure geophysics deals with general aspects of the earth as a whole
and exploration geophysics deals with the study of upper layers of the earth's crust in order to (i) solve
some civil engineering problems, (ii) locate oil and goes deposits, (iii) locate ground water, (iv) explore
and estimate the ore deposits, etc., of underground. There are different types of geophysical
investigations based on the physical property utilized, viz .. gravity methods, seismic methods, magnetic
methods. Since these are quickly and easily done on the surface, large areas can be investigated
economically and efficiently.
Engineering geophysics is a branch of exploration geophysics which aims at solving civil
engineering problems by interpreting subsurface geology of the areas concerned. Geophysical
investigations are very useful in solving foundation problems, alignment of structures, leakage
problems along canals, locating building materials like stones (where they are not available on the
surface), etc. Electrical resistivity methods and seismic refraction methods are commonly used in
solving civil engineering problems.
1.1.11 Geohydrology
This may also be called as hydrogeology. It deals with occurrence, movement and nature (i.e., quality
and quantity) of ground water in an area. It has applied importance because ground water has many
advantages over surface water. This branch is closely related to geology because the very existence,
movement of ground water, etc., are directly related to porosity, permeability, structure, texture and
composition of the surface and underground rocks. Dykes may control the occurrence and movement
of ground water. In general, geological, geophysical (electrical resistivity method) and hydrological
studies are together taken up for ground water investigations.
1.1.12 Geochemistry
This branch is relatively more recent and deals with the occurrence, distribution, abundance, mobility,
etc., of different elements in the earth's crust. It is not important from the civil engineering point of
view.
1.2 IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

The civil engineers aim at safety, stability, economy and life of the structures that they construct. Civil
engineering constructions like dams and bridges will have their foundations on geological formations
of the earth's surface. Therefore, their stability and safety depend on the competence of the in situ
rocks of the sites concerned. Also, to be economical, such competent foundation rocks should be at
a shallow depth. Further, for huge constructions like dams, building materials are required in very large
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quantities near the site. Otherwise, the cost of construction will increase. These critical details of civil
engineering importance, i.e., durability and competence of foundation rocks, their depth of occurrence,
availability of building material near project sites, can be reliably obtained from geological and
geophysical studies.
The significance of geology with reference to civil engineering will be better appreciated if the
consequences of ignoring geological studies are also quoted. Therefore, a few specific examples of
failures of different kinds of important civil constructions are listed now. Further details of these failures
are given under respective chapters.
With Reference to Da111s
The following are a few examples of failures of dams. These failures have occurred only due to adverse
geological conditions and not due to technical lapses:
l. St. Francis dam of California.
2. Lafayette dam of California.
3. Austin dam of Texas.
In addition to these failures, there are also a number of examples where the cost of construction
became very high in order to overcome the associated geological drawbacks.
Halesbar dam (on Tennessee river), Camarassa dam (Spain), Dokan dam (Iraq); Chickmauga dam
(USA), Vall Gallina dam (Italy) are a few examples of this kind.
The aforementioned examples amply illustrate that serious consequences are likely to result if
proper attention is not paid to the geological conditions occurring at the dam site.
Geological studies at the dam site will also suggest which design will be suitable for a given
geological context. For example, gravity dams need very strong and competent foundation rocks; for
buttress dams, relatively less strong foundation rocks are enough; arch dams need very strong and stable
abutment rocks; for earth dams, even weak foundation rocks meet the requirements.
With Reference to Reservoirs
The Jerome reservoir of Idaho and the Hondo reservoir of New Mexico are two examples of failures
due to geological reasons.
As in the case of dam sites, selection of suitable sites for locating reservoirs needs geological
studies to make them successful. Unfavourable geological conditions lead to quick siJtiog of reservoirs,
thereby decreasing its life, and profuse leakage of stored water.
Intense weathering in the rocks upstream causes silting problems. Porosity and permeability of
rocks, occurrence of faults, joints and other weak planes cause leakage problems. Ground water
conditions also play a key role in influencing leakage. Thus proper studies of geological conditions
at any proposed reservoir site will forewarn an engineer of the problems, if any.
With Reference to Tunnels
Ramganga diversion tunnel (Himalayas), Umiam-Barapani stage I tunnel (Meghalaya), Keyna ID .stage
tail race tunnel, and Bassein creek tunnel (Bombay) are some of the examples where geological
conditions posed serious problems.
Competence of the rocks, associated geological structures like bedding, faults, joints, porosity and
permeability of rocks, and ground water conditions are the geological conditions which need to be
thoroughly studied to solve such problems.
Geology
With Reference to Bridges

The failure of a bridge near Cornwall (Canada) and difficulties faced in the construction of the Georges
river bridge illustrate the consequences of improper or incomplete study of geological conditions of
the sites concerned.
Strong and stable rocks are needed for foundations and abutments. Adverse geological structures
should not occur at the site.
With Reference to Roads and Railways
The erstwhile problem of frequent boulderfalls along some sections of Bor Ghat on the Bombay-Pune
line is one of the examples that may be quoted to highlight the importance of geological studies at
the site.
Thus, to ensure safety, stability, success and economy in all major civil engineering constructions,
geological studies are very important. The most important and common geological factors which
contribute to the suitability or unsuitability of a site for a given purpose are existing rock types,
associated geological structures and ground water conditions. Occurrences of landslides, earthquakes,
land subsidences, high snowfall, waterlogging, type of natural forces like rivers, etc., at the proposed
site are some other geological factors which may need special study for taking precautionary measures.
Geological knowledge can also be utilized when necessary in dealing with huge buildings,
runways, terrain evaluation for military operations and defence purposes.
It is to be borne in mind that the role of geology in civil engineering is to indicate (at different
stages like designing and construction) in advance the existing drawbacks, if any, of the sites, so that
suitable precautionary steps are taken to overcome them and sites are made safe for undertaking
construction.
It is not a rule that geological conditions should be adverse everywhere, though in practice ideal
sites are rare. Failures of various earlier structures due to different geological causes have now made
it mandatory to have geological clearance before taking up major constructions. This will ensure riskfree investment of time, money and energy. National organizations like the Geological Survey of India
and the National Geophysical Research Institute do the needful in this regard.
1.3 SCOPE OF GEOLOGY

Geology is one of the most interesting and useful subjects for the layman and the knowledgeable people
alike. This is the only subject which gives information about the earth. Some of the details regarding
its academic and applied importance are as follows.
1.3.1 Academic Importance of Geology

The study of details of academic significance of geology is not within the purview of the subject of
engineering geology. But at the same time, it is worth knowing from curiosity and interest points of
view some of the unbelievable and startling facts about our earth and its history, which are given as
follows:
I. The Himalayas, the tallest mountains of the present day, are relatively of recent geological age
whose growth was witnessed by man. They are made up of marine formations suggesting that their
place was once occupied by a narrow sea (Tethys).
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2. The Indo-Gangetic plains, the most fertile land of our country, and the seat of power of many
dynasties are surprisingly of the most recent origin in geological terms.
3. In contrast to this, the Deccan plateau, which is adjacent to the Indo-Gangetic plains, represents
the oldest age and may be a piece of the primordial crust itself.
4. The fossils present in rocks of different geological ages provide convincing proof of evolution
of life from the beginning to the present day. Life originated in the sea and then extended to land.
The trend was as follows:
Birds
Unicellular organisms -+ Trilobites -+ Fish -+ Amphibians -+ Reptiles
Mammals
5. In the geological past, the earth experienced intense cold periods known as glaciation. During such
periods the globe was enveloped by snow to a considerable extent. The latest period of glaciation,
Wurm, occurred around 20,000 a.c.
6. The ancestors of the present-day insignificant lizard-like creatures were represented by the
physically most well-developed giant creatures. They had dominated the land, the sea and even
the sky. They seem to have roamed over the world unobstructed during the entire Mesozoic era
of 180 million years and then became extinct suddenly. At present the mammals are dominating
the world, though they were non-existent for major part of the earth's life history.
7. The Indian land mass at present does not have even a single volcano. But the same country had
experienced very intense volcanic activity nearly 60 million years back, when lava flowed far and
wide, resulting in the formation of volcanic rocks over an area of five Jakh square miles. The
magnitude of eruption was such that a few of the individual Java flows were more than a hundred
feet thick.
8. The proverbial statement that the ocean too has its limits appears to be untrue because geological
evidence shows that some of the present-day land masses were once parts of oceans and there
are many shores which indicate marine transgression and regression.
9. It will be difficult to believe that the distribution of continents and oceans of today was altogether
different in the past. In the beginning there was a single land mass called Pangaea which was
surrounded by an ocean called Panthalassa. Pangaea was girdled in the middle by a deep narrow
river or sea called Tethys (now represented by the Alpine-Himalayan ranges). The northern and
southern parts of Pangaea were called Angara (Laurasia) and Gondwana land respectively. This
Gondwana subsequently split at the end of the Palaeozoic era into smaller blocks which later drifted
in different directions giving rise to the present-day continents of America, Australia, Antarctica
and the Indian subcontinent. This unique geological event of the past is called the "continental
drift",
IO. The North and South poles were not in their present places in the past. They were at different
places. This means that the climatic conditions had changed repeatedly in different parts of the
world.
11. More than 98% of the earth's crust is composed of only nine elements. These make up the different
rocks. The remaining elements comprise a long list of very useful and valuable ones like gold,
silver, platinum, copper, chromium, manganese, lead and zinc. These elements, numbering nearly
hundred, together make up only less than 2% of the earth's crust. Had these scarce elements
<
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Geology
occurred uniformly distributed, there could have been no ore deposits at all. That would have meant
no industries and no civilization. But mother earth is bountiful enough to make these rare materials
occur as concentrated and workable ore deposits.
J 2. It is probable that the earth is itself unique in the universe. The earth in the solar system is just
fortunate to have life flourishing on it. Had it been a Little closer to the Sun it would have been
too hot to sustain life. Similarly, had it been a Little farther, it would have been too cold to have
life on it.
13. The apparently unchanging earth is in reality vibrating with life and is dynamic with constant
modifications. The natural forces Like rivers, wind, glaciers, tides and waves of oceans, volcanoes
and earthquakes are constantly moulding and remoulding the earth's surface. This story of the
dynamic earth, its natural forces, their origin, development and effects are known only through
geology.
J 4. Studies of geological history reveal periodical occurrence of large-scale catastrophic phenomena
like orogeny, epeirogeny, intense volcanic activity and glaciations. These demarcate the beginning
or end of a geological era which is relatively cairn and flourishing with life. The periods of
catastrophic phenomena on earth have unquestionably changed the scene of life drastically (though
not leading to total extinction of all life).
15. For thousands of millions of years the natural forces like rivers, glaciers and wind have been
relentlessly eroding the hills and mountains and depositing the resulting sediments in lakes and
seas. In spite of enormous transfer of material Like this, we still find lofty mountains and deep
seas, because tectonic and other forces are creating them again and again. Geology gives interesting
details of all these natural forces which take part in continuously changing the earth's surface.
16. The most interesting details offered by geology are: age, origin, interior and geography of our own
earth. The age of the earth is estimated based on salinity of oceans, thickness of sedimentary rocks,
cooling of earth, evolution of life, disintegration of radioactive elements, etc. Of these, the last
one offers the most reliable information and according to it the age of the earth is estimated as
4500 million years. There are many hypotheses about the origin of the earth, but most of them
are based on two different concepts: the nebular hypothesis and the bipareotal hypothesis. All
proposed hypotheses are only partly convincing and are not free from controversies. The salient
features of the earth's interior are: at the centre NiFe (Ni= nickel, Fe= iron) occurs as the metallic
core. It extends up to 3475 km nearly, from the centre outwards. It is surrounded by a 111a11tle
of heavy ultrabasic rocks, also believed to be rich in sulphides. This mantle is covered by a thin
crust. The mantle is nearly 2850 km thick and the crust is about 40 km thick, Thus the crust of
the earth is the thinnest. It is also the lightest. For the size of the earth it is thin, like the skin
of an apple: The peculiarities of occurrence of land and sea are: abnormal concentration of land
mass in the northern hemisphere, tapering continents in the southern hemisphere, tile antipodal
relation of land and sea (for example, occurrence of the North Pole in the sea and the South Pole
on land). These peculiarities are suggestive of a tetrahedral shape, but such a shape is unstable
and only the spherical shape is possible for a body size of the earth.
1.3 ..2 Importance of Applied Geology in Different Fields
Under Secs. 1.1.8, 1.1.9 and 1.1.11, it has already been stated that the subject geology is very useful
in the fields of civil engineering, mining and ground water investigation. Apart from these, town
10 Textbook of Engineering Geology

planning also needs geological studies, because they provide information about topography, drainage,
i.e., network of streams, ground water availability, etc. Such details are necessary for planning
irrigation, industries, buildings, communications, drinking water, etc. In metallurgy, the subject
mineralogy is very important because it gives various details of different ore minerals, gangue minerals
and their mutual relations. This also helps in ore beneficiation study, ore identification, etc.
Regarding the importance of' geology in the field of civil engineering, Sec. 1.2 may be referred
to.
Though geology is useful in different fields, its use in exploration, estimation and exploitation
of economic minerals overshadows all others. This is its most important field application. It is needless
to repeat the value of economic mineral deposits whether metallic or non-metallic. In this aspect,
geological knowledge is indispensable. The geologists do intensive fieldwork and prepare geological
maps of different areas which will give details of their age, succession, lithology, structure, etc. These
details are vital in mineral exploration. The occurrence of ore mineral deposits is very much related
to the age of the rock (for example, in India gold deposits are of the Archaean age, coal deposits of
Gondwana are of the Barakar age, petroleum deposits are of Tertiary age), to the rock type (for example,
coal and petroleum occur in sedimentary rocks, platinum, chromium, nickel, etc., occur in ultrabasic
rocks, diamonds occur in kimberlites; tin occurs in granitic rocks, primary gold occurs in quartz veins),
to the geological structure (for example, bauxite occurs often along unconforrnities, oil and gas occur
-along anticlines). Thus geological background helps in mineral exploration. Naturally, time, money
and energy spent with such discretion will alone be highly fruitful. Further the structural details (strike,
dip, etc.) obtained from geological mapping, in conjunction with geophysical studies will give physical
parameters of deposits in terms of size, shape, inclination, extension, and depth of occurrence. These
details will help Lo estimate the economic viability of the deposit, its reserve and to plan the mode
of extraction. Several national organizations like the Geological Survey of India, Oil and Natural Gas
Commission and National Mineral Development Corporation are actively involved in such mineral
explorations and investigations.
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2
GENERAL GEOLOGY
Introduction; 2.1 Geological Agents; 2.1.1 Exogenous Geological Agents; 2.1.2 Endogenous
Geological Agents; 2.1.3 Degradation, Aggradation and Gradation; 2.2 Weathering of Rocks;
2.2.l Role of Atmosphere in Weathering; 2.2.2 Weathering, Erosion and Denudation; 2.2.3 The
Weathering Process; 2.2.3. J Physical Factors; 2.2.3.2 Chemical Factors; 2.2.3.3 Biological Factors;
2.2.4 Summary of Weathering of Rocks; 2.2.5 Response of Granite to Weathering: 2.3 River as a
Geological Agent; 2.3.1 Development of a River; 2.3.2 Valley Development; 2.3.3 Rivers of India;
2.3.4 Geological Work of Rivers: 2.3.4.J River Erosion; 2.3.4.2 River Transport; 2.3.4.3 River
Deposition; 2.3.5 Importance of Rivers in Civil Engineering.
A.lms: The aims of this chapter are:

l.
2.
3.
To explain the types of geological agents (i.e., natural forces) and their role in constantly moulding
the surface of the earth.
To explain details of weathering of rocks:
~
What is it? Why does it occur? How does it take place?
What happens to rocks on weathering? What is its importance from the civil engineering point
of view?
To explain the special importance of the river as a geological agent, geological work carried out
by it, a few details of development of the river as relevant to civil engineering.
INTRODUCTION
Any rock, however hard and strong it may be, when exposed to the atmosphere, decays and
disintegrates, ultimately making the rock unfit to be at the site of the foundation or to be used as
construction material. Details of response of different minerals which constitute the rock will give a
proper understanding of the weathering phenomenon. Though there are innumerable varieties of rock
in nature, granites are the most common and the most abundant on the earth's surface. Hence,
weathering analysis of this rock is given in this unit.
12
Further, a civil engineer, while performing his duty will be combating natural forces like river,
glacier, wind, and tides and waves of the sea. Though it is desirable to know the details of all these
forces for his advantage, only rivers are chosen for study as they are more appropriate in terms of
construction of dams, reservoirs, bridges, tunnels, etc.
Since the earth's surface is a scene of the continuous geological action of erosion, transportation
and deposition due to different natural forces, this aspect along with development is dealt with here
for the river.
The earth's surface has been dynamic and, therefore, subject to various kinds of changes.
Transgressions and regressions of the sea, appearance of new mountains, rivers, glaciers, volcanoes,
lakes, springs, waterfalls, etc., and disappearance of old or earlier features of similar kind are just a
few such changes. The natural forces like rivers, glaciers, wind, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc., which
are part and parcel of earth's crust are responsible for all these changes. Of course tectonic forces
too play a major role.
2.1 GEOLOGICA.L AGENTS
The natural forces which are responsible for the visible changes on the earth's surface are called
geological agents. Based on their origin these natural forces can be grouped into "exogenous or
epigene" geological agents and "endogenous or hypogene" geological agents. These two groups differ
no! only in their origin bu! also in their nature of work and results produced, etc.
2.1.1 Exogenous Geological Agents
These agents originate on the earth's surface, work slowly but steadily and erase topographic
irregularities, i.e., ups and downs on the surface. Their geological work in a way is systematic, i.e.,
commences with erosion and is followed by transportation and deposition. The erosion process causes
disappearance of protruding land masses like hills, while the deposition process causes the disappearance
of depressed land masses like pits, lakes and seas. Thus plain land -surface is made to evolve
(Fig. 2.1 ).
Transportation ol
sediments
.... ..~~ ...
----
Deposition of
sediments
Fig. 2.1 In hills due to erosion, rocks are broken down into smaller pieces, which are transported and
deposited in depressions (lakes or sea). The net result is decrease in the height of the hill and
the depth of the lake. Ultimately levelled ground appears.
Rivers, wind, glaciers, tides and waves of the sea are typical examples of the exogenous group
of geological agents. The work of these forces appears LO be too slow, because visible changes are
not noticed even in decades or centuries. (For example, mountains or lakes appear to be a permanent
feature. though they are supposed to disappear by virtue of the combined work of these exogenous
geological agents.) But in spite of this apparently slow progress in their work they tum out a
phenomenal output in their ceaseless routine. For example, each of the Himalayan rivers, i.e., Ganga,
Indus and Brahmaputra, physically transport one million tons of sediments daily. Similarly, the South-
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13
West monsoon winds transport over 130,000 tons of salt particles annually from the Rann of Kutch
towards Rajasthan. Glaciers also do work of such magnitude. They are even capable of transporting
huge boulders many metres in diameter.
The distinctive characters of exogenous geological agents are: (i) slow but methodical work
involving erosion, transportation and deposition, (ii) removal of irregularities such as elevations (like
hills and highlands) and depressions (like lakes and seas) leading to the development of plain ground
on the earth's surface and (iii) their origin on the surface.
The earth was formed nearly 4500 million years ago. Except for a relatively short period in the
beginning, the exogenous group of geological agents have been in existence and busily engaged in
their work of erasing the irregularities on the earth's surface. When we become aware of the magnitude
of work these agents are capable of doing and the enormous time lapsed, we are at a loss to know
how it is possible for the lofty mountains like Himalayas and deep oceans to still exist. Had there
been no other factors responsible, naturally, all these irregularities should have disappeared long back
and the earth's surface would have been plain. Thus, it is self-evident that there are some other natural
forces responsible for the occurrence of topographical irregularities. These forces are the "endogenous
geological agents".
2.1.2 Endogenous Geological Agents

The nature, origin and functions of endogenous geological agents are in principle opposite to those
of exogenous geological agents. The latter originate below the earth's surface, work suddenly and create
topographic irregularities.
Volcanoes, earthquakes, ground water and tectonic forces are typical examples of the group of
endogenous geological agents. Their action not only obliterates the results of exogenous geological
agents but also creates great topographic heights and depths. Volcanoes are generally hill-like structures
with truncated tops. They undergo periodical eruptions and out of accumulations of resulting lavaflows and ash, volcanic mountains develop. Volcanic activity is responsible for the occurrence of lofty
volcanicmountains like 'the Cotopaxi in Ecuador ( 19,500'), Chimbarazo (20,500'), Aconcagua in Chile
(23,000'), Etna in Sicily (>10,000") and Fujiyama of Japan. In this context, it is a matter of interest
to know that some oceanic volcanoes near the Hawaiian islands in the Pacific Ocean rise from 16.000'
below the sea level and attain a height of 14,000' above the sea level, i.e., their total height is over
30,000', greater than that of the highest mountain (Mt. Everest = 29,142') of the world. Likewise.
earthquakes, which are often associated with geological faulting phenomena, result in steep fault scarps
or ridges or highlands. Faults and folds of geological strata occur due to tactonic forces which are
internal and inherent in the earth. They are combinedly responsible for all great mountain ranges
(including Alpine-Himalayas) of the world. Ground water is responsible for the occurrence of "Karst
topography," known for its rugged surface and irregularities.
Thus, the different natural forces of the earth can be grouped into two categories, i.e., exogenous
and endogenous. Since they are inherent in the earth and permanent in existence, their effects too are
always present and thus, make the earth's surface a scene of constant dynamic changes.
2.1.3 Degradation, Aggradation and Gradation

It has already been stated that in the process of elimination of the topographic irregularities, the different
exogenous geological agents transport the surplus material after erosion to the places of deposition.
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14
The continuous removal of material from hills, mountains or highlands reduces their height bit by bit
and ultimately their topographic level becomes equal to their surroundings. This phenomenon of
lowering the elevation or altitude of high-lands may be described as degradation. The exogenous
geological agents dump their load in places favourable for deposition. For obvious reasons these are
the low lying tracts, basins, lakes, seas, etc., which are topographic depressions. Due to continuous
deposition, these are gradually filled up, thereby decreasing their depths slowly bit by bit. Finally, their
topographic level becomes equal to their surroundings. This phenomenon of the rising of the sea or
lake bottom or their depth reducing may be described as aggradation. Due to degradation (i.e., lowering
of highlands) and aggradation (i.e., concomitant elevation of lowlands) processes, the topographic
elevations and depressions disappear, leading to the development of plain ground or land masses of
a very gentle slope. This is called gradation. Thus, for gradation to occur, degradation should take
place first. But degradation is not a simple process of removal of matter from hills and mountains,
because they are made up of huge rock masses which are not directly amenable to transport by the
natural forces.
Then how does degradation occur in nature? It happens because of "erosion". Erosion is a process
of breakdown of rocks into smaller and smaller pieces and their subsequent removal from their places
of original occurrence. That is, erosion reduces the sizes of rocks to such an extent that they are easily
transported by the exogenous geological agents. Now the question that arises is: how are the tough
and hard rocks of giant size subjected to natural breakdown in the hills? What are the factors
responsible? These rocks are reduced in size due to physical, chemical and biological factors of nature.
They may act together or independently. When physical factors influence, the rocks are just
mechanically broken down. When chemical factors influence, the rocks are decayed, decomposed and
weakened. When biological factors influence, the rocks are disintegrated as well as decomposed. This
disintegration and decomposition process which is instrumental in the breakdown or reduction of size
of rocks is called "weathering". Thus, weathering is the root cause for gradation. As already mentioned
the physical, chemical and biological factors responsible for weathering are the different manifestations
of nature. This, in turn, is related directly or indirectly to weather, climate or atmospheric agencies.
2.2 WEATHERING OF ROCKS
The deteriorating effect of weather, climate or atmospheric agencies on rocks may be described as
weathering of rocks. The different kinds of rocks which are formed under different conditions undergo
. disintegration and decay when exposed to the earth's surface. All kinds of rocks, when affected by
weathering, lose their strength substantially and hence become unsuitable for use either for foundation
purposes or as construction material. Thus, the weathering phenomenon is of special importance from
the civil engineering point of view. Apart from this, weathering of rocks is responsible for the formation
of soils, laterites, some economic mineral deposits, ground water occurrence, etc. Thus, from different
angles the weathering process of rocks assumes importance.
2.2.1 Role of Atmosphere In Weathering
Along with the gravity effect, the atmosphere is. directly or indirectly.responsible.for the weathering
phenomenon. Since the earth is enveloped by atmosphere (air) everywhere, all rocks exposed on the
surface are invariably affected by weathering. The atmosphere is essentially a mixture of various gases
like N2. 02 and C02 and water vapour. Wind is nothing but the moving air. Wind is capable of causing
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General Geology
15
considerable physical disintegration under favourable conditions. The water vapour or moisture content
of the atmosphere is responsible for rainfall and snowfall which cause formation of rivers, glaciers.
seas, etc. These dynamic forces play a major role in causing disintegration and decomposition of rocks.
The atmosphere also transmits heat and (hereby influences effects of temperature changes. The
atmospheric carbon dioxide, oxygen, etc.. cause carbonation, oxidation. reduction, etc., in the mineral
constituents of rocks and thereby decompose the rocks. The inert nitrogen content of the atmosphere,
at times under the influence of lightning and bacteria, changes into chemically potential nitric acid
and aids in the decay of rocks. Further. water, carbon dioxide and oxygen largely determine die animal
and plant life in any place. They are interdependent and contribute together to the biological factors
responsible for the weathering of rocks. Thus various physical, chemical and biological factors which
are responsible for the weathering of rocks are themselves related directly or indirectly to the
atmosphere. Hence the role of the atmosphere in the weathering of rocks is unique.
2.2.2 Weathering, Erosion and Denudation

These three natural processes are closely interrelated. though they differ from each other. lt is necessary
to have a clear concept of these processes before taking up a detailed discussion on weathering. When
the rocks undergo decay due to various reasons, they are said to have weathered. In other words, the
process of mere chemical decay and mechanical disintegration of rocks is called weathering. Due to
weathering the affected rocks become weak, less cohesive and fractured. Such overlying loose
weathered material is easily dislodged by different natural forces like gravity or blowing wind or
running water or gliding glaciers or dashing waves. This process of removal of weathered material
(involving transport over short distances only) from the place of its formation is called erosion. Erosion
leads to degradation in that region. When erosion takes place (i.e., removal and transport of the
weatbered mantle occurs), fresh underlying surfaces of country rocks are exposed for weathering attack.
This process of exposing fresh country rocks to die surface due to the removal of their overlying
weathered material is called denudation. In any area denudation leads to weathering, weathering leads
to erosion and erosion leads to denudation. Thus these processes are interrelated and go on hand in
hand.
2.2.3 The Weathering Process

As already stated weathering of rocks is due to the processes of mechanical disintegration and chemical
decomposition. This happens due to different physical, chemical and biological factors of nature. Due
to weathering, rocks become smaller. They are reduced in size either when they are physically broken
down or chemically dissolved or leached.
By virtue of the associated kinetic energy, different natural forces like blowing wind, running river
water, gliding glaciers and dashing waves, cause physical breakdown (i.e., disintegration) of rocks.
For the purpose of discussion on weathering all such types may be dealt with under physical factors.
Water is a very powerful decaying agent of rocks. When polluted, it will be still more capable of causing
decay to rocks. Hydration, reduction, oxidation, carbonation, etc .. are also responsible for decomposition
of rocks. All these can be discussed under chemical factors. Finally, animals, plants and man also
contribute to decay and disintegration of rocks. These can be logically dealt with under biological
factors.
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16
2.2.3. J Physical Factors
Out of the two types of weathering, i.e., disintegration and decomposition, the disintegration process
is accomplished in nature by a greater variety of natural agencies like wind, rivers, glaciers, dashing
waves and tides, gravity (waterfalls, landslides, avalanches. meteorites), exfoliation, frost wedging,
frost heaving and miscellaneous.
Wind: Wind is a relatively weak natural force because of the medium, i.e., air. In spite of this it can
cause disintegration or create conditions favourable for weathering. Its action is more pronounced on
sea shores and in desert regions. Wind causes disintegration by means of abrasion (i.e., breakdown
of rocks exposed along the course of the wind) and attrition (i.e., breakdown of particles carried by
the wind itself). Wind abrasion occurs when the loose particles (usually sand) carried by it strike against
the exposed rocks. This action wiJJ be more pronounced when: (i} the blown particles are hard, (ii)
the exposed rocks are soft, and (iii) the velocity of the wind is high. The curious pedestal rocks and
ventifacts of deserts are the evidences of this phenomenon. Wind attrition occurs in two different ways:
(i) during abrasion when sand particles strike the exposed rocks with force, they themselves receive
an equal impact which results in their breakdown and consequent decrease in size, (ii) further, during
transit in the medium of air, the heterogeneous particles do not move uniformly, thereby leading to
mutual collisions. This also leads to the breakdown of particles. A greater velocity and a greater length
of transit favour the attrition process.
Deflation is another phenomenon caused by wind. Deflate means "to blow away". When a powerful
blast of wind blows, it scours all loose weathered material on a surface and carries it along. This rips
off the protective outer cover and lays bare the underlying rocks for weathering attack. Thus this process
of deflation though by itself is not weathering. it creates conditions favourable for weathering.
River: The importance of a river as an exogenous geological agent and its mode of causing erosion
(by abrasion, attrition, hydraulic action and solution) are dealt with in Sec. 2.3.4.1 along with the
influencing factors.
Glaciers: These slow-moving bodies of ice can cause only disintegration. Decomposition of rocks
cannot take place due to the extremely cold environment. The glacial erosion or disintegration of rocks
takes place due to abrasion, quarrying (or plucking) and frost wedging.
During its downward movement a glacier comes across rocks of various sizes on its way and entraps
them in its body of ice at the bottom. As the glacier moves further, these entrenched rock bodies deeply
scratch the floor and sides of the valley, causing effective abrasion. During abrasion, the rocks under
transport are themselves worn out, causing attrition. When glaciers traverse irregnlar and fractured
terrain, quarrying or plucking takes place. In this process moving glacial ice first develops a firm hold
over the fractured rock mass and then by virtue of the puJJ generated by its motion, the ice tears or
uproots the rock mass from its place and carries it along. Thus block after block of fractured ground
is dislodged and carried. Thus weathering is carried out by glaciers.
The frost wedging phenomenon is more connected with climatic- changes than with glaciers.
Therefore, it is explained separately.
Dashing waves and tides of the sea: Coastal erosion is the consequence of dashing tides and waves
of the sea. The wind, when it blows over shallow parts of the sea, creates waves. The marine erosion
is both by means of mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition. Such wear and tear is done
by hydraulic action! abrasion, attrition and corrosion. Broadly, river erosion and marine erosion
resemble each other.
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General Geology
11
Hydraulic action: Among different kinds of marine erosion this is the most powerful. The waves and
currents of the sea break down the rocks along the coast by their forceful impact. The effect is so
severe that even the hard rocks are shattered. The presence of joints and fractures greatly helps this
process. The water thrust into these cracks under high pressure separates the rock masses and removes
them from their places,
Abrasion: The sea waves armed with rock fragments cause abrasion of coastal rocks. The sharp
fragments cause a powerful impact and also scouring effects.
Attrition: Since abrasion is always accompanied by attrition, here too, attrition is the consequence of
abrasion.
Corrosion: This is the solvent action of sea water which is specially strong in those places where the
coastal rocks are vulnerable to the chemical action of sea water.
From the civil engineering point of view beach erosion is very important. Erosion and deposition
of solid materials by the action of water are continuous processes along a shoreline. Shore engineering
' the sequence and the rate of these destructive and building up processes and the design
is the studyof
and use of technical measures to counteract these processes. It is necessary to keep the shore in a
condition favourable for navigation and for the stability of the adjacent land and the structures built
on it.
Gravity: The earth's gravitational attraction imparts enormous energy to falling bodies. When such
bodies ultimately strike the ground. the rocks there are smashed into pieces. Thus waterfalls, landslides,
avalanches or meteorites gain greater and greater momentum during their fall and cause extensive
breakdown of rocks on the ground. Thus gravity contributes to mechanical disintegration of rocks.
Further, along steep slopes loose weathered material rolls down due to gravity effect and thereby
exposes underlying fresh rocks for weathering attack. Landslides, which are similar, also occur due
to gravity along steep slopes and are of greater magnitude and are more destructive.
Exfoliation: Exfoliation is a type of mechanical disintegration of rocks that takes place due to frequent
intense temperature changes. ln some deserts extreme hot and cold conditions prevail during day and
night times respectively. (Example: In Kara-Qum desert daytime temperatures shoot up to 70-80C
and at night fall drop to -10C.) Such conditions lead to disintegration of rocks by reducing their
internal cohesion as follows: during daytime when the scorching rays of the sun fall on the surface
of a huge boulder, the surface becomes hot and expands. Since rocks are bad conductors of heat surface
heat is transmitted slowly to the core of the boulder. It takes time to reach the centre. Meanwhile, the
outer part of the boulder expands, while the interior remains unchanged in volume. In other words,
the boulder as a whole is not heated up uniformly and at different parts different temperatures prevail
leading to non-uniform expansion of the boulder. With nightfall, cold winds blow over the surface
of the boulder, cooling it and causing contraction. But at this stage expansion in the interior of the
boulder will be going on due to accumulated heat. Thus contraction at the surface and expansion in
the interior will take place simultaneously, Because of this, internal cohesion or binding force of the
rock decreases. When this process is repeated a number of times, the surface layers get detached from
the main central mass and peel off as thin shells. These shells further break down i.n due course of
time because, even within the shell, the constituent minerals due to differences in chemical composition
undergo different degrees of expansion or contraction which result in breaking of the shell into smaller
pieces. This process is appropriately called "exfoliation" (exepre-existing and folio=layers or sheets)
because a number of layers are detached one after another from the original main boulder, with the
passage of time,
18
Teubook of Engineering Geology
The exfoliation process commences with the smoothening of sharp edges and comers, giving
spheroidal shapes to boulders. Therefore, it is also called "spheroidal weathering". Very commonly
huge granite boulders exhibit this appearance along hills and mountains.
Similar exfoliation may also result from the expansion of deep-seated igneous rocks. Granite, a
plutonic igneous rock is formed under a pressure of 25,000 pounds/inch/ or 172.5 MN/m2. But when
exposed on the surface it experiences only l 00 kN/m2 or 14 pounds/inch2. This great reduction of
pressure results in expansion and fracturing of rock. (Alfred Livingston, Jr.)
Frost wedging and frost heaving: These are processes of mechanical disintegration of rocks which
occur at high altitudes (near mountain tops) or high latitudes (near polar regions). Near the snowline
(snowline is the lowest level up to which permanent ice exists) during daytime the snow melts into
water and during the nights the water freezes into ice. This happens due to change in day and night
temperatures. In such areas during daytime water percolates and fills the existing cracks and fractures
in rocks. During the nights due to fall in temperature such trapped water freezes into ice. Then due
to the consequent increase in volume (i.e., I/10th) tremendous pressure (equal to 140 kg/cm2 or 2000
tonnes/tt-) is exerted on the sides of the cracks. When this process is repeated, even hard rocks get
shattered into pieces. This sort of disintegration is called frost action. Since frost acts like a wedge
in this context in widening cracks, it is also called as frost wedging. Due to frost wedging not only
do the existing cracks become widened but also innumerable new cracks (big and small) develop which,
in tum, facilitate further frost' wedging. Ultimately, rocks are reduced to pieces.
Frost heaving is a similar phenomenon which occurs along steep slopes. In such places rocks are
upheaved (uplifted) by the expansion of trapped water below on freezing. The upheaved loose rocks
roll down the slopes due to the gravity effect.
Miscellaneous: The endogenous geological agents also contribute to the physical breakdown of rocks.
These are irregular in their functioning and their action lasts for very brief periods. In spite of thiit;
when they are in action, they carry out large-scale disintegration. Volcanic eruptions and earthquake
occurrences illustrate this phenomenon.
2.2.3.2 Chemical Factors
Such factors refer to the decay or decomposition effect in rocks due to various natural causes. This
is a relatively slow process but very effective in the weathering of rocks. This process weakens the
rocks to the extent of offering no resistance to natural forces to break them down. Here, the size and
shape of bodies may remain nearly the same, but on decay, they completely lose internal cohesion
and are reduced to a powdery mass. For example, a fresh iron rod will be too hard and strong to be
bent or broken. But the same rod, when thrown outside for a long enough period, gets rusted (i.e.,
decomposed) completely. This change in chemical composition turns the strong rod into such a weak
material that a slight effort is enough to break it. Of course the preceding example is with reference
to a metal body. The rocks also respond in a similar way. The granites near Karmanghat area of
Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh are so highly decomposed that they can be powdered easily by hand.
Decomposition is purely a chemical phenomenon which involves change only in chemical composition
of fresh materials, leading to internal weakness. This process by itself may not cause any physical
breakdown, generally. However, thoroughly decayed material spontaneously disintegrates. In addition
to the biological factors, water, atmospheric gases, some minerals of rocks, volatiles of volcanoes, etc.,
also contribute to the chemical decomposition of rocks. A brief discussion of the same is as follows:
General Geology
19
Waler: Water in the form of river, glacier, frost and sea is very active in bringing about the disintegration
of rocks. It plays a leading role in the decomposition of the rocks too. As an agent of decomposition
water acts directly and indirectly in different Ways. It is not an exaggeration if it is stated that without
the presence of water, decomposition is impossible. This is so because compositional changes in solids
cannot (no disappearance of rock material).
Water directly affects rocks by way of dissolution (complete disappearance of rocks), leaching
(making porous, i.e., partial disappearance of rocks), hydration and hydrolysis (no disappearance of
rock material).
Dissolution: This happens in the case of carbonate rocks, particularly limestones. Carbon dioxide of
the atmosphere has the natural tendency to dissolve in water. The extent to which it dissolves depends
on the temperature, pressure and chemical environment. When (river) water which has carbon dioxide
in the dissolved condition traverses a limestone terrain, these rocks are dissolved, resulting in the
reduction of their size. The chemical reaction that explains this phenomenon is as follows:
CaC03
(limestone)
H20 + C02
(water with
dissolved
carbon dioxide)
Ca (HC03)i
(calcium bicarbonate
which is soluble in
water)
Marbles, dolomites, marls and other calcareous rocks are similarly affected.
Leaching: Water, among different liquids, is the most powerful corroding and leaching agent. Only
very few materials are totally unaffected by water. Most of the minerals are decayed and leached due
to prolonged contact with water. Under a tropical climate rocks are thoroughly leached (leaching means
removal of soluble content from the body by water) and made porous. Laterite is a typical example.
Such porous rock is naturally very weak compared to its compact and fresh parent rock and easily
breaks down when attacked by natural forces.
Hydration: This is the most powerful attack which water makes on rocks in bringing about
decomposition. Hydration is the process wherein water or hydroxyl molecules are injected into the
molecular structures of minerals, thereby bringing about the decomposition of these minerals.
This phenomenon is extremely important because it affects more than 80% of the minerals of an
average rock. This is so because feldspars (making 60% of an average rock), ferromagnesium minerals
(i.e., pyroxenes, amphiboles and olivines making nearly 19-20o/o of an average rock) and mica
(particularly biotite which makes up nearly 4% of an average rock) are subjected to hydration.
Feldspars which are the most abundant rock-forming minerals are compositionally aluminum
silicates of potassium, sodium and calcium. Potassium and sodium are extremely active elements and
have the tendency to leave the mineral structure. This takes place because of hydration and, as a
consequence, feldspar minerals are decomposed. Incidentally, some other radicals too may take part
in reactions. This may be illustrated by the following example:
K2Al2036Si02
+
(orthoclase feldspars)
H20 + C02
(hydration)
K2C03 + At20f2Si022H20 + 4Si02

