Topic 1a Atomic Structure

Revision Notes
1)

Fundamental particles

Atoms consist of protons, neutrons and electrons

Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus which contains most of the mass of
the atom and all of the positive charge
The neutrons help to reduce repulsion between the positively charged protons
The electrons are arranged in energy levels (shells) around the nucleus
The electron arrangement of an element determines its chemical properties i.e. what
reactions it does

Relative mass
1
1
1/2000

Proton
Neutron
Electron
2)

Relative charge
+1
0
-1

Mass number and isotopes

Atomic number
Mass number
Number of neutrons
Number of electrons
9
4

3)

Be

=
=
=
=

number of protons in the nucleus

number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
mass number atomic number
number of protons (in a neutral atom)

Mass number = 9

Atomic number = 4

4 protons, 5 neutrons, 4 electrons

Isotopes

4)

Isotopes have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
For example, chlorine has two isotopes 35Cl and 37Cl. Both have 17 protons but they
have 18 and 20 neutrons, respectively
Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties because they have the
same electron arrangement
Isotopes of an element may have different physical properties, such as rate of
diffusion, because they have different masses
Ions

Ions are formed when atoms gain or lose electrons

As an atom Cl has 17 electrons. A Cl- ion has gained one electron so it now has 18
As an atom Na has 11 electrons. An Na+ ion has lost one electron so it now has 10
Early models of atomic structure predicted that atoms and ions with noble gas
electron arrangements should be stable e.g. Cl - has the same electron arrangement
as argon and Na+ has the same electron arrangement as neon

Topic 1b Formulae & Equations

Revision Notes
1)

Formulae
a)

Elements

b)

For most elements the formula is just the symbol e.g. Na for sodium, S for
sulphur
The exceptions are the seven diatomic elements H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2 and
I2
Ionic compounds

Compounds of a metal and a non-metal are made of ions.

Metal ions have a positive charge and non-metal ions have a negative
charge.
To work out the formula of an ionic compound
Write the formulae of the ions
Adjust the number of each ion so that there is no overall
charge

Example 1 magnesium bromide

Example 2 aluminium nitrate

Ions are Mg2+ and BrNeed 2 x Br- to balance Mg2+

Formula is MgBr2

Ions are Al3+ and NO3Need 3 x NO3- to balance Al3+

Formula is Al(NO3)3

c)

Covalent compounds

2)

The formulae for ions are given on the attached sheet. This sheet is not
available in exams so the formulae will have to be learnt.

Some formulae for covalent compounds can be worked out from the name.
The prefix mono- means one, di- means two and tri- means three.
Therefore, carbon monoxide is CO, silicon dioxide is SiO 2 and sulphur trioxide
is SO3
Other formulae have to be learnt e.g. ammonia is NH 3 and methane is CH4

Equations

There are no word equations at A-level. An equation means a balanced

symbol equation.
To write a balanced symbol equation:
Identify the reactants and products
Write a word equation
Write down the formula for each substance
Balance the equation by putting numbers in front of formulae
Add state symbols (s), (l), (g) or (aq)

Example marble chips and hydrochloric acid

Reactants are calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid
Products are calcium chloride, carbon dioxide and water
Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + carbon dioxide + water
CaCO3 + HCl CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
Ca
C
O
H
Cl

1
1
3
1
1

1
1
3
2
2

2 in front of HCl balances the equation

CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
Adding state symbols
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Topic 1c Calculations
Revision Notes
1.

Molar Mass

Molar mass is calculated by adding up the masses of the atoms in the formula
The percentage of the total made up by a particular element can also be calculated

Example - sodium carbonate, Na2CO3

Na
C
O

2 x 23.0
1 x 12.0
3 x 16.0

= 46.0
= 12.0
= 48.0

Total

= 106.0

% by mass of oxygen

= 48.0 x 100/106.0
= 45.3%

2.

Empirical & Molecular Formulae

Write down mass or % of each element

Divide each one by the atomic mass of that element
Find the ratio of the numbers (divide them all by the smallest one)

In a substance containing only sodium, sulphur and oxygen, the composition

is found to be 32.4% sodium and 45.0% oxygen. Calculate the substances
empirical formula.
% sulphur

Composition
R.a.m.
Comp/r.a.m.
by smallest

= 100 32.4 45.0

= 22.6%
Na

32.4
23.0
1.41
2.01

22.6
32.1
0.70
1

45.0
16.0
2.81
4.01

Empirical formula is Na2SO4

Molecular formula is a multiple of empirical formula

Empirical formula = CH2O & Mr = 60. Find molecular formula.

