Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Faculty of Engineering
Done By :
Ali Al.Nami
200910541
Khaled Al.Qarni
201010086
Saad Al.Shahrani
201010611
Supervisors:
Dr .Ghareeb Moustafa
Dr. Mohammed Al. Shimi
This project was carried out in the year 2014
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Jazan University
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1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 6
2.
2.1.
Hazard Analysis.............................................................................................. 11
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
2.7
3.
3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.5.1.
3.5.2.
3.6.
3.7.
Safety ground.................................................................................................. 39
3.8.
3.9.
3.9.1.
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3.10.
3.11.
4.1.
Introduction .................................................................................................... 49
4.2.
Experimental layout........................................................................................ 50
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
7.
5.
5.1.
5.2.
6.
Conclusions .................................................................................................... 67
Future work..................................................................................................... 67
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Table of figure
Figure -2- Resistance of different solution. .................................................................... 182
Figure -3 Current entering ground through a hemispherical electrode. .......................... 202
Figure -1 Step, touch, and transferred voltages near a grounded structure..................... 293
Figure -2: Examples of power system neutral grounding. .............................................. 323
Figure -3 Connection modes of the neutral of the installation and of the frames of the3
electrical loads. ................................................................................................................. 34
Figure -4 Example of the various grounding systems included in the same installation.353
Figure -5 Chemical Rods ................................................................................................ 453
Figure -6 Grounding system with explosion and intrinsic cracks................................... 473
Figure -1: photo for Experimental layout....................................................................... 524
Figure -2: Experimental layout ....................................................................................... 534
Figure -3: Electric resistivity Measurement .................................................................... 564
Figure -4: Mesh type ....................................................................................................... 574
Figure -1 Normal profiles of surface potential for 2x2 Mesh with 2 cm depth ............ 605
Figure -2 Normal profiles of surface potential for 3x3 Mesh with 1 cm depth Upper5
part .................................................................................................................................... 61
Figure -3 Normal profiles of surface potential for 3x3 Mesh with 1 cm depth lower5
part .................................................................................................................................... 62
Figure -4 Normal profiles of surface potential for 2x2 Mesh with 1 cm depth ............... 635
Figure -5 Normal profiles of surface potential for 2x2 Mesh ......................................... 645
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Chapter 1
Introduction
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1.1. Introduction
Electrical installations require grounding systems, whose geometry may
also depend on the footprint of buildings or substations they serve. In most
industrial cases, grounding systems consist of grids integrated with rods at
each comers. In many cases, if available, non-insulated reinforcing bars in
concrete foundations may also serve as vertical ground electrodes.
In modern extra-high-voltage and ultrahigh-voltage AC substations,
grounding has become one of the dominant problems of system design. It is
essential to have an accurate design procedure for the grounding system.
Grounding is of major importance to increase the reliability of the supply
service as it helps to provide stability of voltage conditions, preventing
excessive voltage peaks during disturbances, and also a means of providing
a measure of protection against lightning.
It is required that the voltage rise during a fault be kept to low levels.
This dictates that ground resistances in high voltage substations must be
very low. The most common method of obtaining low values of ground
resistance at high-voltage substations is to use interconnected ground
grids. A typical grid system for a substation comprises 4/0 bare standard
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The best configuration of the grounding grid requires studying the effect of
the parameters usually encountered in practice. Such parameters are the
length of the grounding grid, the number of meshes in the grid, the diameter
of the grounding conductor, the depth of burial of the grid and the effect of
using ground rods. It is impractical to investigate the effect of these
parameters on full-size grids because of the lack of controlled conditions and
variations in soil resistivity at the site. Scale models offer a practical and
inexpensive alternative solution. Scale model tests are generally employed to
determine grounding resistance and surface potential distributions during ,
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Chapter 2
Electric shocks
and protection
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The distribution of grain size has an effect on the manner in which the
moisture is held. The finer the grading, the lower will be the resistivity.
There is not much experimental work on the effect of pressure, but it is
reasonable to assume that higher pressures resulting in a more compact body
of earth will result in lower values of resistivity.
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Figure (2-4-a)
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Figure (2-4-b)
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The driven rod is one of the simplest and most economical forms
of electrode. Its ground resistance can be calculated if its shape is
approximated to that of an ellipsoid of revolution having a major
axisequaltotwicetherodslengthandaminoraxisequaltoits
diameter d; then
R=
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Ground rod
R=
S
S
R=
Horizontal strip
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Four-point star
Six-point star
Ring of wire
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Chapter 3
SUBSTATION
GROUNDING SYSTEM
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(1)
(2)
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Thus the fault arc becomes unstable and easily gets extinguished. This
method has been in common use in some high-voltage networks in Europe.
It helps maintain the continuity of the supply without endangering the
system insulation.
For resistance grounding, a resistance of a suitable design is connected
between the system neutral point and the grounding electrode group as an
addition to the system ground resistance. This technique is suitable for
generators, as it helps to maintain their stability by the power consumed
during L-G faults; otherwise, the generators might race out of step.
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The first one for transformer neutral connection, T for neutral connected
to ground and I for neutral isolated from ground (Figure -3-a).0
The second one for the type of application frame connection, T for
directly connected to the ground and N for connection to the neutral at
the origin of the installation, which is connected to the ground (Figure
0 -3).