(kaolin)
(sand)
Ultimate products of weathering of feldspars are the different types of clays, which are basically
hydrous aluminium silicates in composition.
Similarly, ferromagnesium minerals also undergo hydration. As a result, anhydrous pyroxenes are
changed over to amphiboles (uralitization). Amphiboles may be altered to biotite which, in turn, may
20
change over to chlorite, etc. Thus, water brings about a series of compositional changes. Further,
olivine, a dominant mineral constituent of ultrabasic rocks like dunite, periodotite and picrite is also
altered to serpentine due to hydration.
All the preceding changes are cases of decomposition which lead to the weakening of rocks. Since
the bulk of an average rock is decayed in this way, hydration is a unique process in bringing about
weathering of rocks.
Hydrolysis: In some cases of decomposition of minerals, instead of the water molecule, only the
hydrogen part of water enters into the mineral structure. This is called hydrolysis. The following is
an example:
KA1Si308
(orthoclase
feldspar)
H+
(hydrogen ion
from water)
HA1Si308
+
(silicic acid-like
structure)
K+
(potassium ion in
solution)
Relation between the Strength of the Rock and Saturation with Water
The mere presence of water in the openings of rocks is capable of reducing their strengths. In some
porous and permeable rocks loss of strength will be as much as 30%. Therefore, dry rocks are stronger
than those saturated with water. This means rocks immersed in water not only lose their inherent
strength but are also affected in various other ways.
Atmospheric gases: Carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen are some atmospheric gases which take part
in the weathering of rocks.
Carbon dioxide: Chemical combination with carbon dioxide is called carbonation. Its importance in
the dissolution of limestone and the production of clay from feldspars has already been referred to.
Indirectly it supports vegetation which produces humus and thereby brings about chemical weathering.
Oxygen: Chemical combination with oxygen is called oxidation. Ferruginous minerals show conspicuous
colour changes due to oxidation. Combination with water and oxygen produces hydroxides of various
elements, which are then leached out. Reduction is another similar process of chemical weathering.
It takes place in the zones where the soil is rich in decaying vegetation. This provides carbonaceous
material which causes the reduction reaction.
Most of the rocks are iron bearing in nature. When such rocks undergo weathering either due. to
oxidation or reduction, specific colour changes are produced. Those rocks in which the iron has been
oxidized to the ferric state show a marked brown colour, in oxides, hydroxides and hydrates. On the
other hand, the presence of ferrous iron is indicated by green, blue and grey shades of ferruginous
rocks.
Nitrogen: The greater part of the atmosphere consists of nitrogen. It gets transformed into nitric acid
in nature due to bacteria and lightning. Nitric acid is a good dissolving and powerful oxidizing agent.
Therefore it is effective in causing weathering.
Pyrite: This is a very common accessory mineral in many rocks. It is very harmful for rocks because
it creates favourable conditions for weathering.
This mineral gets oxidized to iron sulphate with the liberation of sulphuric acid which may
chemically attack the other components of the rock:
2FeS2
pyrite
702 +
oxygen
2H20
water
2FeS04 +
ferrous
sulphate
2H2S04
sulphuric
acid
General Geology 21
Volatiles of volcanoes: When volcanic eruption occurs, solids (pyroclasts), liquid (Java) and gases
(volatiles) are released. The volatiles gush out in large quantities and are composed of many poisonous
gases and vapours of fluorine, hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride, phosphorous, chlorine, sulphur
dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, ammonium chloride, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, boric acid, arsenic
compounds, nitrogen, etc., and steam. Of course, about 90% of volatiles will be steam. Mount Etna
emits 460,000,000 gallons of water as steam from one of its secondary cones. This huge amount of
steam rises upward in the form of clouds and. after cooling, causes heavy showers of rain in the
atmosphere surcharged with the aforestated poisonous gases. This results in the formation of corrosive
liquids which decompose the rocks.
2.2.3.3 Biological Factors
Plants, animals, man and even bacteria help in disintegration and decomposition of rocks.
Trees and plants: The developing roots of growing trees and plants, sometimes, penetrate into the
cracks, widen them and ultimately the rocks disintegrate.
Animals: Some animals make burrows underground and help in the weathering of rocks. The major
contribution towards weathering from animals and plants is that when they die their soft parts decay
and decompose, releasing toxic products which are highly potent in causing decomposition of rocks,
particularly reduction.
Bacteria: Some bacteria also take part in the decomposition of rocks. These help in decay of organic
material and produce humic, carbonic and other acids.
Man: Man ranks top in the list of various factors responsible for forced unnatural weathering of rocks.
He is all powerful and to satisfy his various requirements he undertakes large-scale construction of
buildings, dams, bridges, roads, etc. For all these, enormous quantities of construction material are
needed which he gets by quarrying. This results in the rapid disappearance of hills and mountains.
To suit him, when required, man undertakes tunnelling too which means' large-scale blasting of rocks.
Further, to feed minerals into his industries and factories he resorts to extensive mining - open cast
and underground - which again means breakdown of rocks. Thus, man in a unique way causes the
disintegration of rocks.
Mutual Effects of Disintegration and Decomposition
Though disintegration (i.e., physical breaking) and decomposition (i.e., chemical decay) represent
altogether two different types, they aid each other and accelerate the weathering process. This happens
as follows:
1. If an unfractured, compact boulder occurs in a stream, only its surface portion is chemically
attacked by stream water. But if the boulder is fractured (i.e., disintegrated) the water enters inside
through the cracks and chemically attacks the interior too in addition to surface attack. Thus
disintegration aids the decomposition process. 2. Similarly, if a fresh unaltered boulder (which will
be hard and strong) occurs in a stream, it offers a lot of resistance (or may remain immune) to
breakdown, i.e., disintegration. But if the boulder is thoroughly weathered, it will be very weak
internally and therefore easily yields to the dashing stream water and crumbles to pieces. Thus,
decomposition aids the disintegration process.
Copyrighted m2tennl
22
Relation between Weathering and Mineral Formation
There exists some interesting relationship between the order of formation of rock-forming minerals
and their susceptibility to the weathering process. N.L. Bowen has revealed the following order of
miners!
ation during the solidification of magma:
COOLING MAGMA
Cale pjagioctaee
Olivine
""
Pyroxene
Cale-alkali plagloclaee
Amphibole
Alkalioalc plagioclaee
-,
Bio me
Alkali plagioctaee
<;
Potash feldspars
Musoovite
~
Quartz
Olivine, one of the earliest minerals to be formed, is extremely susceptible to weathering. lt easily
changes to serpentine. Pyroxenes and amphiboles which are ferromagnesium minerals are also easily
susceptible to decay, but not as readily as olivine. In contrast to this tendency, muscovite, one of the
last minerals to be formed, is very resistant to decomposition. Quartz, which is the last mineral to'have
formed during magma solidification, is extremely resistant to weathering. Therefore it survives not
only l'ong distances of transport but also for very long periods. Very often it appears as a fresh mineral.
Products of Weathering
Under temperate climate, weathering of rocks results directly in soil formation. But under tropical
climate weathering, porous concretionary laterites are first formed due to intense leaching action. Such
laterites on disintegration produce soil. Thus, the ultimate product of weathering is soil. Soils are
mixtures of different clay minerals, which are essentially hydrous aluminium silicates with cation
variations. Compositionally montmorillonite, kaolinite, illite, chlorite, glauconite, quartz, iron oxides,
calcareous and carbonaceous matter mainly make up clays of different kinds. Composition of parent
rocks, climatic conditions responsible for weathering and organic content give rise to different types
of soils. Regolith is the term given to the surface layer of a weathered mass. The finely broken upper
layer of regolith, well aerated and mixed with decayed organic matter, is soil. In general, the vertical
section of a weathered ground presents a top layer of loose soil, a middle layer of fractured rock, akin
to underlying rock and bedrock at the bottom. Bedrock is the in situ rock of massive and compact
nature which is unaffected by weathering. This means, generally, intensity of weathering is confined
only to nearer the surface.. Of course, clear demarcation of these three layers is commonly not possible,
since they grade one to another imperceptibly.
Copynqhted -natenat
General Geology
Recognition of Weathered Minerals or Rocks
23
.r
Weathered. i.e., decomposed minerals or rocks can be easily distinguished in hand specimens from
their originals with the help of the following clues:
I. Weathered minerals exhibit leached out appearance, i.e., change in colour intensity or altogether
a different colour.
2. They will be less compact; therefore, their specific gravity will be less.
3. Their hardness will decrease, i.e., they become softer and weaker. A weathered mineral is easily
scratched by its fresh counterpart but not vice versa.
4. They become less transparent or tend to become opaque.
5. They lose their natural original shine and fresh appearance, i.e., they exhibit a dull lustre.
6. Weathered minerals or rocks lose internal cohesion; therefore, they are easily powdered.
7. Weathered rocks usually develop brown, red and yellow colours on the surface.
Importance of Weathering
Some useful effects of weathering are:
I.
2.
Weathering produces soil which is vital for agriculture and for the production of different crops.
Weathering makes rocks porous and permeable. This is very important from ground. water
occurrence point of view in the case of hard rocks like granites and gneisses. These acquire acquifer
characteristics because of weathering. Of course, the presence of joints, faults, shear zones in them
also contributes to this phenomenon.
3. Cheap building stones like laterites develop due to weathering.
4. Economic mineral deposits like bauxites are formed due to weathering.
5. Oxidation and supergene enrichment are important phenomena in the formation of some ore
deposits, particularly sulphides.
6. Occurrence of a few economically important placer deposits too is indirectly related to weathering.
However, from the civil engineering point of view, weathering is not a welcome process, because
it reduces the strength, durability and good appearance of rocks.
l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Therefore, all thoroughly weathered rocks, irrespective of their original competence, become unfit
to be at the site of foundation of important civil structures like dams and bridges. To make such
sites fit, either intensive grouting or digging the weathered zone and refilling with concrete are
resorted to. These increase the cost.
Since weathered rocks lose characters of strength, durability and good appearance, they also
become unfit to be used as construction material, either in the form of building stones, or railway
ballast or road metal or concrete aggregate.
Weathering due to sea waves results in coastal erosion, which poses a difficult problem for civil
engineers.
Weathered rocks being weak are unsuitable for tunnelling.
Enormous loose soils (formed out of weathering) along steep slopes may tum out to be landslides,
a civd engineering hazard.
Occurrence of a thoroughly weathered zone in the upstream side creates silting problems in case
of reservoirs. Rapid silting reduces the capacity of the reservoir; in other words, the life of the
reservoir. Thus, weathering poses many problems for civil engineers.
<" pynghted ma nal
24
2.2.4 Summary of Weathering of Rocks

Under the influence of the various agents of denudation, the minerals and rocks of the earth's crust
tend to break down into finer and finer particles and also partly tend to go into solution. The breaking
down is accomplished by the processes of decomposition and disintegration. In decomposition when
minerals of the rocks are acted upon by air and water, chemical changes take place; the soluble products
are carried away by water; and the chemically inert residue is left in place. During disintegration, the
rocks are broken down without chemical changes by temperature, frost, water or air. The resulting
product of these changes is the mantle of broken and decomposed material of varying composition
and thickness, called the regolith, which covers the whole surface of the earth except in.areas in which
it is removed as fast as it is formed. The regolith may remain in the same place for a long period or
may be quickly transported by natural forces to find its ultimate resting place in the sea.
The processes of disintegration and decomposition usually occur together, but one process is
generally dominating. Decomposition is more active in moist, warm, low lying areas; and disintegration
occurs mainly in the drier, higher and colder regions of the earth's surface. The total effect of
decomposition and disintegration is known as the weathering process.
Natural Disintegration Process in Rocks

In mountains, desert regions and snow-covered areas, the process of decomposition is generally less
and disintegration is the main type of breaking down of the rocks. In polar and mountainous regions
chemical change in minerals is retarded by the prevailing cold conditions. In deserts, the solutions,
because of heat and great concentration, may exert a powerful effect on the rocks; but as the solutions
are generally in a small amount, their effects are entirely overshadowed by those due to mechanical
disintegration.
In rocks the disintegration may result due to a variety of causes. The great diurnal variations of
temperature in desert and mountainous regions cause strains to be set up in the surface layers of rocks,
by which fragments are scaled off. The rocks may be split into numerous thin pieces by this action.
The freezing of water in cracks may break rocks into angular fragments, and much of the weathering
in high mountains takes place in this way. The abrasive action of sand carried by wind or water causes
the disintegration of rocks in deserts, or in the channels of rapidly flowing streams. Glaciers may pluck
and tear boulders from their beds; and by their slow movement grind the material they carry against
the sides and floors of the valleys, with the formation of sand and mud. Many streams which are formed
from glaciers are heavily loaded with material derived from this action. The pounding of sea waves
may result in high disintegrating action, as is noticed in extensive coastal erosion.
Organic agents often have a significant mechanical effect upon rocks. The roots of developing
plants open the fissures in rocks in their search for moisture and nourishment; burrowing animals tum
over the soil and suboil; and man himself, by tilling the ground, (and causing deforestation), tunnelling,
quarrying, mining and in numerous other ways, helps disintegration of rocks.
.
The disintegration process usually occurs under conditions which preclude chemical activity upon
the rocks. Consequently, the products of disintegration are frequently quite fresh or comparatively
unaltered rock fragments. On the other hand, disintegration, by breaking up the rocks into smaller
fragments, helps in exposing a greater surface to the agents of decomposition.
Decomposition of Rocks
The main factors of decomposition are water and air. When rain falls through the atmosphere it dissolves
a certain proportion of the carbon dioxide, oxygen and other gases. This oxygenated and carbonated
Copyright~ m
rial
General Geology
25
water is particularly active in attacking the minerals. It is strengthened by ground water, which has
already attacked the rocks. and is therefore poorer in oxygen and carbon dioxide. but richer in dissolved
substances which may exert a very active influence in further attack upon the rock constituents. It may
be rich in acid sulphates derived from the solution of pyrites, in organic acids from vegetable decay
and alkaline carbonates, all of which increase its chemical potency in affecting the rocks.
Important processes of decomposition are solution, oxidation, hydration and carbonation. Most
of the minerals are reacted upon to some extent by water, particularly when it contains the
abovementioned substances. Some, however, are much more susceptible than others; and minerals may
thus be divided into those which are relatively resistant. such as quartz, muscovite and zircon and those
which are altered with comparative ease, such as feldspars and most of the ferromagnesium minerals.
Oxidation involves the alteration of minerals with the production of oxides. It is particularly more active
with iron-bearing minerals forming the iron ox.ides hematite and limonite, which are the chief colouring
matter in rocks and produce the red, brown and yellow colours that are so common on weathered
surfaces. The process of hydration alters minerals into substances rich in combined water. Due to
hydration magnesium-bearing minerals such as olivine are altered into serpentine and talc; biotite and
other ferromagnesium minerals are altered to chlorite, and feldspars are decomposed to hydrous
aluminium silicates (clay minerals) and free silica. In carbonation the minerals are altered with the
formation of carbonates. Many minerals are liable to this mode of decomposition, but this is more
effective in the case of those minerals which contain the alkali metals sodium and potassium and also
calcium and magnesium. Subsidiary modes of alteration may produce different sulphates, chlorides,
etc.
In this way, the effect of decomposition is to produce certain soluble substances such as carbonates,
sulphates and chlorides and to leave behind an insoluble residue consisting of hydrated ox.ides and
silicates, mixed with minerals such as quartz and muscovite which have suffered negligible attack by
the agents of weathering.
2.2.S Response of Granite to Weathering

So far, the weathering phenomenon has been discussed at length from various angles. Yet, by
considering what actually happens when a particular rock undergoes weathering, a clear concept of
weathering can be achieved.
Among different rocks which occur on the earth's surface granite is one of the most abundant.
Therefore, it will be appropriate to critically analyse the process of weathering in granite.
Mineralogically, ordinary granite contains feldspar (orthoclase and plagioclase) and quartz as
essential minerals and muscovite, biotite and hornblende as common accessory minerals. The effect
of weathering mineral-wise is as follows:
At a glance, Table 2.1 shows how the chemical composition undergoes changes during weathering.
Hornblende responds to weathering in a manner similar to biotite, as it is also a ferromagnesium
mineral.
Thus due to decomposition, granite produces different kinds of material, which may be grouped
as follows:
(a) Unaltered minerals: Quartz forms sand grains, and muscovite produces mica flakes.
(b) Insoluble residues: The resulting hydrous aluminium silicates are the fundamental constituents of
clays; iron ox.ides are the colouring matter of rocks.
~opyngh
ma n81
26
(c) Soluble substances: These are the salts formed from substances such as potassium, sodium,
calcium, magnesium, iron and silica.
Table 2.1 Decomposition in granite

S. No.
I.
Mineral
Chemical
Composition
Weathering
Effect
Products of
Weathering
K20
Goes into solution

as carbonate, chloride, etc.
Soluble
material
Al203
6Si02
Hydrated to fonn hydrous

aluminium silicate, with the
liberation of soluble silica
Clay,
soluble
material
3Na20
Goes into solution

as carbonate, chloride, etc.
Soluble
material
cao
Forms carbonate, which

is soluble in water
containing carbon dioxide
Soluble
material'
4A1203
20 Si02
Decomposes as in
orthoclase
Clay
Sand grains
Feldspars
A. Orthoclase
(or microcline)
B. Oligoclase
(plagioclase)
2.
Quartz
Si02
Remains undecomposed
3.
Muscovite
(white mica)
2H20
K20
3Alz03
6Si02
Remains undecomposed
4.
Biotite
(black mica)
H20
K20
Mica flakes
Goes into solution as

carbonate or chloride
Watersoluble
material
2{Mg, Fe)O
Goes into solution as

carbonate or chloride; iron
carbonate oxidizes to hematite
or limonite
Soluble
material and
colouring
material
Al203
Forms hydrous aluminium

silicate and soluble silica
Clay,
soluble material
3Si02
The soluble material enters the rivers and is carried to the sea, contributing to the dissolved salts
of the ocean. Sometimes, where evaporation can take place, these salts may be deposited at ah early
stage in their seaward journey. Soluble silica is usually quickly redeposited as veins in fissures and
as cementing material in rocks. The insoluble products and the unaltered minerals may remain for some
time in the same place, forming part of the regolith, but ultimately they are carried to the rivers and
then to the sea.
With reference to the other common rocks, the decomposition of basic rocks proceeds on the same
general lines as those of granite. But since they are richer in ferromagnesium silicates, they produce
<" pynghted ma nal
General Geology
27
more soluble material and iron oxides and less free silica and clayey matter than granites. Disintegration
may also produce rough angular rubble consisting of any kind of rock, which may form a mantle on
a mountain top, or accumulate by the action of gravity at the foothill regions. These loose accumulations
are called talus or scree. When these angular fragments get lithified due to cementation, sedimentary
rocks known as breccias are formed. Shale, the most common sedimentary rock, which is formed out
of clay, produces back the same material on disintegration. Decomposition is less effective in shales
because clay itself is the product of weathering of earlier rocks, which includes the decomposition
process also. Lo case of limestones, if they are pure, they undergo complete dissolution during
weathering, leaving behind little residue. But if they bear argillaceous, arenaceous or any such insoluble
material, it will be left behind as a residue. An extremely rugged topography known as "karst
topography" is the result of the weathering process in limestone terrain. Terra rossa is the reddish clayey
soil which is formed as residue out of weathering of limestone in arid regions. Nodules of siliceous
chert and flint also may occur in residue when limestones undergo weathering.
2.3 RIVER AS A GEOLOGICAL AGENT
Rivers, glaciers, wind, tides and waves of the sea are the most common exogenous geological agents.
Among them, the river stands as the most effective natural force for the foIJowing reasons:
Rivers: l. Occurrence of small or big rivers with a wide network is characteristic of most of the places
on the earth's surface. It is the result of irregular topography. 2. Their liquid medium (i.e., water) is
the most suitable to carry out erosion. transportation and deposition efficiently. 3. The buoyancy effect
greatly facilitates the transportation of river sediments.
Wind: 1. It is of course all pervading on the earth's surface, but its medium, i.e., air is unsuitable for
performing effective geological work under normal conditions. 2. It is effective only when it blows
fast. uninterrupted and loaded with suitable particles, i.e., its effect is virtuaIJy limited to deserts and
shore regions.
Glacier: It is certainly a strong natural force by virtue of its considerable thickness and mass but its
slow movement, restricted occurrence (to polar regions and mountain peaks) and solid medium of ice
make it less important as a geological agent.
Tides and waves of the sea: They are highly energetic and like other exogenous geological agents act
relentlessly, causing a lot of erosion along the coasts. But their action is confined only to coastal regions.
Thus the preceding points on comparison ultimately bring out the fact that rivers are the most
extensive and efficient among exogenous geological agents.
Bearing of River Development 011 Its Geological Work
In case of the river. its geological action is closely interlinked with. its development. Therefore, a brief
prior knowledge of river development ls necessary to appreciate its geological work.
2.3.1 Development of the River
Invariably, rivers originate in mountains because mountains, by virtue of their higher altitude, cold
climate and good vegetation, cause good rainfall in the rainy season. This rainfall is the primary source
for the water of rivers. The annual precipitation is 30,000 cubic miles, i.e., equivalent to 4,000.000,000
tons. No doubt, some of the rivers like Ganga, Indus, Brahmaputra are also fed by melting snow of
glaciers, particularly during hot summer periods. ln still other cases (effluent rivers), ground water
(' pynghted ma nal
28
also feeds some rivers through springs and seepages. Though rare, contribution of juvenile water to
rivers is also a fact. Thus the rivers draw their water through rainfall, melting of snow, springs and
seepages, etc. But, as mentioned earlier, rainfall is the chief source of river water. Nearly 9000 cubic
miles of water flows into the sea as runoff every year.
The development of a river has four stages, (i) initial stage (ii) youth stage, (iii) mature stage and
(iv) old stage. The general sketch (Fig. 2.2) of the longitudinal profile of a river shows these stages .
.,
i
iij
;e
.5
'-&
o.!I
)-
..
~&
.,
s"'
.,
~~
:s!
Hill
Land
(goody sloping)
Sea
Fig. 2.2 Stages of river development
Initial Stage
The rain water flows along hill slopes as a thin sheet and gradually develops into small streams. These
subsequently merge with one another at lesser heights along their course of movement. This stage by
virtue of its highly irregular and steep topography is characterized by the frequent cascades, cataracts
and waterfalls. As these streams are still in a formative stage, the amount of water flowing per unit
time (i.e., discharge) is naturally less. In spite of this, because of the high gradient, the river water
will be running rapidly and therefore is very powerful and energetic. This momentum makes the rivers
to cause extensive erosion.
Youth Stage
At the foothill regions, rivers attain the youth stage. Here, they have crossed the stage of small streams,
and have become tributaries. In this stage also, for obvious reasons, the river is capable of causing
considerable erosion. but a sudden fall in gradient in the foothill region results in limited deposition
in the form of alluvial cones and fans. A peculiar phenomenon which sometimes occurs at this stage
is river piracy. Here, during headward erosion a river may capture another river under certain conditions
and force its water to flow along with its own, rendering the remaining part of the other river dry.
Mature Stage
At this stage, the river has grown fully with the merger of tributaries and has descended to the plain
ground and is flowing sluggishly. The river gradient is gentle, may be one in twenty or thirty. Because
of this the speed is slow though discharge is more. Whatever energy the river has at this stage is mainly
utilized for transporting the sediments (i.e., load) which have resulted due to erosion work in initial
and youth stages. So, it has no substantial energy left over to cause any meaningful erosion. Further,
any formidable obstacle in its path will be capable of diverting it and causing local deposition of
sediments. This phenomenon is responsible for the characteristic occurrence of meanders (Fig. 2.7)
Copynqhted -natenat
General Geology
29
(i.e., the serpentine or zig-zag course of the river) and, placer deposits in this stage. Generally, a state
of balanced condition or equilibrium is reached at this stage for the river in terms of erosion and
deposition. Hence there will not be much erosion or deposition either. If considerable erosion occurs,
concomitant deposition also takes place, or vice versa. However, it may be generalized that in the mature
stage, erosion is less and deposition relatively more.
Old Stage
This is the last stage of the river and commences when the river approaches its destination, i.e., the
sea or a lake. Here it will be flowing over nearly plain ground with gently sloping valley sides. So,
it is shallow and broad. It moves very slowly with a heavy load. Its energy is nearly exhausted. Under
such conditions, deposition of sediments begins. U this occurs once, it continues because the deposited
material in one way acts as an obstacle and promotes further deposition. Ultimately, the deposit grows
to the extent of splitting the river. Such splits occur more and more near the sea. These channels through
which the river merges with the sea are known as distributaries. These deposits which are characteristic
of the old stage are usually triangular in plan and are called deltas, due to the resemblance with the
shape of the Greek letter, delta (ti.). This delraic region is called the mouth of the river.
Conclusion
The aforementioned four-stage development is common for most rivers. The merger of different
tributaries in the earlier stages and the split-up into different distributari.es in the old stage gives a
characteristic "dendritic" (tree-like) appearance to the river in plan (Fig. 2.3). Ganga, Indus, Godavari,
Krishna, Cauvery, and Pennar are typical examples.
But Tapti and Narmada rivers deviate from this trend
in not having deltas and having straight courses. This
unusual feature is because they follow the valleys which
were not carved out by them. They have occupied trenches
formed due to faulting.
~
ln terms of geological work it may be broadly said that
the initial stage of the river is associated with active erosion
and no deposition. In the youth stage there will be more
erosion and less deposition. ln the mature stage there will
c: .,
be more deposition and less erosion. In the old stage, only
0.,,
~ c
deposition occurs without erosion. From the civil engineering i: c: .E
point of view, the importance of this aspect is as follows:
- .!l
To make darn construction economical, the bedrock which ~ 0.
+
....
takes up the load should be near the surface or at a shallow
depth, so that foundation work will not involve much

excavation of loose overburden and refilling it with reinforced
concrete. Thus foundation cost is directly related to the
depth of occurrence of bedrock from the surface. In the
initial stage, by virtue of its active erosion the river keeps
the bedrock exposed by removing (eroding) all loose
overburden. In contrast to this, in the mature and old stages,
the bedrocks are likely to occur at a greater depth. Therefore
they involve more expenditure for foundation.
+
"'
~
s~
::J .,
.0.,,
c
- -c:
.!I
0
Fig. 2.3 Dendritic appearance of a river
Lopynghted m2tennl
30
But the final selection of a dam site is made based on many factors like erosive power, topography,
river discharge, lithology and geological structure.
2.3.2 Valley Development
A valley is the course followed by the river. In general it is the product of river erosion itself.
As the river develops, its valley also develops, i.e., it becomes longer, deeper and wider. In the
initial and youth stages, the river performs downward and lateral cutting of the original plain ground.
This leads io the formation of typical V-shaped valleys with steep sides. Subsequently, only the lateral
cutting continues while vertical downward cutting ceases, after some limit is reached. This limit which
coincides generally with the water table level is called base level of erosion. Due to continued lateral
erosion, i.e., widening, the river valley becomes increasingly broader and shallower. Thus the cross
(transverse) section of a river valley is usually as shown in Fig. 2.4 (a) at different stages of
development.
Valley
Surface
- - - - - - - --::-:-:~~,,.,-~
- ----- -Water table
Water
table
Fig. 2.4 (a) Transverse profile of a

developing river valley
Fig. 2.4 (b) Longitudinal profile of a river
As faras valley lengthening is concerned, it takes place due to "headward erosion". Near the place
of its formation, a river is very erosive in nature and therefore its place of origin is pushed to increasingly
higher levels. In this process, as already mentioned, river piracy may sometimes occur. Bhagirathi a
tributary of river Ganga, and the Arun river, a tributary of Kosi river, are the Indian examples of river
capture (river piracy).
In ~;ire cases, valley deepening is accompanied by gradual upheaval of the ground. This leads to
the formation of very deep and narrow river valleys called "gorges". The Indus river passes through
such a deep gorge (more than 17,000' depth) near Gilgit. A canyon is also a valley similar to a gorge
but of a still larger magnitude. The Grand Canyon of Colarado river is a typical example of this kind.
It is nearly 1800 metres deep, 9000 metres wide and 300 kilometres long.
2.3.3 Rivers of India
The rivers of India show some peculiarities. Therefore,it is relevant to know some of their important
features. Based on their development and geological work done, Indian rivers can be grouped into
two categories as Peninsular rivers and Himalayan rivers.
Peninsular Rivers
A common feature of these rivers is that many of them have reached the old stage and have wide,
flat valleys in which they meander slowly. Thus they aregenerally inactive, but when heavy rainfall
occurs they become full and floods result, i.e., they become suddenly active and cause a lot of damage.
Lopynghted m2tennl
General Geology
31
The second common feature is their flow towards the east. All important rivers like Mahanadi,
Godavari, Krishna, Pennar and Cauvery flow eastward and merge with the Bay of Bengal. This clearly
indicates that the peninsula has an eastern downward slope. AU these peninsular rivers have extensive
deltaic deposits. They also have a dendritic pattern of development because of their tributaries and
distributaries.
Remarkable exceptions to this general trend are the western flowing Narmada and Tapti rivers.
These two rivers are nearly parallel, straight and without any delta development. They run along
Vindhyan and Satpura mountains. This is explained to be due to the fact that they are following the
valleys not carved out by them but flow along trenches formed out of faulting. The lack of deltaic
development is because they discharge their sediments into the Arabian Sea in a turbulent condition,
which is unsuitable for delta formation.
Himalayan Rivers
These differ very much from peninsular rivers. Their peculiarities are: antecedent drainage, transverse
gorges, headward erosion and perennial nature. Further they are young and highly energetic, carrying
out active erosion.
Ancient Himalayan rivers, by virtue of their active erosion, continue to maintain their courses
despite the gradual and repeated upheaval of Himalayan mountains. This is known as antecedent
drainage. The transverse gorges are the deep cuts made across the chains of Himalayan mountains
by these rivers. The Indus gorge near Gilgit is a typical example. For these rivers, the headward erosion
is greatly facilitated by steep slopes and great heights of the Himalayas and their occurrence as parallel
ranges. The rivers under topographic restraints flow in different directions and subsequently, due to
headward erosion, are involved in river piracy in some cases. Peninsular rivers are totally rainfed.
Therefore, during summers, they may dry up or flow with negligible discharge. In contrast to this the
Himalayan rivers are not only perennial but also always flow with huge discharges. The reason is that
they have the advantage of both good rainfall due to lofty mountains in rainy seasons and substantial
contributions of glacier melt water in summers.
2.3.4 Geological Work of Rivers