Empirical mass = 30 so molecular formula = 2 x empirical formula = C 2H4O2

3)

Atom economy
Atom economy =

Molecular mass of desired product x 100%

Molecular masses of all products

Example
Bromoethane, CH3CH2Br, reacts with sodium hydroxide to produce ethanol, CH3CH2OH.
CH3CH2Br + NaOH CH3CH2OH + NaBr
In the above example
Molecular mass of desired product
Molecular masses of all products

= 46.0
= 46.0 + 102.9
= 148.9

Atom economy

= 46.0/148.9 x 100%
= 30.9%

Chemical processes with a high atom economy produce fewer waste materials
Atom economy can be improved by finding a use for waste product

Topic 2a Mass Spectrometry

Revision Notes
1)

Mass Spectrometry

The mass spectrum of an element gives the following information:

o
o
o

Number of peaks = number of isotopes

M/z of peak = mass number of isotope
Size of peak = relative abundance (i.e. percentage)
The mass spectrum for zirconium

The 5 peaks in the mass spectrum shows that there are 5 isotopes of zirconium with relative isotopic masses of 90, 91, 92, 94 and 96 on the 12C scale.
In this case, the five species detected (with their relative abundances) are:
90

Zr+ 51.5%,

Zr+ 11.2%,

91

Zr+ 17.1%,

92

94

Zr+ 17.4%,

96

Zr+ 2.8%

a) Operation

Four processes take place inside a mass spectrometer; ionisation, acceleration,

deflection and detection
The sample is vaporised and then ionised using high energy electrons form an
electron gun. X(g) + e- X+(g) + 2eIonisation is necessary to allow the remaining processes to take place. The energy of
the electrons from the gun is controlled so that only one electron is knocked off each
atom or molecule in the sample i.e. only 1+ ions are formed
The positive ions are accelerated by a negatively charged plates which also focus the
ions into a beam
The ions are deflected by a magnetic field. The amount of deflection depends on
mass:charge ratio (m/z). As the ions have the same charge, deflection depends on
mass with heavier ions deflected less and lighter ions deflected more. The strength of
the magnetic field can be altered so that ions of different m/z are detected
When an ion hits the detector a small current is produced which is recorded. The size
of the current is proportional to relative abundance

b) Uses

2)

A mass spectrum can be used to calculate the relative atomic mass of an element
(see below)
Mass spectrometry can be used to identify elements from the mass numbers of
the isotopes e.g. in space probes
On another planet, such as Mars, the number of isotopes and their mass
numbers will be the same as on Earth. However, the relative abundances may
well be different so the relative atomic mass will be different as well.
Mass spectrometry can also be used to determine the relative molecular mass of
a covalent molecule (see Topic 16 Analytical Techniques for more details)

Relative atomic mass

Relative atomic mass is the weighted average mass of an atom of an element taking
the mixture of isotopes into account. However, learn the technical definition
from definitions sheet
To calculate relative atomic mass, add together (mass number x abundance/total
abundance) for each isotope
Abundances can be given as percentages or may have to be worked out from the line
heights on the spectrum

Example 1:
Calculate the relative atomic mass of Cl from the following information.
75% of Cl atoms have a mass number of 35
25% of Cl atoms have a mass number of 37
Total abundance = 100%
Average mass of a Cl atom

= (mass no x percent/100) + (mass no x percent/100)

= (35 x 75/100) + (37 x 25/100)
= 35.5

Example 2:
Calculate the relative atomic mass of unknown metal Z from the following information.
M/z
188
189
190
192

Abundance
1.5
2.5
3.0
4.5

Total abundance = 11.5

Average mass of a Z atom

=
=
=

(188 x 1.5/11.5) + (189 x 2.5/11.5) +

(190 x 3.0/11.5) + (192 x 4.5/11.5)
24.52 + 41.09 + 49.57 + 75.13
190.3

Example 3:
A mass spectrum of a sample of indium shows two peaks at m/z = 113 and m/z = 115. The
relative atomic mass of indium is 114.5. Calculate the relative abundances of these two
isotopes.
Difference between mass numbers