Combination of these letters gives three possible configurations: TT, TN,
and IT.
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Grounding Systems
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Figure -4.3
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improved
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The tolerable step and touch voltages with durations t for persons weighing
50-70 kg can be estimated as
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Chapter 4
Experimental setup
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4. Experimental setup
4.1. Introduction
Electrical installations require grounding systems, whose geometry may also
depend on the footprint of buildings or substations they serve. In most
industrial cases, grounding systems consist of grids integrated with rods at
each comer. In many cases, if available, non-insulated reinforcing bars in
concrete foundations may also serve as vertical ground electrodes.
This complex geometry of the grounding system cannot be exclusively
studied analytically. This paper will show a semi analytical method for
grounding grids, which uses numerical calculation to solve the set of
equations necessary to determine the most significant parameters of
grounding grids, such as the ground-resistance, the ground potentials along
the soil and the distribution of the ground-fault current along the grid's
components (i.e. horizontal wires and rods).
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on the edges of the tank and could be moved across the surface of the
electrolyte at a constant depth in straight line in any direction over any part
of the grid. Scales mounted along the tank edges permitted accurate
positioning of the grid and probe.
The experimental layout is shown in Fig. 4-1. An alternating current is used
to avoid polarization. The applied voltage to the model is obtained from a
220 AC source through DC power supply.
The magnitude of this voltage is kept constant. During the different tests, by
measuring the voltage applied to the model and the current flowing through
the electrolyte between the model grid and the return electrode, the effective
grid resistance
can be obtained. The potential of the test probe with respect to the return
electrode is monitored by a voltmeter of a very high internal resistance.
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Method of four-electrode probe has been used in soil practices since 1931
for
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The method of four-electrode probe was also used for evaluation of some
other soil properties, such as soil water content (Edlefsen and Anderson,
1941; Kirkham and Taylor, 1949); structure (Nadler, 1991); bulk den sity,
porosity, and texture .
E =measuredapparentsoilresistivity(m)
a = electrode spacing (m)
b = depth of the electrodes (m)
RW = Wenner resistance measured as "V/I"
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(A)
(B)
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Chapter 5
Results And Discussion
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The maximum mesh potential is found at the point within the grid boundary
where the surface potential is lowest. The mesh potential is then the potential
between this point and the grid; it is in fact the touch potential, Etouch, which
would be experienced by a person standing at this point and touching some
apparatus connected to the grid. It is generally found in the corner mesh at a
point in the center of the mesh.
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The Tables:
5.1
6.08
7.4
7.66
7.7
6.3
7.4
8.35
8.23
8.3
9.78
9.4
7.4
7.77
6.17 6.91
7.82
8.9
8.8
7.67 7.6
7.63
8.79
8.14 7.5
8.92
8.39 8.28
8.07
8.76
8.3
7.89
8.14
8.68 7.58
7.56
7.68 7.9
8.7
8.15 7.93
7.03
6.98
6.65 6.81
6.66
8.79
8.66 8.55
8.03
8.3
8.35 8.4
9.3
10.35
7.99
9.19
Table 1
6
6.9
6.68
6.2
6.3
7.52
7.5
6.58
7.18
9
8.1
7.1
9.05
7.6
7.8
8.12
8.18
7.36
7.78
7.32
8.04
7.26
7.76
6.4
7.85
7.41
7.8
6.7
7.93
7.55
7.92
6.94
8.53
8.23
8.5
7.32
9.53
9.65
9.55
8.9
9.95
9.4
9.45
9.17
8.2
7.2
7.48
7.5
8.17
6.64
7.54
7.25
7.85
6.82
9.4
6.83
8.18.5
7.39
8.45
10.4
7.8
7.17
8.31
Table 2
5.8
4.5
65
8.4
8.3
8.5
9.1
9.2
8.7
8.8
10
10
9.2
9.2
8.3
8.9
8.2
8.5
8.6
8.9
9.8
9.9
10
10
9.2
9.2
8.3
8.9
10.5
9.4
8.7
8.6
8.9
9.8
10.5
9.4
8.7
8.4
8.3
8.5
9.1
9.2
8.4
8.3
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Table 3
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8.2
8.5
8.6
8.5
9.3
8.6
8.9
8.9
9.1
66
9.3
9.8
9.9
9.8
9.2
8.8
10
10
10.5
8
8.4
9.2
9.2
9.4
8.4
8.2
8.3
8.9
8.7
8.3
8.5
8.2
8.5
8.6
8.5
8.7
8.6
8.9
8.9
9.1
9
9.8
9.9
9.8
9.2
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6. Conclusions
The resistance of the grid decreases with increasing the number of
meshes
The grid resistance, mesh and step potentials are decreased with
increasing the burial depth of grid
7. Future work
1- Study of the effect with increasing wire diameter.
2- Effect of adding wire rod to the grid.
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Reference :
Acknowledgment
1. Baishiki RS, Osterberg CK, Dawalibi F. IEEE Trans PWRD-2:64-71,
1987.
2. Brown P, Johnson I, Stevenson J. IEEE Trans PAS -97:683-694,
1978.
3. Dawalibi F, Blattner C. IEEE Trans PAS-103:374-382, 1984.
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