Being an exogenous geological agent, a river carries out its work in a methodical way. Generally, it
is a slow process, but a steady one. Geological work of a river can be subdivided into three stages,
namely: river erosion, river transport and river deposition.
2.3.4.1 River Erosion
Erosion as referred to earlier means mechanical disintegration or chemical decomposition of rocks and
their subsequent displacement. A river is a very powerful eroding agent and carries out this work in
different ways such as hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition and solution (corrosion). Of these, only the
last one involves chemical decay of rocks, while the remaining processes involve mechanical
disintegration.
Hydraulic action: In this process the inherent kinetic energy of running river water only takes part
in causing the physical breakdown of rocks. Naturally, the greater the momentum, the greater will the
erosion be. In the initial and youth stages, rivers which move faster along steep slopes acquire
considerable kinetic energy. When such river water dashes against the rocks forcefully, it will break
them down mechanically. Of course this will be more effective if (i) the rocks have already weathered
Copynqhted -natenat
32
considerably, (ii) they are porous or not well cemented, (iii) they have easily soluble cementing material
and (iv) they possess fractures, cracks, or any other weak planes.
Such factors aid erosion because: (1) If the rock had already weathered it will have less internal
cohesion and therefore will be weak. Naturally, weak rocks, when bombarded with forceful water, will
crumble down without much resistance. (2) The elastic sedimentary rocks, if not properly cemented,
wiJI not only be porous but also have a weak binding force. Therefore, such rocks also yield easily
to the erosive force of fast moving river water. (3) The sedimentary rocks which might have formed
out of calcareous (CaC03) cementing material also disintegrate easily because the surface waters being
in contact with C02 of the atmosphere, dissolve it and such COi-bearing water, in tum, dissolves the
CaC03 cementing material. This loosens and weakens the rock paving the way for disintegration by
running water. (4) The rocks, if they have openings like cracks and fractures, will break down quickly
because when river water suddenly gushes into the wide cracks (aided by the trapped air) it shatters
the rocks leading to the physical breakdown. Strata dipping downstream side also undergo quicker
erosion for obvious reasons.
The hydraulic action of rivers, as already stated, is due to the inherent kinetic energy of river water.
The velocity of the river, in tum, is the source of this kinetic energy. The river velocity or momentum
is controlled by different factors like (i) surface gradient, (ii) form of the river and (iii) rate of discharge
(i.e .. volume of flowing water).
I.
The river gradient directly influences the velocity; if the gradient is more, the velocity will also
be more. When the velocity is doubled, the erosive power of the river water increases four times.
2. The form of a river also influences the velocity: a river flows faster in a deep, narrow valley than
in a shallow, broad valley. This is so because, in the latter case, the flow encounters greater friction
from the ground. Therefore, erosion will be more pronounced in a deep and narrow river.
3. The influence of the volume of a river water on its velocity is also considerable. The velocity
increases with the volume. When a river has eight times larger volume, it will flow with a velocity.
doubly quicker. This is the reason why rivers become destructive during floods. Further, rivers
which undergo considerable variations in velocity and volume cause more erosion than those which
are uniform.
Hydraulic action is not a quick process, unless all the preceding factors coincide. As this is a slow
process its result can be expected only after a prolonged period.
A peculiar feature associated with hydraulic action is "cavitation". When the river flows with a
high velocity, say, 12 to 14 metres per second (along cascades) the water develops a sucking action.
This is so because the water pressure in such places equals its vapour pressure,. changing the liquid
into vapour and vice versa. The formation of such vapour or development of negative pressures will
result in the occurrence of depressions, holes, etc., in the rock mass. The bedrocks in river, just
downstream of a cascade or waterfall, will experience this cavitation phenomenon which contributes
to quicker erosion.
It is necessary to remember that the hydraulic action causes mechanical disintegration of rocks
by mere physical, energy associated exclusively with river water and does not involve any effect of
sediments carried by the river.
Abrasion: This is a more effective process of river erosion. It may be described as the physical
breakdown of rock masses which are exposed along the sides and the bottom of the.river valley by
the force of colliding sediments which are being transported by the river (i.e., load). The river along
General Geology
33
its course transports a large quantity of sediments of various sizes and types such as cobbles, pebbles,
gravels, sand, silt, clay and organic materials. By virtue of their movement they possess energy and
hence momentum. During transport these hit the exposed rocks relentlessly, leading to their breakdown.
The preceding process is mainly influenced by (i) the nature of transported sediments, (ii) the nature
of exposed rocks, (iii) the velocity of river water, (iv) the attitude of rocks exposed, (v) presence of
joints in rocks, (vi) time factor, etc. If the dashing sediments are larger, harder, angular and fresh (i.e.,
unweathered) their impact will be very effective and erosion will be considerable. If the exposed rocks
are softer. weaker and weathered, the abrasion will be more effective. If the velocity of river water
is more, naturally, the abrasion will be more because the impact will be more powerful. Regarding
the bearing of attitude of rocks on erosion, the abrasion will be more if they are dipping downstream
along the river course. If they are dipping upstream erosion will be less. The presence of joints, cracks,
etc., will facilitate the abrasion process. Time is also a main factor in terms of the amount of abrasion
because if the length of time is more, erosion is naturally more.
The abrasion action is observed in a spectacular way in potholes. The potholes are the cylindrical
holes noticed in river beds. They are formed when the rock fragments (load) of the river are caught
in eddies. Then they revolve with great force round and round, moving downwards and scouring the
river bed. The potholes continue to grow as long as the eddies are powerful.
Attrition: Like abrasion this is also a mechanical weathering process. But here the erosion is with
reference to transported sediments themselves. This is the result of the abrasion phenomenon mainly.
because when the rock fragments hit the exposed rocks, not only the country rocks are affected but
also an equal effect is borne by the fragments. Thus, the rock fragments during abrasion undergo wear
and tear which is called attrition. The influencing factors are nearly similar to those of the abrasion
phenomenon.
Attrition also occurs during the transportation of sediments. When heterogeneous sediments are
under transport, heavier and larger materials move slowly, while the finer and lighter materials move
fast. This differential movement results in mutual collisions, which occur again and again. The outcome
is attrition. Larger pebbles and small rocks, generally roll down along the valley floor, smoothening
their edges. Thus, when attrition takes place first the angular edges disappear and the spherical,
spheroidal and ellipsoidal stones are formed after a long journey. Huge spherical boulders displayed
at the Nagarjunasagar dam site are very interesting examples of this kind of erosion.
Solution: This process involves only chemical decay of rocks and no mechanical wear and tear.
This is an invisible process and very effective under favourable conditions. Among liquids, water is
the most powerful solvent. Hence it dissolves many kinds of materials. When river water passes through
different areas over different rocks its chemical potential increases with time. (It is also true that running
water purifies itself by means of oxidation.) Further, such water by virtue of its continued contact
gradually acts on the components of rocks. Depending upon their nature, some minerals are
immediately affected, while others are slowly affected. Virtually, there are no minerals which are totally
unaffected. Even quartz, the most resistant mineral is affected by alkaline solutions. Humid and
temperate climates promote attack by this corrosion process.
The most susceptible to the aforementioned kind of erosion are carbonate rocks, particularly
limestones (see Sec. 2.2.3.2). The sandstones having CaC03 cementing material are also naturally
affected for a similar reason. In such cases when CaC03 cementing material is dissolved the binding
medium disappears leaving the sand grains, etc., separated from one another. Marls, calcareous shales,
dolomitic rocks, etc., are some others attacked in this way. The pitted characters 'e>f the quartzites
occurring at Srisailam dam site are very good examples of chemical attack of this kind.
~opyngh
ma n81
34
Solution process will be more effective when (i) river water has chemically more potential, (ii)
time of contact between solutions and rocks is more, and (iii) the country rocks are calcareous or when
the rocks have calcareous cementing material, The temperature and pressure also influence this process.
Thus the river causes erosion in different ways and with different intensities under different
prevailing conditions.
2.3.4.2 River Transport
As referred to earlier, rivers are very powerful transporting geological agents. A river transports its
materials (i.e., load) physically as well as in a solution form. A typical example is the transport work
carried out by the Mississippi river. This river transports over four hundred million tons of material
per year, of which more than a quarter is in solution form, and nine-tenths of the rest is in suspension.
The hydraulic action, abrasion, and attrition contribute mainly to the physical load. Wind, glaciers
and other agencies also contribute such material to the river occasionally. Apart from this visible load,
considerable amount is also transported in the invisible dissolved state. The Himalayan rivers, i.e.,
Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, each carry nearly one million tons of silt every day.
Logically, the load transported by a river can be grouped into three types, i.e., bed load, suspended
load and dissolved load.
Bed load: The bed load comprises heavier particles of sand, pebbles, gravels, etc., which are transported
mainly by their rolling, skipping, bouncing or gliding along the bottom of the stream. The slope of
the valley floor also aids this movement to some extent. Naturally, this kind of movement of load
material is discontinuous and slow. Depending upon the strength of the river it is carried in stages.
When the strength is less, this load is dropped and when active it is lifted and carried further for some
distance. This mode of transport of heavier and larger material in a series of jumps is called "saltation".
Suspended load: This consists of silt, clay, fine sands, etc. Such load is carried by the river in its body
of water in suspension. As the river water moves, the load is also carried along with it. Thus, this
load is transported continuously without break till conditions are favourable for their deposition.
Though this material is heavier than water it remains in suspension due to the turbulence of the flowing
water. ln this way this suspended load is carried for longer distances than the coarser and heavier
material in a given unit of time.. This type of natural separation of sediments according to their size
and density is called sorting. Among different natural forces, wind is more efficient in sorting, while
glaciers are very poor.
Dissolved load: This comprises all soluble matter. This load becomes part and parcel of water and
is not separate. lt is transported in a solution condition. The extent of material transported in this way
by rivers is quite large and has been quantitatively stated earlier in the case of the Mississippi river.
This dissolved load is complex in nature, though usually salts are transported this way. They are
transported generally till the end, i.e., they are passed on to sea water. Sometimes, however, they
undergo deposition or rather precipitation under favourable conditions of reaction or due to other
reasons such as loss of C02 from river water. If carbon dioxide, which is instrumental in dissolving
of limestones, escapes due to changes in temperature-pressure conditions, the calcium carbonate
content will get precipitated.
Influencing factors of river transport: The ability to transport sediments is influenced by river velocity,
nature of river current, density and size of sediments, etc.
I.
Velocity of the river is its primary source of energy which enables it not only to carry out erosion
but also to do transport work. The transporting ability ofthe river abnormally increases when the
<" pynghted ma nal
General Geology 35
2.
3.
velocity increases. It is found that, in the case of coarser sediments, when the velocity is doubled
its transporting power increases 64 times.
It is also found that a turbulent river has relatively more transporting ability than a river which
flows with a uniform current of water.
The sediments with a higher density have a higher tendency to settle down, whereas the lighter
sediments have a tendency to keep floating and are therefore transported over longer distances.
Irrespective of their densities and sizes, all substances apparently lose some of their weight during
transport under water. This phenomenon is called the "buoyancy" effect. This apparent loss of
weight is more with sediments of lesser densities than those which have higher densities. Thus
all sediments will be relatively lighter in water and this reduces the burden on river energy, which,
in tum, increases the transporting capacity of the river. If the river water has dissolved salts, it
will have more buoyancy effect. This will add further to the efficiency of the transporting action
of the river.
2.3.4.3 River Deposition

This is the last phase of geological work of any exogenous geological agent. This process causes
aggradation which is just opposite to the process of erosion, wherein land mass undergoes degradation.
The surface of the earth has been the scene of these perennial changes for ages.
The occurrence of deposition is in a way opposite to erosion, i.e., erosion takes place when the
geological agent gains energy, but deposition takes place whenever the geological agent loses energy.
In the case of a river, erosion of the river, as explained earlier, is due to its velocity, discharge,
etc. Therefore, it is very easy to link up, logically, the phenomenon of river deposition to the factors
contributing to its loss of energy either temporary or otherwise. Among the different kinds of river
deposits (i) alluvial cones and fans, (ii) placer deposits, (iii) delta deposits and (iv) natural levees are
very common. A few details about these are as follows:
Alluvial cones and fans: In the youth stage, the river suddenly loses its energy partially because in
the foothill regions it emerges out of the mountainous (steep slope) area and enters into a relatively
Sloping side
of hill
Foothill region
Alluvial cone
or
Alluvial fan
Fig. 2.5 Alluvial cones and fans (I)
Fig. 2.6 Alluvial cones and fans (II)
<" pynghted ma nal
36
plain ground. This transition involves loss of gradient which is responsible for loss of its velocity and
consequently its energy. Therefore, this automatically leads to some deposition of river sediments at
the foothills along its valley. These deposits are called alluvial cones and fans (Figs. 2.5 and 2.6). River
sediment is known as alluvium. If the deposit is spread over a small area but has a relatively steep
slope, it is called an alluvial cone. On the other hand, if the deposit is spread over a large area and
has a gentle slope, it is called an alluvial fan.
Thus alluvial cones and fans result due to the loss of energy of the river and they characteristically
occur at foothill regions.
Placer deposits: These river deposits are characteristic of the mature stage. In this stage, the river is
generally in balanced equilibrium condition, i.e., its energy is just enough to transport its load. Under
such conditions if the river encounters any
formidable obstacle or impediment, it shall not
have the capacity to uproot it and therefore it
E
takes a diversion and continues its downward
E = Erosion along
course. In this process, i.e., before taking the
the outer curve
diversion the river dashes against the obstacle,
fails to uproot it and consequently loses part of
0 = Deposition along
the inner curve
its energy in the futile attempt. This is responsible
(placer deposit)
for the formation of deposits known as placer
0
deposits. By virtue of its relatively weak condition
E
the river compulsorily undergoes a number of
curves or bends which makes its path zig-zag:
These bends are called meanders, and the
phenomenon is known as meandering.
Fig. 2.7 Meandering river and placer deposits
Meandering is therefore a characteristic feature
of the mature stage. In due course of time these
bends become more and more acute due to
deposition of sediments along the inner curve and
erosion along the outer curve (Fig. 2.7). Ultimately
under favourable conditions such as floods these
loops are cut off from the main course of the
river. Such cut-off bodies of water which are
curved in plan are called cut-off lakes or horseshoe lakes or ox-bow lakes (Fig. 2.8).
The formation of placer deposits near
@
meanders takes place.when river is not too weak
to dump all its load there. Hence, in such a
context it deposits only such material which it
finds difficult to carry further; i.e., only heavier
and coarser material undergoes .deposition. Thus
placer deposits are characteristically composed
of heavier material which is usually valuable.
Gold, platinum, cassiterite, chromite, magnetite,
Fig. 2.8 Meanderdeveloping into an ox-bow lake rutile, ilmenite, and monazite are some common
<D
Copyright~ m
rial
General Geology
37
economic minerals which are heavy and tend to occur as placer deposits. The Rand placer deposit
of South Africa is famous for the occurrence of large nuggets of gold.
Delta deposits: Delta deposits are characteristic of the old stage of the river. The occurrence of these
deposits is due to the exhaustion of the river energy which is spent by then in transporting the load
over a long distance. Most of the rivers reach this stage just before they merge with the sea, their ultimate
destination. Some rivers have well-developed deltas. The favourable conditions for the formation of
delta are: (i) the river should have large amount of load; (ii) the river should have totally exhausted
its energy (as indicated by its very sluggish movement) at the time of its merger with the sea (or else
it carries the sediments far inside the sea); (iii) the ocean at the mouth of the river should not be
turbulent, otherwise as and when loose sediments are deposited, they are washed away by the waves
and currents of the sea. Rivers Ganga and Brahmaputra have built up one of the best deltaic regions
of the world. Deltas are very fertile and are very valuable for agriculture.
During delta formation, the prevailing conditions will be such that the river will be very shallow,
and will change its direction and velocity frequently. Under such conditions deltas develop a typical
structure known as cross-bedding. The delta will have gently inclined bottom layers of fine sediments
known as bottornset beds (Fig. 2.9). These are overlain by steeply inclined middle layers of coarser
sediments, known as forest beds.
Landi
Delta
Sea
---------------'"
Top set beds
Fore set beds
Bottom set beds
Fig. 2.9 Delta structure showing cross-bedding
Above these, again, gently dipping layers of the mixture of finer and coarser sediments occur. They
are known as topset beds. Though all these three sets of beds are inclined towards the sea, they differ
in the amount of inclination and hence they are not parallel. Such a peculiar bedding phenomenon
is known as cross-bedding.
Natural levees: These are somewhat scattered or discontinuous deposits which occur after a flood
throughout the course of the river. When floods occur the volume of the river water (i.e .. discharge)
suddenly increases manifold which, in tum, makes its energy shoot up. Because of this energy the
river carries out erosion on a very large scale and contributes a lot of load to the river for onward
transport, Floods are very temporary and when they subside in a few days, the river comes back to
its normal stage in which it is totally incapable of transporting the abnormal load added to it during
a flood. So it dumps a good amount of the load along its course on either side which are known as
natural levees. These levees occur generally as ridge-like deposits of silt and clay along the borders
of the flooded rivers.
Copyrightx:I -na nal
38
2.3.S Importance of Civil Engineering

Knowledge of river development and their geological work is necessary for civil engineers to tame
'
and use the river advantageously for (i) irrigation, (ii) producing hydroelectricity,
(iii) controlling
floods, (iv) industrial purposes, (v) drinking water, (vi) navigation, (vii) fish production, (viii) drought
control, (ix) soil conservation and so on. Dams, reservoirs and bridges are the important civil
engineering works connected with rivers. Buried river channels pose some problems in dam
construction. Effluent and influent river conditions are very relevant in reservoir location. Buried glacier
boulders may pose problems in bridge foundation work. Knowledge of the drainage system of a region
helps in planning methods to control the flow of river, i.e., river training. Narrow river valleys,
occurrence of competent rocks near the surface or at shallow depths along the course of the river and
absence of adverse geological structures are some requirements in the selection of a darn site. Similarly,
occurrence of leakproof rock types in the reservoir basin, an effluent river condition, a suitable
geological structure, occurrence of fresh rock types on the upstream side are the requirements in the
location of reservoirs. Knowledge of rivers will provide all pertinent details in such cases. Some of
these aspects are dealt with in greater detail in later chapters.
3
MINERALOGY
Introduction; 3.1 Definition of a Mineral; 3.1.1 Exceptions for Definition of Mineral; 3.2 Definition
of a Crystal; 3.2.1 Characteristics of Crystals; 3.3 Mode of Formationof Minerals; 3.4 Common Rock
forming Minerals and Their Abundance; 3.4. I Civil Engineering Importance of Rock-forming
Minerals; 3.5 Different Methods of Study of Minerals; 3.5.J Relative Advantages and Disadvantages
of Different Methods of Study; 3.6 Significance of Different Physical Properties in Mineral
Identification; 3.6. l Form; 3.6.2 Colour; 3.6.3 Streak; 3.6.4 Lustre; 3.6.5 Fracture; 3.6.6 Cleavage;
3.6.7 Hardness; 3.6.8 Specific Gravity (Density); 3.6.9 Degree of Transparency; 3.6.10 Special
Properties: 3.7 Diagnostic or Distinguishing Physical Properties.

I.
2.
3.
4.
To
To
To
To
explain the relative abundance of rock-forming minerals on the earth's crust.

explain the importance of rock-forming minerals from the civil engineering point of view:
give the concept of mineral and crystal.
highlight the advantage of the study of physical properties in mineral identification.
INTRODUCTION
Nature comprises animals, plants (organic) and minerals (inorganic). Both animals and plants depend
directly or indirectly on minerals for their survival. Human society, in turn, depends heavily on animals
and plants. Further, valuable metals and materials are also obtained from minerals. Thus minerals are
uniquely important for the human race.
3.1 DEFINITION OF A MINERAL

A mineral may be defined as a natural, inorganic, homogeneous, solid substance having a definite
chemical composition and regular atomic structure. (Under favourable conditions the regular internal
atomic structure of minerals results in the development of definite external geometrical shapes, i.e.,
crystal form.) This means all materials around us cannot be described as minerals. To call any substance
a mineral. the requirements to be fulfilled are:
Copynqhted -natenat
40
I.
It must have been formed by natural processes; i.e., artificial or synthetic or man-made substances
are not eligible to be called minerals.
It must be an inorganic substance, i.e., substances of wood or any other organic material cannot
be called minerals.
It must be homogeneous, i.e., all parts of the minerals should possess the same physical and
chemical characters.
It must be solid, i.e., gaseous, liquid or semisolid substances are not minerals.
It must have a definite chemical composition, i.e., a particular kind of mineral always has the same
chemical composition irrespective of its size, shape, origin, occurrence, association, etc.
It must be crystalline, i.e., it should possess an orderly atomic structure. Just as the composition
is characteristic of a particular mineral, so is the atomic structure, i.e., chemical composition and
atomic structure are specific for every mineral. No two minerals can possess the same chemical
composition and atomic structure.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
3.1.1 Exceptions for Definition of Mineral

Some substances which are traditionally or generally treated as minerals do not concur with one or
another aspect of the definition. However, most of the minerals recognized satisfy the requirements
of the given mineral definition. A few exceptions to the mineral definition are as follows:
1. Precious gemstones like diamonds, rubies, sapphires and emeralds are synthetically produced under
controlled laboratory conditions. They resemble their natural counterparts in all, respects and are
treated as minerals.
2. Coal, amber, petroleum, natural gas, etc., are typical organic substances which are considered
minerals.
3. Amethyst, smoky quartz, citrine, cat's eye, aventurine quartz are some varieties of quartz. Colour
or appearance peculiarity in them is because they possess some impurities or inclusions or
inhomogeneities. Bauxite, coal, etc., are not homogeneous. Kyanite mineral usually exhibits blue
colours of different intensities. Fluorite also is a common mineral, which shows different shades
of colours in different parts. Thus, kyanite and fluorite are two typical minerals which do not show
uniform colour which is an indication of some kind of inhomogeneity.
_
4. Asphalt, copalite, petroleum, mercury and natural gas are semisolids, liquids or gases. Though
these are called minerals, they are not solid substances.
5. A good number of minerals are now found to be members of isomorphic groups. Isomorphic
minerals do not have a definite chemical composition, but have a definite range of composition,
For example, plagioclase feldspars have a composition which can be referred partly to anorthite
and partly to albite, i.e., their composition will be somewhere between the compositions of these
two end members. Important rock-forming minerals like garnets, olivines, some pyroxenes and
amphiboles exhibit this character.
On the other band, minerals like opal, bauxite, psilomelane, limonite, pitch blende, petroleum
and natural gas have typically varying. compositions.
6. Some minerals like flint, chert, jasper and agate are cryptocrystalline, i.e., they do not have a weUdeveloped crystal structure. A few others like op~. bauxite, psilomelane, wad, pitch blende and
gamierite are typically amorphous, i.e., they do not possess any regular internal atomic structure.
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41
3.2 DEFINITION OF A CRYSTAL

A crystal may be defined as a natural solid body bounded by smooth and plain surfaces. arranged in
an orderly (i.e., geometrical) pattern which is an outward expression of a regular, internal atomic
structure.
Occurrence of complete and independent crystals is rare in nature. However, most of the solid
substances possess a crystalline character though an outward crystal shape is missing. Good crystals
develop only under favourable conditions such as:
I. Slow cooling (i.e., slow crystallization).
2. Free surroundings to facilitate the crystal growth in different directions.
3. Inherent capacity of certain minerals to develop into good crystals (as in the case of garnets,
pyrite, magnetite, etc.).
4. Non-interference by the adjacent growing minerals during solidification.
All substances (solids, liquids and gases) consist of atoms or molecules. In case of solids only,
they will be in fixed positions. Based on whether these occur in any definite pattern or occur in a
haphazard or disorderly manner, the solid substances are described as crystalline and amorphous
substances, respectively.
In nature more than 99% of minerals are crystalline and only very few are amorphous in the real
sense. It is so because a disorderly arrangement of atoms or molecules represents an unstable condition.
In nature an unstable state is temporary and a stable state has to be attained sooner or later. In case
of amorphous minerals also the unstable state of molecules gradually gives place to an orderly stable
state. That is, crystalline matter develops from amorphous matter. This natural process of transformation
of amorphous material to crystalline material is caJJed "devitrification". This is the reason why ancient
volcanic glasses are non-existent today. During devitrification the crystalline condition is attained
slowly in different stages. With an increasing order of crystallinity these stages are represented by:
amorphous material
globulites
margarites
longulites
trichites
scopulites
_ _,. microlites. Microlites are crystalline minerals with definite properties enabling identification of
the minerals.
3.2.1 Characteristics of Crystals

The following are some of the details relating to crystals and minerals:
1. Faces: The crystals are bounded by flat surfaces which are known as faces.
2. Edge: The line of intersection formed by any two adjacent faces in a crystal is called an edge.
3. Solid angle: The points of intersection formed by three or more adjacent faces in a crystal are
called solid angles.
4.
5.
Distortion: In spite of perfect internal atomic arrangement, sometimes crystals develop faces of
different sizes and shapes. This kind of geometrical irregularity in the shape of crystals is caJJed
"distortion". Distortion may be due to some restraint on the growth of the crystal in certain
directions or to a greater supply of material being available in one direction as compared with
another.
lnterfacial angle: In crystallography, interfacial angle is the angle formed in between the normals
of adjacent crystal faces. This is important because both in distorted and proper crystals of the
same type, adjacent crystal faces show the same interfacial angles irrespective of the size or shape
42
of the concerned faces. This is the indication of regularity of the internal atomic structure and
is measured by a goniometer.
Solid angle
Fig. 3.1 Parts of crystal
,,
- - -,, ...,
a, 'I
'/
Regular
Distorted
hexagonal prism
hexagonal prism
(With same interfacial angle 0)
Fig. 3.3 Simple form/Combination

(a1, a2, a3 =crystallographic axes)
Fig 3.2 Distortion

6. Simple form and combination: If a crystal is bounded by all similar or like faces it is called a
simple form. If a crystal is bounded by dissimilar or unlike faces it is called a combination (i.e.,
combination of different simple forms).
7. Crystallographic axes: These are the imaginary lines (or directions) which intersect at the centre
(or origin) of the crystal. The growth or development of the crystal is considered to take place
along these axes. Based on the number of such axes, their relative lengths, their interchangeability
and their mutual angles, the crystals developed are grouped into six crystal systems. This means
any crystalline mineral should belong to one or the other of these six crystal systems only.
8. Crystal systems: The six possible crystal systems are cubic system, tetragonal system, hexagonal
system, orthorhombic system, monoclinic system and triclinic system.
9. Symmetry: The faces, edges and solid angles in crystals occur with some regularity or orderliness.
This is known as "symmetry". In the study of crystals this symmetry, in a simpler way, is expressed
in terms of planes of symmetry, axes of symmetry and centre of symmetry. Depending on the degree
of perfectness of the internal atomic structure these three elements of symmetry differ in different
kinds of minerals. The six crystal systems of minerals are further subdivided into 32 crystal classes
based on these symmetry elements only.
Under each system, the class which has the highest degree of symmetry as permitted by that system
is called the "normal class" of that system, and is named after a common mineral which crystallizes
in that class. Table 3.3 gives a number of crystal classes under each system, the name of the normal
class of that system and its symmetry elements.
Mineralogy
43
Table 3.1 Crystal systems and their normal classes
s.
Crystal System
Number
of Crystal
Classes
No.
3.
4.
5.
Cubic system
Tetragonal system
Hexagonal system
Orthorhombic system
Monoclinic system
6.
Triclinic system
I.
2.
Five
Seven
Twelve
Three
Name of normal class along with symmetry elements:

Centre of
Planes of
Axes of
Symmetry
Symmetry
Symmetry
Three
Galena type .. .
Zircon type ...
Beryl type
...
Barytes type ...
Gypsum type ...
9
5
7
3
...
...
...
...
611, 4111, 31V = 13
I ...
30
111
Two
Axinite types ... nil ...
nil
411
J IV
611,' l VI
=5
=7
=3
= 1
Present
Present
'Present
Present
Present
Present
10. Nature of crystallinity in minerals: Among the different crystal systems, the highest order of
symmetry (i.e., the best possible perfect atomic arrangement) occurs in the cubic system and the
lowest order of symmetry occurs in the triclinic system. In the decreasing order of symmetry, the
different crystal systems may be listed as follows: cubic system, tetragonal system, hexagonal
system, orthorhombic system, monoclinic system and triclinic system. ln nature, the frequency of
occurrence of minerals is in the opposite order. That is, the most common and largest number of
minerals crystallize in the triclinic system and the least number of minerals belong to the cubic
system. For example, common and abundant minerals like feldspars, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas
and epidotes crystallize in triclinic and monoclinic systems. On the other hand, less common
minerals like diamond, garnets, galena, pyrite, tetrahedrite, gold, magnetite, zircon and rutile
crystallize in cubic and tetragonal systems.
3.3 MODE OF FORMATION OF MINERALS

Basically there are three kinds of formation of minerals in nature. They are formed from magma or
out of secondary processes or under metamorphism.
Most of the minerals are formed directly or indirectly out of magma during different stages of
its solidification. Important and bulk of rock-forming minerals such as feldspar, quartz, pyroxenes,
amphiboles, micas, feldspathoids and olivine are formed in this way. Some precious minerals and ore
minerals like gemstones, garnets, topaz, magnetite, native metals, beryl, apatite, muscovite, fluorspar,
lead-zinc ores and tourmaline also are formed from magmatic sources.
In nature, some minerals are formed from secondary processes like weathering, precipitation (due
to reaction or evaporation) and deposition. Minerals like calcite, dolomite, bauxite, limonite, wad,
serpentine, salts, coal, petroleum, chlorite, phosphates, bog-iron ore, clays, agate, opal and zeolites
are examples of this group.

Another important mode of formation of minerals is out of metamorphism. These minerals are
formed under the influence of high temperatures and pressures with or without the active involvement
of chemically active solutions. Andalusite, sillirnanite, kyanite, staurolite, garnets, chlorite, graphite,
talc, cordierite, etc., are examples of this group.
However, there are some minerals which are formed by different modes. For example: chlorite,
talc and biotite are formed both due to alteration (i.e., weathering) and metamorphism. Similarly, some
garnets are primary (i.e., formed out of magma) minerals and some are products of metamorphism .
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3.4 COMMON ROCK-FORMING MINERALS AND THEIR ABUNDANCE

Based on their nature and economic importance, all minerals are grouped into "rock-forming minerals"
(e.g., feldspars, quartz, mafic minerals, biotite mica) and "economic minerals". Some economic
minerals serve as sources for extraction of valuable metals and others become useful by virtue of their
physical properties. Based on this, economic minerals are further grouped as metallic minerals (e.g.,
hematite, galena, chromite, etc.) and non-metallic minerals (e.g., asbestos, graphite, magnesite, etc.)
Of these different groups, rock-forming minerals are very abundant in the .earth's crust. More than
1600 mineral species are known at present. But most of these are very rare and hence of academic
interest only. According to an estimate 99.9% of the earth's crust is composed of 20-25 rock-forming
minerals only. Economic minerals are therefore very scarce. The reason for such occurrence is that
the elements that enter into the formation of minerals are derived from the rocks of the outer crust
or from magma.
Tables 3.2 and 3.3 show the approximate chemical composition in terms of elements and also the
mineral composition of the earth's outer crust.
Table 3.2 Chemical composition of the earth's crust
Element
Percentage
I. Oxygen
2. Silicon
3. Aluminium
4. lron
5. Calcium
6. Sodium
7. Potassium
8. Magnesium
9. Titanium
10. Hydrogen
11. Phosphorus
12. Carbon
13. Rest
46.71
27.69
8.07
5.05
3.65
2.1:1
2.58
2.08
0.62
0.14
0.13
0.0094
0.5206
100.00
Table 3.3 Average mineral composition of rocks

According to an estimate the average mineral composition of igneous rocks (which make up the
bulk of the earth's crust) is as follows:
I.
2.
3.
Feldspars
Pyroxenes and
amphiboles
Quartz
59.5%
16.8%
12.0%
4. Biotite
5. Titanium minerals
6. Apatite
7 .. Accessory minerals
3.8%
1.5%
0.6%
5.8%
The preceding tables reveal many interesting features. Some of them are:
I.
'I
Only nine out of the more than hundred known elements, account for 99,25% of the earth's crust;
rock-forming minerals which are very abundant are mainly formed out of these nine elements.
Mineralogy
45
2.
Oxygen and silicon together constitute 74.4% - therefore, rock-forming minerals are mainly
silicates (98% of rock-forming minerals are silicates only).
3. AU precious and useful elements such as platinum, gold, silver, copper, manganese, lead, zinc,
chromium, nickel and dozens of other elements together represent only 0.436% this explains why
economic minerals are scarce.
3.4.1 Civil Engineering Importance of Rock-Forming Minerals
Undoubtedly, among different minerals, economic minerals by, virtue of their utility and inherent value,
are very important and evoke interest. However, from the civil engineering point of view, they are
not relevant and, on the contrary, knowledge of rock-forming minerals is very much necessary because:
(i) The civil engineers need to know the properties of rocks precisely to enable them to consider
different rocks for any required purpose, i.e., as foundation rocks, as road metal, as concrete aggregate,
as building stones, as flooring or roofing material, as decorative material, etc. AU properties of rocks
are, in tum, dependent on the properties of their constituent minerals. Thus properties of civil
engineering importance such as strength, durability and appearance of rocks can be assessed only with
the knowledge of the minerals that form rocks (i.e., rock-forming minerals). (ii) The economic minerals,
since they are scarce, do not influence the properties of rocks and are hence irrelevant from the civil
engineering point of view. But, if they happen to occur in large quantities, their economic value will
not permit them to be used either as construction materials or as foundation sites.
Accordingly this chapter lays stress on details of rock-forming minerals.
3.5 DIFFERENT METHODS OF STUDY OF MINERALS
According to the definition, every mineral has its own chemical composition and atomic structure.
This combination of chemical composition and atomic structure is unique for every mineral. This fact
facilitates the study of minerals in different ways. Common methods of study and identification of
minerals are based on (i) their physical properties, (ii) their chemical composition, (iii) their optical
properties and (iv) their x-ray analysis.
Study of Physical Properties
Physical properties of minerals like colour, shine (lustre), resistance to scratching (hardness), density,
fissility (cleavage, a tendency of some minerals to break in certain preferred directions), etc., can be
studied with mere observation and feeling of small mineral specimens. These properties are dependent
on chemical composition and atomic structure, i.e., if atomic structure and chemical composition remain
the same, the resulting physical properties also should be similar. Since every mineral invariably
possesses its own specific chemical composition and atomic structure, every mineral should possess
its own set of physical properties. This principle is the basis for the study of minerals by rneans of
physical properties. For example, any galena mineral irrespective of its place of occurrence, size, shape,
association, consistently exhibits lead grey colour, bright metallic shine, opaque character, high density,
tendency to break easily along three different directions and is scratched easily by a knife but not by
a fingernail. This set of physical properties is never exhibited by any other mineral. Therefore, if such
properties are observed in any unknown mineral it must be only galena and no other mineral.
From the civil engineering point of view it is very important to know more about these physical
properties by studying different minerals practically.
More details of different physical properties and their importance in identification of minerals are
given in later pages of this chapter.
Lopynghted m2tennl
46
Study of Chemical Composition

According to the definition, every mineral (except in cases of polymorphism, which is explained under
Sec. 4.2) is expected to have its own distinctive chemical composition, which is not to be found in
any other mineral. Therefore, by chemical analysis, if the composition is known it should be possible
to identify the mineral. This principle is the basis for this type of study of minerals. For example, if
the composition of an unknown mineral is found to be lead sulphide (PbS), then that mineral must
be only galena because galena always has the composition of lead sulphide and no other mineral has
this composition.
Study of Optical Properties
In this method of study, the minerals are ground very fine (standard thickness is 0.03 mm) and fixed
over glass slides by means of Canada balsam. Such skilfully prepared slides are called thin sections.
They are studied under a petrological microscope (which has the distinction of having two polarizers
one above and the other below the microscope stage, where this section is held under clips). Different
optical properties are studied under polarized light and under crossed nicols. The properties of minerals
like colour, relief, cleavage, shape and pleochroisrn, are studied under polarized light. Interference
colours, their order, interference figures, optic sign, twinning, extinction, alteration, etc., are studied
under crossed nicols, with the help of some other accessories, if necessary.
The principle which makes this method useful for study and identification of minerals is that: when
polarized light passes through thin sections of mineral it is influenced in a characteristic way depending
on the chemical composition and atomic structure of the mineral. Since every mineral has its own
specific chemical composition and atomic structure, the optical properties of every mineral are also
distinctive and hence helpful in the identification of the mineral. For example, the set of optical
properties distinctive of quartz (which are not found as a whole in any other mineral) are: anhedral
shape, clear, colourless, no cleavage, transparent, low relief, non-pleochroic, grey or yellow interference
colours of the first order, positive uniaxial interference figure, positive elongation, straight extinction,
no alteration, etc.
x-ray Analysis
x-ray analysis makes use of the definite atomic structure, found in every mineral. x-rays are similar
to light waves but have a much shorter wavelength, comparable to the distances between atoms in
a crystalline mineral. When a beam of x-rays falls on a crystal (i.e., crystalline mineral), it is diffracted
by the layers of atoms within the crystal (just as ordinary light waves are diffracted by an optical
grating). ln making an x-ray analysis of the atomic structure of the crystal, the diffracted x-rays are
allowed to fall on a photographic plate, and the resulting photograph shows a series of spots or lines
which form more or less symmetrical pattern. From measurements made on the photograph, the
arrangement of the atoms in the crystal can be deduced and also the distances between them. In short,
results of x-ray analysis of minerals reveal their actual atomic structures, which is distinctive for each
mineral. This enables the accurate identification of minerals.
3.5.1 Relative Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Methods of Study

Among the different methods of study made in the identification of a mineral, definitely x-ray analysis
is the best, because it is accurate and there is no scope for wrong identification. But the disadvantage
is that for such a study many facilities, a lot of infrastructure, costly equipment and accessories are
Copynqhted -natenat
Mineralogy
47
necessary. Therefore, unless detailed investigations are necessary, it is normally ruled out as a method
of routine study.
Next in the order, from the point of view of correct identification of minerals, is study by optical
properties. Apart from what has been said earlier under that method, the other constraints are: (i) opaque
minerals (usually ore minerals) are not amenable for study under ordinary petrological microscopes;
special reflective ore microscopes are needed for their study, (ii) amorphous minerals, by virtue of
their irregular or random atomic arrangement, cannot be identified by optical methods, (iii) cost
involved in procuring the required equipment and (iv) the necessity, which is not very much when
the study of physical properties is enough to meet the requirements.
Next comes the method of chemical analysis: this is fairly good in giving correct identification
of minerals, but the constraints are: (i) prevailing polymorphism phenomenon in nature (polymorphism
is a phenomenon whereby different minerals possessing different physical properties occur despite
having the same chemical composition; for example, Al2Si05 is the composition of different minerals
like andalusite, sillimanite and kyanite; other such examples are not rare) makes it impossible to identify
the mineral exclusively based on chemical analysis, (ii) cost of equipment, reagents and facilities
required is more. Therefore, it is not suitable for routine study:
Lastly, coming to the method of study of minerals by physical properties, it is the most suitable
for the following reasons:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The unique advantage is that it makes possible the study of minerals or rocks in the field itself
It does not require any equipment worth mentioning.
It does not involve the use of chemicals and it does not need additional facilities.
It involves no loss or wastage of material (as it happens in the case of other methods). This enables
the mineral to be studied, any number of times.
5. It is the quickest method of identifying the minerals, because with the help of previous knowledge
it requires very little time for identification. But in other methods immediate inference is not
possible for obvious reasons.
6. It is the cheapest, simplest and least tedious (unlike the other methods of study) method for
identification of minerals, i.e., money, energy and time are spent to the minimum extent.
However, the disadvantages in this method are:
1. In some cases even slight variation in chemical composition (due to the presence of trace elements)
results in considerable change in colour.
2. Weathering, the universal phenomenon, alters many physical properties significantly and makes
identification difficult. Therefore only fresh minerals are easily identified in this way.
3. Further, some minerals when formed under different conditions show slight variations in physical
properties.
In spite of these limitations, this method of study is fairly satisfactory in identifying the minerals.
Further, in view of the many important advantages listed earlier and also because of the limited number
of commonly occurring minerals, this method is employed for routine purposes of identification of
minerals. Therefore, in the engineering geology laboratory, minerals are identified by this method only.
Even for detailed investigations by other methods, this method is the forerunner. The details of different
physical properties and their importance in mineral identification are now given. The inference of a
mineral should be obtained from the study of different physical properties but not from a single property.
<" pynghted ma nal
48
3.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENT PHYSICAL PROPERTIES IN

MINERAL IDENTIFICATION
3.6.1 Form
This is one of the first observations made when a mineral is examined in a hand specimen. The form
represents the common mode of occurrence of a mineral in nature. It is also called habit or structure
of the mineral. To some extent this is a function of the atomic structure of the mineral. Mode of
formation, cleavage character, etc., of the mineral also contribute to the typical form of a mineral. Since
some minerals consistently exhibit the same form, often it provides a valuable clue for mineral
identification. But due caution should be exercised in arriving at a conclusion based on this property,
because the same mineral may exhibit different forms or different minerals may exhibit the same form.
So this should be treated only as a supporting clue, and the mineral should be identified by considering
other clues also, obtained by different physical properties observed.
The following is the list of some common forms and the minerals (Table 3.4) which characteristically
exhibit them, i.e., the appearance of a particular form is indicative of a certain specific mineral.
Table 3.4 'fypical Corms
or minerals
S. No.
Name of the Form
Description
Mineral Examples
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Lamellar form
Tabular form
Fibrous form
Mineral appears as thin

separable layers
Mineral appears as
slabs of uniform thickness
Mineral appears to be
made up of fine
threads. Fibres may or may
not be separable
Pisolitic
form
made up of small
spherical grains
(pea-size)
Oolitic form
6
7
Rhombic form
Bladed form
Granular form
Similar to pisolitic form but

grains are of still smaller size
(like fish eggs)
Rhombic shape
Mineral appears as cluster or
as independent lath-shaped
(i.e., rectangular} grains
Mineral appears to be made
up of innumerable equidimensional grains of coarse
or medium or fine size
Different varieties
of mica.
Feldspars, gypsum
Parallel fibres:
Asbestos types,
satinspar.
Radiating fibres:
Stibnite, some
zeolites, malachite
goethite, pyrite, pyrolusite
Bauxite
Some limestones
Calcite, dolomite
Kyanite
Chromite, magnetite
pyrite
(contd.}
Copyright~ m
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Mineralogy
S. No.
Name of the Fonn
Description
Mineral Examples
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Reni form
Kidney-shaped. Mineral
appears with number of overlapping smooth and somewhat
large curved surfaces
Hematite
10
Botryoidal
fonn
Similar to reni form bu!