= 115 - 113
=2

Relative atomic mass lies 1.5/2 along this difference i.e. 75% of the way
Abundances are m/z =113, 25%, m/z 115, 75%

Topic 2b Electronic Structure

Revision Notes
1)

Orbitals

An orbital is the region in which an electron can be found

Each orbital can hold up to two electrons of opposite spin
Orbitals have different shapes called s, p, d, and f
S orbitals are spherical in shape and come in sets of one

P orbitals are hour-glass or egg-timer shaped and come in sets of three (which can
hold up to 6 electrons)

D orbitals come in sets of five and f orbitals come in sets of seven (which can hold up
to 10 and 14 electrons, respectively)

2)

Energy levels (or shells)

The first energy level (or shell) only contains an s orbital, labelled 1s
The second energy level contains an s orbital and three p orbitals, labelled 2s and 2p
The third energy level contains an s orbital, three p orbitals and five d orbitals,
labelled 3s, 3p and 3d
The order in which the orbitals are filled is as follows:
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p
Note that the 4s fills before the 3d

Ionisation energy

Energy

4f
4d
4p
3d
4s
3p
3s

4s of "lower"
energy than 3d

2p
2s

1s

Distance from nucleus

Some examples of electronic structures are shown below.

Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Sodium
Sulphur
Calcium
Iron

1 electron
7 electrons
11 electrons
16 electrons
20 electrons
26 electrons

1s1
1s2
1s2
1s2
1s2
1s2

2s2
2s2
2s2
2s2
2s2

2p3
2p6
2p6
2p6
2p6

3s1
3s2 3p4
3s2 3p6 4s2
3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6

or [Ar] 4s2
or [Ar] 4s2 3d6

There are 2 exceptions to the pattern: chromium and copper

Cr is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5 and Cu is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10
These electronic structures are more stable than the alternative structures that follow
the pattern
When transition metals, like iron and copper, form ions they lose their 4s electrons
before their 3d electrons
Fe2+ is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 or 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d6
There are various models to illustrate atomic structure. The model chosen depends
on what we are trying to explain e.g. bonding can be explained by representing Na
as 2.8.1 and Cl as 2.8.7 with both seeking to gain a full outer shell. Explaining why
copper(II) sulphate is blue requires us to use the sub-shell model

Topic 3 Moles
Revision Notes
1.

Moles

2.

In Chemistry, amounts are measured in moles

A mole contains 6.02 x 1023 particles. Particles can be atoms, molecules, ions or
electrons
For a solution, moles = concentration x volume/1000 (volume in cm 3)

Reacting Mass Calculations

Step 1 - Find the number of moles of the thing you are told about
Step 2 Use the equation to find out the moles of the thing you are asked about.
Step 3 Find the mass of the thing you are asked about.
Example
Work out the mass of HCl formed from 6.0g of hydrogen
H2 + Cl2 2HCl
Step 1: Moles H2 = 6.0 2.0 = 3.0
(mass molar mass)
Step 2: Moles HCl = 3.0 x 2/1 (from equation) = 6.0
Step 3: Mass HCl = 6.0 x molar mass = 6 x 36.5 = 219g (moles x molar mass)

3.

Titration Calculations

Concentration is usually measured in moles of solute per cubic decimetre of solution,

mol dm-3
A cubic decimetre, 1dm 3, has the same volume as a litre i.e. 1000cm 3
The volume of a solution is often measured in cm 3. This needs to be converted to
dm3 by dividing by 1000 before calculating a concentration in mol dm -3

Step 1 - Find the number of moles of the thing you know the concentration and volume of.
Step 2 Use the equation to find out the moles of the thing you are asked about.
Step 3 Find the unknown concentration or molar mass
Example
25 cm3 of NaOH needed 21.5 cm 3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 H2SO4 for neutralisation. Calculate the
concentration of the NaOH solution.
H2SO4 + 2NaOH 2NaCl + 2H2O
Step 1: Moles H2SO4 = 0.1 x 21.5 1000 = 2.15 x 10-3 (conc x vol 1000)
Step 2: Moles NaOH = 2.15 x 10-3 x 2 (from equation) = 4.30 x 10-3
Step 3: Conc NaOH = 4.30 x 10-3 (25 1000) = 0.172 mol dm-3 (moles volume in dm3)

4.