with smaller curved faces
like bunch of grapes
Chalceodony,
psilomelane,
hematite
11
Mamillary
form
Mineral appears with large

mutually interfering spheroidal
surfaces - similar to reni fonn
Malachite
12
Acicular form
made up of thin needles
Natrolite,
actinolite
13
Columnar fonn
Mineral appears as
long slender prism
Tourmaline,
precious topaz
14
Prismatic
form
As elongated,
independent crystals
Staurolite, beryl,
apatite, quartz
15
Spongy form
Porous
Pyrolusite, bauxite
16
Crystal form
Polyhedral, geometrical
shapes
Garnets, some zeolites,

quartz. amethyst.
pyrite, galena
17
lnterpenetrating
twin form
. . . . . . . ..
Staurolite,
18
Massive form
No definite shape
for mineral
Graphite, olivine
quartz, jasper
19\
Concretionary
form
Porous and appears

due to accretion of small
irregularly shaped masses
Laterite
Nodular form
Irregularly shaped
compact bodies with
curved surfaces
Flint, limestone
20
49
fluorite, pyrite, calcite
3.6.2 Colour
This is also one of the first observations made in examining minerals. In some, it is due to composition.
In some others, it is imparted by the presence "of trace elements, inclusions, atomic structural
aberrations, strain effect, etc. Usually, minerals exhibit uniform colour throughout the body. But some
minerals show some peculiarities. Greater consistency in colour is noticed in the case of metallic
minerals. Rock-forming minerals may or may not keep up consistency. Minerals which have a
characteristic and constant colour are called "idiochromatic". Other minerals for which colour is
variable are called "allochromatic".
<" pynghted ma nal
50
In some minerals colour is not related to composition but depends .on the crystal structure and
bond type. For example, diamond and graphite have the same composition but diamond is colourless
and transparent, while graphite is black and opaque.
Though colour is very useful in instant identification of some minerals, in some like quartz and
calcite it will be misleading. Some other minerals exhibitone or two colours, commonly though, other
colours also occur occasionally in them. So enough care is to be taken in giving only due importance
to colour hint in the identification of minerals. The list of minerals (Table 3.5) in which colour is a
useful criterion is as follows:
Thble 3.5 Diagnostic colours of some minerals
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Galena
Hematite
Graphite
Coal (anthracite)
Sulphur
Malachite
Sapphire
Ruby
Emerald
Pyrite
Chalcopyrite
Orpiment
Realgar
Olivine
Muscovite in book form
Muscovite in thin layers
I 7. Biotite
18. Chlorite
19. Amethyst, lepidolite
20. Magnesite
21. Azurite
22. Opal
23. Tourmaline
24. Pyrolusite, psilomelane
25. Chromite, magnetite
- Dark lead grey

- Dark steel grey
- Shining black
- Black
=
-
=
-
Yellow
Dark .green (sea green)
Blue
Red
Green
Brass yellow
Golden yellow
Lemon yellow
Orange red colour (with darker spots of colour)
Olive green
Silver white colour
.,
- Colourless
- Black colour or dark greenish black or brownish black colour
- Dark grassy green
- Violet
,
- Spotless white
- Sky blue
- Milky white
- Jet black
- Dark grey, nearly black
- Black
Commonly Exhibited Colours of Some Minerals

I.
Hornblende
2.
Augite
3. Orthoclase
4. Plagioclase
5. Microcline
6. Kyanite
7. Gamet
8. Talc
- Dark green
- Greenish black
- White or shades of red
- Grey or white
- White, pink, .or green
- Blue
- Red
- While or pale yellow
"
(contd.)
<" pynghted ma nal
Mineralogy
9. Calcite
10. Quartz
l l.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Asbestos
Jasper
Flint
Limonite
Barytes
Gypsum
51
- White
- White or colourless
White, less commonly green, yellow or grey
Red
= Yellowish brown
- Yellow or brownish yellow
= White or pale grey
= Colourless or white
=
=
Minerals Which Show Different Colours

I.
2.
Quartz
Feldspar
3. Calcite
- Colourless. white, green, violet, grey, yellow, pink, etc.

- Wh.ite, grey, shades of red, green, dirty white, etc.
- Colourless. white, shades of red, grey, yellow, etc.
Colour Peculiarities Shown by So111e Minerals

l.
2.
Bauxite shows patches of different colours like white, red, yellow, brown and black.
Agate shows bands of sharply contrasting colours. Even if colour is similar, shades differ and each
colour band shows perfectly uniform colour.
3. Kyanite: the blue colour sometimes shows patches of deeper or paler shade.
4. Amethyst: violet colour intensity varies in different cases and within the same specimen; also violet
colour may not be uniform.
5. Fluorite often shows different pale colours within the same specimen.
6. Microcline and plagioclase: Due to twinning fine (colour) stripes-like feature appears.
Though colour often provides a valuable hint towards mineral identification, weathering has a
deteriorating bleaching effect on colour. So, it is desirable to examine colour along freshly broken
surfaces, wherever possible.
3.6.3 Streak
The colour of mineral powder is called the streak of a mineral. This phenomenon is more constant
and hence more reliable than colour. In practice, instead of actually crushing or hammering the mineral
to get powder, it is conveniently obtained for observation purpose by rubbing a mineral against any
harder surface. An unglazed white porcelain plate, called a streak plate, is used in the lab for testing
the streak of a mineral. In general, the powder of a mineral will have a pale shade of the (mineral)
body colour itself. Rock-forming minerals which are generally harder may not give any powder when
rubbed against the streak plate. ln fact, most of them give nearly white powder irrespective of the body
colour of the mineral.
Streak becomes useful in identification only when the colour of the mineral powder glaringly differs
from the body colour. Since in most of the cases the streak is either white or pale body colour it offers
no hint towards mineral identification. (Most of the transparent and translucent minerals have a white
streak. Dark coloured minerals with a non-metallic lustre have a streak lighter than their colour and
minerals with metallic lustre have a streak generally darker than their colour.)
Thus among the different physical properties studied for a mineral, streak is of rare utility. Only
a few metallic minerals can be distinguished from similar looking minerals and can be identified based
on streak. In such cases, streak is very useful. The following are the pertinent mineral examples:
<" pynghted ma nal
52
I.
Magnetite and chromite which are two different and distinct minerals closely resemble one another
in form (granular form), colour (black colour), shining (metallic), density (high), diaphaneity
(opaque), etc. Thus, it is difficult to distinguish in hand specimens. But when the two are tested
for streak, magnetite gives black streak and chromite gives brown streak. In this way streak
provides a valuable clue to distinguish them.
Pyrite or rather chalcopyrite resembles gold so closely in its yellow colour and metallic lustre that
it is called fool's gold. Since gold occurs in nature in very small quantities it will be difficult to
test by other means. Pyrite and gold if tested for streak give dark greenish black and yellow streaks
respectively. Thus pyrite can be easily identified by streak and distinguished from gold.
Hematite, psilomelane and chromite in massive forms sometimes resemble one another. Hematite
gives an unmistakable cherry red streak. Psilomelane gives a brownish black streak and chromite
gives a brown streak. Psilomelane and chromite can be distinguished based on other physical
properties too. To identify hematite cherry red streak is particularly useful.
Graphite resembles molybdenite in most of its physical properties, but is distinguished by its-jet
black streak, as the streak of molybdenite is greenish black.
2.
3.
4.
3.6.4 Lustre
Lustre is the nature of shining on the surface of the mineral. Based on the quality or type of shining,
lustres are grouped as metallic and non-metallic. Metallic lustre is the type of shining that appears
on the surface of a metal. If the amount of shining is less, metallic lustre will be described as submetallic
lustre. Non-metallic lustres which are of different kinds are named considering the type of shining
that appears in some common materials. Some important non-metallic lustres that are observed mainly
in rock-forming minerals are: (i) vitreous lustre (shining like a glass. sheet), subvitreous lustre is similar
to vitreous lustre but with less shining, (ii) pearly lustre (shining like a pearl), (iii) silky lustre (shining
like silk), (iv) resinous lustre (shining like resin), (v) greasy lustre (shining like grease), (vi) adamantine
lustre (shining like a diamond) and (vii) earthy (dull) lustre (no shining, like earth or chalk).
To some extent occurrence of lustre in a mineral is characteristic; i.e., a good number of minerals
. consistently show a specific variety of lustre of their own. Therefore, it can be utilized as a suitable
property in the identification of minerals. The following is the list (Table 3.6) of common lustres and
the minerals that exhibit them characteristically.
Table 3.6 TypicaJ lustres of minerals
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
JO.
Metallic lustre
Submetallic lustre
Vitreous lustre
Subvitreous lustre
Pearly lustre
Silky lustre
Resinous lustre
Greasy lustre
Adamantine lustre
Earthy or dull lustre
Galena, pyrite, gold, bornite

Hematite, chromite, ilmenite, magnetite, psilomelane.
Quartz, calcite, dolomite, feldspar, barytes, etc.
Pyroxenes and amphiboles
Talc, selenite (gypsum), muscovite mica
Fibrous minerals like asbestos and satinspar
Opal, agate, chalceodony
Graphite, serpentine
Garnet, sphene, zircon, diamond
Magnesite, kaolin, chalk, bauxite
Mineralogy
53
The intensity of lustre depends upon the quantity of reflected light and, in general, it is more for
minerals of a higher refractive index.
Based on a decreasing amount of shining, lustre may be described as splendent, shining,
glimmering, glistening and dull. Splendent shining occurs in galena, shining type occurs in pyrite,
glimmering or glistening occurs in granular chromite or hematite, dull lustre occurs on minerals like
magnesite and bauxite.
In gemstones lustre is very important because the quality and value of gemstonesdepend on colour,
transparency and lustre. Lustre is responsible for the fire or brilliance of gemstones and, other things
being equal, the higher the refractive index of a gemstone, the greater will be its brilliance and beauty.
The gem varieties of quartz such as amethyst have fine transparency and colour but do not possess
the brilliance of diamond and zircon because of their lesser refractive index.
It will be relevant to note in this context that the original lustre of a mineral would be lost if it
undergoes weathering. Olivine is an example. It has vitreous lustre, but because it is easily susceptible
to weathering it shows only dull lustre or rarely subvitreous lustre. Some minerals exhibit a blend of
different lustres. For example, the lustre of kyanite is vitreous to pearly.
Since metallic lustre is generally shown by ore minerals and non-metallic lustre is shown by rock-
forming minerals, this property is useful in knowing whether an unknown mineral is a rock-forming
mineral or an ore mineral.
3.6.5 Fracture
Fracture is the nature of the randomly broken surface of a miueral. Like streak, it is also less useful
in mineral identification because a majority of the minerals show the same kind of fracture. Based
on the nature of a broken surface, fractures are described as even fracture, uneven fracture, hackly
fracture and conchoidal fracture.
If the broken surface of a mineral is plain and smooth, it is called even fracture. If the broken
surface is rough or irregular it is called uneven fracture. If the broken surface is very irregular like
the end of a broken stick, it is called hackly fracture. If the broken surface is smooth and curved, it
is called conchoidal fracture. If the curved nature is less prominent it is calJed subconchoidal fracture.
Perfect even fracture is very rare. Most of the minerals have broken surfaces which exhibit different
kinds of fractures. Fibrous minerals show hackly fracture. Compact, amorphous and cryptocrystalline
minerals show conchoidal or subconchoidal fractures. The following is the list (Table 3.7) of common
fractures and minerals that exhibit them.
Table 3.7 Typical fractures of minerals
I.
Even fracture
2.
Uneven fracture
HackJy fracture
Conchoidal fracture
Subconchoidal fracture
3.
4.
5.
Magnesite, chalk
. Most of the minerals
Asbestos, tremolite, kyanite
Opal, volcanic glass
Agate, flint, jasper, etc.
As already stated, fracture represents only the randomly broken surface of a mineral. It is not related
in any way to the atomic structure of the mineral. Cleavage surfaces which are related to the atomic
structure are also broken surfaces. They always appear as smooth and shining surfaces. So, the nature
of fracture should be studied on those broken surfaces which are not cleavage surfaces.
<" pyn ihted ma nal
54
In the discussion of fracture, calcite may be specially mentioned because this mineral has three
sets of very well-developed cleavages which cause the mineral to be always broken into smaller and
smaller rhombs. So whenever calcite mineral is broken, the broken surface always coincides with the
cleavage surface. That is, fracture is absent in calcite.
3.6.6 Cleavage
The definite direction or plane along which a mineral tends to break easily is called the cleavage of
that mineral. It is an inherent character of a mineral since it is related to the nature of crystallinity.
Only crystalline 'minerals can have cleavage, though it is not present in all crystalline minerals.
Amorphous minerals do not show cleavage (e.g., limonite, psilomelane, bauxite). Cleavage plane
represents the plane of weakness in the atomic structure of the mineral. Cleavage,
if present, occurs
.
as innumerable parallel planes along which the mineral is equally weak. Hence all such parallel planes
of weakness are referred to as a set. Depending on their atomic structure, crystalline minerals will
have one set of cleavage '(mica, chlorite, talc) or two sets of cleavages (feldspars, pyroxenes,
amphiboles) or three sets of cleavages (calcite, dolomite, galena) or four sets of cleavages (fluorite),
or six sets of cleavages (sphalerite) or no cleavage (quartz, olivine, garnet).
Since the atomic structure of a mineral is definite, the cleavage character of the mineral will also
be definite. That is, if a mineral (for example, muscovite) shows one set of cleavage, all specimens
of that kind (i.e., all muscovite specimens) should possess one set of cleavage only and never more
or less. Therefore, it is very helpful in the identification of minerals. In any specimen, the occurrence
of cleavage can be detected easily by tilting or turning the specimen in different directions. If cleavage
is present in the mineral under study, it appears as a smooth shining plain surface. Sometimes (usually
depending on the degree of development of cleavage), the broken surface may pass through different
cleavage planes (parallel) giving a stepped appearance.
Depending on the atomic structure, developme-t of cleavage character may differ in different
minerals or in the same mineral. Thus muscovite mica exhibits one set of excellent cleavage, enabling
the mineral to be split into very thin sheets. On the other hand, beryl and apatite have very ill-developed
cleavages. Regarding differences in the development of cleavage in the same mineral, feldspar may
be cited as a good example. This has two mutually perpendicular sets of cleavages. Of these, one set
is well developed a,i;id the other is relatively less developed. As a consequence, feldspar breaks readily
along the well-developed cleavage producing its characteristic tabular form. In cleavage-bearing
minerals, the cleavage planes will be parallel to a certain face or faces of a form in which the mineral
---
1
Mineral surface is
plain as the splitting
has occurred along a
single (cleavage) plane only
Mineral surface has steplike appearance as the

splitting has occurred
along a number of parallel
cleavage planes
Fig. 3.4 Nature of mineral splitting along cleavage
<" pynghted ma nal
Mineralogy
55
may crystallize. Thus, cleavages are described as basal (one set), prismatic (two sets), cubic or rhombic
(three sets), octahedral (four sets) or dodecahedral (six sets).
Depending on the degree of perfection, cleavage may be described as perfect or eminent or
excellent (mica), good (calcite), imperfect or poor or indistinct (beryl or apatite). When cleavage is
present in more than one set, the cleavage angle (i.e., the angle between cleavage sets which is
measurable by a goniometer or under a microscope) is also distinct and therefore helpful in mineral
identification. For example, both pyroxenes and amphiboles exhibit two sets of prismatic cleavages,
but they have different cleavage angles. In pyroxenes, the cleavage angles are 93 and 87 and in
amphiboles, they are 126 and 54. Cleavage angles of calcite are 105 and 75. (See Fig. 3.5.)
75
10s
(a)
s1 93
(b)
54
(c)
Fig. 3.5 Cleavage angles in (a) calcite, (b) pyroxene and (c) amphibole
Like fracture, cleavage also represents a broken surface of a mineral, but its appearance is oriented,
regular and repeatable (i.e., when a mineral with cleavage is broken, the newly broken surface will
be parallel to the earlier surface because both of them are due to cleavage only).
"Parting" is similar to cleavage in all respects, i.e., a mineral-bearing parting (like a cleavagebearing mineral) will repeatedly produce parallel surfaces on breaking. That is, as in the case of
cleavage, in parting too, a number of parallel weak planes (along which a mineral tends to break easily)
occur, but the difference is that cleavage is due to atomic structure and parting is due to the external
pressure effect on the mineral after its formation. That is, the cleavage is an inherent and original
character of a mineral and is related to the atomic structure; therefore al ways diagnostic in occurrence,
but parting is secondary and not related to the atomic structure. Its occurrence in a mineral is due to
sheer chance and can be expected to occur only in cases where minerals have suffered external pressures
or stress. It is true that it may not be easy to say whether the mineral having a tendency to break in
a definite direction is due to cleavage or due to parting. lf a good number of specimens of that mineral
are available and if all of them show such character it is definitely due to cleavage. But if only one
or two show such character, while other specimens of that kind are free from such flssility, it is due
to parting. Thus cleavage and parting can be distinguished.
Some rocks like slate also possess a character called "slaty cleavage". It is necessary to know that
this slaty cleavage is due to metamorphism only and not related to the internal atomic structure.
3.6. 7 Hardness
Hardness may be defined as the resistance offered by the mineral to abrasion or scratching. It is always.
a definite character like cleavage as this is also related to the atomic structure of a mineral. For example,
if the mineral specimen is muscovite mica, when it is tested on the Mohs'. scale of hardness it should
<"
pynghted ma nal
56
not be scratched by gypsum but by calcite. Thus, it is a very dependable character of the mineral. The
composition of the mineral appears to have less influence over hardness. For example, graphite and
diamond which possess the same composition, but different atomic structures, represent nearly two
extremes of hardness in the mineral kingdom; graphite is extremely soft and diamond is extremely
hard. Of course, the weathering phenomenon which involves decomposition of the mineral remarkably
reduces the hardness. Decomposition, as we know, is also accompanied by destruction of the mineral's
atomic structure. Therefore, the influence of weathering on mineral hardness has to be viewed from
this angle.
Hardness of a mineral is also dependent on atomic packing. An orderly packed (i.e., crystalline)
mineral will have a higher hardness than its loosely packed (amorphous) counterpart. Thus quartz
(crystalline silica mineral) and opal (amorphous silica mineral) exhibit hardness (on the Mohs' scale)
values of 7 and 5.5-6.5 respectively.
Talo
Gypsum
Calcite
"'
Fluorite
"'...
Apatite
OI
Feldspars
ai
Quartz
....
I
I
I
I
\
I
I
I
\
I
I
\
I
\
\
\
\
\
n
Topaz
"'
Corundum
<O
Diamond
C>
"
I \
I I
I
I I
I
I
...ec
.... <O
p~
.. 2
~ a.c
3
Absolute hardnees
:i~
~
il
Fig. 3.6 Relation between minerals on Mohs' scale of hardness and their absolute hardness
Hardness of a mineral is studied either as absolute hardness or as relative hardness. These two
terms are self-explanatory. Absolute hardness means total hardness. It is determined under a microscope
with a diamond impregnator. Vicker's hardness is one type of absolute hardness, commonly determined
in higher studies. The relative hardness is the comparative hardness. For routine investigations,
particularly in the identification of minerals in hand specimens, only relative hardness is determined.
For this, the mineral is compared with the hardness of a set of ten standard minerals. These reference
minerals represent nearly the complete range of hardness of minerals and are arranged in the increasing
order of hardness. For convenience, they are given specific numbers as one, two, three, etc. This
standard set of ten reference minerals used to determine (on a comparative basis) the hardness of any
unknown mineral is called "Mohs' scale of hardness" (Fig. 3.6). The actual minerals of this set and
Copyright~ m
rial
Mineralogy
57
their hardness numbers are as follows: (The Austrian mineralogist, Mohs proposed this in 1822): Talc
= l; gypsum= 2; calcite= 3; fluorite= 4; apatite= 5; feldspar= 6; quartz= 7; topaz= 8; corundum
= 9; and diamond = 10. Of course, the boxes of Mohs' scale of hardness do not contain diamond.
This is so because diamonds are rare, costly and also unnecessary. (All common minerals are scratched
by corundum, if an unknown mineral is not scratched by corundum, then it may be diamond.)
It is very important to know that the numbers given for these reference minerals do not bear any
arithmetical relationship. That is, absolute hardness of fluorite (4) is neither double that of gypsum
(2) nor half the hardness of topaz (8). The higher number simply refers to greater hardness on a
comparative basis. No doubt it will be interesting to know the absolute hardness values of these
minerals. If a graph is drawn with Molis' scale minerals on the x-axis and their absolute hardness values
on y-axis, the resulting curve will be nearly straight with a gentle downward slope towards talc. It
is so between talc and corundum. At corundum the curve shoots up very steeply. That is, hardness
difference between corundum (9) and diamond (I 0) is many times more than what is found between
topaz (8) and corundum (9). If quartz is land corundum is 9 then the hardness value of diamond would
be 42.4.
The relative hardness of an unknown mineral is determined by scratching it with the minerals of
Mohs' scale of hardness, starting with talc and followed by minerals of increasing hardness. Briefly.
the procedure followed in the lab is as follows: Select a plain and fresh surface of the mineral whose
hardness is to be determined. Scratch with talc over this surface and rub off with the finger any powder
mark produced. Examine whether any permanent scratch is left behind. If there is none, it means that
the mineral has a hardness of more than one. Now test with gypsum, rub off the surface powder mark
and examine for the permanent scratch. Now also if no permanent mark is noticed, test in the same
way with calcite, i.e., with the mineral of next higher hardness. If a permanent scratch occurs. it means
the mineral tested is softer than calcite (3) but harder than gypsum (2). So its hardness is expressed
as 2-3. Once a permanent scratch is obtained in this way, the specimen should not be tested with
reference to minerals with a still higher hardness value. Because, if tested obviously all of them will
leave permanent scratches. If the unknown mineral has a hardness of 6 or 7, to follow this procedure
is tedious. In order to reduce the time of testing and for simplicity it will be convenient to first predict
the approximate hardness of an unknown mineral in a simpler manner and then use reference minerals
to determine correct hardness. Common materials like a fingernail (H-2.5), a copper coin (3.5), a
broken glass piece (5.5) and a pen-knife (6.5) may be used first to fix the lower limit. Suppose an
unknown mineral is not scratched by a glass piece (if pen-knife is not available) it means its hardness
is more than 5.5. That means we need not use talc, gypsum, calcite, fluorite and apatite in that case;
so start testing with feldspar and determine its hardness.
Some precautions have to be taken in determining the correct hardness of minerals. (i) The main
precaution is that only fresh mineral part should be tested because the weathered surface of the mineral
is invariably less hard; (ii) secondly, only plain surface part is to be tested, because if testing is made
on an irregular or rough surface, a (light) permanent scratch will be difficult to notice; and (iii) it is
also important not to use very sharp points of reference minerals for testing.
Hardness is a directional property. Minerals crystallizing under the cubic system only are expected
to show the same hardness on all sides, because such minerals possess the same atomic structure in
aJJ directions. Minerals belonging to the other crystal systems are supposed to show a difference in
hardness in different directions. But, as the determination of relative hardness is not very sensitive,
different sides of minerals appear to show similar hardness in different directions. Kyanite mineral
Copyright x:I 'lla nal
58
is an exception. This crystallizes under the triclinic system. It occurs often in bladed form and shows
remarkably lesser hardness (nearly 4) along the length-wise direction compared to its hardness (nearly
7) along the breadth-wise direction. So it is called "disthene" (di = two, sthene = strong). Bauxite
sometimes shows variable hardness because of the weathering effect and compaction. Calcite shows
lesser hardness (H = 2) on (0001) face.
3.6.8 Specific Gravity (Density)

Specific gravity of minerals depends on their chemical composition and atomic structure. In the
laboratory specific gravity of minerals is determined by using either Walker's steel yard or Jolly's spring
balance. In determining specific gravity, care should be taken to select only fresh (i.e., unweathered)
minerals free from inclusions, impurities, etc.
Minerals formed out of weathering (like bauxite) due to varying porosity, may show different
specific gravity values. The crystalline condition of minerals also influences specific gravity. For
example, quartz which is the crystalline form of silicon dioxide has the higher specific gravity of 2.7
and opal, the amorphous variety has the lesser specific gravity of 2.2.
There is a wide range of specific gravity in the mineral kingdom. Amber has a specific gravity,
nearly equal to water (i.e., 1 to l. l.). At the other extreme platiniridium is the heaviest with a specific
gravity of 22.84.
In the discussion of specific gravity of minerals, it will be relevant to know about calcite and
barytes. These two minerals in crystal forms resemble each other closely (because both exhibit white
colour, have vitreous to pearly lustre, three sets of cleavage, and nearly the same hardness etc.), but
they can be distinguished by the mere feel of their density. Specific gravity of calcite is 2.7 and that
of barytes 4.5.
For routine identification of minerals based on physical properties, determination of actual specific
gravity is tedious and unnecessary because the required information is obtained as follows: most of
the commonly occurring rock-forming minerals have a specific gravity range of 2.5 to 3.5, while
common ore minerals like magnetite, hematite, ilmenite, galena, pyrite, pyrolusite and psilomelane,
have a specific gravity of over 3.5. Only a few minerals have a specific gravity less than 2.5. Thus
based on this range of specific gravity of rock-forming minerals, the density character of minerals may
be described as high, medium or low. The raedium density refers to the common rock-forming minerals
and the higher density refers to common ore minerals. With a little experience, it is not difficult to
distinguish medium density from high density. Therefore. such a distinction helps to predict whether
an unknown mineral is a rock-forming mineral or ore mineral. Thus a mere feel of density of the mineral
by hand will give a clue to its nature (i.e., metallic or non-metallic) and its -identification can be
confirmed by verifying other physical properties. Common mineral examples showing the three types
of densities are as follows (Table 3.8):
Table 3.8 Density types of minerals
Low density:
(sp. gravity < 2.5)

Medium density:
(sp. gravity: 2.5-3.5)
High density:
(sp. gravity > 3.5)
Gypsum (2.3), graphite (2 -2.3), coal (1-1.8)

Quartz (2.7). feldspar (2.56-3.00), pyroxenes (3.!-3.5),
amphiboles (2.9-3.47), micas (2.7-3.1)
Magnetite (5.18), hematite (4.9-5.3), galena (7.5), ilmenite (4.5-5),
pyrolusite (4.8), psilomelane (3.7-4.7), chromite (4.5-4.8),
molybdenite (4.75). tin stone (6.8-7.1)
Mineralogy 59
3.6.9 Degree of Transparency
This is also known as "diaphaneity". Depending upon the resistance offered by the minerals to the
passage of light through them, they may be classified as transparent (rock crystal, ice landspar, thin
layers of muscovite), translucent (calcite, amethyst, agate) and opaque (galena, ilmenite, pyrite). This
character of a mineral depends on chemical composition (galena is opaque, Iceland spar is transparent),
impurities (rock crystal is transparent, amethyst is translucent), inclusions, weathering and also
thickness (in book form muscovite is not transparent but the same mineral in thin layers is perfectly
transparent). Rock-forming minerals (except mafic minerals) usually appear to be opaque when they
are thick, but they lose this opaque character if they are made thinner. Of course, when ground to
a thickness of 0.03 mm for preparing a thin section for microscopic 'Study, all rock-forming minerals
become transparent and allow light to pass through them without any resistance. But metallic ore
minerals remain mostly opaque, even when they are made thinner (magnetite, chromite, etc.). Therefore,
the distinction between a really opaque mineral and other (not opaque) minerals will help to distinguish
ore minerals from rock-forming minerals.
In the laboratory, it is possible in most
cases to decide whether the opaque character
Translucent
zone
is inherent and real or due to thickness. For
Light
this, thin and sharp edges are examined
holding the mineral against bright light. If the
b
mineral is not really opaque, the translucent
nature can be observed near the margins
(Fig. 3. 7). For a beginner, agate, with its
Sharp edge
characteristic sharp and thin edges, is ideal
rock-forming
mineral
to check this observation. This property
Not translucent because the light
that had entered the mineral is
therefore helps to group preliminarily an
totally absorbed before it reaches
unknown mineral either as a rock-forming
the other side due to greater
mineral or as ore mineral. However, the clue
thickness of mineral
offered by property should be considered in
the overall context of different hints obtained
Fig. 3.7 Thickness effect on transparency of rockby studying other physical properties. It is
forming minerals
pertinent to note that mafic minerals like hornblende, augite, olivine and chlorite appear to be opaque
even along thin edges, though these are typical rock-forming minerals.
oy
3.6.10 Special Properties

Some minerals exhibit peculiar characters which enable them to be identified easily .. In some cases,
they are the consequences of the physical properties of the mineral itself: They are as follows:
Talc - by virtue of its very soft nature (H= 1) exhibits a smooth touch or soapy feel.
Graphite - by virtue of its low hardness (H= I to 2) and black colour marks easily on paper.
Galena too because of low hardness (H=2 to 3) and black colour makes markings on paper,
sometimes.
4. Pyrolusite and graphite, due to their softness and black colour, soil the fingers.
5. Rea/gar; orpiment, arsenopyrite, give out garlic smell (alliaceous odour), when struck or heated,
I.
2.
3.
and on freshly broken surfaces.
<" pynghted ma nal
60
6.
Kaolin gives out a clayey smell and adheres strongly to the tongue.
Chalk has a rough feeling of touch and adheres strongly to the tongue.
Halite has a saline taste.
Magnetite is strongly attracted by an ordinary magnet. Lodestone is a variety of magnetite, which
7.
8.
9.
acts like a natural magnet.
3.7 DIAGNOSTIC OR DISTINGUISHING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

These properties refer to a set of physical properties which are consistently observed in a particular
mineral. That is, as a group these properties reveal the identity of the mineral. For example, a massive
quartz is identified by the occurrence of the following diagnostic properties: pale colour, vitreous lustre,
absence of cleavage. H=7, not opaque and medium density. All these properties, as a whole, will be
observed in every quartz specimen, but never in any other mineral. The significance.of this statement
is that:
There are many minerals which possess a pale colour like that of quartz. So by colour we cannot
make out the mineral as quartz.
2. Similarly, vitreous lustre is observed not only in quartz but in many minerals. So, occurrence of
vitreous lustre alone is not indicative of quartz.
3. Likewise characters like hardness 7, medium density, not opaque are observed in many minerals
when each of these properties is considered one by one.
l.
But this group of physical properties as a whole can occur only in quartz and in no other mineral.
In Other words, a mineral which has a pale colour, a vitreous lustre, absence of cleavage, is not opaque
and has medium density can only be quartz and no other mineral. Therefore, such a group of properties
which enable the identification of a mineral can be described as distinguishing or diagnostic properties
of that mineral. Since all minerals possess such distinguishing properties characteristic of them,
minerals can be easily identified by their help. It is evident that all physical properties do not find
a place in the list of diagnostic properties of a mineral. In case of quartz, streak and fracture are not
important. However. streak is diagnostic of hematite, pyrite, etc., and fracture is diagnostic of agate,
opal. jasper, etc.
Copynqhted-natenat
4
COMMON ROCK-FORMING MINERALS
Introduction; 4.1 Types of Rock-forming Minerals; 4.2 Special Features of Silicate Minerals; 4.3 Brief
Sketch of Common Rock-forming Minerals; 4.4 Important Details of Common Rock-forming
Minerals; 4.4.1 The Feldspar Group; 4.4.2 Quartz; 4.4.3 The Pyroxene Group; 4.4.4 Olivine;
4.4.5 The Amphibole Group; 4.4.6 Mica Group; 4.4.7 The Gamet Group; 4.4.8 Kyanite;
4.4.9 Chlorite: 4.4.10 Talc; 4.4.11 Calcite; 4.4.12 Bauxite; 4.4.1.3 Clay Minerals
Alms: The aims of this chapter are:

I.
2.
3.
To explain some important natural phenomena occurring in minerals, particularly in silicates, viz.,
silicate structures, mineral groups, isomorphism and polymorphism.
To give details of chemical composition, atomic structure, varieties, physical properties, trends of
weathering, mode of occurrence, etc., of common minerals of field occurrence.
To show at a glance in a tabular form (to compare and to contrast) the important physical properties
of common minerals.
INTRODUCTION
It is necessary to know about the common minerals which actually make up different rocks and
determine their properties. This knowledge helps to assess the suitability of different rocks for any
given purpose.
4.1 TYPES OF ROCK-FORMING MINERALS

In the order of abundance. among different rock-forming minerals. silicates rank first in the earth's
crust. Oxides come next, then carbonates, phosphates, sulphates, etc., in greatly diminished importance.
4.2 SPECIAL FEATURES OF SILICATE MINERALS

Since silicates are the most common rock-forming minerals, it is desirable to know some important
and relevant aspects about them. They are as follows:
62
Structure of Silicates
Si04 tetrahedron is the fundamental unit of all silicate minerals. This unit has the nature of either
occurring alone or in different combinations (along with other cations) in mineral structure. Because
of this, different kinds or groups of silicate minerals are formed. They are:
I.
Nesosilicates: In this group Si04 tetrahedra occur as independent units in mineral structure, e.g.,
olivine, zircon, garnets, sillimanite, kyanite.

2. Sorosilicates: In this group of minerals, Si04 tetrahedra occur in pairs, e.g., melilite, idocrase,
epidote.
3. lnosilicates: These are also called "chain silicates". In this group of minerals Si04 tetrahedra occur
as chains resulting in more growth of mineral along one direction. Two varieties of inosilicates
occur in nature. They are single chain silicates, e.g., pyroxenes, and double chain silicates, e.g .
amphiboles.
4. Cyclosilicates: These are also called "ring silicates". In this group of minerals, 3 or 4 or 6 Si04
tetrahedra occur in ring form, e.g., beryl, tourmaline, cordierite.
5. Phyllosilicates: These are also called "sheet silicates". In this group Si04 tetrahedra occur as sheets,
resulting in more growth along two directions of a mineral, e.g., mica, chlorite, talc, serpentine,
kaolinite.
6. Tectosilicates: In this group Si04 tetrahedra occur in a three-dimensional framework, resulting in
equidimensional growth of a mineral, e.g., quartz, feldspars, zeolites, feldspathoids.
Nesoslllcate structure
Si:0=1
:4
Olivine= (MgFe)2Si04
Sorosilicate structure
Si : 0 1 : 31/2 2: 7
1
lnsoHlcate strucl\Jre (single chain type)
$1:0=1
:3
Enstatlte = MgSi03
lnsoilicate structure (double chain type)

SI : 0 = 2 : 3 or 8 : 22
Anthophyllite Mg,Si08022(0H)2
Fig. 4.1 (contd.)
Common Rock-Forming Minerals
63
Cyclosilicate structure
(3 tetra bedra)
(4 tetrabedra)
Sl:0=1:3
SI: 0 = 1 : 3
=4: 12
Axin~e = Ca2 (Fe. Mn)
Al2(80Jl (514012) (OH)
= 3: 9
(6 tetrabedra)
51:0=1:3
=6: 18
Beyl
= Be~12s16018
PhyHosilicate structure
SI : 0 = 1 : 2 1/2 or 4: 10. Muscovite mica = KA12 (Al2SIJl 014 (OH2 F)2
Note: In these figures: (I) The four comers of the tetrahedron show the positions of oxygen atoms. (2) The Si
atom which is much smaller than the oxygen atom lies at the centre of the tetrahedron and is imagined to be
behind the central oxygen atom. Therefore, it is not shown separately. (3) In every figure, to show the ratio of
Si : 0, only one tetrahedron or one unit is marked with Si and 0 atoms. (4) The unshared oxygen atoms of the
tetrahedron are shown as small filled in circles and shared oxygen atoms are shown as small empty circles.
Fig. 4.1 Structures of silicate minerals
<" pynghted ma nal
64
Mineral Groups or Families

Some silicate minerals have a similar atomic structure and similar (but not the same) chemical
composition. Because of this basic feature, all such minerals will also exhibit similar physical and
optical properties. Hence such sets of minerals are clubbed as "groups" or "families". For example,
more than six different mineral species belong to "mica family" or "mica group". All have the terms
"mica" as a suffix. They are muscovite mica, paragonite mica, lepidolite mica, biotite mica, phlogopite
mica and zinnwaldite mica. Of course, in routine, the suffix is not used. These minerals are grouped
under a common head because all of them possess a similar atomic structure (i.e., phyllosilicate
structure), a similar chemical composition [i.e., all possess a common radical of (Al, Si3)0IO (OH,
F2)], similar physical properties (i.e., all have hardness 2-3, one set of good cleavage, not opaque,
medium density, pearly lustre, etc.) and similar optical properties (all have oblique extinction, biaxial
interference figure, etc.).
Feldspar group, feldspathoid group, pyroxene group, amphibole group, garnet group, olivine group,
epidote group are some of the important groups of silicate minerals.
Isomorphism
This is a peculiar natural phenomenon observed in different mineral series, particularly in silicate
groups (e.g .. enstatite-ferrosilite series, diopside-hedenbergite series, cummingtonite-grunerite series).
In isomorphism, minerals appear to be mixtures of two different minerals, from the chemical
'
composition .point of view. Thus there are innumerable
homogeneous minerals which are grouped as
plagioclase feldspars. Their composition is not definite but partly referable to albite and partly to
anorthite. The minerals so formed are called isomorphs and !he two boundary minerals are called end
members. Feldspars, pyroxenes, amphiboles, garnets and many other groups exhibit this phenomenon.
Saturated and Unsaturated Minerals

The silicate minerals which are capable of co-existing with free quartz in rocks and which are unable
to incorporate any further quantity of silica into their structure, i.e .. satisfied with their silica content
(during their formation from magma), are called saturated minerals. They occur characteristically in
oversaturated igneous rocks like granites and pegmatites.
On the other hand. such of those silicate minerals which do not occur in co-existence with quartz
and which are capable of incorporating some more silica into their structure (if available during their
formation in magma) and changing over to their saturated equivalent minerals are called unsaturated
minerals, i.e., they are silica-deficient minerals. Minerals have a natural tendency to occur as saturated
ones. Therefore, unsaturated minerals are formed only if silica is deficient in parent magma Unsaturated
minerals occur characteristically in ultrabasic and basic rocks like dunite, nepheline and syenite. The
following are examples of saturated and unsaturated minerals:
J.
Nepheline, Na Al Si04 is an unsaturated mineral belonging to the feldspathoid group. Albite is

the saturated equivalent belonging to the feldspar group. The mutual relationship of these two
minerals is as follows:
NaAISi04
(Nepheline)
2Si02
(Silica)
NaAISi308
(Albite)
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65
Similarly forsterite of the olivine group is an unsaturated mineral with Mg2Si04 composition.
Enstatite of the pyroxene group is its saturated equivalent with Mg Si03 composition. Their relation
is as follows:
Si02
2MgSi03
MgzSi04
+
(Silica)
(Enstatite)
(Forsrerite)
Feldspar and enstatite can occur along with quartz, but (forsterite) olivine and nepheline cannot
occur in association with quartz, i.e., quartz-bearing rocks like granite will never have unsaturated
minerals, However, rare dotiomorphic rocks, by virtue of their conditions of formation, are exceptions
to this observation.
Polymorphism (poly
= many, morph = form)
Polymorphism is also a peculiar feature exhibited by some minerals, including silicate minerals.
Because of this natural phenomenon, two (dimorphism) or more minerals (polymorphism) may exhibit
distinctly different physical or optical properties in spite of possessing the same chemical composition.
Obviously, this is because they differ mutually in atomic structure. Good examples of polymorphism
are: (1) Andalusite, sillimanite and kyanite are three different minerals having the same chemical
composition, AJ2 Si05. (2) Orthoclase and microctine are t\VO different feldspar minerals but have the
same chemical composition K Al Si3 08. This is a case of dimorphism.
Pseudomorphism
This is a natural, phenomenon whereby a mineral assumes the form or shape of a different mineral.
This may occur either due to encrustation, replacement or alteration, e.g., tiger's eye. This is a precious
gem variety of quartz. Here quartz is pseudomorphous after asbestos, i.e., quartz assumes the fibrous
form of asbestos, which is uncommon to quartz.
Felsic and Mafic Minerals
The silicate minerals of common occurrence are grouped as felsic and mafic. The felsic group includes
quartz, feldspars, feldspathoids and muscovite mica. These are also called salic minerals. These are
generally light in colour, of low specific gravity and comparatively late crystallization products of
magma. The mafic group includes pyroxenes, amphiboles, olivines, biotite, iron oxides, etc. These are
also called femic or ferromagnesiurn minerals. These are generally dark coloured, heavier, richer in
iron and magnesium and comparatively early crystallization products of magma.
4.3 BRIEF SKETCH OF COMMON ROCK-FORMING MINERALS

An outline of the relatively more frequently occurring rock-forming mineral species with particular
reference to their occurrence in rocks is given as follows.
Silicates
The following are the important groups and mineral species of the rock-forming type:
l.
Feldspar group: As already stated, these are the extremely abundant rock-forming minerals.
Lopynghted m2tennl
66
/Orthoclase - K Al Si308
Alkali feldspars "'Microcline - K Al Si308
Mainly occur in
syenites, granites
pegmatites and
gneisses.
Feldspars~
2.
Lime feldspars ---lsomorphs of albite and

(plagioclase
anorthite
feldspars)
Feldspathoid group: These are generally unsaturated minerals.
(a) Nepheline - Na Al Si04 : Unsaturated equivalent of
albite feldspar
(b) Leucite - K AI Si2 06
Commonly occur in
diorites, basalts
dolerites and gabbros.
Mainly occur in more
basic varieties of
basalts and syenites.
: Unsaturated equivalent of
orthoclase feldspar
3. Majic mineral groups: pyroxenes, amphiboles and olivines:
Pyroxene group: Occurs commonly in igneous rocks:
(a) Hypersthene - (Mg Fe) Si03
I. Common in gabbros, norites.
2. Very characteristic accessory
mineral of charnockite.
(b) Augite - Complex composition;

Occurs as essential mineral of
the most abundant pyroxene
basalt, dolerite and gabbro.
(c) Aegirine - (Na Fe) Si2 06
Characteristic of soda-rich
and aegirine augite
igneous rocks like phonolite and
nephelene syenite.
4. Amphibole group: Occurs more commonly in metamorphic rocks:
(a) Hornblende: complex composition;
I. Common in gneisses and schists.
the most abundant amphibole
2. Common as accessory mineral
in granite, syenite, diorite, etc.
In metamorphic schists;
(b) Tremolite - Ca2 Mg5 Sig 022 (OH)2
and aclinolite - Ca2 (Mg Fe)5 Si8022(0H)2
asbestos is a fibrous variety of these minerals.
5. Olivine group: common unsaturated minerals.
Olivine - (Mg, Fe)2 Si04
I. Characteristic of ultrabasic igneous rocks
like dunite, peridotite and picrite.
2. Also occurs in more basic type of basalts.
6. Gamet group:
(a) Alniandine-Fej Al2 Si3 012 (very
Very common in mica schists and gneisses
common type of garnet)
and rarely occurs in granite.
(b) Pyrope - Mg3 AI2 Si3 012
Occurs sometimes in peridotites.
(c) Grossularite - Ca3 Al2 Si3012
Occurs in marble, sometimes
7.
Mica group:
(a) Muscovite - K Al2 (Al Si3)0IO(OH,F)2
I. Characteristic of pegmatites and mica
schists.
2. As less common accessory in granite.
Copynqhted-natenat
(b) Biotite - K(Mg, Fe)3 (Al Si3)010(0H, F)2
67
I. Characteristic of mica schists.

2. As very common accessory in granite.
8. Silica group (Si02):

(a) In crystalline form as quartz
Agate
(b) in crypto-
crystalline form as
Jasper
Aint
(c) in amorphous form as opal
Pegmatites, granites and all other

oversaturated rocks; as sand grains in
sandstones and in quartzites.
As amygdales in basalts.
1. As pebbles in conglomerates.
2. As banded hematite jasper.
As nodules in calcareous rocks.
I. As amygdales in basalts.
2. As nodules in shales and sandstones.
9. Zeolite group:
As common amygdales in basalts.
(a) Stilbite: .(Na2 Ca) (Al2 .si7 018). 7H20 }
Analcite occurs sometimes
(b) Heulandite: Ca2 (Al4 S11J036- 12H20
(c) Analcite: Na (Al Si)2 06 H20
in dolerites.
10. Aluminium silicate polymorphs (Al2 Si05)
(a) Andalusite }
Occur in schistose rocks;
(b) Sillimanite
sillimanite occurs also in khondalites
(c) Kyanite
Epidote, talc (steatite) serpentine, chlorite, tourmaline, staurolite, spine! and zircon are other
common rock-forming silicate minerals.
Oxides
Compared to silicate minerals, oxide minerals, though next in rank, are very few as rock formers. Only
quartz and iron oxides come under this category.
Quartz: This is an oxide of silicon, and is a tectosilicate in structure. Regarding its abundance as a
rock-forming mineral, it is next only to feldspars and mafic minerals.
Magnetite (FCJ04): It is an early magmatic mineral and usually occurs as an accessory mineral in all
types of primary rocks.
Hematite (Fez03): It is not common as a rock-forming mineral. But banded hematite quartzites and
banded hematite jaspers are important lithological units of Dharwarian formations.
Limonite (Fe203, nH20): It is a product of weathering and occurs as colouring matter in rocks.
Ilmenite (Fe Ti)203: Like magnetite, this is also a common accessory mineral of rocks.
Carbonates
Only calcium carborate minerals (aragonite and calcite) occur in calcareous rocks. Dolomite often
accompanies them because of dolomitization, a natural replacement process.
Calcite (CaC03):
I. Occurs as a nearly 100% constituent of marble, other minerals being negligible in quantity.
2. Occurs as non-crystalline, massive material in limestones.

3. Stalactite, stalagmite, travertine, chalk, etc., all are mainly CaC03.
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Aragonite (CaC03): This dimorphous form of calcite occurs in coral limestones. This being less stable
than calcite, it changes over to calcite under pressure. Therefore, in coral reef formation, calcite will
be underlying and aragonite occurs above.
Dolomite [CaMg (C03)i] occurs as a very common geological formation, often found associated with
calcite and aragonite in coral islands.
Miscellaneous
Apatite Ca5 (Cl, F) (P04)3: This phosphate mineral occurs generally as an accessory mineral. It
sometimes occurs as large crystals in pegmatites. Phosphatic nodules, guano, coprolites are some
natural phosphate-bearing materials.
Pyrite (FeSi): This sulphide mineral occurs as a common accessory mineral in many types of rocks.
Gypsum (CaS04. 2H20): This sulphate mineral occurs usually as a sedimentary deposit. Gypsite is
a mixture of gypsum, sand and dirt.
Halite (NaCl) (rock salt): This chloride mineral occurs as thick stratigraphic formations. Cambrian
strata, particularly saline series and many salt domes, testify to this as a rock-forming mineral.
4.4 IMPORTANT DETAILS OF COMMON ROCK-FORMING MINERALS

The salient aspects of some mineral groups and minerals are briefly described as follows.
4.4.1 The Feldspar Group

The term feldspar does not represent any single mineral. It refers to a group of different minerals which
possess similar chemical composition, atomic structure, physical properties and optical properties.
There are very few rock types which are completely free from feldspars or their products of weathering.
Chemical Composition
Based on composition, all feldspars may be described as aluminium silicates of sodium,
potassium,
..
calcium and rarely barium. These are split up into two subgroups as alkali feldspars and lime feldspars.
Some of the feldspathoid minerals like nepheline and leucite represent unsaturated equivalents of
feldspar minerals. Among feldspars, alkali feldspars contain more silica than lime feldspars.
Atomic Structure
All feldspars are "tectosilicates" in atomic structure. That is, the basic unit of the Si04 tetrahedron
in them occurs in a 3-dimensional framework type structure. In this framework, silicon is generally
replaced partly by aluminium, thus making them aluminium silicates. The other cations, Ca, Na, and
K, also occur in the framework.
Except orthoclase, rare celsian and their isomorphs, all other varieties of feldspars crystallize in
the triclinic system. The former two belong to the monoclinic system.
Isomorphism
Isomorphism occurs both in alkali feldspars and soda lime feldspars. In alkali feldspars, isomorphous
substitution of sodium by potassium gives rise to soda orthoclase or soda microcline. If barium replaces
potassium, hyalophane is formed.
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Cotnmon Rock-Fanning Minerals
71
4.4.2 Quartz
It has already been stated that next to feldspars and maflc minerals, quartz is the most common rock-
forming mineral. It is silica in composition. It may be treated either as an oxide or as a silicate.

Structurally, it is a tectosilicate, i.e., in its atomic structure, the Si04 tetrahedra are arranged in a threedimensional network pattern.
Silica occurs in nature in crystalline, cryptocrystalline and amorphous forms. Quartz is a typical
crystalline mineral. Chalceodony, flint, chert and jasper are examples of crypto-crystalline forms of
silica. Opal and Jechatelierite are amorphous forms. Opal is hydrous too.
Polymorphism
Quartz, tridymite and crystobalite are important crystalline forms of silica. They crystallize in different
crystal systems. Quartz crystallizes in a hexagonal system, while tridymite and crystobalite crystallize
in orthorhombic and cubic systems, respectively. These polymorphs possess different properties.
Physical Properties
Form: Quartz occurs either as beautiful crystals or in a massive form. Quartz crystals are usually
prismatic, terminated by rhombobedrons. Prismatic faces often show horizontal striations. Colour:
Usually colourless or white, but many other colours also occur for a variety of reasons. Streak: White.
Lustre: Typically vitreous. Fracture: Usually conchoidal or subconcboidal, but even and uneven
fractures also occur. The same specimen may show different types of fractures randomly on different
sides. Cleavage: Absent. Hardness: 7. Density: Medium (specific gravity = 2.65). Degree of
transparency: Generally translucent. Some are perfectly transparent. Some others may appear as
opaque, but their thin edges will show a translucent character.
Special property: Quartz crystals have piezoelectric property, i.e., they develop a charge, when pressure
is applied along certain directions. They also have the ability to control frequency. This property is
utilized to measure time accurately in popular 'quartz watches'. Diagnostic physical characters: Fresh
appearance, vitreous lustre, absence of cleavage H=7, medium density, non-magnetic and not opaque.
Usually, colourless or pale coloured and massive form. In case of crystals, prismatic faces may possess
horizontal striations (due to growth irregularity).
Response to Weathering
Among different-minerals quartz is the most resistant to weathering for the following reasons: (i) Being
soluble only in alkaline medium, quartz is not affected by natural waters as they are usually acidic
due to dissolved C02. (ii) Due to the absence of cleavage and relatively .high hardness it is not easily
affected by disintegrating forces. So, it remains fresh and survives long distances of transport becoming
the most important detrital mineral.
Varieties
In view of their common occurrence, along with important varieties of quartz, some varieties of
cryptocrystalline and amorphous nature are also mentioned:
I.
2.
3.
'
Rock crystal: It is a colourless,
transparent and pure form of quartz. It is a precious mineral.
Amethyst: It is a purple or violet coloured transparent form of quartz. The colour is perhaps due
10 traces of colloidal carbon - a semi-precious gemstone.
Grey quartz, rose quartz. smoky quartz: These are types based on the colour factor.
Copynqhted -natenat
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Con1mon Rock-Fanning Minerals
75
to even distinguish them from some amphiboles. Therefore, the common physical properties applicable
to all pyroxenes in general are given as follows (incidentally closely taJlying with augite, the typical
representative of pyroxenes).
Form: Generally granular or short prismatic. Colour: Black or dark greenish black; pale colour may
occur in magnesium-rich pyroxenes; alkali pyroxenes tend to be greenish. Streak: White or pale body
colour. Lustre: Vitreous; metallic lustre is found in bronzite, which is, however, not common. Fracture:
Uneven. Cleavage: Two sets of prismatic cleavage, cleavage angle is 87 and 93 in basal sections.
Hardness: 5 to 6. Density: Medium; specific gravity = 3.2 to 3.5, Fe"-rich types are relatively heavier.
Degree of transparency Nearly opaque, Fe" -rich types appear opaque even along thin edges.
Magnetism: Not attracted by hand magnets, but if the intensity of the magnetic field is high, they are
attracted.
Diagnostic physical properties: Dark colour, cleavage present, vitreous lustre, H=S-6, medium density
and opaque. However, these properties help them to be distinguished as mafic inosilicates only.
Occurrence
By nature, pyroxenes occur more commonly in igneous rocks. Augite, the most representative variety,
occurs as the essential mineral in basalts, dolerites, gabbros and pyroxenites. Hypersthene is always
found in charnockite though in smaller amounts. Magnesium-rich orthopyroxenes occur in ultrabasic
rocks like peridotites and picrites. Alkali pyroxenes occur in soda-rich igneous rocks like nephelene
syenite and phonolite.
In sedimentary rocks, pyroxenes are uncommon for the reasons already given.
Jn metamorphic rocks, pyroxenes occur in gneisses and schists. Iron-rich pyroxenes occur as skarn
mineral at the contact of granitic rocks with limestones.
Uses: The highly valuable ornamental stone 'jade' is of two types, one of which is a pyroxene,
jadeite (Na Al Si2 06) and the other is an amphibole, nephrite. Another pyroxene 'spodumene'
(Li Al Si2 06) is mined as raw material for lithium compounds. Its transparent, coloured types, kunzite
(pink or violet) and hiddenite (green) are used as gem stones.
4.4.4 Olivine
Like olivines pyroxenes are mafic minerals. These represent unsaturated equivalents of orthopyroxenes.
Olivine is one of the first minerals to be formed along with calcic feldspar during the solidification
of magma. As magma cools down, olivine reacts with silica content of the parent magma and changes
over to pyroxene. Thus they form a reaction pair. Magnesium-rich olivines are more common but
fayalite or iron-rich pyroxenes are rare.
Olivines are silicates of magnesium and ferrous iron. Their general formula is R2 Si04 where R2
represents a divalent magnesium or ferrous iron. Nickel is commonly present in magnesium-rich
olivines.
Atomic S1r11c111re
Olivines are nesosilicates in atomic structure. That is, their structure consists of individual Si04
tetrahedra linked by magnesium and ferrous iron atoms. Olivines crystallize in the orthorhombic system.
Copynqhted -natenat
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Common Rock-Forming Minerals 77
4.4.S The Amphibole Group

Amphiboles are also a group of similar ferromagnesium minerals like olivines and pyroxenes. These
resemble pyroxenes very closely in their physical appearance because both have similar atomic structure
(inosilicates) and chemical composition (ferromagnesium silicates).
Amphiboles are silicates of calcium, magnesium, ferrous iron and some sodium. Silicon is partly
replaced by aluminium. Amphiboles have a somewhat complicated composition but can be represented
by the general formula X7_8 (Si4 011)2 (OH)2 where X represents Ca, Na, Mg, Fe", Al and Fe'". Some
part of silicon is replaced by Al; hydroxyl (OH) is present in all amphiboles to the extent of one (OH)
for every eleven oxygens.
Atomic Structure
Like pyroxenes, amphiboles are also inosilicates but have a double chain silicate structure. That is
the reason why they have 4: 11 ratio of silicon and oxygen. These minerals crystallize in orthorhombic,
monoclinic and triclinic systems.
Varieties
1. Orthorhombic amphiboles:
Anthophyllite: Mg7 Si8 022 (OH)2.
The fibrous variety of this mineral is called "arnosite", a type of asbestos.
2. Monoclinic amphiboles:
(a)
Cummingtonite
Grunerite series
(Mg, Fe)7 Sig 022 (OH)2
(Fe, Mg), Sig 022 (OH)2.
(b)
Tremolite
Actinolite series
Ca2 Mg5 Sig 022 (OH)2
Ca2 (Mg, Fe)s Sig 022 (OH)2.
Originally the term 'asbestos' was coined to represent fibrous variety of actinolite mineral.
(c) Hornblende - (Ca, Mg. Fe, Alh.8 (Al Si)g 022 (OH):z.
Alkali amphiboles:
(d) Riebeckite - Na2 Fe3" Fti"' Sig 022 (OH)2.
Crocidolite is a fibrous variety of this mineral; a type of asbestos.
(e) Glaucophane - complex composition.
On close comparison of compositions, the different varieties mentioned earlier appear to be a
parallel sequence of minerals of the pyroxene group. Among the different amphiboles, hornblende is
the most common and abundantly occurring type in nature. In this respect, as augite is among
pyroxenes, so is hornblende among amphiboles.
In this context it will be appropriate to know about the types of asbestos. The term asbestos as
it is now used, represents all fibrous varieties of minerals which are of commercial importance. It has
two chief types. Amphiboles in a fibrous form provide one chief type of asbestos. Amosite, actinolite,
crocidolite are the asbestos varieties belonging to this group. In colour, they are usually white or grey.
The chrysotile, fibrous form of serpentine mineral is another important variety of asbestos. This is
usually pale green or yellow in colour. The amphibole asbestos is more resistant to acid attack though
not suitable for spinning. On the other hand, chrysotile asbestos fibres are very flexible and therefore
~opyngh
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Uses: (I) As already referred to, the asbestos types are used in industries. They are also used in the
manufacture of asbestos cement and as insulating material. (2) Nephrite, a variety of jade, is a very
valuable ornamental stone. Before the discovery of metals, nephrite was extensively used for stone
tools. (3) Crocidolite, when replaced by quartz, produces ornamental stones known as tiger's eye or
cat's eye.
4.4.6 Mica Group
Mica is the family name of some similar silicate minerals. As rock-forming minerals these rank next
to feldspars, mafic minerals and quartz in abundance.
These are the silicates of aluminium and potassium, together with magnesium (and iron in the dark
varieties such as biotite). Some varieties contain sodium, lithium or titanium. The hydroxyl radical
is always present and is commonly replaced partially by fluorine. So, all micas possess (Al Si3) Oio
(OH, F)i as a common radical.
Atomic Structure
All micas are phyllosilicates, i.e., in their atomic structure, Si04 tetrahedra are arranged in sheet pattern
(growth in two dimensions). This is responsible for the cleavage character and the lamellar form of
micas, The Si : 0 ratio is 4 : 10. All micas crystallize in the monoclinic system, but the crystal forms
resemble hexagonal forms.
Varieties
When thin mica layers are punched by a blunt steel rod, a small six-rayed figure known as a "percussion
figure" appears. Based on its optical orientation, micas are grouped into muscovites and biotites, Their
members are as follows:
Muscovites: Muscovite-potassium mica: K Al2 (Al, Si3) OJO (OH, F)2
Paragonite-c-sodium mica: Na Al2 (Al, Si3) OJO (OH, F)2
Lepidolite-lithium mica: K (Li, Al>J (Si A1)4 Oro (OH, F)i
Biotites:
Biotite-iron, magnesium mica: K (Mg, Fe)3 (Al, Si3) 010 (OH, F)i
Phlogopite-magnesium mica: K Mg3 (Al, Si3) Oro (OH, F)2
Zinnwaldite-lithium mica: K (Li, Fe, Al) (Al Si3) OJO (OH, F)i
Sericite is a fine grained muscovite type found in gneisses and schists. Mica found in sedimentary
rocks is called illite (clay mica),
Among the preceding types, muscovite and biotite occur very commonly. Muscovite is an important
non-metallic economic mineral. Biotite is a common rock-forming mineral.
Physical Properties
The following are the common physical properties observed in mica minerals.
Form: Lamellar form, layers are separable, also occur in book form; some occur as flaky minerals.
Colour: Muscovite is silvery white in book forrn. Therefore, it is commonly called white mica. But
it is perfectly colourless in thin layers. Biotite is typically black in colour, so it is called black mica.
Sometimes it is dark greenish black. Lithium micas are pale violet in colour. Streak: Pale body colour.
Lustre: Pearly to vitreous. Fracture: Uneven to hackly. Cleavage: Excellent, one set, basal cleavage.
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120
by the surrounding enormous cold sea water), then there may not be any time for crystallization to
take place. Under such conditions, lava solidifies as completely amorphous or glassy matter without
any minerals. On the other hand, if cooling time is intermediate, then the resulting rock will be
composed partly of glassy matter and partly of minerals. Thus, depending on the nature of cooling,
the resulting igneous rocks are: (i) completely crystalline (holocrystalline, holo = complete) i.e.,
completely made up of minerals without any glassy matter, or (ii) completely glassy (holohyaline,
hyaline = glassy or amorphous) i.e., composed of only glass without any minerals, or (iii) partly
crystalline and partly glassy (merocrystalline or hemicrystalline, hemi =half) i.e., some part composed
of minerals and the rest being glass. Thus, the preceding three different types of crystallization give
rise to three textures of igneous rocks namely: holocrystalline, holohyaline and hemicrystalline.
Textures Based on Granularity
Depending on the physical conditions that had prevailed during the crystallization of magma, mineral
grains occur in different sizes. The presence of volatiles, low viscosity, slow cooling and great pressure
help to grow large minerals. (Molecular concentration also influences the growth of a mineral, i.e.,
a mineral with larger grains is formed if its molecular concentration is more in the melt.) The absolute
sizes of minerals vary widely. Some (microlites) are too small and can be seen only under powerful
microscopes, while others are very large and heavy. A beryl crystal from Albany, Maine (USA) has
been recorded to measure 18 feet in length and to weigh 18 tons. Similarly, beryl crystals weighing
up to 20 tons have been found in pegmatite mines of Rajasthan in our country. Therefore, the ratio
of extreme absolute sizes of minerals may be more than .1: l million. However, the size ratio of
commonly occurring minerals is only I: 1000 (approximately).
The following textures have been recognized based on the granularity of minerals. If minerals in
the rock are big enough to be seen by the naked eye, the texture is described as phaneric texture. On
the other hand, if minerals are too fine to be seen separately by the naked eye, the texture is described
as aphanitic texture.
The phaneric texture, for convenience of description, has been further classified into coarse,
medium and fine. When the mineral grain size is more than 5 mm, the texture of the rock is called
phaneric-coarse; when the grain size happens to be in between 1 mm and 5 mm, the texture is called
phaneric-medium and when the grain size is less than 1 mm, the texture is called phaneric-fine.
Similarly, the aphanitic texture is also classified as microcrystalline, cryptocrystalline and glassy.
When the grains are recognizable under the microscope, the texture is called aphanitic-microcrystalline.
If the rock is amorphous and minerals are not noticed at all under the microscope, the texture is
described as aphanitic-glassy. If the minerals had undergone only very incipient growth, and are not
distinguishable under the microscope but affect the polarized light giving a hazy outlook under crossed
Nicols (unlike a black field in case of glassy rock). the texture is called aphanitic-cryptocrystalline.
Textures Based on Shapes of Crystals
These textures are of two different kinds: The first in terms of development of crystal faces or boundary
outlines and the other with reference to the nature of the growth of the mineral.
Minerals develop perfect crystal outlines when they crystallize in a thin liquid medium free from
interference by neighbouring crystals. Pegmatite minerals like beryl tourmaline belong to this kind.
Minerals also develop such outlines when they crystallize in early stages of magma solidification
because then they would be surrounded only by a liquid melt on all sides, enabling the mineral to
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Igneous Rocks
133
in colour and texture. These genetically related rocks are called chamockite series. This series is also
called Nilgiri gneiss or mountain gneiss.
Minerals Present
All chamockites are characterized by an abundance of feldspars and pyroxenes, particularly hypersthene.
Acidic chamockites are like hypersthene granites, rnineralogically, i.e., they mainly contain feldspars,
quartz and hypersthene. The intermediate and basic types are equivalent to quartz norites and norites
respectively. (Norite is like gabbro. The difference is that the pyroxene present in gabbro is augite,
but in norite the pyroxene is hypersthene. Both have the labradorite type of plagioclase feldspar in
addition.) The ultrabasic (i.e., silica-poor) type of chamockite is equivalent to pyroxenite.
Mode of Origin
Though chamockites are considered as igneous rocks, they show peculiar characters diagnostic of both
igneous and metamorphic rocks. Hence there is a controversy about their origin. Throwing off tongues
and veins into surrounding rocks by the chamockite body and occurrence of features indicative of
partial assimilation and hybridism strongly support the intrusive and igneous origin of chamockites.
But (i) the occurrence (though occasionally) of typical metamorphic minerals Like cordierite and garnet,
(ii) the occurrence of gneissose structure, (iii) the myrmekitic growth of quartz and feldspar and
(iv) sporadic round quartz grains enclosed by feldspar strongly support the metamorphic origin of
charnockites.
Cbamockites are believed to have been formed out of recrysl31lization of igneous rocks under
conditions of high temperature and pressure (i.e., of plutonic metamorphism).
Appearance of Charnockite in Hand Specimens

Megascopically, i.e., in hand specimens, all chamockites, irrespective of their composition, are
melanocratic, i.e., black coloured. All are phaneric coarse grained and equigranular with shining laths
of feldspar. ln acidic varieties, greasy looking bluish grey quartz occurs.
Structure and Texture

Like other plutonic rocks chamockites also are compact, massive, dense and non-porous (impervious).
Texturally, these are phaneric coarse grained. Foliation and banding occur sometimes only for short
lengths.
Availability
Charnockites, which are Archaean in age, occur widely distributed in peninsular India and form a
portion of the Nilgiri hills and southern parts of the Eastern and Western ghats. Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
and, to some extent, Andhra Pradesh have large and good outcrops of charnockites.
Properties and Uses

Chamockites are hard, strong and durable rocks with a high load-bearing capacity. Like other plutonic
rocks these are also non-porous and impermeable. They do not have any weak planes like bedding,
significant banding or foliation. They are suitable for all civil engineering works. However, their colour
is blackish. Mahabalipuram temples (Tamil Nadu) were constructed many centuries ago from
charnockites.
The chamockites of peninsular India are claimed to be one amongst the strongest and the most
durable stones of the world.
~opyngh
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162
8.1 METAMORPHISM
The word metamorphism means change of form (meta

change; morpb
form). In petrology, it
indicates the effectof temperature, pressure and chemically active solutions over the texture, minerals
and composition of parent rocks. Igneous and sedimentary rocks which serve as parent rocks are formed
under a certain physicochemical environment, i.e., at the time of their formation, they were in
equilibrium with their surroundings in terms of temperature, pressure and chemically active fluids.
Subsequent to their formation, if any of these factors changes significantly, the equilibrium gets upset
and necessary metamorphism, i.e., textural, compositional and mineralogical changes take place to
create a new equilibrium. This means the constituent minerals, texture and composition of parent rocks
by metamorphism change over to new minerals or new textures or new compositions which are more
stable and suitable under new conditions. For example: As a result of metamorphism (i) granite, one
of tile most abundant igneous rocks, changes to granite gneiss; (ii) periodotite, an ultrabasic igneous
rock, changes to serpentine and talc schist; (iii) gabbro (or dolerite), an intermediate igneous rock,
changes into hornblende schist. Among sedimentary rocks (iv) sandstone changes into quartzite;
(v) limestone changes into marble; (vi) shale changes into slate and so on.
The range of temperature and pressure which occurs in nature is very wide. The normal surface
temperature and pressure affect the rocks by causing weathering. At the other extreme, intense heat
in the subsurface (at great depths) melts the rocks and produces magma. As accepted by many, the
term metamorphism does not include either weathering of rocks or magma formation. The extreme
states of metamorphism are represented by palingenesis or ultrametamorphism or anatexis. In these
the intensity of temperature and pressure will be so high that it involves partial melting and mixing
of rocks. Since the identity of the altered rocks is not totally destroyed, in these states, they come under
metamorphism. They are next only to the formation of new magma.
8.1.1 Metamorphic Agents
The process of metamorphism occurs in rocks due to the effect of high temperature, pressure and
chemically active fluids. These three are known as metamorphic agents. Generally, all these three act
together and cause metamorphism. But, sometimes, any one or two of them may dominate and play
an active role. The following are a few relevant details about metamorphic agents.
Temperature
The source of temperature which is responsible for metamorphism is either due to depth or due to
the contact with magma (i.e., magma chamber or magmatic intrusion). The metamorphic changes
mainly take place in the temperature range of 350-850C. The temperature rise also increases the
chemical activity in rocks and facilitates reactions during metamorphism.
Pressure
The pressure which causes metamorphism is of two different kinds, namely, uniform pressure and
directed pressure.
.
Uniform pressure increases with depth (i.e., with increasing overburden), It acts vertically
downwards and affects the volume of both liquids and solids. Naturally, its effect is significant 'only
at great depths, but not at or near the surface. This also means that high temperatures will also be
associated (due to the depth factor) with high uniform pressure. So, both of them act together and
bring about metamorphism in rocks.
~opyngh
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Structural Geology
193
any directional features. Hence, such rocks even if folded or faulted do not provide any indication
of them. Therefore, they are unsuitable for study of geological structures. For a similar reason,
metamorphic rocks, such as marbles and quartzites, which bear a predominantly granulose structure,
are also unsuitable for the study of these types of structures.
1000
1000
500
500
Case 1
Case 2
rT T
1000i;'"~~ti:::::.....
500,_
Case 3
Case I: When beds dip in the direction opposite to the slope of the valley: V points up the valley.
Case 2: When beds dip in the same direction as the slope of the valley and at a greater angle:
V points down the valley.
Case 3: When beds are horizontal or dip in the same direction as the slope of the valley and
at a smaller angle: V points up the valley and is longer than in Case I.
Fig. 9.2 Valleys and shapes of outcrops
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Fold A
Wavelength of fold = Distance

between successive crests
(a)
Axial plane
Axis
Axis of fold
Plunge or
pitch
Axial plane
(c)
(b)
Axial planes
Syncilne
Anticline
(d)
Fig. 9.6(a. b, c and d) Fold and its parts
C ipynghted material
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Structural Geology
201
Axis la horizontal, therefore

It is a non-plunging fold
Fold is bent upwards,
therefore it is anticline
~t~~~~~~r
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of fold remains the

ssme with depth, therefore It Is
simHar fold
Two limbs are equal and mirror images of

one another with reference to axial plane,
therefore it is a symmetrical fold
Bed has uniform thickness,

therefore it is an open fold
Fig. 9.13 A non-plunging, similar, symmetrical and open anticiline
Miscellaneous Folds
In addition to the preceding types, a few more folds with some peculiarities are as follows.
Overturned Fold
Usually, in simple folds, the limbs show the order of superposition. But when one of the limbs is
overturned, the order of superposition (order of superposition means successively younger beds overlie
the older beds) of beds in that limb will be in reverse order and such a fold is called an overturned
fold (see Fig. 9.14).
Younger beds
Younger beds
Limb with normal
order of super
position-+-'
Older
Older beds
beds
,,.__ Overturned
limb with revenie
order of super position
Normal type of fold
Overturned fold
Fig. 9.14 Normal and overturned folds
Chevronfolds: Usually, the crests and troughs of beds are smoothly curved. But some folds have sharply
bent, angular crests and troughs. Such folds are known as "chevron folds".
Gently curved crests
and troughs
Normal
type of fold
Angular crests and

troughs
Chevron fold
Fig. 9.15 Normal and chevron folds
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Structural Geology
205
parts to commence with) change over to hills. This paradoxical phenomenon is popularly expressed
as "anticlinal valleys and synclinal hills". The anticlinal valleys are typical examples of ioliers and
the synclinal hills are examples of outliers. (lnliers are the areas where older formations are surrounded
by younger formations. The outliers are opposite to inliers, i.e., in them, the younger strata are
surrounded outwardly by successively older strata.) Apart from folding and faulting, valley erosion
too can produce outliers and inliers (Fig. 9 .23 ).
Eroded crests
- -
Fractures due
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to tenstion
Hill
(Syncline)
Anticline
(Hill)
(Anticline)
Inlier
Outlier
Fig. 9.22 Erosion in folded area
Inlier
Inlier
---------------------------------+---------------------------------++ + + +
++ + + +
+ + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + ++ +
+ ++
+
+ ++ + +
+
Fig. 9.23 River erosion and formation of inliers and outliers
9.2.5 Folding Leading to Faulting

Depending upon the intensity and nature of tectonic forces, the strata which were originally horizontal
may give place to various types of folds, ultimately leading to faulting. This is illustrated by Fig. 9.24.
9.3 FAULTS
From the civil engineering point of view, faults are the most unfavourable and undesirable geological
structures at the site for any given purpose, i.e., for location of reservoirs; as foundation site for
construction of dams, important bridges or huge buildings, for tunnelling; for laying roads, railway
tracks, etc. This is because faults considerably weaken the rocks (in addition to other harmful effects)
and render the sites in which they occur as unfavourableplaces for all constructional purposes. Further,
as long as the faults are active, the site is unstable and susceptible to upward, downward or sideward
movement along the fault plane, thereby making the place highly hazardous for foundation purposes.
Thus, by virtue of the harm they are capable of causing, faults are necessarily investigated with special
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Structural Geology
209
Slip
The displacement that occurs during faulting is called the slip. The total displacement is known as
the net slip. This may be along the strike direction (strike slip) or the dip direction (dip slip) or along
both as shown in Fig. 9.27.
Net slip (NS) = dip slip (OS)

and strike slip is zero
Net slip (NS) = slrike slip (SS)

and dip slip is zero
Net slip (NS) = Slrike slip (SS)

and dip slip (OS)
Fig. 9.27 Relation of net slip, dip slip and strike slip
Heave and Throw
The horizontal component of displacement is called "heave" and the vertical component of displacement
is called "throw". lo the figure, the points A and B were together side by side before faulting. After
faulting, they are displaced and hence found separately in different positions. lo this, AC which is the
horizontal component of displacement is heave and CB which is the vertical component of displacement
is throw.
In vertical faults, there is only throw, but no heave. In horizontal faults, there is only heave, but
no throw as shown in Fig. 9.28.
Throw (no heave)
Heave
(nothro~
~--<'
Fig. 9.28 Heave and throw in fault
9.3.2 Absolute and Relative Displacement