Ideal Gas Equation

The ideal gas equation is:

PV = nRT
Where: P = pressure in Pa
V = volume in m3
(1 m3 = 103 dm3 = 106 cm3)
n = number of moles
R = gas constant (8.31 J K-1 mol-1)
T = Kelvin temperature (C + 273)
Example
0.166 mol of oxygen is in a sealed container whose volume is 1725 cm 3. The temperature is
300 K. Calculate the pressure of the oxygen inside the container.
(The gas constant R = 8.31 J K-1 mol-1)
PV
P

= nRT
= nRT/V

T has correct units but V is in cm 3 rather than m3

1725 cm3
= 1725 x 10-6 m3
= 1.725 x 10-3 m3
P

= 0.166 x 8.31 x 300/(1.725 x10-3)

= 239906 Pa
= 240 kPa

For a fixed number of moles of gas, the ideal gas equation reduces to:

P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
This version can be used to calculate the effect of changes in P, V or T on such a
sample.
The ideal gas equation can be combined with n = m/Mr or with (density) = m/V

PV = mRT/Mr
P = RT/Mr
If these versions are used, mass must be in grams and density in g m -3

5)

Percentage yield

Most organic reactions do not give 100% conversion of reactant to product

Reasons for this include the fact that most organic reactions are reversible, there
may be side products and there will be loss of the desired product during purification
% yield =

Actual moles of product

x 100%
Possible moles of product

Example
In the following reaction, 2.18g of bromoethane produce 0.75g of ethanol. Calculate the
percentage yield.
CH3CH2Br + NaOH CH3CH2OH + NaBr
Moles of reactant (bromoethane)
Possible moles of ethanol
Actual moles of ethanol
Percentage yield

6)

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

mass/molar mass
2.18/109
0.020 mol
0.020 mol (from equation)
0.75/46.0
0.0163 mol
0.0163/0.020 x 100%
82%

Ionic equations

Ionic equations leave out ions that are unchanged in a reaction. They give a clearer
picture of what is happening in a reaction
To go from a symbol equation to an ionic equation:
o Split up anything that is (aq) and ionic (acids, alkalis and salts)
o Cancel ions that are on both sides

Example

Symbol equation:

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Split up into ions:

H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)

Cancel Na+ & Cl-:

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)

Topic 4a Bonding
Revision Notes
1)

Introduction

2)

Atoms form bonds to get a full outer shell of electrons

Elements in Group 0 (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn) do not normally undergo chemical
reactions as they have full outer shells and, so, do not need to form bonds to other
elements
There are three types of bonding: ionic, covalent and metallic
Crystals (solids) have one of four types of structure: giant ionic, simple molecular,
giant covalent and giant metallic. Giant structures have millions of atoms or ions held
together in 3 dimensions. Simple molecular substances consist of a countable number
of atoms e.g. H2O, C12H22O11
Giant covalent is sometimes called giant molecular or macromolecular
To melt a substance the forces holding the particles together need to be broken
To conduct electricity there must something charged that can move (ions or
electrons).

Types of Bonding

Ionic bonding metals transfer electrons to non-metals producing positive metal ions
and negative non-metal ions. An ionic bond is an electrostatic attraction between
oppositely charged ions. Dot-cross diagrams show outer electrons only e.g. NaCl

Covalent bonding A covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons. Only non-metals

can get a full shell by sharing electrons. The bond is the attraction of the shared
electrons for the two nuclei. Dot-cross diagrams show outer electrons only e.g. Cl 2

In dative covalent bonds, one atom donates a lone pair of electrons to form the
bond. The atom accepting the electrons has an empty orbital
Examples of species that donate lone pairs include NH 3, H2O, ClExamples of species that accept lone pairs include H + and BF3

3)

Metallic bonding metals lose their outer shell electrons to produce a lattice of
positive metal ions surrounded by delocalised (free) electrons.
Types of Structure
a)

Giant ionic lattices e.g. sodium chloride

o
o
o
o
o

Lattice of oppositely charged ions.