Faults are studied only after they have occurred and hence the actual or absolute type of displacement
suffered by rocks (i.e., which faulted block had actually gone up or gone down and to what extent)
is not known. The relative position of blocks as seen in the fields is possible through five different
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Structural Geology
213
will be a gravity fault; if it moves to the left side it will be a sinistral fault; and if it moves to the
right side it will be a dextral fault.
Foot
wall
Reserve fault
Fig. 9.33 Foot wall displacement nature in different faults
'
Type of Slip Involved
"Slip" has been already described as the displacement along the fault plane. If the displacement is
only along the strike direction of the fault plane, such a fault is described as a strike slip fault. On
the other hand, if the displacement is completely along the dip direction of the fault plane, it is failed
a dip s}ip fault. If the displacementoccurs partly along the strike direction and partly along the dip
direction (i.e., the direction of net slip is oblique to both the strike direction and dip direction) of the
fault plane, such a fault is called an oblique slip fault. Relevant diagrams are given under "slip"~
Mutual Relationship of Altitudes of Fault Plane and Adjacent Beds
'
Among the different field classifications of faults,

this is one of the most convenient types. In this,
the strike direction of the fault plane is compared
with the strike direction or dip direction of the
adjacent strata (i.e., beds). If the strike direction
of the fault plane and that of adjacent beds are
the same (i.e., mutually parallel), the fault is C3
called a "strike fault"; on the other hand, if the
A3
c
strike direction of the fault plane is parallel to the
Bed
true dip direction of the adjacent strata, such a
fault is described as a "dip fault". If the strike
direction of the fault plane is parallel to neither
the strike direction nor the dip direction of
adjacent beds, it is called an "oblique fault",
Lastly, if a fault plane is parallel to the bedding
planes of adjacent beds (i.e., when all the three
elements of attitude, i.e., strike direction. true dip
Bed'
direction and true dip amount coincide with those
JI Symbol of strike and dip of beds
of adjacent beds), the fault is called "bedding
Fig. 9.34 Altitude relation of. fault plane with
fault". Obviously, the bedding fault is a type of
adjacent beds
strike fault. (See Fig. 9.34.)
<" pynghted ma nal
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Structural Geology 217

9.3.5.1 Lithological Evidences
Slickensides, fault drags, brecciation, mineralized zones, repetition and omission of strata and offset
of beds are some lithological evidences of faulting.
Slickensides: The surfaces of rocks along which relative displacement had actually taken place (i.e.,
rocks along fault planes) often bear marks of such movement in the form of a number of parallel
striations or narrow groove-like markings on plain surfaces. Further, they are sometimes nicely
polished. This is due to frictional resistance caused by slow relative displacement. The pieces of rocks
which have the foregoing characters, i.e., plain surfaces bearing parallel line-like markings with or
without polishing are caUed "slickensides", When erosion takes place such slickensides appear
scattered near and around the fault plane. Tilus, their occurrence in the field suggests the occurrence
of a fault nearby.
Fault plane
Drag of fault
Fig. 9.40 Striated surface of a slickenside
Fig. 9.41 Drag of a
fault
When erosion takes place to the level

of ABC. the bed appears repeated
When erosion takes place to the level of

ABC, the bed disappears (or omitted)
Fig. 9.42
Repetition and omission of strata
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Structural Geology
221
Columnar joints which may occur in basalts are typical examples of tension joints. Their mode
of formation has already been explained under primary structures of volcanic igneous rocks (Sec. 6.5. l ).
Mud cracks also are formed due to tensional forces. ln this case, tensional forces developed due to
shrinkage in volume of mud which, in turn, was due to the escape of enclosed moisture content on
evaporation. Tension joints develop perpendicular to the direction of tensional forces, which pull apart
the rock masses. Both columnar joints and mud cracks are polygonal in plan.
As mentioned under the influence of erosion in folded areas (Sec. 9.2.4), the crest and trough
portions are highly fractured. Since these wedge-shaped fractures are formed due to tensional forces,
they also represent tension joints.
Tension joints
Shear joints
Fig. 9.47 Tension and shear joints
Shear joints develop in those contexts where shearing forces prevail. Faults and limbs of folds
are the places where shearing forces occur and create shear joints.
Further, joints are also sometimes described as longitudinal joints or transverse joints depending
on whether they are parallel to or across some large-scale features such as mountain ranges in a given
region.
9.4.4 Types of Joints Found in Common Rocks

Among the different structures, joints are most commonly found in rocks. They occur in all types of
rocks. However, some peculiarities in their pattern of occurrence are noticeable in some rocks,
particularly in igneous rocks. Some of the relevant details are as follows.
Joints in Igneous Rocks
We have already stated in Chapter 5 that among different varieties of igneous rocks, basalts and granites
are the most common and abundant. Basalts are nearly five times greater in quantity than all other
volcanic rocks put together. Granites are twenty times greater in quantity than all other plutonic rocks
put together. Thus, it would be interesting to know the types of joints that occur in them.
Basalts and other volcanic rocks may have columnar joints, which have been already described.
Granites and other similar rocks are sometimes characterized by the presence of a joint system
known as mural joints (Sec. 6.5.1). These are three sets of joints, of which two are vertical sets and
the other horizontal (resembling the cubic cleavage found in galena mineral). All these three sets are
mutually perpendicular and, when developed well, the granite body (as observed in a quarry) appears
to be made up of a number of rectangular or cubic blocks (mural = cubical block). The quarry face,
then, looks like a giant wall of a fort. Mural joints are often accompanied by two other sets of
microfractures, which are known as rift and grain. From the civil engineering point of view, the mural
joints facilitate easy quarrying, while rift and grain are helpful in the dressing of the rocks.
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Structural Geology
225
Disconformity
On the other hand, if the beds of the younger and older sets are mutually parallel and the contact plane
of two sets is only an erosion surface, then the unconformity is called "disconformity", In this case,
the lower set of beds would have undergone denudation before the deposition of the overlying strata
commenced.
Paraconformity
When the two sets of beds are parallel and the contact is a simple bedding plane, the unconformity
is called "paraconformity," In such cases, the unconformity is inferred by features like sudden change
in fossil content or in lithological nature (such as the occurrence of coarse detrital sediments overlying
fine sediments).
Different unconformities are shown in Fig. 9.49 along with conformity structures for comparison.
The MNO plane refers to the unconformity plane in these figures.
--
Primary rooks
!';'" ... , __
Confonnity
Non-Confonnily
Angular unconformity
0
0
Angular unconfonnity
Disconformity
Paraconformity
Fig. 9.49 Different types of unconformities
Regional and Local Unconformities

When an uncomformity extends over a great area, it is called regional unconformity. On the other hand,
if an unconformity occurs over a relatively small or limited area it is called local unconformity.
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Importance of Geological Structures 229

(Note: Under structures of sedimentary rocks we have learnt that such rocks will have the greatest
load-bearing capacity when forces act perpendicular to the bedding planes and the same rocks have
the least competence when the forces act parallel to the bedding planes.)
Further, this geological setting caused by folding also indirectly contributes to the stability of the
darn by completely eliminating the possible uplift pressure. This is so because any possible leakage
(marked as small arrows in the figure) of reservoir water is directed to the upstream side by virtue
of the (upstream) inclination of beds. Hence there is no scope for the flow of reservoir water beneath
the dam which means that no uplift pressure occurs for the dam.
The foregoing two advantages can be appreciated
when compared with the consequences of the dam
-
Downstream side
location over horizontal strata (i.e., over undisturbed
beds), which may be referred now as Case 2. Figure - Reservoir - - ~
water
10.2 shows that the resultant force (in the dam) which
is inclined slightly in the downstream direction is not
perpendicular to the bedding planes of strata. Hence
this geological setting is not ideal, though not bad.
Further, the reservoir water, which is under great
pressure, shall attempt to leak beneath the dam along Fig. 10.2 Dam on horizontal beds. (The small
the horizontal bedding planes, thereby causing uplift arrows indicate the direction along which water
pressure; of course, the heavy weight of the dam may seep out from the reservoir and flow
which acts vertically downwards will effectively downstream. Here, W, the weight of the dam, which
is acting at right angles to the bedding planes,
obstruct such possible flow of water which means
inferferes with such seepage.)
uplift pressure over the dam is minimum, though not
absent. Thus, the comparison of these two cases clearly shows that folding may sometimes provide
favourable geological conditions from the civil engineering point of view. But it this is not always
so because the same set of beds when folded may provide a dangerous and unstable geological setting
depending on the location of dam. This is as follows:
Case 3: Suppose the dam is located over the limb of a fold which dips along the downstream
direction (i.e., a context which is opposite to Case I). Figure 10.3 shows that the resultant force of
the darn will be parallel or nearly parallel (depending on the dip amount of beds and the inclination
- -------------.- ----------
~:a::,~~=!'~
-
water ---
======------
-., Downstream side
'
',
'
uptiftve
Fig. 10.3 Dam on downstream dipping beds
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Importance of Geological Structures
239
5. Joints may act as sites for the development of solution cavities and solution channels in limestone
terrain. This is due to the action of percolating carbon dioxide-bearing waters.
However, in a good number of cases, the joints may be harmless to a reasonable extent because
minor joints can be sealed effectively by simple grouting. If the joints are big, they should be closed
by other means.
The only important benefit of joints is with reference to ground water occurrence, particularly in
hard rock areas.
10.3.6 Steps to Improve the Sites with Joints
Since joints are gaping fractures, they can be sealed by filling them up in a suitable manner. Such
a filling makes the site more compact, massive and coherent. It also simultaneously reduces the porosity
and permeability. All this leads to the improvement in the strength (competence) of the affected rocks.
This shall make the site suitable for foundation purposes. Since the aforementioned treatment reduces
the porosity and permeability, leakage also gets reduced significantly. The joints with narrow openings
are filled by grouting. If the gaps happen to be broader, then they are closed by filling with rich cement
mortar or rich concrete. In case of tunnels (particularly hydropower tunnels), to avoid ground water
problems or possible leakage problems, a reasonably thick lining is given.
It should be remembered that the need for filling up the joints should be assessed properly. Suppose
joints occur at a reservoir site, and if the concerned dam is constructed only to control floods, then
those joints can be left as such to permit leakage of water.
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Ground Water
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
243
places, available surface water supply may be inadequate. In such cases, ground water is the only
alternative and dependable source of water.
Even in places where streams or rivers occur, water flowing through them will not be constantly
steady and would dwindle during summer. Many streams actually now only during rainy seasons.
Jn our country, only north Indian rivers are perennial and maintain satisfactory discharges as they
are fed by the melting of glaciers. Further, during droughts, surface water bodies get dry naturally.
Therefore, in all such cases, ground water shall be the only source of water supply.
In places where rivers occur, to exploit their water suitably, it becomes necessary to construct and
maintain dams and canals which means spending of thousands of crores of rupees and waiting
for decades for getting water supply from such projects. Further, such projects shall also require
the labour of thousands of skilled and unskilled people. Thus they involve money, time and work
on a very large scale. When compared with this stupendous task, the exploitation of ground water
simply requires digging a suitable well or borewell which can be accomplished cheaply in a very
short time and with much less labour.
To harness surface river water by dams, it is also necessary to have reservoirs of adequate capacity
to store the enormous quantities of impounded water. This means hundreds of thousands of acres
of valuable or fertile or historically important surface land will get submerged under water
permanently and become unusable for any purpose such as cultivation. developing townships or
industries. The acquisition of such extensive land will involve many problems like huge monetary
compensation, evacuation of a number of villages, submergence of centres of ancient culture (such
as those of the Buddhist religion under the Nagarjuna Sagar dam), sacred temples, etc. (Such a
threat to the famous and historically important Alampur Temples at Sri Sailarn reservoir site is
a relevant example.) But in exploiting ground water, either a well or borewell occupies a practically
negligible place as all its reserve of water is drawn from subsurface formations. This means any
problems mentioned in the cases of reservoirs will not arise.
In case of reservoirs, there shall be scope for leakage of water depending on the types of rocks,
geological structures and water table position existing at the reservoir basin. But in the case of
a well there is no such possibility as the water from the well is drawn from the zone of saturation
itself.
In case of reservoirs, again, the water occurs over a very wide area which means considerable
loss of water by evaporation (which is a natural process taking place at all times), In case of wells
this is not so.
Though rivers are capable of self-purification, there is always the threat of pollution due to release
of industrial wastes, sewage and other effluents at a number of places along their course. The
multimillion project of "Ganga river purification", taken up recently by the government, illustrates
the severity of this aspect. Such a possibility is remote in the case of well, as they are well
maintained by the owners concerned. Of course, sometimes, ground water too may cause some
health (particularly dental) problems depending on the composition of subsurface formations.
Fluorosis noticed in some districts of Andhra Pradesh may be cited in this regard.
Reservoirs, being artificial lakes, always face silting problems which gradually decrease their
storage capacity. This means that, after some years, they become more or less useless. Any number
of precautions taken can only reduce the rate of silting but cannot altogether eliminate it. In the
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Ground Water
249
2. The contraction joints (like columnar joints) and other fractures, if present, also contribute
to the porosity and permeability characters of basalts.
3. Since basalts originate as lava flows, sometimes, they may be overlying the buried valleys
which offer good ground water potential.
4. Depending on the attitude of associated strata, basalts may even give rise to artesian conditions.
But massive, fresh (unweatbered) basalts with their interlocking texture are practically not
porous and not permeable like granites. Such basalts are aquifuges.
Sedimentary Rocks
Among sedimentary rocks, the most common ones are shales, sandstones, and limestones, Of these,
sandstones and shales are formed out of the deposition of mechanically transported sediments.
Generally, the factors which contribute to the primary porosity in them (sandstones and shales) are:
I. Assorted and unassorted characters of sediments.
2. Size and shape of sediments.
3. Nature of compaction and/or cementation undergone by sediments.
A generalization may be made that coarse, rounded, sorted (i.e., uniform size sediments), less
compacted and poorly cemented rocks are more porous. In the case of dense and fine grained limestones
(formed out of compaction of chemically precipitated calcareous material), they have no primary
porosity, but solution cavities and channels are common in them which sometimes make these rocks
highly porous. In laterites, which represent the residual type, the porosity is due to the intense leaching
of the rock concerned.
All the foregoing rocks may also have joints, faults, shear zones, cracks, etc., which contribute
to additional porosity in them.
In sediments and sedimentary rocks the following represents the increasing order of acquifer
character: clays, shale, limestones, sandstones, sand and gravel.
Shales are impermeable rocks, though considerably porous. Clays may have 50-60% porosity.
Therefore, these are quoted as typical examples of aquicludes. If numerous fractures occur in them,
they may act as aquitards. But when wet, they may become plastic and close the fractures. From the
ground water point of view, shales are important because, being a very common sedimentary rock,
they often contribute to artesian and perched water conditions.
Sandstones, though less porous (10-15% only) than shales are fairly permeable rocks. Thus, by
virtue of reasonable porosity and permeability, these make up common and good aquifers. It is a fact
that in some places of Tamil Nadu, ground water is drawn out from very great depths from sandstones.
Of course, all sandstones do not serve as equally good aquifers because their aquifer characters as
we know are influenced by factors such as their grain size, shape, sorting and cementation.
Conglomerates which are similar to sandstones in their mode of formation may act as better aquifers
by virtue of the large size and tbe rounded shape of constituent pebbles and gravels.
From the ground water point of view, limestones are unpredictable. Some limestones are highly
porous due to solution cavities and channels. They act as good aquifers. But some limestones are very
dense, compact and extremely fine grained. They are neither porous nor permeable. Therefore, they
act as aquifuges. But usually cracks or fractures which occur on aU rocks may occur in limestones
too and make them aquitards.
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Stratigraphy
271
are called the Vaikrita system. In Shimla and Garhwal, the schistose Archaean rocks are described
as "Jutogh" and "Chai!" series. Similarly, the rocks of other places are given different names.
Succession (order of superposition or order of formation of rocks)

As mentioned in the previous para Dharwar of Karnataka state is the type area of Archaeans, i.e., the
place where they have the best development. It was first studied by R. Bruce Foote in the 1880s, later
by W.F. Smeeth (1915), B. Rama Rao (1940) and others.
The rock types and the outlines of the succession as proposed by Rama Rao are as follows:
---------
Eparchaean unconformity---------Closepet granite

Cbamockites
Peninsular gneisis
Champion gneiss
-----Unconformity
------------------
ARCHAEANS
Upper Dharwars
Quartzites, conglomerates and argillaceous

[ rocks
Middle Dharwars
Granites, gneisses. schists, conglomerates,

[ banded iron stones
Lower Dharwars
Micaceous quartz.
[ hornblende schists
schists,
gneisses
-----------Base not known-----------
Economic Importance
In India, Archaeans contain many rich economic mineral deposits. Therefore, they are appropriately
described as our "storehouse of mineral wealth". It is not an exaggeration to state that expect for coal,
oil and gas and a few other minor deposits, all other mineral wealth of our country belongs to Archaeans.
It will naturally be interesting to know about these deposits. But as these are not of concern from the
civil engineering point of view, only very important ones are mentioned here (within parentheses, names
of districts/places are given).
Metallic ore deposits

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3.
Gold
Copper
Iron ore
4. Lead-zinc ores
5. Chromite
6. Manganese ore
Kamataka (Kolar Gold Fields). Andhra Pradesh (Anantapur).

Bihar (Singhbhum), Andhra Pradesh (Guntur), Sikkim.
Bihar (Singhbhum), Orissa (Keonjbar), Madhya Pradesh (Bastar and
Dung), Maharashtra (Chanda), Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh.
Rajasthan (Zawar) deposits.
Orissa (Keonjhar, Dhenkanal, Mayurbbanj), Kamataka (Hasan), Bihar
(Singhbhum), Tamil Nadu (Salem), Andhra Pradesh (Krishna).
Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat, Chindwara), Maharashtra (Nagpur) Orissa
(Keonjhar), Bihar, Andhra Pradesh
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2.
Asbestos: Good chrysotile asbestos occurs in Cuddapab district of Andhra Pradesh.

3. Barytes: ln Andhra Pradesh, Cuddapah, Kumool and Anantapur districts; also occurs in Al war
in Rajasthan.
.
4. Copper and cobalt ores: In Rajasthan (Alwar and Jaipur). In Andhra Pradesh Cu-Pb-Zn ores
occur in Guntur district. The lead ore occurs in Cuddapah district.
5. Building stones
I. Quartzites
As building stones.
and others:
2. Limestones
As building stones and also for the
manufacture of cement.
3. Slates
School slates are produced in Markapur
(Kumool district of Andhra Pradesh)
and in Kund (Alwar in Rajasthan)
4. Refractory clays
Useful in the ceramic industry.
12.5.2.2 The Vindhyan System

The Vindhyan system is named after the Vindhyan range of mountains. This system has been studied
by many great geologists like E. Vredenburg, R.D. Oldham, H.B. Medlicott, W. King and others. These
formations occur uncomformably over the older rocks, i.e., Cuddapahs or Archaeans. Therefore, they
are younger to the Cuddapah system of rocks. The Vindhyan system covers a vast area of over 40,000
square miles and exhibits a maximum thickness of about 14,000 feet.
Litlwlogy: Sandstones, quartzites, shales and limestones are the main geological formations of the
Vtndhyan system. The lower pan is made up mainly of calcareous and argillaceous sediments which
were deposited under the marine environment. On the other hand, the upper part of Vindhyans is mainly
made up of arenaceous rocks of fluviatile origin.
Structure: From the structure point of view, the Vtndhyan system exhibits no signs of remarkable
diastrophism. Based on structure and lithology, this system has been divided into lower and upper parts.
The lower Vindhyans which are mainly calcareous and argillaceous have been subjected to folding
at some places. The upper Vindhyans which are arenaceous are undisturbed and hence .they are more
or less horizontal. Both these divisions are separated by unconformity.
Fossil consent: Like Cuddapahs, these rocks also, though highly suited for containing fossils, are
unfossiliferous. But F. Chapman and M.R. Sahni have described some doubtful organic remains (two
genera of primitive brachiopods, i.e., Fermoria and Krishnania) from Suket shales of the lower
Vindhyan age. Further, shales and limestones of lower Vtndhyans are said to contain spores, thalluses,
etc., of ancient plants.
Occurrence and distribution: The Vindhyan system of rocks are well developed in the Sone valley.
In most of the parts only upper Vindhyans are present. But in the Sone valley, both lower and upper
Vindhyans occur and hence it is considered as a type area [Fig. 12.3 (a)].
Some of the other places where equivalents of Vindhyans occur are as follows:
l.
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3.
4.
5.
6.
of the lower
Karauli and Chittor areas of Rajasthan
}
Kurnool system, Bhima series, etc., of A.P.
Vindhyan age.
Jeypore-Basrar-Raipur area of M.P. and Orissa
Ralam series of Kumaon
Haimanta system of Spiti
of extra-peninsula.
Jaunsar series of Garhwal
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Stratigraphy
281
weU developed in Giridih coalfields. This is mainly made up of grits, sandstones and coal seams. It
is 200' to 400' in thickness. The overlying Barakar stage is well developed in Jharia coalfields. It is
nearly 2500' in thickness. This stage is mainly made up of sandstones, shales and coal seams. Grits
and conglomerates also occur in some places. The Barakar stage contains a number of coal seams
and it is the most important coal-bearing strata in our country. Barakars have more than two dozen
coal seams of more than four feet thickness. Some of them like Korba and Kargali seams (of Madhya
Pradesh) are about 100' thick. It will be interesting to know that one-ninth of the total thickness of
the Barakar stage comprises coal seams. The cycle (sequence) of the sandstone-shale-coal seam occurs
repeatedly in this stage. The Barakars are overlain by Barren Measures. These are 1400' to 2000' thick
and consist of sandstones and carbonaceous shales with nodules of clay iron stone. This stage has no
coal seams, but contains workable deposits of iron ore in the Raniganj coal fields. Above the Barakars
stage, the Raniganj stage occurs. This stage which is the youngest of the Damuda series is about 3000'
thick and is made up of sandstones, shales and coal seams, This stage is well developed in Raniganj
coal fields, where they contain important coal seams. As in the case of the Barakar stage, in this stage
too, repeated cycles of sandstone-shale-coal seam occur.
Fossil Content
The Gondwana group of rocks is rich both in plant fossils (flora) and animal fossils (fauna). The lower
Gondwanas have relatively more of plant fossils and are particularly characterized by the presence
of Glossopteris and Gangarnopteris flora. Pteridosperrns, cordaitales, eyuisetales and sphenophyllales
are typical of these earlier Gondwanas.
The upper Gondwanas are marked by the advent of ptillophyllum (or Rajmahal) flora. These are
dominated by the advanced groups (or more developed forms) of plants like fems, cycades and conifers.
A good number of animal fossils, both vertebrates and invertebrates, have been found in middle
Gondwanas. These include crustacea, insects, fishes, amphibia and reptiles.
Economic Importance
Coal: The main economic importance of the Gondwana group centres around rich coal deposits. Such
deposits are not only extensive but also are of good quality. AU of them are rich bituminous coals.
Coking and steam coals are abundant in the Barakar series. The reserves of workable seams are
estimated to be around 35,000 million tons, of which six thousand million tons are said to possess
very good quality. West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh have rich deposits
ofGondwana coal. Among these, Bihar is the most productive. Coal seams also occur in the Himalayan
area.
Clays: Rich fire clay beds occur in association with coal seams. They are useful in making refractory
bricks. Suitable clays to make pottery. bricks. terra corta and chinaware also occur in the Gondwanas,
White clay and moulding sand are obtained from Mangalhat and Rajmahal Hills. Bentonitic clay which
is used for bleaching also occurs in plenty.
Sandstones: Gondwana sandstones are not as good as Vindhyan sandstones, but they are commonly
used as building stones. The Athgarh sandstones (upper Gondwanas) have been used in the famous
Orissa temples (in Bhubaneswar, Puri and Konark). The Khandagiri caves, near Bhubaneswar, are
carved out from Athgarh sandstones on! y.
Gondwana sandstones are also used as millstones and abrasive stones.
Iron ore: The beds of sideritic and limonitic iron ore, occurring in Raniganj coalfield, were used in
blast furnaces of the Bengal Iron Company. Their reserves are estimated to be 2000 million tons. These
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13
EARTHQUAKES
Introduction; 13.1 Earthquake Terminology; 13.2 Classifications and Causes of Earthquakes; 13.3
Seismic Bells and Shield Areas: 13.4 Earthquakes and Faulting: 13.5 Earthquake Waves: 13.6
Intensity of Earthquakes; 13.7 Magnitude of the Earthquakes; 13.8 Locating the Epicentre of an
Earthquake: 13.9 Determining the Depth of the Focus of an Earthquake: 13.10 Effects of Earthquakes:
13.11 Civil Engineering Considerations in Seismic Areas; 13.1 I. I Construction of Buildings Precautionary Measures; 13.11.2 Construcuon of Dams - Precautionary Measures: 13.11.3 Reservoirrelated Earthquakes - Precautionary Measures; 13.12 Plate Tectonics and Earthquake Distribution

I.
2.
3.
4.
To give basic information about the probable causes of occurrence of earthquakes.

To give their mode of occurrence and places of occurrence.
To give details of their effects, particularly from the civil engineering point of view.
To give possible measures to prevent damage to civil engineering structures due to earthquakes.
INTRODUCTION
The very term "earthquake", when mentioned, generally creates a sense of panic and calamity in the
minds of people, since many earthquakes have taken heavy tolls of life and property in the past, in
many countries. Even now, with the prevailing highly advanced state of knowledge, earthquake
occurrence still remains a mystery and is unpredictable.
Since earthquakes are capable of causing severe damage to any civil engineering structure, it is
necessary to know what they are. why they occur, how they occur, what kind of harmful effects they
will produce from the civil engineering point of view, what precautionary measures can be taken to
minimize such harm, and other related factors.
An earthquake may be simply described as a sudden shaking phenomenon of rhe earth's surface
for some reason or the other. It is also variously described as a sudden vibrating or jerking or jolting
or trembling or shivering phenomenon of the earth's surface. The intensity of this jolting may be too
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Earthquakes
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Fig. 13.l Elastic rebound hypothesis. (A) A bed over which stress begins to act. (B) The bed affected by stresses
has deformed elastically and a crack is developing at the bend. (C) Along the crack, the two fractured
blocks rebound to the positions of no strain. As a result the crack becomes a fault
Earthquakes are likely to reoccur at the same place because, at the first instance of displacement,
the broken blocks encounter great friction along the crack which means only partial structural
adjustments take place. Again, when stresses develop, strain also accumulates and when it reaches a
certain limit, it overcomes the frictional resistance and faulting/earthquake reoccurs. This means the
displacement of blocks again, at the same old site. Such phenomena will get repeated till total structural
adjustment is achieved in the region.
13.5 EARTHQUAKE WAVES
Earthquake vibrations originate from the focus and are propagated in all directions. These vibrations
travel through the rocks in the form of elastic waves. Mainly, there are three types of waves called
P waves, S waves and L waves. Of course, there are subvarieties among them. The important features
of these three kinds of waves are as follows:
P waves
These are variously called primary waves, push-pull waves, preliminary waves, longitudinal waves,
compressional waves, etc. These are the fastest among the seismic waves. They travel as fast as 8 to
13 km per second. Therefore, when an earthquake occurs, these are the first waves to reach any seismic
station and hence the first to be recorded. The P waves resemble sound waves because these too are
compressional or longitudinal waves in nature. Hence, the particles vibrate to and fro in the direction
of propagation (i.e., longitudinal particle 111otion). These waves are capable of travelling through solids,
liquids and gases.
S waves
These are also called shear waves, secondary waves, transverse waves, etc. Compared to P. waves,
these are relatively slow. They travel at the rate of 5 to 7 km per second. For this reason these waves
are always recorded after P waves in a seismic station. In nature these are like light waves, i.e., the
waves move perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Hence, transverse particle motion is
characteristic of these waves. These waves are capable of travelling only through solids.
S waves may sometimes show the polarization phenomenon. If the particle motion is parallel to
prominent planes in the medium they are called SH waves. On the other hand, if the particle motion
is vertical, they are called SV waves.
L waves
These are called long waves or surface waves. These are the slowest among the seismic waves.
Therefore these are the last to be recorded in the seismic station at the time of occurrence of the
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13.11.2 Construction of Dams - Precautionary Measures

Dams, being very costly projects, their construction in seismic areas needs careful study to ensure their
safety. When an earthquake occurs, a dam is subjected particularly to two types of forces which affect
the stability of the dam, These forces are due to the dam and due to reservoir water.
Forces due lo the dam include those due to the effects of horizontal and vertical ground acceleration
on the weight of the dam. The horizontal inertia force, Ve, of the concrete dam to the horizontal
acceleration is given by the formula Ve w .c, where 111 is the concrete load and c is the seismic factor,
i.e., alg. This force acts in a direction opposite to the earthquake acceleration and develops an
overturning effect which must be counterbalanced by introducing additional stress in the design of
the dam, in the directions in which overturning is most likely to occur.
Forces due to reservoir water: When the dam is vertical on the upstream face, at the time of the
earthquake, the effect of water immediate to the wall will also be in the horizontal direction and will
involve an additional force on the darn, which, when sufficiently strong, may lead to sliding or
overturning of the dam. This is called hydrodynamic force and can be calculated by the formula Pe
Ca . w . h, where Pe pressure at depth y; C is the coefficient for the shape of the dam at various
depths, a is the seismic factor, w is the unit weight of water and his the maximum depth of the reservoir.
lf the dam is sloping on the upstream face, then the water load will have a vertical effect in addition
to the horizontal component. A change in the vertical component will also be caused during an
earthquake and this factor should also be taken into consideration to overcome the risk.
The designing of an earth da111 is more difficult because the failure of such a dam during an
earthquake may be due to the vibration effect or due to shearing forces or both. If the failure is due
to the vibration effect, it will be because during an earthquake the material of the dam or its foundation
is likely to get compacted due to very quickly repeated vibrations caused by short period earthquake
waves. Consequently, such compacted dams may slump or may be overtopped by the reservoir water.
Ia case of shear failure. it may slide along its base or it 111ay be separated from its abutments. In these
dams, it is very essential to provide a clay core within the structure which makes the dam impermeable
and stable.
.
The general considerations for all types of dams are as follows: (i) dams should be designed in
such a way that during an earthquake they move along with the foundations below. (ii) Dams should
not ordinarily be built1 along or across the faults because possible slippage along these planes during
earthquakes will introduce additional complications. (iii) The resonance factor should also be given
due consideration because a coincidence in the periods of vibration of the dam and the earthquake
vibrations can produce cumulative effects.
13.11.3 Reservoir-related Earthquakes - Preventive Measures

In several dams which are situated in places of zero seismic activity, earthquakes were found to appear
when their reservoirs were filled up. The magnitude of the earthquakes increased when reservoirs
became full. In all such cases, the epicentre was inside or around the reservoir.
The Koyna earthquake in Maharashtra is a typical example of this kind. The Koyna dam rests
over stable rocks of very ancient times and the area was never active in terms ofearthquake occurrences.
As the reservoir commenced to take in water, seismic activity increased in the area. In 1967, a severe
earthquake of magnitude 6.5 shook the region greatly. Since then earthquakes are not uncommon there.
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Geophysical Investigations of Civil Engineering Importance
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Calcite
Hematite
Magnetite
Limonite
Pyrite
Graphite
Clay, shale
Conglomerate
107 - 1012
104 - 106
0.5 - 1o2
106 - 108
Jo-4 - 102
Io-4 - 0.5
1
10
10
1o2
1&
10'4
Sandstone
Limestone
Gneiss
Marble
333
103
103
103
103
105
108
Texture
With the same mineral composition, fine grained rocks show a higher resistivity compared to their
coarse grained equivalents. Further, lineation or foliation, if present, alters the resistivity along the
rocks, leading to anisotropy.
Moisture Content
Moisture may occur in the rocks either as ground water or
as mere moisture. Further, it may be pure or dissolved with
10
salts.
Frequently, the rocks which are not good conductors by
themselves contain moisture in the pore spaces. Then the
E
1
resistivity decreases considerably. But this change is not of
the same order in all formations. In igneous rocks, which
are hard and dense, even if the moisture content is less than
0.1
2% by volume, the resistivity may come down by several
orders. On the other hand, porous formations like sand or
sandstone exhibit a steady decrease in the resistivity as the
.01._ __
....___
.......__
_.
moisture content increases.
1
10
100
0.1
Further, the resistivity of water is dependent on its salt
grams/litre
content and temperature as shown in Fig. 16.1. Decrease in
resistivity with the increasing salt content may be appreciated Fig. 16.1 Variation in resistivity of water
depending on the content of
from the data given in Table 16.2. High temperatures have
dissolved salt (in gll) and on
the effect of increasing the electronic conductivity and the
temperature
ionic conductivity of the pore fluids.
Table 16.2 Electrical resistivity values of different types of water

S. No.
Type of Water
Salt Content Per

Litre
I.
2.
Rain water
Potable (i.e..
drinking) water
Water for cattle
or irrigation
Sea water
Ground water
Og
3.
4.
5.
Resistivity in
Ohm Metres
100 to 600
1.8
1.2 g
7g
35 g
Variable
.
0.65
0.2
10-2 to 1&
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Engineering Properties of Rocks
359
Shear test: The shear strength of a rock is also found out by applying the jack test in a modified form.
A series of small pillars of rocks are first exposed within the test gallery (Fig. 17.2). No explosives
should be used for this purpose. Further, it is required that the rock pillar be of one square metre at
the base and have a height to impose a sufficient vertical load at the proposed shearing plane. Then
each of these is loaded from a side by a jack. In those cases where the normal stress due to the vertical
load from above by virtue of tbe weight of the block (rock pillar) is felt to be insufficient, a second
jack may be used to exert a vertical pressure from the top on the rock pillar. Any displacement of
the block under such conditions gives an assessment of the shearing resistance of the rock, because
the applied shearing force is known, the vertical load is known and from these values, the failure
criterion can be found out.
Seismic test: This is a test of an approximate nature. In this test, an artificial explosion is made at
a particular place and the shock waves, P and S waves (i.e., elastic waves) generated there move in
different directions. They are recorded at different distances and from their arrival times, their velocities
are calculated. Then these velocities are utilized to study the deformation characteristics of rocks. The
velocities of P and S waves are related to the modulus of elasticity (E) and Poisson's ratio (M) as
follows:
V =--E(,_1-_M~)P
where
p{I + M}(l - 2M}
Vp = velocity of the P wave

p = density of the medium.
17.2.2 Laboratory Tests

Using cylindrical core samples of representative rocks, uniaxial compressive strength, tensile strength
and shear strengths are determined in the laboratory.
Uniaxial compressive strength: These tests are carried out on cylindrical specimens with a lengthdiameter ratio of 2. The results are then reduced to a length-diameter ratio of I by using the formula:
C0 = C, [(0.8 +(0.2 I (UD))), where C0 is the observed compressive strength using a cylinder of a
different diameter, Lis the length of the cylinder and Cs is the standard (uniaxial) compressive strength
(Fig. 17.3).
The procedure of its determination and the range of compressive strengths of common rocks are
given later under uniaxial compressive strength of racks, used as building stones.
Tensile strength: This may be determined directly or indirectly. The direct method would require
elaborate means. The indirect method which is called the "Brazilian test" consists of loading a test
cylinder diametrically in such a way that the applied loads would develop tensile rupturing along the
diametrical plane of the specimen. The loads are gradually increased till the cylinder is fractured.
The load P at rupture thus being known, transverse strength Ts is calculated by using the formula:
Ts= 2PhtDL, where D and L are the diameter and length of the specimen, respectively (Fig. 17.4).
Shear strength: For determining this strength, a bar-shaped specimen is held under grips and supported
at its ends below. It is loaded from above and rupture occurs as a result of failure along two planes,
when the shearing strength is exceeded. The shearing strength is calculated by using the formula
(P/2)/A. where P is the load at failure and A is the area of cross-section of the specimen under load.
The direct shear strength test has many limitations and hence the values are not strictly reliable.
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Table 17.4 Porosity in common rocks