High melting and boiling points (strong forces of attraction between ions
need to be broken).
Do not conduct when solid (ions not free to move).
Conduct when molten or dissolved in water (ions then free to move).
Are brittle (layers of ions cannot slide over each other without repelling)

Note should be Na+ and Clb)

Molecular lattices e.g. iodine and ice

o
o
o

Consists of molecules held together by weak intermolecular forces (see

section 5 below)
Low melting and boiling points (weak forces of attraction between
molecules are easily broken)
Do not conduct (no free electrons)

Structure of ice ( is hydrogen, is oxygen)

c)

Giant metallic lattices e.g. magnesium

o
o
o
o

d)

Lattice of metal ions surrounded by delocalised electrons

High melting and boiling points usually (strong forces of attraction between
metal ions and free electrons need to be broken)
Conduct when solid as delocalised electrons can move
Are malleable (bendy) and ductile (can be drawn into wires) because the
delocalised electrons allow the layers of ions to slide over each other without
repelling

Giant covalent lattices e.g. diamond, graphite

o
o
o
o

Lattice of non-metal atoms joined by strong covalent bonds

Very high melting and boiling points usually (many strong covalent bonds to
be broken)
Diamond doesnt conduct (no free electrons)
In graphite each C forms covalent bonds to 3 other Cs within the layers.
There are weak forces between the layers allowing them to slide over each
other (hence use in pencils and as a lubricant). Fourth outer shell electron is
delocalised and can move between the layers allowing graphite to conduct
electricity

Diamond

4)

graphite

Electronegativity and bond polarity

Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract the electrons in a covalent bond.

When there is a big difference in electronegativity between the atoms at either end
of a covalent bond the electrons will be pulled towards the more electronegative
atom (shared unequally). This is a polar covalent bond (the molecule has a
permanent dipole)
For example, fluorine is more electronegative than hydrogen so the H-F bond is polar

+ -

HF

5)

Polar molecules have permanent dipoles that dont cancel out (e.g. H 2O) because the
dipoles are at an angle
Non-polar molecules either have no dipoles (e.g. Cl 2) or dipoles that cancel out (e.g.
CO2) because the dipoles are at 180
Intermolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces (IMF) only occur in simple molecular substances.

Mentioning molecules or IMF in questions about ionic, metallic or giant
covalent substances is a chemical error (CE) and will lose all marks for that
question
There are 2 types of intermolecular force

a) Van der Waals

o
o
o

Arise from temporary dipole (uneven distribution of electrons) in one molecule that
induces dipole in another molecule
The more electrons, the stronger the van der Waals forces between molecules
Van der Waals forces occur in all simple molecular substances

b) Hydrogen bonds
o
o
o
o

Only occur when hydrogen is bonded to one of the 3 most electronegative elements:
N, O and F. Other elements are not electronegative enough
There is a large difference in electronegativity between H and N/O/F. This makes H
+ and N/O/F + H is strongly attracted to lone pair on N/O/F in another molecule
Diagram must show lone pairs, dipoles and H-bond shown by dotted line (see
example for NH3 below. (Note that N in NH3 has 1 lone pair, O in H2O has 2 lone
pairs and F in HF has 3 lone pairs)

N
H

o
o

N
H

Water, ammonia and HF have higher melting and boiling points than expected due to
the strength of the hydrogen bonds that have to be broken
Ice is less dense than water because, in ice, the molecules are held further apart so
there is more space in the structure

6)

Shapes of Molecules
The following procedure allows the shape of a molecule to be worked out:
Draw a dot-cross diagram
Count number of electron pairs round the central atom
Pairs of electrons repel each other and get as far apart as possible
Lone pairs repel more than bonding pairs so bonds are pushed closer together
e.g. 107 in ammonia compared with the tetrahedral bond angle of 109.5 in
methane

Number of pairs
(explanation)
2 bonding pairs
(repel equally)
3 bonding pairs
(repel equally)
4 bonding pairs
(repel equally)
5 bonding pairs
(repel equally)
6 bonding pairs
(repel equally)
3 bonding, 1 lone
(lp repels more than bps)
2 bonding , 2 lone
(lps repels more than bps)
4 bonding, 2 lone
(lps repels more than bps)

Examples

Name of shape

Bond angle

BeCl2

Linear

180

BF3

Trigonal planar

120

CH4, NH4+, PCl4+

Tetrahedral

109.5

PCl5

Bipyramidal

90 and 120

SF6, PCl6-

Octahedral

90

NH3

Pyramidal

107

H2O, NH2-

V-shaped

104.5

XeF4

Square Planar

90

This can be done mathematically e.g. PCl 4+

Outer shell electrons (P)
Bonds formed
Adjust for charge (lost e-)
Total for P
Pairs for P
Lone pairs (pairs-bonds)

5
4
-1
8
4
0

tetrahedral, bond angle 109.5

Topic 4b Periodicity
Revision Notes
1)

Blocks in the Periodic Table

An element can be assigned to the s, p or d block by working out which sub-level its
outermost electron is in:

2)

Na is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 so is in the s-block

O is 1s2 2s2 2p4 so is in the p-block
Sc is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1 so is in the d-block
Ionisation Energies
a)

First ionisation energy

Evidence that electrons are arranged in shells or energy levels can be obtained
by measuring ionisation energies
The first ionisation energy of an element is the energy needed to remove one
mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms i.e.
M(g) M+(g) + e-

b)

Successive Ionisation Energies of an element

Second and subsequent ionisation energies of an element can also be measured

i.e.
M+(g) M2+(g) + e-

Second ionisation is greater than first ionisation energy as it is harder to remove

an electron from a positive ion than from a neutral atom
Jumps in ionisation energies occur when going from one energy level (shell) to
another. The jump occurs because the new energy level is closer to nucleus and
less shielded

c)

Trends Down Group 2 (Be-Ba)

1st ionisation energy decreases down Group 2 (and all other groups)
With each successive element, there is an extra electron shell, so the outer
electron is further from the nucleus and more shielded. Less attraction
between the nucleus and the outer shell
This is evidence for electrons being arranged in energy levels (shells)

3)

Trends Across Period 3 (Na-Ar)

Be able to describe and explain trends in the following:

1st ionisation energy Describe general increase
Explain bigger nuclear charge, same shielding
Dip from Mg to Al because Mg is losing 3s electron, Al is losing 3p.
3p is higher in energy, easier to remove.
Dip from P to S because P is 3p3, S is 3p4. Mutual repulsion of paired
electrons in S make electron easier to remove than in P.
Atomic radius

Describe it decreases
Explain bigger nuclear charge, same shielding

Electronegativity

Describe it increases
Explain bigger nuclear charge, same shielding, stronger attraction
between nucleus and shared pair of electrons

Melting & boiling

points

Na, Mg and Al have metallic bonding.

Attraction between positive ions and delocalised free electrons is
strong so melting points are high.
Melting point increases from Na to Mg to Al because metal ion has
greater charge and there are more free electrons per ion so metallic
bonding is stronger.
Si has very high melting point. Giant covalent structure has many
strong covalent bonds to be broken.
P4, S8 and Cl2 have low melting points. These are simple covalent
molecules held together by weak Van der Waals forces. Van der
Waals forces increase with molecular mass so S 8 has highest melting
point, then P4 then Cl2.
Ar has simple atomic structure. Fewest electrons, weakest Van der
Waals forces between atoms

Periodic trends are repeated across different rows of the Periodic Table. Any trend in
properties across Period 3 will also be shown across Period 2 (and period 4, 5 etc)

Topic 5a Introduction to Organic Chemistry

Revision Notes
1)

Formulae

Be able to recognise and use the different ways of showing organic compounds:

Molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule

e.g. C2H6O for ethanol

Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element
in a molecule e.g. CH2 for ethene (from molecular formula C2H4 2)

General formula is the simplest algebraic formula for a member of a homologous

series e.g. CnH2n+2 for alkanes

Structural formula is the minimum detail that shows the arrangement of the atoms
in a molecule e.g. CH3CH2OH for ethanol

Displayed formula shows the relative positioning of atoms and the bonds between
them e.g. for ethanol:

All bonds should be shown. Do not put OH for the alcohol group
2)

Functional groups and naming organic compounds

Be able to recognise and use the following terms:

A homologous series is a series of organic compounds having the same functional

group with successive members differing by CH2
Alkanes, alkenes, alcohols and halogenoalkanes are all homologous series
A functional group is a group of atoms responsible for the characteristic reactions
of a compound e.g. C=C for alkenes and OH for alcohols

The rules for naming organic compounds were devised by IUPAC (International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry). They are as follows.
1) The functional group gives the ending of the name e.g. ol for an alcohol
2) The number of carbons gives the first part of the name e.g. prop- or propan- for
3 carbons
3) Number the carbon chain to give the functional group carbon the lowest number
4) Any side chains (branches) or halogens go at the front of the name with commas
between numbers and dashes between numbers and words e.g. 2,2dimethylhexane
5) With more than 1 side chain or halogen, use alphabetical order e.g. 1-bromo-2methylbutane

3)

Structural isomers

Structural isomers have the same molecular formula but different structural formulae
There are 3 types of structural isomers: chain, position and functional group
Position isomers differ in the location of the functional group e.g.