Igneous Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
= 0.1 - 0.5%
Basalts = 0.1 - 1%
Sandstones
Limestones
Granites
Metamorphic Rocks
= 5 - 25%
= 5 - 20%
= 0.5 - 2%
Quartzite = 0.1 - 0.5%
Marble
Factors such as the interlocking texture, angular grains of different sizes, good cernentation and
good compaction contribute to the low percentage of porosity of rocks. On the other hand, the rounded
shape, grains of the same size, poor cernentation and less compaction contribute to the greater inherent
porosity of rocks. Of course, subsequent leaching of soluble constituents of rocks, and development
of joints, faults, cracks, etc., contribute to additional porosity of rocks.
Porosity is an important engineering property because it accounts for the absorption value of stones
and also for the lower density of rocks (rocks which are lighter due to greater porosity are naturally
weaker and incompetent). Thermal conductivity and durability are the other properties indicated by
porosity.
Absorption value: This is the capacity of a stone to absorb moisture when immersed in water for 72
hours or till saturation. This is expressed in percentage terms of original dry weight of the stone sample:
Absorption value =
s-w
I 00,
IV
where s and w are saturated and dry weights of the specimen. For a good stone, the percentage
absorption by weight after 24 hours should not exceed 0.6.
Rocks with greater absorption values are undesirable as building stones, because the presence of
water not only makes rocks weak but also makes then susceptible to frost action, chemical decay, etc.
Therefore, some sandstones, limestones, etc., which show absorption values greater than 10% are
considered unsuitable as building stones, particularly under moist conditions.
17 .3.4 Density
The density of a substance is the weight per unit volume. ln the case of rocks the solid mineral matter
contributes only a part of the total volume of a rock. A part of the rock may have pores or openings
which may be empty, partly filled or completely filled with water. Accordingly, there are different types
of densities, namely, "dry density", "bulk density", "saturated density" and "true density". Of these,
dry density refers to the weight per unit volume of an absolutely dry (i.e., oven-dried) rock specimen.
This means that it includes the pore spaces present in the rock. Bulk density refers to the weight per
unit volume of a rock with natural moisture content, wherein the pore spaces are partly filled with
'
water. The technical properties of the material such as strength and thermal conductivity are greatly
influenced by bulk density. Therefore, from the civil engineering point of view, this is very important
and this is the type of density considered in calculations. Saturated density refers to the weight per
unit volume of a rock in which all tile pores are completely filled with water. True density refers to
the weight per unit volume of mineral matter (without pores and water) of which a rock is made up.
Specific gravity multiplied by 62.3 gives approximately the weight of stone in lb/ft3.
The bulk density values of some common building materials are given in Table 17.5.
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315
minerals (i.e., clay minerals of the montmorillonite group), they swell on coming in contact with water,
resulting in the cracking of concrete. In the second case, cracking of concrete may occur due to the
reaction between alkalies in cement and reactive aggregates. As a result of this reaction, a gel is formed
around the reactive mineral. This gel, in turn, absorbs water by the osmotic process. As a consequence
of this, internal pressures develop and cracking of concrete takes place. This kind of alkali reaction
becomes harmful only in the case of high alkali cements having a total alkali content of 0.6% or more.
Even then, it is necessary to test the aggregate for its reactive nature. Generally, all silicate minerals
produce the gel reaction with high alkali cement but only a few react very strongly to cause trouble.
The strongly reactive minerals are mainly hydrous varieties of silica such as opal and chert. In addition
to these, basaltic glass and limestones, which may contain secondary silica deposits in cracks, are also
undesirable.
Whether a given aggregate shall lead to cracking of concrete or not can be ascertained by detailed
petrological examination of the aggregate. Further, a laboratory test on concrete made from the
aggregate and high alkali cement is also desirable, but this requires up to a year for deciding whether
the test concrete bar which is kept in a humid atmosphere at a certain temperature in an air-tight
container has expanded or not.
Among other undesirable constituents, iron sulphide minerals (like pyrite, marcasite and pyrrhotite)
in aggregates are deleterious in concrete. They lead to the formation of weak acids, which are corrosive
in nature. Such minerals are common in slates, shales and some metamorphic rocks.
It shall be proper to mention here that for making heavy concretes, which are used in atomic plants,
heavy aggregates are required, Barytes (BaS04, specific gravity = 4.5) and hematite (Fei03, specific
gravity = 5) are useful in such contexts.
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Dams
Max. Water
Level
381
Crest
Free board
Spillway
(MWL)
(Inside dam)
NWL
------- -----------(Nonna!
water level)
Reservoir
Sluice
.r:
- -- .......
-- ....-. . ....--... .... ....
Heel./",
I
I
I
I
Cutoft~l
Wall
I
I
I
I
-- --
Gallerv---H+
Base
Toe
'
Fig. 18.2 A gravity dam and its parts
Galleries
Diversion tunnels
Spillway
Sluice
Cut-off wall
These are small rooms left within the darn for checking operations.
There are the tunnels which are constructed beforehand for diverting the river
water. This helps in keeping the river bed dry at the darn site and facilitates
dam construction.
It is the arrangement made in a darn near the top to let off excess water of
the reservoir to the downstream side.
It is an opening in the dam near the ground level. It is useful in clearing the
silt of the reservoir.
It is an underground wall-like structure of concrete in the heel portion. It is
useful in preventing leakage under the foundation and thereby avoiding
undercutting of the heel as well as the uplift pressure (or upward thrust) on
the dam, which are harmful to dam stability.
18.3 TYPES OF DAMS AND BEA.RING OF GEOLOGY OF SITE IN THEIR SELECTION

The role of geology in dam construction is multifaceted and includes crucial factors like the selection
of the dam site and selection of the dam type.
Geological bearing is important in the selection of the darn type because different varieties of darns
suit particular geological and topographical conditions.
Based on the construction material used, darns are chiefly grouped into concrete dams and earth
darns. Based on design, the concrete dams (also called masonry dams) may be further grouped into
"gravity dams", "buttress darns" and "arch darrns". Similarly, earth dams too are subgrouped into "earth
fill darns" and "rock fill dams" based on the kind of material mainly used.
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387
The suitability or otherwise of a site to serve as a foundation for major dams depends on factors
such as: (i) the existing rock type at the dam site. (ii) the extent of weathering it has undergone, (iii)
the occurrence of intrusions, (iv) the extent of fracturing, (v) the occurrence of geological structures,
if any, and their influence and (vi) the mode and number of rock types concerned. (The details now
mentioned have already been given under respective subheadings of uses of concerned rock types under
petrology. But now to meet the requirements of the context, the relevant details are repeated in a concise
manner commencing with details of suitability of the existing rock type at the dam site.)
Suitability of Igneous Rocks
Among the rock types, the occurrence of massive plutonic and (or) hypabyssal igneous rocks is the
most desirable at the dam site because they are very strong and durable due to their dense character,
interlocking texture, hard silicate mineral composition, occurrence of negligible porosity and permeability,
absence of any inherent weak planes (like bedding, foliation and lineation), resistance to weathering
and their tendency to occur over wide areas. Of course. it is necessary that such rocks should not have
been affected by any intense weathering or fracturing or dykes or adverse geological structures like
shearing, faulting and jointing. Thus, all plutonic rocks like granites, syenites, diorites and gabbros
are very competent and desirable rocks for the foundation at the dam site. (However, relatively
speaking, silica-poor igneous rocks, which are uncommon, are more susceptible to weathering.) But
volcanic rocks, which are generally vesicular or amygdaloidal, are not equally desirable, obviously
because these characters contribute to porosity, permeability and hollowness which, in tum, reflect
the strength of the rock. (Amygdales, which are secondary minerals, may get leached under favourable
conditions.) However, it should be remembered that massive basalts, which are very fine grained, are
one of toughest rocks in nature. Adverse effects will be noticed in basalts only when they are highly
vesicular and permeable.
Suitability of Sedimentary Rocks
In the case of sedimentary rocks, the bedding and its orientation, thickness of beds, nature and extent
of compaction and cementation, grain size, leaching of soluble matter, porosity and permeability,
associated geological structures and composition of constituents (i.e., sediments, cementing material,
etc.) influence the strength and durability of different sedimentary rocks. AU these details have been
discussed already under sedimentary rocks.
Based on the aforementioned details, it may be stated that:
l.
Shales are not only inherently incompetent but they also form slippery bases. Therefore, they
are most undesirable at dam sites.
2.
Among sandstones, well-cemented siliceous and ferrugenous types are competent and suitable
for the dam foundation.
3. Laterites and conglomerates are undesirable at dam sites.
4. Limestones are competent if they are massive, i.e., unaffected by the solution phenomenon,
but they are liable to become dangerously porous for the same reason at any time in future.
Hence, they are undesirable al dam sites.
5. Thick massive sedimentary formations with less porosity are desirable.
6. Alternating soft and hard rocks of small thickness are undesirable.
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I.
2.
The resultant force (which is more important and

relevant than the weight of the dam) acts more
Reservoir
or less perpendicular to the bedding planes
Weight -U:\--+-Resullant force
of dam
which are dipping in the upstream side (Fig.
18.9). Hence the rocks are best positioned to
take the loads effectively.
By virtue of the prevailing upstream dip, any
percolated water of the reservoir is directed by
the bedding planes to the upstream side (i.e., Fig. 18.9 Dam over gently inclined beds in
towards the reservoir side only), i.e., there is no
upstream direction
scope of leakage of water below the dam towards
the downstream side. This is doubly advantageous because: (i) scope for occurrence of uplift
pressure on the dam is nil and (ii) the percolated water is returned to the reservoir side only,
i.e., there no scope for real loss or leakage of reservoir water. For these reasons, gentle upstream
dip is ideal for dam location.
-----------
(2) Beds with Steep Upstream Dip

Such a situation is not bad but not as advantageous as that of the previous situation, for obvious reasons,
i.e., in this case, there shall be no uplift pressure on the darn and no leakage of water from the reservoir,
but due to a steep dip the bedding planes are not perpendicular
to the resultant force. This means that the rocks will not be
Reservoir
as competent as in the previous case to withstand the loads
(Fig. 18.10).
--------
(3) Beds with 10 to 30 Inclination towards the Downstream

Side (i.e., Beds with Gentle Downstream Dip)
Such a case is very undesirable and can be considered as
a typical example to illustrate how a geological structure
can create harmful or adverse conditions for the dam
location. This is so because in such a context:
Flg. 18.10 Dam over steeply upstream
side inclined beds
I. The resultant force and bedding planes are in the

Reservoir
same direction which means that the positioning of
Clay bed
beds is disadvantageous and they are less competent
to withstand forces prevailing at the dam site.
2. The water of the reservoir may percolate (under
pressure due to the water column of the reservoir)
and such water flows along
the bedding planes F"1g. 18 11 0 am over downstream s1id e me
me d
.
1below the dam. '.hereby rt causes development of
beds
uplift pressure (i.e., upward thrust) on the darn.
Such an event obviously acts against the stability of the dam.
3. Further, such percolated water which moves with relative ease along bedding planes towards
the downstream side may account for a significant loss of water.
4. If a clay formation occurs exposed in such cases (due to topographical conditions) on the
upstream side and the downstream side, this shall be the worst situation because it (i.e., clay
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Valley side
Valley side with

possible slips of
rocks
Beds
Dam
Valley side
Beds
(a) Plan: Along the valley
(b) Across the valley
Fig. 18.16 Dam over beds striking parallel to valley

Secondly, in such a situation, i.e., when beds lie parallel to the length of the valley, the water from
the reservoir may find an adequate chance to percolate below the dam along the trend of bedding planes
and porous formations and leak out in the downstream side, which is undesirable.
Thirdly, in such a context, the foundation and abutments of the darn will obviously be resting on
different rock types. Naturally, such rocks differ in their strength and other physical properties and
hence are undesirable for dam location.
Thus for different reasons, strike valleys are unfavourable for construction of dams.
18.6 STAGES OF INVESTIGATION IN THE SELECTION OF A DAM SITE
The selection of a site for dam construction is made in stages. In the first stage, a preliminary or
reconnaissance survey is made and sites with obvious advantages or disadvantages are known. This
helps in the tentative selection of suitable sites. Then, after detailed investigations, the final selection
is made out of such sites. First-hand information which helps in tentative selection of a site is obtained
easily by examining the relevant toposheets and aerial photographs. The contour pattern, nature and
course of the river valley help at this stage to determine suitable sitesfor the location of the reservoir
and the dam. Then the preliminary investigations are made in those places to be followed by detailed
investigations which ultimately lead to the selection of the best possible site for dam construction. A
few details about observations made during preliminary and detailed investigations are as follows.
18.6.1 Preliminary Investigations
In an area which apparently seems to be suitable for the location of a dam, preliminary investigations
are made to ascertain its important merits or demerits. This kind of investigation is necessary, so that
detailed investigations which are much more expensive, extensive and laborious should be made only
if the site is approved. The important information collected at this stage is as follows.
1. Lithology
Lithology provides the details of rock types occurring in that area. The different varieties of rock types
present, their nature and extent of weathering, the occurrence of soil, rock debris, etc., in the area are
known. This gives a broad idea of the presence or absence of competent rocks, the weathering it has
undergone and other related information.
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408
weathering was associated with a 6 m wide vertical faulted and sheared zone in the top quartzites.
The shear zone extends from heel to toe in block nos. 20 to 24 and trends in N 70W-S 70E direction
to the axis of the dam. Following this shear zone, the soft material was mined out through a 83 m
long adit up to the end of the dam along the axis. Exploration by drilling proved that weathering was
generally confined to the shear zone and to the pitted quartzites and shales occurring between elevation
184 m and 189 m. Jn addition, three cross-drifts were excavated at RD 481.6 m, 486.2 m and 493.8
m from the downstream face to explore the extension of the weathered seam in the downstream
foundation area. Fresh rock was encountered within the cross-drifts at RD 486.2 m and 493.8 m at
3 to 5 m distance, but in the 38 m long cross-drift at RD 481.6 m excavated following an open joint
in the roof, fresh rock was not encountered.
Construction Material
The massive quartzites in the vicinity of the dam site form the main source of rubble and coarse
aggregate for the dam. The nearest source of natural sand is the Dindi river bed, situated at a distance
of 55 km from the dam site and sand is obtained from this place as the crushing of quartzites did not
yield satisfactory fine aggregate material besides being costly.
Testing of Foundation Material
Various rock types, forming the foundations, were tested in the laboratory for their compressive
strength, shear strength, modulus of elasticity, absorption and volume change.
In in situ field tests, the ultimate crushing load at the failure of the abutment shales was found
to be 339 tonnes/sq.m. The coefficient of friction between shale-quartzite and shale-concrete surfaces
was 30 and 35. The C and tan cj> values of the deep channel shales were 5.6 kg/cm2 and 3330'
respectively.
Percolation tests in bore holes under 2.1 kg/cm2 showed losses of 45-91 litres/m through jointed
quartzites. The joints in the massive quartzites on the abutments and in the river bed were found to
be open for a depth of about 9 m by these tests.
Geotechnical Problems
The occurrence of deep pools on either side, and the existence of a thick boulder fill along the deep
course, posed problems in locating the axis of the dam. An additional complication was the occurrence
on the right abutment of a 3 m thick deeply weathered and decayed pitted quartzite associated with
a faulted and closely fractured zone. After delineation of the bedrock configuration in the deep course,
the present axis has been fixed up, so as to derive the maximum advantage of high bed levels in the
deep course and avoiding a major portion of the weathered seam in the foundation area on the right
abutment.
The soft and friable interbedded shales, and pitted quartzites in the abutments, constitute weak
horizons and give rise to problems of settlement and sliding of the foundations. In the deep channel
portion a number of discontinuous and lens-shaped bedding shears are present at and below the
foundation grade.
The C and tan cj> values of the deep channel shales were 5.6 kg/cm2 and 0.66 respectively, as against
the values of 21 and 0.7 assumed in the designs. This necessitated remedial steps against foundation
failure by sliding in the deep channel portion also.
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20
TUNNELS
Introduction; 20. I Purposes of Tunnelling; 20.2 Effects of Tunnelling on the Ground; 20.3 Lining
of Tunnels; 20.4 Economical Aspects of Tunnelling; 20.5 Geological Considerations for Successful
Tunnelling; 20.5.1 Importance of Rock Types; 20.5.2 Importance of Geological Structures;
20.5.3 Importance of Ground Water Conditions; 20.6 Overbreak; 20.7 A Few Examples of Tunnels
of Interest and Importance

l.
2.
3.
To mention the variety of purposes served by tunnels.

To mention the deteriorating effects produced in the ground during the excavation of tunnels.
To highlight, with suitable examples and figures. the role of geology (in term of lithology, structure
and ground water) in the success of tunnels.
4. To emphasize the necessity of lining for the safety and stability of tunnels.
5. To emphasize conditions under which excessive overbreak occurs in tunnels and its economic
importance.
6. To cite a few examples of tunnels of interest and importance.
INTRODUCTION
'
Tunnels are underground passages
or routes (or passages through hills or mountains) used for different
purposes. They are made by excavation of rocks below the surface or through the hills or mountains.
Like dams, bridges and reservoirs, tunnels also are very important civil engineering projects but
with some differences. For example: (i) Unlike other civil engineering constructions which lie on the
surface, generally, tunnels lie underground (i.e., within the rocks). For this reason, the need for their
safety and stability is much more important (ii) The second difference is with reference to the scope
for the selection of the site. In other major civil engineering structures such as dams, the final selection
of the best possible site is made after carefully considering the relative advantages and disadvantages
present among different tentatively selected sites. But, in the case of tunnels, their locations are
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436
bed concerned be thick so that the tunnel passes through the samef ormation. This is preferable because
thicker formations are more competent and hence tunnels through them will be safe and stable. Further,
where a single formation is encountered, it shall provide uniform physical conditions which means
many operational advantages including minimum overbreak. By virtue of horizontal character, ground
water problems may not occur. The situation would be ideal if a thick weaker formation occurs
sandwiched between hard and impermeable formations (like compact and well-cemented siliceous
stones or quartzites). This is so because the middle soft formation helps in fast progress of the work
(here, buckling may not occur because these are not under abnormal strain) and the hard underlying
formation provides a good base, while the overlying formation provides a stable roof and protects from
any ground water problems.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 20.6 Tunnel along thick, inclined or horizontal beds

Inclined beds: The foregoing advantages also accrue when the runnels are made parallel to the strike
of massive, thick, inclined beds or when inclined tunnels are made following the direction of the slope,
i.e., parallel to the dip. In the latter case, an inclined tunnel driven along the dip (true or apparent)
of beds must run through the same bed or beds all along its course. The stability of the tunnel in all
these cases depends on the nature of the bed which forms the roof. It is relevant to say in this context
that the dip and strike galleries (i.e., cases of tunnels, just cited) in coal mines are driven in this way,
i.e., along the true dip and strike, respectively, of the coal seams. These tunnels, therefore, always
run along the coal seams and have nearly similar conditions all along their length.
When a tunnel is along the strike of inclined beds (vertical or steeply inclined), unstable conditions
may occur (Fig. 20.7). For instance, if an entire bed is removed, there will always be the danger of
Fig. 20.7 Tunnel along strike of inclined beds
Fig. 20.8 Tunnel along dip of inclinedbeds
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Tunnels
Soft bed
Hard bed
Surface
-'
Tunnel through
more number of
beds and parallel
to strike of strata
Surface
ii
'
-
I
Cases where overbreak occurs more
441
'/
'
Tunnel through
more number
of beds and
parallel to dip
dir action of
str ata
Fig. 20.lt(b)
Surface
Surface
ault zone
Fault zone
Overbreak
Overbreak
+-1>-+-- Proposed
size
Overbreak occurs all along

the tunnel due to the
presence of fault zone
parallel to tunnel axis
Overbreak occurrence is
limited only to the place of
fault zone. whne tunnel runs
across this zone
Overbreak due to fault zones
Fig. 20.tl(c)
The factor of overbreak is important because it adds to the cost of tunnelling, particularly if lining
is required. Hence, it is desirable that overbreak should be as minimum as possible.
20.7 A FEW EXAMPLES OF TUNNELS OF INTEREST AND IMPORTANCE

l.
A tunnel driven in the valley of Euphrates below the river itself is one of the earliest tunnels
of the world.
2. An example from Italy is a tunnel through limestone, 3!12 miles in length, constructed for
draining Lake Fucino, east of Rome, which took 11 years to complete, with a labour force
of 30,000 slaves.
3. An outstanding achievement in tunnelling is the series of tunnels constructed for bringing water
(aqueducts) from the reservoir in the Catskill Mountains to New York, 110 miles distant, which
involved the crossing at a depth of the buried valley of the Hudson river.
4. Driving of the Tecolote tunnel near Santa Barbara in California is noteworthy for the special
difficulties encountered. The rocks were mainly shales in an anticline traversed by thrusts from
which a considerable quantity of hot water (at J 20F), hydrogen sulphide and other gases were
emitted.
5. The Broadway twin tunnels through the Berkeley Hills, California, are vehicular tunnels. These
have traversed through shattered and often highly unstable vertical strata, mostly shales, along
a length of I 000 yards and the engineers had to face stupendous roof falls.
<" pynghted ma nal
book.
book.
book.
INDEX
Abrasion
16=17.
24, 127, 152
Absorption value,
31-34,
123-
161
Accessory minerals, ~ ~ 78, 95.
103. 109, 111-12, 125-26, 129, 131,
364
Acid test, 156, 181. 183. 186. 370
Aconcagua in Chile, U
Adamellite. 126
Aeolian,
sediments, 139
soils, 138
Agate, ~il,,5.1-53, ~ ~ [L,, 72,
89, 117, 131-32. 142,
Agglomerate, 109, 152, 442
Aggradations, I I. 13-14. 35
Aggregate impact tester, 373
Alaknanda, 413
Alampur temples (Sri Sailam), lli
Alaska-British Columbia granite
batholith, 108
Alaskan earthquake, 288
Alkali amphiboles, ]1
Allochromatic minerals, !19
Alluvial,
cones and fans. ~ 35-36
plains, 257, 267-68, 420
soils, 138,
Aluminium silicate polymorphs.
62
Amazon stone, 70
Amethyst, ~ 49-51. 71-72, 117,
131-32, 284
Amphiboles, 19-20, 1, ~ 43-44
~ 54-55, sa, fil. ~ 66, 77-89, 96,
124, 137, 152-53. 172
and pyroxenes,
differences between, 11
atomic structure of. ]1
chemical composition, 11
isomorphism in, 78
physical properties of, 78
uses of. 22
varieties of, Tl
weathering in, 78
Amplifier, 326, 351-52
Amygdales, g 72, 117, 131, 381
Andalusite.
fl,~ sz, 80, 82, 99,
168. 172. 175,
Angara (Laurasia), 8
Anhedral minerals. 121
Antecedent drainage, 31
Anthracite, ~ 145, 321, 324
Anticlinal folds. 200. 232, 435
oil and gas deposits in, 232
open and closed, 200
Anticlines, JO. 199, 202-04, 232.
254,324,327, 355,435
Antiperthite, 69
Apatite, fill. 144
Aquicludes, 248-50
Aquifer flow rates. 256
Aquifers, 117, 151, 154, 160, 248-50
confined, 252, 252
unconfined, 252
Aquifuges, 248-51, 414, 437
Aquitards, 248-50, 414
Aragonue, fil. fill. 84. 143
Arch dams, 380-81
Archaean era (the oldest), 1. 177,
265. 267,272
Archaean group, 269-72, 275-76
building stones of. 272
economic importance of, 211
fossil content, 270
Kashmir-Hazara rocks of, 270
lithology and structure, 269
metallic ore deposits of, 21.1
non-metallic ore deposits of, 272
sa
occurrence and distribution.

270-71
Arenaceous rocks, 135, 139, 152,
216
Argillaceous limestone,
159
Artesian,
aquifers, 252
spring, 253
well, 253
Asbestos. ~ ~ !!&. 51-53. 65-66.
77-79 90, 105,275
Asthenosphere, 95, 298-99
Atmospheric gases. 18. 20. 114
Attrition, 16-17,31. 33-34, 139, 152.
371-72
Augen gneiss, 172, I75, 177
Austin dam
in Pennsylvania, 379
of Texas, . 190, 206, 378- 79
Autometamorphism, 165
Azoic era, 265-66, 270
Back-filling, 361-62
Balaji temple of Tirupati, 182
Ball clay, 87-88
Banded.
gneiss, 177
hematite jaspers. 67. 72. 182
hematite quartzites, 67. 72, 182,
269
Barakar age, ill
Barysphere, 95
Basalt, !i2, 70, 95, 98, 103, 112, 114,
129-31, 175, 189, 332, 346, 357, 366,
368,374,385,390
appearance in band specimens,
131
as road metal, 131
availability and occurrence, 131
minerals present in, 131
446
Index
properties and uses, 131

structure and texture, 131
types of, 131
Basement complex, 269
Bassein creek tunnel (Bombay), !2.
438
Batholiths, 101, 107, 108, 126
Bauxite, 10.4!!.1148-49,51-54,~
61. 85-86, 91, ios, 132, 137, 188, !90,
224,226,284, 317
mineral composition, 86
occurrence and uses. 86
physical properties, 86
Beas dam, 425
Beas-Sutlej link project, 355
Bedding, 146-47
concordant, 146
defined, 146
discordant, 147
torrential, 147
Bedrock profile, 310, 344, 386
Belue temples of Karnataka, 180
Bentonite clay, 87-88
Bhakra dam, 442
Bhakra-Nangal project (Punjab),
398-401
Bhandardara dam, 390
Bhira tunnel, 437
Bhiv puri tunnel, 438
Billings, M.P.. 366
Biotite, 12.. 25-26, 22.~ ~ 64-67.
79-80. 90, 95, 109, 126-31, 166-70,
174, 178, 179, 363
Bituminous,
coal, 145, 216
stabilization, 362
Black,
(cotton) soil, 284
dolerites, 389
Blastoporphyritic textures, 173
Block,
lava, 108
mountains, 215
Bog iron ore, ~ 136, 141-42, 144
Bor ghat, 7. 43 L 438
Bowen, N.L., 22
Brahmaputra.
27, 34,
Breccias, 27. 135. 138, 140, 151-52,
174-75, 206. 415
types of, 152
az
Brecciation, 217-18, 237

Bridge, failure of, 1
Broadway twin tunnels, 442
Brucite marble, 183-84
Bulk density, 367-68
Buoyancy effect; 27. 15
Buried river,
channels, 38,254.317,385,411,
413,420,439
valley, 386
Buttress dams, ~ 376, 38 I -82
Bysmalith, 104, 106, 107, 216
Calcareous deposits, 143-44

Calcite, 43, 48-<il. 67. 68, 84-85, 90,
93, 96, 110, 117, 121, 131-32, 141~ 176, 183-84, 186, 219, 305, 333,
364,415,432
diagnostic properties, 85
occurrence and origin. 85
polymorphism, 84
varieties of, 84-85
Camarassa dam (Spain), 6
Cambrian period, 224, 266, 269. 278
age of trilobites,
266
Canyon, 30, 421

of Colarado river, :lD.
Capillary water, 251
Carbonate deposits, 142
Carbonation,
20. 25
Carboniferous period, 278, 280
Carborate minerals, 67-68
Cardar, 298
Cataclastic structure, 174
Cauvery, 29, 31
Cavitation, 32
Cedar lake dam (Washington), 379,
384
Cement stabilization, 362
Central Water and Power Research
Station, Pune, 355
Chalk, 52-53. fill.. ez, 84-85. 144-45,
157-58, 278
Chamock , Job. 131
Charnockite, QQ. 70, 102-03, 112,
126, 132-33, 188. 248, 271-72, 370,
437
appearance of, ill
availability of, ill
minerals present in. ill

mode of origin, ill
structure and texture, ill
Chimbarazo, L1
China clay, 87-88
Chlorite, 20. ~ zs, 11, .W. 59-62.
fil.83,87,2.!, 109, 121, 129, 166-71,
173-81, 186, 405
atomic structure of. 83
chemical composition of, 83
mode of formation, 83
occurrence of, 83
Chonolith, 104, 108
Chromite, ~ ;!. ~ ss, ~ 52-53,
'
58-59, 92, 271, 317, 319
Cinders, I 09
Clay minerals, 22. ~ !il. 86-88.
136. ill
occurrence and uses, 88
special properties of, 87
varieties, 87
Clays, 22
Clinometer, 194-95
Coal,
deposits, ill. 136. 145
varieties and composition of, 145
Coastal erosion, !.Q. 23-24
Colloids, 141-42
Compressional faults, 216
Conchoidal fracture, il 72, 86. 132.
134, 145, 150, 187
Concrete dams, ill
Concretions. 136, 141-42
Cone,
of depression, 254-56, 255
of exhaustion, 254-56
sheets, 105
Confined water, 251-52, 435, 438
Conglomerates. 151, 415.
oligomictic, 151
polyrnictic, 151
Connate water, 251
Contact metamorphism,
163-64,
168, J 75
Continental drift, !!. 264
Coral reefs, 143-44
Corrosion, 16- J 7, 31. 33, 24 L 311.
325, 432
Index 441
Coseismal, 286
Cotopaxi in Ecuador, 13
Creep, 301, 302, 385
Cretaceous period, 157, 266, 278,
280,393
Cretaceous formations of Tiruchirapally, 158
Criooidal limestones.
144
Cross-bedding,
TI. 147
Cryptocrystalline minerals, 40, 53.

71-72, 87, 120. 142
Crystal,
characteristics of, 41-42
definition of, 41-42
development, conditions for. 41
parts of, 42
symmetry in, 42
systems, !l2
and their normal classes, .:1.3
Crystallinity, stages in, 41
Crystalloblastic textures, 172-73
Crystallographic axes, 42
Cuddapah system, 224, 232, 263,
277-78, 263, 272-78
classification of, 279-80
economic importance, 275
fossil content, 275
lithology, 274
slabs. 102, 222, 277-78
structures in, 275
succession in, 274-75
Cut-off.
lakes, 36
walls, 390
Cyclosilicates, 62
Dams, 376-410
and its pans, 380..81
as modem temples, 377
case histories. 398-400
failures, 6. 64
due to adverse geological conditions, 378- 79
examples of, 378-79
reasons of, 377
geological considerations for,
384-96
associated geol. structures,
390-96
effect of fracturing. 389
effect of intrusions, 389

influence of rock types, 389
influence of weathering, 389
leakages below, 389
seismically susceptible areas,
390
suitability of,
igneous rocks, l81
metamorphic rocks. 388
sedimentary rocks, 387-88
importance of geology in construction of, 377-80
location of. 228-29
multipurpose constructions
on downstream dipping beds.
222
on upstream dipping beds, 228
on horizontal beds, 229
principal uses of, 383-84
selection of site, 384-96
grouting details of, 160
improvement in, 379-80
investigations for, 396=98
types of, 38~3
with a geological advantage, 380
Damuda series. 279
Dana, J.D., 269
Darcy's law. 246-47
Dead,
faults, 208
storage, 422
Debris slides, 301-02
Deccan traps, 117, 132, 257, 261,
268-70, 279.282-84. 365
classification. 283
fossil content, 283
lithology, 282
occurrence or distribution, 282
structure, 283
subdivion of, 283
Decomposition.
main factors of, 24-25
processes of. 25
Dedolomitization, I 84
Deflation, I.ft
Degradation. U. I 3-15. ~ 204
Deliomorphic rocks, 114
Delta, 22. u, ll. TI. 147
favourable conditions for, 31
structure, :rz
bedding phenomenon in, TI
topset beds, rz
Density,
defined, 361
types of, 361
Denudation, 11 Ii. M. 225, 267.
Depth probing, 340
Detrital rocks, 134-35, 138-41. 146.
157
cohesion of sediments in, 14()..41
by cernentation, 140-41
by lithification, 140
by welding, 141
grain size of sediments, 139
shape of sediments, 139-40
Deval's attrition testing machine.
372
Devitrification, 4..1
Devonian era, 224, 266
Dhauli Ganga, 413-14
Diabase rock, 129-30, 1..82
Diamond, s, ill, 40
52-53,
56-57, 93, 151, 272. 277, 400
Diamondiferous, 151, 277
Diaphaneity, & 52
Diatomaceous earth, 145
Diatoms, 144-45
Dimbhe dam (Pune), 380
Dip amount, 192, 194-95, 207-08,
2.1.l. 220, 223, 229, 231
Dip direction, 192, 194-95, 207-08,
213. 220. 222, 231, 234, 238, 258, 314,
391. 395, 437
and order of superposition, 195
apparent, 194
Discharge tunnels. 428
Disintegration process, I 6, 2'I.
and decomposition, mutual effects
of, 21.22
Diversion tunnels, 3l! 1, 428, 442
Dokan dam (Iraq), 6
Dolerite, 115
appearance in hand specimens,
130
mode of occurrence, 129
physical properties and uses. I 30
structure and texture. 129
types of, 130
sa ~
CDpynghled rnaierial
448
Index
Dolerite dykes, 105, 130, 254, 258,

259, 319,402
Dolomites, !2.~ 84, 98, 136. 141~ 184, 361, 369, 420
Dolomitization, 184
Dorry's abrasion testing machine,
368
Drip stones, 158
Dry density, Jfil
Du Toil, A.L.. I 05
Duluth Gabbro, 106
Dykes, ,1. I 0405
importance of, 105
Earth,
changes in, 12
dams, 380, 383
flows, 301-02
types of, 301-02
history, division of, 265
interior structure of, 95
movements, 301-03
types of, 301-03
origin of, 2. 191
biparental hypothesis, 2
concepts of, 2
nebular hypothesis. 9.
sciences, "
shell structure of, 94
Earth's crust, a ,1. a u, M, ~ fil.
85, 94-96, 100-01, 114, 126, 135, 152.
164, 174. 191, 269,
chemical composition of. M
elements in, &:2
Earthquakes, 285-99.
anti-centre of, 286
classifications
and causes of,
286-87
determining depth of focus of,
294
effects of, 294-95
energy release in, 292
epicentre of. 286
and faulting, 288-89
in India, 293
intensity of, 290-91
locating the epicentre of, 293-94
magnitude of. 291-93
non-tectonic, 287-88
reservoir-related, 291
preventive measures for.
297-98
tectonic. 287-88
mode of origin of, 288
terminology of, 285-86
waves,
I waves, 282
p waves, 282
s waves, 282
Economic.
geology, 2. 4
minerals, ~ !..Q, 37, 44, 45, 218,
274,284.355
metallic, ~
non-metallic, M
Effective storage, 422
Effluent rivers, 27. 418-19
Elastic rebound hypothesis, 288-89
Electrical coring, 340
Engineering,
geology, ,4
geophysics, 310-11
Eparchaean unconformity, 264, 269,
271. 275
Epcirogenic movements, 191
Epeirogeny. 9. 95. 261. 264
Equidimensional minerals, 80, 99,
121, 173-74, 178, 180
Era and periods, 265
Erosion,
base level of, 30
defined, 1.4
factors responsible for, 1.4
Essential minerals, 25, 109, 111-13.
125, 127, 129. 175, 364, 369
Etna in Sicily, 13
Euhedral minerals, 121
Euphrates valley, 442
Evan, 298
Exfoliation, 17-18, 222
Exploration geophysics, 309
branches of, 310
principles of, 311
Faulting,
causes of, 216
effects (evidence) of, 216-17,
232-33
lithological, 217-18
topographical, 218
recurrence of, 207-08
Faults,
arcuate, 215
classifications of. 21 Q....16

dextral, 211-12
drag of, 218
enechelon, 215
foot wall displacement in, ill
gravity type, 211
high angle and low angle, 214
high angle normal. 214
kinds of, 211
laying roads and railway tracks
along, 235
location of,
dams on, 234-35
reservoirs on. 234
tunnels on, 234
low angle reverse type, 214
magnitude of, 206
modeofoccurrence, 214-15
nature of, 206-07
normal, 211
parallel, 215
parts of. 208-09
plane and adjacent beds, 2ll
peripheral, 215
quarrying along, 235
radial, 215
reverse, 211
scarp. 21819
sinistral, 211-12
sites, improving, 235-36
step type, 2 I 5
zones, 235
Feldspar group, fil. M, 6i 68
atomic structure, 68
exsolution phenomenon, 69
isomorphism in, 68-69
polymorphism, 69
salient aspects of. 68-70
uses of. 70
varieties of. 69
weathering in, 69
Feldspathoid group, ~ Ci!!
Felsic minerals, ~ 101, I09
Fermoria, 273
Ferromagnesium minerals, ~ 22.
~~74,ll
Ferruginous deposits, 144
Fire clay, 87-88, 278, 281
C ipynghted material
Index 449
Fissure eruptions, 282
Fixed ground water, 251
Flaggy limestone, 159, 222, 277
Flint and chert, 72, I36, 141-42
Fluorspar, sa, 128, 165
Folded hills, 231
Folding,
effects of, 228-32
to faulting, stages of, 206
Folds, 195-205
anticline and syncline, I98-99
anticlinoriums and synclinoriums.
Fracturing,
203
Galena,
causes and effects of, 204-05
chevron, 2fil
classifications and types of,
198-204
259, 288, 346-47, 385, 387-S9. 404,

434
Free ground water, 251
Frost,
heaving, !Q. !.!!.. 304, 369, ~
wedging, !2, !.!!.. 304, 369
Fujiyama of Japan, 13
Fu.lier's earth, 87-88
Fumarole deposits of Tuscany. 143
Fundamental gneiss, 269
importance of. 5- 7. 2::.1.!l

main and allied branches of, 2=.5
scope of, 1=.1.1}
Geophone, 326, 349-55
Geophysical anomalies, 308, 311-14
Geophysical investigations, 308-30
application of, 310
controlling property, 317
electrical methods, 319-25
application of, 324
induced polarization method.
323-25
~ 43-46. 49-54. 58-59, 92,
221. 325
Galvanometer, 326, 351, 352

Ganga, 11. ?], 29-30. 34, TI., 243.
principle of, 322

electrical resistivity method,
319-20, 324, 332-45
applications of, 345

asymmetrical, 336
circular or radial, 337-38
classification of. 334
configuration for, 334-35
double distance symmetrical,
412
domes and basins. 202

drag type, 203
erosion in, 2lli
fan type, 202
horizontal and folded, 196
lsoclinal,
ia 233, 235-37, 248,
202
mechanism of, 204

monoclinal, 203
open and closed, 200
ore deposits in, 232
overturned, 2ill
parts of. 196-98
plunging and non-plunging.
199-200
recumbent, 202
similar and parallel. 200
symmetrical and asymmetrical.
199
Foliation,
16-17. 99, 132-33, 161.