1-bromobutane

2-bromobutane

Chain isomers have different arrangements of the carbon chain e.g.

Pentane

2-methylbutane

A molecular formula can be common to compounds from different families. These are
functional group isomers e.g.
o C3H6O can be either propanal, CH3CH2CHO, or propanone, CH3COCH3
o C3H6 can be either propene or cyclopropane
o C3H6O2 can be propanoic acid, methyl ethanoate or ethyl methanoate
o C2H6O can be either ethanol or methoxymethane, CH 3OCH3 (an ether)

For CHEM1, the only pair of functional group isomers needed is alkenes
and cyclic alkanes (both of which have general formula CnH2n)

Topic 6b Alkanes
Revision Notes
1)

General

2)

Boiling points

3)

Boiling point increases with chain length more electrons, more Van der Waals
forces between molecules
Boiling point decreases as branching increases branched alkanes have less surface
area in contact so intermolecular forces are weaker (or straighter chains can pack
closer, more Van der Waals forces between molecules)
The first four alkanes are gases and are used as fuels (methane for domestic heating
and cooking, propane as LPG and in canisters for camping/caravanning, butane for
cigarette lighters and in canisters)
Petrol consists of liquid alkanes with between 5 and 8 carbons
Fractional Distillation

4)

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with general formula C nH2n+2

Saturated = only single C-C bonds
Hydrocarbon = contains C and H only
Alkane molecules are non-polar so the only intermolecular forces are Van der Waals
forces

Crude oil (petroleum) is a mixture of many compounds, most of which are alkanes
Crude oil is separated into fractions, many of which can be used directly as fuels
The separation process is called fractional distillation. This involves:
o Separation is based on the different boiling points of alkanes
o The boiling points of alkanes depend on the size of the molecule (and
strength of Van der Waals forces)
o Vaporised crude oil is fed into a column that is hot at the bottom and cool at
the top
o Smaller molecules with lower boiling points come out at the top of the
column. Larger molecules with higher boiling points come out at the bottom

Cracking

Crude oil contains more long chain alkanes than are needed. Cracking breaks
these alkanes down into products for which there is higher demand
Cracking involves the breaking of C-C bonds in alkanes and this requires a high
temperature

Example:

5)

C10H22 C8H18 + C2H4

Decane octane ethene

Thermal cracking gives a high proportion of alkenes. It needs a high temperature

(400-900C) and a high pressure (7000 kPa)
The alkenes from thermal cracking are used to make polymers and alcohols
Catalytic cracking produces motor fuels and aromatic hydrocarbons. It needs a
zeolite catalyst, a high temperature (450C) and a slight pressure

Combustion
a)

Introduction
Complete combustion requires a plentiful supply of oxygen e.g.
C5H12 + 8O2

5CO2 + 6H2O

Combustion of fossil fuels, including alkanes, results in the release of carbon

dioxide into the atmosphere
In a limited supply of air, incomplete combustion occurs forming CO or C (soot)
C5H12 + 5.5O2 5CO + 6H2O
C5H12 + 3O2 5C + 6H2O

b)

Incomplete combustion wastes petrol meaning more fuel is needed

Catalytic converters
The pollutants produced by car engines include carbon, C, carbon monoxide, CO,
sulphur dioxide, SO2, oxides of nitrogen, NOx and unburnt hydrocarbons
Carbon monoxide and carbon come from the incomplete combustion of the
hydrocarbons in petrol and are toxic. Carbon is also a respiratory irritant
Sulphur dioxide is produced when traces of sulphur in the fuel react with oxygen.
SO2 causes acid rain
Oxides of nitrogen are produced when oxygen and nitrogen from the air react
together due to the very high temperatures reached inside car engines. NO 2 is
toxic, triggers asthma attacks and forms HNO 3 (i.e. acid rain) when it reacts with
water and oxygen
Small amounts of hydrocarbons pass straight through a car engine without being
burnt
Catalytic converters consist of a honeycomb of ceramic material coated with
platinum, palladium or rhodium (Pt/Pd/Rh)
The honeycomb produces a large surface area on which reactions can occur
Catalytic converters reduce the emission of CO and NO by allowing them to react
together to make harmless products
2CO(g) + 2NO(g) 2CO2(g) + N2(g)

c)

Global Warming
In the troposphere (lowest level of the atmosphere), various gases absorb
infrared radiation and keep the atmosphere warm

d)

Infrared radiation is absorbed by C=O bonds in CO 2, O-H bonds in H2O and C-H
bonds in methane. The absorbed energy makes the bonds vibrate
Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases, like CO 2, may contribute to global
warming because of the increased absorption of IR radiation
Acid Rain
Combustion of fuels containing sulphur produces sulphur dioxide
Acid rain is formed when SO2 dissolves in water
SO2, which is acidic, can be removed from flue gases using CaO, which is a base.
This is a neutralisation reaction.
SO2 + CaO CaSO3

CHEM1 - Foundation Chemistry

Definitions to Learn
1.

Formulae & Equations

Atomic number

number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Mass number

sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom

Isotopes

atoms with the same number of protons but different

numbers of neutrons

Empirical formula

simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element in

a compound

Molecular formula

actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule

Atom economy

mass of desired product x 100%

total mass of reactants

2.

Mass Spectrometry & Electronic Structure

Relative atomic mass

average mass of an atom relative to 1/12 of the mass of a

carbon-12 atom

Relative molecular mass

mass of a molecule relative to 1/12 of the mass of a carbon12 atom

3.

Moles

Mole

unit for amount of substance

Avogadro constant, NA

number of particles present in a mole (6.02 x 10 23 mol-1)

4.

Bonding & Periodicity

Lattice

a regular 3-dimensional array

Ionic bond

electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions in a

lattice

Covalent bond

a shared pair of electrons

Dative covalent bond

covalent bond formed by donation of a lone pair

Metallic bond

a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalised electrons

Electronegativity

ability of an atom to attract the electrons in a covalent bond

Polar bond

electrons are shared unequally (due to difference in

electronegativity of atoms at either end)

1st ionisation energy

energy change when one mole of electrons is removed from

one mole of gaseous atoms

5.

Alkanes

Homologous series

a series of organic compounds with:

the same general formula
difference of CH2 between each member
a trend in physical properties
similar chemical properties

Functional group

a group of atoms responsible for the characteristic reactions

of a compound

Structural isomers

same molecular formula, different structures

Hydrocarbon

a compound that contains hydrogen and carbon only

Saturated

contains only single C-C bonds

Fractional distillation

separates due to differences in boiling point

Fraction

mixture of compounds of similar boiling point

Cracking

breaking a long chain alkane into a shorter chain alkane and

an alkene

CHEM1 - Foundation Chemistry

Calculations
1.

Formulae & Equations

Molar mass*

Sum of masses of elements in formula

e.g. 106.0 for Na2CO3 (always give to 1 dp)

Percentage by mass

Mass of specified element x 100%

Molar mass
e.g. 43.4% for Na in Na2CO3

Empirical formula

For each element, divide percentage by relative atomic mass

Divide through by smallest
If result is, say, 1 1 1.5, then double to get whole numbers.
Do not round 1.5 to 2

Molecular formula

Divide relative molecular mass by mass of empirical formula

to get multiplier. Multiply empirical formula by multiplier.

Atom economy

Mass of desired product x 100%

Total mass of reactants

* (also applies to relative atomic mass, relative molecular mass & relative formula mass)

2.

Mass Spectrometry & Electronic Structure

Relative atomic mass

3.

For each isotope, calculate mass number x abundance.

Add results together.
Mass number may come from m/z scale of graph.
Abundance can be %/100 or line height/total line height.

Moles

Moles

If given mass in g, moles = mass/molar mass

If given concentration in mol dm-3 and volume in dm3, moles
= concentration x volume
If given concentration in mol dm-3 and volume in cm3, moles
= concentration x volume/1000

Percentage yield

Actual moles x 100%

Possible moles

Percentage purity

Mass of pure or desired x 100%

Mass of impure or mixture

Concentration in g dm-3

Mol dm-3 x molar mass

Dissolved mass

Concentration in g dm-3 x volume in dm3

Ideal gas equation

PV = nRT
P=pressure in Pa, V=volume in m3, n=number of moles,
R=gas constant (8.31 J K-1 mol-1), T=temperature in K
1kPa = 1000 Pa, 1 cm3 = 10-6 m3, 1 dm3 = 10-3 m3,
K = C+273