169-83, 186, 192,222,246,250,364,
387-88.395.397.415,429,438,440
Fool's gold, 52
Foote, R. Bruce, lli

Foraminefera, 144. 157, 159
Fossiliferous. 98, 148, 152, 159, 283
limestone, 98, 152, 159
sedimentary rocks, 148
Fossils. 3. 4. !i, 147-48, 151, 155,
158, 186,226.261,263-66,272,27576. 280-84
defined, 147-48, 263
importance of, 264
in sedimentary rocks, 263-64
river purification,
Gangpur dam,
243.
390
Garnet group, 61. ~!if!. 80-81

isomorphism, 8 l
occurrence, 81
physical properties. 81
uses, 81-82
varieties, 80
weathering, 81
Gateway of India, 132. 283
Geanticlines, 203
General geophysics, 30809
Geosynclines, 135, 203
Geochemistry, 1-2. 4-5
Geohydrology. f, 4-5
Geological agents, 11-14, !.!!.. f:1 ;H,
336
factors influencing. 332-34

profiling, 338-40
resistivity values of rocks and
minerals, 332-33
resistivity values of water,
aaa
schlumberger configuration,
335
sounding, 340-45
symmetrical electrode, 334-36,
341
wenner configuration, 335,

341, 343
three-layer curves, 341-42,
two-layer curve, 342
inverse slope curve, 342-43
planning of. 344-45
electromagnetic method, 321.
100, 136, 139, 191, 258

endogenous, 12- 13
exogenous, 1?-13
characters of, l3.
examples of. 12
Geological structures, 226-39
common symbols for, 226
importance of, 227-39
Geological survey of India. L. ill.
355
Geological time scale, 261, 264-67

subdivisions of, 265
Geology,
academic importance of, 1='l
defined, l
324
geothermal methods, 329

gravity methods. 314-17
importance of, 309- 1 O
magnetic methods, 317-19
methods of, 309, 311-17
necessity of, 309
of civil engineering importance,
331-55
radiometric methods. 327-28
Copyrlqnted material
450
Index
emanation method, 328
gamma method, 328
nuclear geophysical method,
Gradation, !..!.. 13-14. 69, 156, 159

Granite gneiss. !.fil. 170, 174-77,
32~
Granite porphyry, 122, 125-26. 175

Granite,
appearance of, 126
decomposition in, 25-26
materials produced by, 25-26
formation of, 18
metamorphism in, 170
minerals present in. 125
occurrence and abundance, 126
relation with other rocks, 126
structure and texture of, 125-26
types of, 126-27
Granite-<liorite series, Ill
Granodiorites, 108, 126
Granulites. 165, 173-74
Graphic granites, 122, 126
Graphite, 1. 43-44 49-52. 56--59.
seismic reflection methods,
326-
27, 347
seismic refraction methods,
327,
345-55
applications of, 355

nature of, 347
travel-time curves, 347-49
self-potential method, 321-22,
324
spontaneous polarization method,

321
welt-logging, 329-30
Geophysics, , s, 308-09
branches of. 308-09
defined, 308
Gilgit, 30-31
Glaciation, 8:2. 204, 261. 265
Glacier, 2-3.2.12 15-16.19.:M.;rl.
3.1. :H. 88. 100. 138, 140. 151-52, 242-
sa 287, 386
disintegration of rocks by, L6

Globigerina oozes. 144
Gneiss, 176-78, 192, 388, 415
origin and occurrence, 177
physical description of, 176
properties and uses, 177-78
and schist, comparison of, 180
types of, 177, 180
Gneissic complex, 269, 401
Gneissose structure, 115, !..ll. 170,
173-74, 176-77, 432
Gneissosity, 99
Godavari, 29. 3 I. 278, 345
Gondwana group,
ill. 216, 224,
a.
257. 261,268,278-82,420
classification of rocks, 279-80

threefold and twofold, 280
distribution of, 279
economic importance, 281-82

fossil content, 2lU
lithology and structure, 278
occurrence or distribution, 278
succession, 280-81
Gorges, 31. 267, 382
defined. 30
Gouge, 157, 206, 218, 420, 425
401
sources of, 241-44

types of, 250-51
in zone of aeration, 250
in zone of saturation, 250
Grouting, aa 160, 220, 236, 239,
361-62, 379-80, 389, 394, 398-404,
409-10,417,420,430
at dam sites, 380
explained, 361
Guano, @, 136, 144
Gulcheru quartzite, 274
Gypsum, !1.. il. ~ 21.. 56--58.@.
93, 140-43,305,327, 364,378.385
Halesbar dam (Tennessee River), ,

378, 390,
418
Halite, 60. 6&

Hauy, 129, 96
Headward erosion, 28. 30-31
Hematite, !1.. 25-26, ~ 49-53. SS.
Q, sz, 72, 74, 92, 137, 182, 269, 333.
2.1.. 183, 187, 272, 317, 321, 324, 333.
ill
388
Hiatus, 223-34. 264

Himalayan rivers, U.30-31. Y
Himalayas. 6:1. U. 3.1. 191, 206,
Gravimeter, 312-14
Gravity dams, . 376, 378. 38{!2,
391
Great barrier reef, 143

Great whine sill of England, 105
Ground water,
advantages of, 242-44
as springs and seepages, 253
divide. 256
effects of excessive tapping
of. 260
exploration, 257-60
geological investigations,
257-.58
geophysical investigations,
258-52
hydrological investigations,
259-60
geological controls on, 253-54

importance of. 240-<>0
movement, 253-54
factors influencing, 253-54
occurrence, 230. 235
potential, 256-57
factors influencing, 256-57
in different parts of India,
256-57
264,268,270,273,278,288,431
Hiroshima, 293
Historical geology, l=l. 261
Hodographs, 325, 347
Hokoriku railway tunnel (Japan),

442
Holibedu temples (Karnataka), 180

Holland, Thomas (Sir), 131, 269
Hondo reservoir of New Mexico, 6
Hornblende, ~ 5ll. .l2. 66, 77-78.
83, 89, 109, 121, 125-26, 129, 131,
l& 170-71, 174-79
Horse-shoe lakes. l6
Horsts and grabens, 215-16
Hubbert. 298
Hudson River, 442
Hutton, 262
Hybrid rocks, 97
Hydration, li, 19-20: zs, 84, 184,
186
Hydraulic,
action, 16-17. 31-32, 34, 423
gradient, 247, 254, 256, 259
Hydrodynamic force, 291
Hydrogeology, 5.
CDpynghted rnaierial
Index
Hydrolysis,
19-20
Hydrophobic property, 356, 374
Hydrosphere, 95
Hypabyssal rocks, 114-15
Hypersthene granite, 126, ill
ldiochromatic minerals, 49
Igneous rocks, 96-97, 103-33, 414
acidic, 112
amygdaloidal structure, 117
aquifers characters of. 248-49
see also porosity and permeability
at tunnel site, 431. 437
basic, 112
classification of. 111-15
on depth of formation, 114-15
on silica percentage, 112-13
on silica saturation, JI3 14
columnar structure, 117-18
compositional diagram of, 111
concordant, 104
discordant, 104
extrusive, 104
forms of, I 08-09
flow structure, 118-19
intermediate, 112
intrusive, 104
forms of, I 04-08, I 07
megascopic description of,
125-33
oversaturated, JI3
pillow structure, 119
relation of constituent minerals,
Ill
saturated. 113
sheet structure of. 118
structures and textures of, Il523
suitability for building and
foundation. 123-25
tabularclassificationof, 115-16
textures of, II 9-24
on constituent minerals, 122
aphanitic-rnicrocrystalline,
l2ll
equigranular,
122
inequigranular, 122
intergranular, 123
ophitic, 123
poikiliric,
123
porphyritic, 122
seriate, 123
subopbitic, 123
on granularity, l2Q
aphanitic, J..2Q
aphanitic-cryptocrystalliue,
l2Q
aphaniric-glassy, l2ll
phaneric, J..2Q
graphic, 123
interlocking. 123
on shapes of crystals, 12!!:21
on the degree of crystallinity,
119-20
typical characters of, 96
ultrabasic, 113
undersaturated, 113
vesicular structure, 115-16
Ilmenite. ~ 21,
sz, 81, 96,
129, 131, 138, 152,
Impact,
pendulum. 373
value. 373
lnchbae aureole in Rossshire, Scotland,
168
Incongruent melting, 110
Index minerals, 166-68
India,
Extra-peninsular region. 267,
269
geological divisions. 267-68
pbysiographical divisions, 267-68
stratigraphical divisions, 267-68
structural divisions, 267-68
lndo-gangetic alluvial plains,
267,269
peninsular region, 267
stratigraphical units of, 268-84
archaean group, 269- 72
Cuddapah system, 272-76
see also Cuddapah
Deccan traps, 282-84 see
also Deccan traps
Gondwana group, 278-82
see also Gondwana
purana group. 272-78 see
also Purana group
vindhyan system, 276-77 see
also Vindhyan system
lndo-gangetic alluvial plains, !h 257,
267-70, 288.401
sa ~
451
Indus gorge, 31
Indus river, 12, 27. 29-31, 34
Influent rivers, 418-19
Injection gneiss, 177
Inosilicates, fil.. Ii, 77 78, 121
Internal water, 251
Isograds, 166-67
Isomorphism, fil. M. 68-69, 73-74,
76, 78,81
Isoresistivity contours, 340
lsoseismal, 286, 291
Jabalpur series, 280
Jagannath temple (Puri), 188
Jasper, 40, 49, 51, 53, 60, 67, 71- 72,
89, 140, 151, 182
Jawahar tunnel, 442
Jerome reservoir of Idaho, 6. 418
Joints, 191, 219-22
classification. 220-21
based on origin, 22().21
in common rocks, 221-22
effect and importance of, 220,
236-37
and faults,
comparison of, 206, 237
displacement of. 207
in igneous rocks. 221-22
location of darns on, 237
in metamorphic rocks, 222
parts of, 220
quarrying in, 238
reservoirs on, 237-38
in sedimentary rocks, 222
steps to improve, 232
and tunneling. 238-39
Juvenile water, 28, 251
Kamtikhedi weir site, 390
Kanats (or karizes) tunnel, 442
Kankar, 142, 159
Kaolin, !2, 22. 52. !!, 62, 70, 87,
155, 165
Kaolinite, 22, fil.. 87, 155
Kaolinization process, 165
Karanjwan dam, 390
Kara-qum desert. U
Karmanghat, l!!
Karroo doleritic sills, 105
Karst topography, !l. zz, 160
CDpynghled rnaierial
452
Index
Khondalite, sz, 161, 176, 187-88,

272, 371, 388
lithology of, 188
origin and occurrence of, 188
uses of, 188
Khonds, 188
Kilsby tunnel, 442
King, W., 273-74
Konark temples of Orissa, 272, 371
Kopili hydroeleclric project (Assam),
355, 419-20
Koyna dam, 297. 385
Koyna (Maharashtra) earthquake,
288, 292. 297, 395
Koyna III stage tail race tunnel, Ci.
Krakatoa volcano, 287
Krishna,
series, 157, 274-75
river, 29, 31, 188, 271
Krishnania, ill
Kyanite, 40, 43, 47-48, 50--53, 57,
.62. ~ g 82, 90, 99, 166, 168, 172,
174, 177-81, 272
mode of fonnation, 82
occurrence and uses, 82
polymorphism in, 82
Laccolith, 104--08, 204
Lacroix, 114
Lafayette dam (California). !i.. 157,
379
Lag effect, 167
Lamination, 99, 145-46, 155-56,
186, 192,431
Landslides, 157, 235, 238, 287, 300-QL 33i, 400, 411, 425-26
at Niagara falls, 300
causes of, 303--06
immediate, 306
effects of, 306
factors responsible for, 305-06
importance of, 300-0 I
occurrence of, 238
preventive measures for, 306-07
role of water in, 304
types of, 302-03
Lapilli, I 08
Laterite, li,. !..2. 22-23. ~ 85, IOI,
102. 134-37, 146, 150, 160, 188, 224,
226,249.284, 387,415
occurrence of, 137
Lava flows, !!. 104, 106, 108, 114,

115, 119, 131-32, 163, 249, 268, 280,
282-83
Leached guano, 144
Leaching, 1..2.~a 76,85,98, 136,
138, 140,158.224,249,281.364,367.
181
Leucocratic rocks, 109
Life, origin of. 8
Lime feldspar, 69, 95
Limestones, 157-60, 2!12
and marble, comparison of, 185
and slate, differences between,
187
porosity and permeability of,
160
types of, 158-59
uses of, 160
Limonite, 25-26, 40, 43, 51, 54, g
74, 96. 109, na
Lineation, 99, 161, 169. 171, 173,
178, 192, 246, 250. 319, 329, 333, 364,
387. 402, 408
Lisbon earthquake of 1755, 287
Lithographic limestone, 159
Lithology,
defined, 94
effect on landslides, 305
explained. 263
Lithomarge, 87
Lithosphere. 1. 95, 191
Live storage, 398. 422
Lopolith, 104--08. 204
Los angeles' abrasion.
machine, 372
values of aggregate, 372
Mafic minerals, 44 59, 65, 61. 7172, 75, ~ 83, IOI, 103, 109, 112-13,
123, 126, 129-30, 137-38, 152-53
Magma,
and lava, 96
differentiation of 96
fluidity of, 104
formation, occurrence
and
crystallization of, 96
silica-poor. 104
silica-rich, 104
solidification of, 22, 110
stages of crystallization of, 97
Magnesium limestone. 159
Magnetite, 36. 41. 43, 48, 50, 52, 58@. 67, 91, 96, 121, 127, 131, 137, 152,
172, 181, 186, 319, 325
Mahabalipuram temples, 370
Mahadeva series, 280
Mabanadi, u, 278
Malpasset dam (France), 379, 384
Malpasset dam, 384
Marble, 170. 182-85. 388. 415
occurrence in India, 185
origin and occurrence, 183-84
properties and uses of, 184-85
tenn derived from, 182
types of, 183
Marine,
erosion, 16-17
transgressions and regressions,
261, 264
Master joints, 2i9
Mathura oil refinery, 370
Mccourt, W.E., 369
Meandering, lll
Meanders, 1l!.
Medlicott, H.B., 216. 378
Melanocratic rocks, I09
Mercalli scale, 291
Mersey tunnel, 442
Mesocratic rocks, 103, 109
Mesozoic era, !!. 265, 268, 282
Metamorphic,
aureole. 105, 163
facies, 167
Metamorphic rocks, 99-10(), 16189, 415
classification of, 175- 76
common textures of, 174
crystalloblastic and palimpsest
textures, 172
descriptive study of, 176-88
foliated rocks, 175
granulose structure of, 165, 17374, 177, 181, 183
massive or non-foliated, 175
mineral composition of, 16S-69
factors affecting, 168-69
naming of, 175
porosity in, 250
structures of, 171-75
at tunnel site, 432, 438
typical characters of, 99
xenoblastic and idioblastic
textures, 172
ss
Copvnghted maienal
Index 453
Metamorphism,
agents of, I 62-63
changes produced by.
examples of, J..62
I 69
grades and zones of, 165-66,

limits of, 99-100
meaning of, 99, J..62
mechanism of, 169
nature and examples of, 169-70
progressive and retrogressive. 1676&
types of, 163-65

cataclastic, 164
dislocation type, 164
dynamic, 164
dynamothermal, 165
geothermal, 164
metasomatic, 164
optalic, 163, 164
platonic, 165
pneumatolytic, 164-65
regional, 165
thermal, 163-65
Mica group, fil.,_ M. 66. 79-80
atomic structure of, 12
degree of transparency in, 80
hardness in, 80
occurrence. 80
physical properties. 1!!
uses, 80
varieties of, 12
Milky quartz. 72
Mineralogy, ~ 39=60
Minerals,
cleavages in, 54-55
colours of, 49.-51
common forms of, 48-49
crystallinity in, 43
definition of, 32
exceptions to.
4ll
degree of transparency in, 59-60

density types of. 58
diagnostic colours of, 5il=51
forms of, 1, 48-49
fractures in, 53-54
types of, 53-54
grouped, M
hardness of, 55-57
rnohs scale of hardness, 55iQ.. 93. 128
identification of, 48-60

inhomogeneities in, !Ill
isomorphic, 4ll
leavage, types of, 55
lustres of, 52-53
types of, 52
method of study, 45=47
by x-ray analysis. 46
on chemical composition, 46
on optical properties. 46
on physical properties, 45
mode of formation of, 43
physical properties of, 89-92
required characteristics of, 411
special properties of, 59-60
specific gravity, 58
streaks in. s J-52
synthetically produced, !Ill
Mining geology, 2. ~
Mississippi river, ~
Molybdenite, & 58. 321, 324
Monazite, ;2Q. 152, 181
Monoclinic,
amphiboles,
11
pyroxenes, 74
Monomineralic rocks, 109-10, 369
Mont blanc tunnel, 437. 442
Monte jacques arch dam (Andalusia),
379, 390
Moosakhand dam site (UP), 420
Mount Ema, 21
Mountain gneiss, 131
Mud cracks, 99, 117. 134, 149, 155.
221
Mural joints,
124-25, 127, 221, 432

Muscovite, 22, 25-26. 43. SQ.55. 59.
64-66, 12. 80, 82, 90, 110. 112, 125,
128-29, 136, 168, 178-79, 186, 272,
363
Nagari quartzites, 182
Nagarjunasagar dam. 33. 2!J. 376,
395, 398, 401-06,
Narmada river, 29. 31. 218. 233. 278
Narrow river valley, :ill. la. 376,
384-85
National Geophysical Research
institute. 7. 353
National Mineral Development
Corporation, ill
Navagarn dam (India), 379, 390, 395

Nehru, Jawaharlal, 377
Nesosillcates, 62. 75. 80
Nilgiri gneiss, 132
Non-oliated rocks, 161, 175, 250,
361
Nummulitic limestones, 144
Oblique joints, 220
Oceanic volcanoes, L1
Offset ridge, 218-19
Oil And Natural Gas Commission, ill
Oldham, R.D., 276, 286, 294
Oligoclase, 26. 69. 125. 131
Olivine, 12. 20, 22, 40. 43, 49,
~ 64:66. 72, 75-79, 110-14, 123,
129-31, 146, 153, 169, 183-84, 363,
374
alteration in, 76
group, 64:66
isomorphism in, 76
occurrence of, 76
uses of, 76- 77
varieties of, 76
Onyx, 117, 131-32, 284
Opal. ~ ~ ~ 52-53, iQ.. 58. 60.
21.. 71-72, 89. 109, 117, 131-32, 142.
183, ill
Ordovician period, 224, 266
Orogenic movements, 191
Orogeny, 2, 95, 126, 261. 264
Onhogneiss, 177
Orthometarnorphic rocks, 99-101,
161, 175
Orthorhombic,
amphiboles, ll
pyroxenes, 74
Outcrop, 105, 192, 215, 234, 257,
282
circular, 105
shapes of, ~
Overbreak, 230-31, 405, 427, 429,
432-37. 440-41
Ox-bow lakes. 36
Oxidation. !2. ~ 21. zs, 33. 76,
142, 321
Oxide minerals, !il.
a.
454
Index
Palaeontology, 2=4.
Palaeozoic era, R. 265-66
Plateau basalts, 282
Panchet series, 279-80
Panchet reservoir, Bihar, 420
Pangaea, 8
Panthalassa, &
Papaghani series, 274
Paragneiss, 177
Para metamorphic rocks, 99-101,
161, 175
Parting, ~ 379
Peat, 145
Pegmatite. 70. 109, 120. 127-29
appearance in hand specimens,
128-29
formation and occurrence of, 128
structure and texture, 128-29
Pelean type of volcanoes, 287
Pellicular water, 25 I
Pench project, 390
Peninsular rivers, .3lh.11
Pennar, 29. 3.1
Perched water. 249. 251-52, 254,
419,
tables, 419
usefulness of. 251
Peridot, 76
Permeability,
explained, 24 5-50
factors influencing, 247
Perthite, 69
Petrogeny, 94
Petrology, 1-3, 94-102, 123, 162.
190,263,332,378, 3&I
importance of, 102
Phacolith, 104, 106, 107
Phenocrysts,
122. 125, 129, 188
Phlogcpite, 64. ']!L 80, 128
Phosphatic deposits, 144
Pbyllite, 161, 175-76. 186-87
187
Pbyllosilicates, . 7!L 86, 121
Physical geology. 1-2. 191. 286
Phytogenic rocks, 143
Plagioclase feldspars, 40, 64, 69, 70,
110, 123, 125, 130, 175,
Plate tectonics, 298-99
principle of, 298-99
Pliny, 130
Plutonic rocks, ll8
Pneumatolysis, 165
Pneumatolytic metamorphism, 97,
164-65
Polymetamorphism, 161
Polymorphism, ~ 47, fil... ,1. 69,
21.. 82, 84
Porosity, 245-50
in common rocks, lli1
defined, 245-46
factors contributing, lli1
and permeability, classification of
rocks on, 248-50
primary, 245-46
secondary, 245-46
Porphyroblastic .textures, 173, I76
Porphyroclastic structure, 174
Porphyry, 122, 125-26, 129-30, 175
Precambrian era, 188, 223. 257, 265,
272
Pressure,
surface, 252
tunnels, 360, 428
Primary,
era. 265
minerals, 73. 109, 125, 138, 142,
152, 155, 172
rocks, fil.. 96, 100, 103
Primitive brachiopods, lli
Proterozoic era, 265-66, 272
Pseudomorphisrn, !U
Public utility tunnels, 428
Purana group, 272-78
Cuddapah system, 272--06 see
also Cuddapah
distribution of rocks of, 273
local formations of, 273
Vindhyan system, 276=78 see
also Vindhyan
Pyrhotite, 321, 324
Pyrite, 20, 25, 41, 43, 48-53 59-60
fill. 92, 96, 121, 125, 132, 144, 156,
183, 186, 277, 321, 325, 333, 364, 375,
402
Pyroclasts, .fl. 104, 108, 152, 287
Pyrogenetic minerals, 109
Pyrolusite, 1, 48-50, 58-59, 2.132425
Pyrometamorphism, 163-64
Pyrosphere, 95
Pyroxene group, fil. 64--06, 72-75,
TI
chemical composition of, 73
eostatite-ferrosilite series of, 74
forms of, 25.
isomorphism in, 74
occurrence of, 25.
physical properties of, 74-75
varieties of, 74
weathering in, 74
Quarry sap, 363-64
Quarrying, !Q. li., :M, 125, 127, 130,
220-21, 227, 230-31, 238, 306
Quanemary era, 265-67
Quartz,
amorphous type, 72
cryptocrystalline forms of, 72
occurrence, 72
polymorphism in, 11
response to weathering, 11
uses, 72
varieties of.
71 _72
veins, lQ. 72, 105, 112, 219,

254,258,389
Quartzite, 181-82, 388, 415
origin and occurrence, 182
porosity in, 250
properties of, 181
and sandstone, comparison of, 182
types of, 18 I
uses of, 181-82
Radiolaria, 144-45
Radiolarian ooze, 145
Radiometers, 316, 328-29
Rain prints, 99, 134, 149-50
Rainfal,
annual precipitation of, 21.
annual average in India, 245
distribution of, 244-45
percolation of, 245
Rajmahal series, 280
Raleigh waves, 290
Ramganga di version tunnel (Himalayas), ~ 431
Ramgaoga project, 426
Gopynghted material
Index
Rand placer deposit,
:rz
Rao, B. Rama, 211

Rapid flows, 301-02
Reaction pair, 75, 110
Reaction series (of N. L. Bowen),
110-11, 114
continuous, 110
discontinuous, 110
Refraction shooting, 347, 350-51
Regolith, ;u. ~ 22. 138
Reid, 288
Reservoir silting. 42{}-24
examples of, 421
measures to control, 422-24
process of, 421
Reservoirs, 6. 12. ~ 38. 205, 220.
228, 230, 233, 236-37, 241-45, 297.
310-11, 321, 332. 345, 395, 411-26
capacity of. 412
considerations for, 412
effect of evaporation on, 412
Indian case histories of. 419-20
influence of,
geological structures on,
415-18
rock type, 414-17
water table on, 418-19
landslide occurrence at, 425-26
Indian case histories. 425-26
leakage in, 416-17
prevention of, 416- J 7
life of, 421-22
location of, 230
percolation at, 413
problems with, 243-44
seismic activity at, 425
water-tightness and influencing
factors, 413
RhyoLite. 119, 126
Richter scale. 292-93
Richter, Charles, 292
Riecke's principle of recrystallization,
171-72
Rift valleys, 2 l 5
Ring dykes, 105
Ripple marks, 148-49, 155, 269, 275
asymmetrical, 148
defined, 148
formation of, 148-49
symmetrical, 148
River,
as geological agent, lQ, 27-30
capture, :ill
dendritic appearance of, 29-30,
distributaries, explained, 22
geological work of, 3 J-38
importance for civil engineering, 18
stages in, 31-18
hydraulic action of, 31-32
influencing factors of, ll
load transported by, 14-3 5
bed load, ll
dissolved load, 34
suspended load, 3!l
longitudinal profile of, 3Jl
piracy, :ill
transport, 34-35
valley development, :ill
transverse profile of, :ill
velocity, ll. ll
factors controlling, ll
River development, 27-28
initial stage, 2&
mature stage, 28-29
old stage, 22
stages of, 27-29
youth stage, 28
River deposition, 35-38
kinds of, 3~-36
alluvial cones and fans, 35-36
delta deposits, 15... :rz
natural levees, 35, 37-38
placer deposits, 35-36
Ruver erosion, u, 16. 3{}-32, 35,
205,423
and abrasion, 32-33
and attrition, :l3
factors aiding. .ll
solution process, 33-34
Rivers of India, :ill
categories of, 3ll
Rock,
crystal, ~ I!... 89
cycle, 101-02
falls, 301-02. 434
fill dam, 381. 383
mechanics, t, 357
slides, 301-02
455
Rock-forming minerals, 1. is, 22,

39-40. 43-45, 21, 58-59. 61-92. 9497, 332,363,369
brief sketch of, 65--68
civil engineering importance
of. 45
important details of. 68-92
types of, Cil
Rocks,
abrasion test, 372
abrasive resistance, 368-69
as aggregates, 371-75
as building stones, 362-71
as foundation, 358-62
binding properties, 374
buckling phenomenon of, 196
bulk densities, 368
classification of, 96
coefficient of softening, 365
compressive strengths of, 365
cracking of concrete test, 374-75
crushing strength, 363-65, 374
decomposition of, 24=25
defined, 95-96
durability, 3 7{}-71
engineering properties of. 35~75
tests for, 356
frost and fire resistance of,
369-70
hardness, 371-72
hydrophobic property, 374
mineral composition of, ~
natural disintegration process in,
porosity in, 366-67 see also
Porosity
ranges of strengths in, 366
relative abundance of, 101-02
sequence of formation of, I 00-0 I
stress-strain relationships in,
360-61
toughness, 373-74
transverse strength, 365-66
Ropy lava, 108
Rubey, 298
Ruby mica, 128
Ruby mountains of Nevada, 215
Rudaceous rocks, 139
Rutile. 36. ~ 136, 138, 152, 181
Gopynghted material
456
Index
Saddle reef deposits, 232

Sala! reservoir (J&K), 420
Salkhala series, 270
Salt domes,
216, 315, 324, 327,
346, 355
Saltation, :M
Salts deposition, ~~~43, 137,
143-44, na 362
San Jacinto tunnel, 437
Sandstones, 152-55, 192, 242
classified, 153
on cementing material, 154
on mineral content, 154
on shape of sand grains, 154
on structure, 154
on sand grains, 153
mineral composition, 152-53
permeability of, 154-55
porosity in, 154-55
uses of, 154-55
Saturated,
density, Jfil
minerals, 64. 113-14
Schist, 177-80, 192, 388
sa
megascopic description of.
178
properties and uses, 179-80

types ~f. 178-79
Schistose structure, 173-74, 177-78,
388
Schistosity, 99, 175
Scoria, 117, 131
Secondary,
era, 265
minerals, 103, 109. 131, 219.
ID
Secretions, 136, 141-42
Sedimentary rocks, 97-98, 134-60,
192,414
aquifers characters of, 212
characteristic features of, 99
chemical deposits of, 141-43
classification of, 135-45
common structures and textures of,
145-50
fossil occurrence in, 14 7-48
order of superposition in, 147,
263
organic deposits, 143-45
types of, 143
origin of, 98
primary porosity in, llisee also
porosity and permeability
residual deposits, 136-38
composition of sediments, 138
types of, 136-37
ripple marks in, 148-49
tracks and trails on, 150
at runnel site, 431-32, 437-38
Seismic,
factors inluencing, 346-47
(shock) method, 360
studies, instruments used in,
351-52
timer, 353-55
vertical, 286
waves, 345-55
velocities of, 346
Seismic areas, ~ 295-97
civil engineering considerations in,
295-96
precautionary measure,
in buildings construcion,
296-97
in dam construction,
Seismic belts, 288
circum Pacific belt, 288
Mediterranean belt, 288
Mid-Atlantic ridge, 288
Seismographs, 286, 292, 401
Seismology, !... 286
Shahabad stones, 102, 222, 277
Shales. fl. 155-57, 168, 242
187
mineral composition of, 155
porosity and permeability, 157
sandstone
and
limestone,
comparison of, 156
types of, 156
uses, 157
Sheet joints, 118, 124, 222, 235, 254,
433
causes of, 222
features of, 222
Sheet piles, 390, 418
Sia!, 121, 126, 134-35
Silica group, 61
Silicate minerals, 61-67, 79, 86, 96,
124, 155, 186,315
groups of, 62, M

structures of, 62-63
Siliceous,
deposits, 141-42, 144
limestone, 159
Sillimanite,
sz, 62, 6i. si: 82,
99, 166, 168-69, 178-79, 187
Sills, 97, 105-06, 108, 129, 274-75,
279, 282
Sirna, IOI, 134-35
Simplon tunnel. 442
Singhbhum belt zone, 235
Singareni Coalfields, 272
Slate, ~ 161-62, 170, 175-76, 183,
185-87, !J!2. 246-47, 366, 388, 420
grain size of, 186
origin and occurrence of, 186-87
types of, 186
Slaty cleavage, ~ 99, 169, 175,
185-87,388,415,432,438
Slickensides, 211
Slip, 204, 209-10, 213, 303-04, 385,
393
Slumps, 302
sa
Smeeth, W.F.,
21l
Soil, 137-38
alluvial, 138
colluvial, 138
cover, 138
glacial, 138
lacustrine, 138
stabilization, 362
types of, 138
vertical profile of, 138
water, 251
Solifluction, 301
Sorosilicates, 62
Sorting, ~ 139, 247, 242
Spheroidal weathering, 1J!.
Spillway, 377, 380-81, 399-400
apron, 380, 400
training walls, 380
Srisailam dam, ll.. 157, 376, 398,
406-10,442
Srisailam quartzite, 274
St. Bernard runnel, 442
St. Francis dam of California,
failure of, ~ 151, 179, 190, 206,
233,378,395
geological section at, 378
C ipynghled material
/Index 457
St. Thuribe, Quebec, 302
Stable and unstable slopes,
Stalactites,
142, 158-59
Stalagmites,
158-59
Stassfurt deposits,
143
Steno, N., 263
231, 305
Stratification, 99, 134, 145-47. 151,

155, 158
civil engineering importance of,
147
in igneous rocks, 146-47
in sedimentary rocks. 146
Stratigraphy. 2-3. 257. 261-84, 288
aims of, 262
defined, 261
importance of. 284
principles of, 262-64
Strike, 194
direction, defined. 194
joints, 220
Stromboli (ltaly) volcano, 287
Structural geology, 2-3. 190-226.
390,416
Structures, 190-226
causes for developmentof, 191-95
rocks suitable for study of, 192-94
Stylolitcs, 158
Sun cracks, 149
Sun temple of Konark, 188
Swarm. 105
Synclines, 202-04, 231, 254, 327,
435
Taj Mahal (Agra), 370
Talc, 83-84
mode of formation and occurrence,
84
varieties and uses.
84
Talcbir series, 279

Talus, 21. 385
Tansa dam. 390
Tapti rivers, 29. 31, 218. 233
Tapoban darn site, 413
Tata electric companies, 437-38
Tecolote tunnel, 442
Tectonic forces, a 12-13, 95, Jl5.
163, 190-94, 204--07, 224, 228, 264,
288,415,434
defined. 191
origin of, 191
Tectonosphere, 95
Tectesilicates, 62. 68, 121
Tension and shear joints, 220-21
Tensional faults, 216
Terra rossa, 27. 135-36
Tertiary era, 265-67
age of mammals, 267
Tethys, H
Teton mountain range, 215
Thrust faults, 214, 216
Tides and waves, 2. I 2. 16. 21
Tiger's eye (cat's eye), Qi, 72, 12
Tillite, 135, 152, 262
Topaz, 43. 49. 21. 80, 93, 128, 165
Tourmaline, ~ 62, 67. 128, 136,
165, 171, 178
Traffic runnels, 428, 439, 442
Transmissibility, 247
Umiam-barapani stage l tunnel

(Meghalaya), , 431
Transverse,
Vadose water, 251, 254, 437, ili

Vaikrita system, 211
gorges, 11
strength, 356, 359. 365-66
Travertine, si: 85, 159
True density, 3fil
Tuff, 109
Tunnelling. 427-42
economical aspects of. 430
effect on ground, 429
effects of,
faults at, 433-34
folds at, 434-35
ground water at, 437-38
joints at, 432-33
geological considerations for,
430-31
purpose of, 428
rock types suitable for. 431-32
role of geological structures,
432-33, 438-39
role of lithology in, 437-38
Tunnels, 427--42
examples of, 441-42
failure of, 6:1
importance of, 427-28
in India, 442
lining of. 429-30
location of, 230
remedial measures for seepage,
439-40
types of, 428
Unaltered minerals, 25-26. 136

Unconformities, 1. 86, 151, 191,
195, 223-26, 254. 264, 274-75, 277,
397, 416
formation stages of, 223
parts of, 223
recognition of, 226
types of, 224-25
angular. 224
disconformity, 22.i
eparchaean, 211::12
non-conformity, 224
paraconformity, 225
regional and local, 22.i
Unsaturated minerals, 64-66, JI 2-
JA
Vaitarna,
dams, 385
hydroelectric project, 438
river. 438
Vaitarna-Tansa tunnel, 438
Vall gallina darn (Italy), 6
VaUeydevelopment, 30--35
Vempallelimestone, 274
Vindhyan system, 223, 268, 272,
273, 216-77 see also Purana group
building stones, 278
formations, 194, 278
fossil content in, 216
glass sand, 278
lithology,
occurrence and distribution, 211\

older formations of. 277
sandstones. 145, 155, 278, 2&1
structure, rJh
succession and series of, 277
Volcanic,
activity, a, 2. U
agglomerate, 109
blocks, 108
bombs, 108
breccia, 109, 152, 385
Gopynghted material
458 Index
eruption, !!, .!, 108. 119. 152,
287,306
necks, 108
rocks, ~ 101, 114-15, 125, 132,
143,221.387.414,431,433
Vredenburg, E., 216
Walker, T.L., 187
Water.
available sources of. 241-42
demand of, 242
role in disintegrationof rocks, 12
Water table,
fluctuation in, 254
in unconfinedaquifers, 254-55
maps, .419
study of, 250-60
and typesof ground water,
250-
~
Waterlogging, Z. 240, 260
Weathering,
and mineral formation, relation
between, 22-23
biological factors of, 21-23
chemical factors of, 18-21
defined, . IA
importance of, 23
of rocks, 14-27
recognition of, 2.1
summary of, 24-25
physical factors of, 16=18
process of, 15=27
role of atmosphere in, 14-15
types of, J 5-17
ultimate products of, 19-20,

22-23
White quartz veins, 389
Wind,
abrasion, Ui
attrition, 1.6.
defined, 14-15, 21
Wood-anderson torsion seismograph,
292
Young's modulus, 360
---
Zeolite group, 61
Zircon, 25, 43. 52-53. 62. 67, 136,
138, 152, 181
Zirconium, 128, 328
Zoogenic rocks, 143
c,opvnghled material
iThis book:, primarily aimed at undergraduate civil engineering students, i:lealswitti ttie relevance of
geology for safe and successful large-scale civil engineering constructions. It n1aJ1 also serve as a
sourcebook for P.racticing civil engineers.
Rs 275
ISBN 0230638708

Enginnering Geology - N Chennakesavulu

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C N Chenna Kesavulu, 1993, 2009

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or

MACMILLAN PUBLISHERS INDIA LTD.

This book is meant for educational and

Preface to the Second Edition

Main and Allied Branches of Geology

COMMON ROCK-FORMJNG MINERALS

Types of Rock-forming Minerals

Suitability of Igneous Rocks for Building and Foundation

Sedimentary Rocks on the Earth's Crust

Causes for Development of Structures

I 0. IMPORTANCEOF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES

Effects of Folding and Their Civil Engineering Importance

I I.IO Ground Water Exploration

15. GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS

GEOPHYSICAi. INVESTIGATIONS OF CIYII. ENGINEERING IMPDRTANCE

Electrical Resistivity Method

ENGlNEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS

Property Tests for Rocks

Considerations for Successful Reservoirs

Introduction; I. I Main and Allied Branches of Geology; I. I. I Physical Geology;

Aims: The aims of this chapter are:

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Textbook of Engineering Geology

1.1 MAIN AND ALLIED BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY

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1.1.3 Petrology (Petro = rock, logos = study)

Textbookof Engineering Geology

1.2 IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

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With Reference to Bridges

1.3 SCOPE OF GEOLOGY

1.3.1 Academic Importance of Geology

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10 Textbook of Engineering Geology

A.lms: The aims of this chapter are:

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.... ..~~ ...

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2.1.2 Endogenous Geological Agents

2.1.3 Degradation, Aggradation and Gradation

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2.2.2 Weathering, Erosion and Denudation

2.2.3 The Weathering Process

Textbook of Engineering Geology

2.2.3. J Physical Factors

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K2C03 + At20f2Si022H20 + 4Si02

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Textbook of Engineering Geology

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Textbook of Engineering Geology

Relation between Weathering and Mineral Formation

Recognition of Weathered Minerals or Rocks