Jamie Kelly

What are the main functions of Biominerals and their applications in the
21st century?
Throughout our planet there are a whole host of different kinds of species of
plants, animals and forms of bacteria. All are able and have been able to survive
for millions of years through evolution and the use of a complex process called
biomineralization. At a glance this process is simply the production of minerals
by life, but it is so much more than a mere production. Instead it plays the critical
roles of supporting, protecting and feeding our body through the production of
minerals such as Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3, Calcite) a mineral that helps to
build bone. As technology advances, the opportunities for biominerals are
becoming greater and greater and have even given rise to new scientific fields of
study such as Biomaterials science, which primarily focuses on the artificial
production of biominerals for use in the medical industry.
The world is full of minerals produced by life. In fact some of these minerals are
so familiar we almost take them for granted; our teeth we use for breaking up
food, and our bones, we use for mechanical support (Addadi L & Weiner S 2014).
The minerals created by life might vary from organism to organism but one
principle remains the same which is that they are found in intimate associations
with proteins, polysaccharides and other macromolecules (Dove, P 2010 pp37),
that is what helps distinguish the mineral from a mineral in a rock and a mineral
formed by life. One of the greatest examples of this difference is Calcite. Calcite
can form as a mineral in rocks such as limestone but it is also a biomineral that,
when combined with proteins, forms structural bone for us and other vertebrates
but also shells for marine life. Calcite is a polymorph of the larger group of
biominerals of Calcium Carbonate. Alongside the carbonates; Calcium
phosphates, oxalates and silicates make up the majority of biominerals in which
there are now roughly 64 different types (Dove, PM 2010). Each of these sets of
biominerals depending on which organism has a specific function which could be
to help protect the creature from a predator through to the more bizarre role of
enabling an organism to orient and migrate along geomagnetic lines in
magnetotactic bacteria (Lei Y et al 2010). Without these functions, we would not
exist as a complex organism. The functions of the biominerals ensure that we
have a strong enough skeleton (skeletal biominerals) which in turn ensures our
bones are developed enough and so important systems such as red and white
blood cell production can happen. This is just one example of one function that is
important to our survival. Our body depends on the process of biomineralization
and the biominerals formed and, with the example of protection as a function,
shows the importance of the process.
Calcium carbonates are not unique to us. They also have importance in plants.
The biomineral amorphous calcium carbonate is a good example as it
manipulates light to enhance photosynthesis (Addadi L & Weiner S 2014). It is
fairly obvious to see with this example why certain scientific disciplines would
want to research into this process due to its potential to help solve one of the
biggest challenges facing the 21st century in the form of climate change.
Another important function of the carbonates but also calcium phosphate is ion
Jamie Kelly

Jamie Kelly
storage particularly calcium. This is an important function for biochemical cycles
as calcium ions and carbonate ions are needed for the reactions within oceans
which help with the regulation of carbon dioxide which in turn affects
atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide. However one organism that uses a
different type of biomineral is the diatom, a type of phytoplankton that is critical
for ocean productivity. Diatoms use silica to build a hard external shell known as
a frustule to protect itself from the pressures of the oceans. It is unclear as to
why silicon is preferred to than calcium but one theory suggests it is because
calcium has more planes of weakness due to its cleavage (Bertini 2007). Overall
there is a diverse range of functions that are important to plant and animal
survival but also to regulate important biochemical cycles. One of the greatest
interests of modern science is how did nature develop such a process, but more
importantly can we recreate it to produce new technology and biomaterials?
The example of the frustule of a diatom is of particular interest to material
scientists especially in the area of nanotechnology. Research is constantly
looking for improvements to medicine and technology and the complex nature
and efficiency of biomineralization means that if we can artificially reproduce the
process we could in theory begin to alter it to create all kinds of new materials.
The frustule of the diatom is constructed out of silica and so the recreation of the
process in which silica is used to build a cell wall could be used to manufacturer
smaller microchips, which could lead to yet faster computers and mobile devices.
This is one application from a technological perspective. Perhaps the most
exciting and interesting prospects lie within the field of medicine. Put simply the
synthesis of bones and teeth is an amazing process that if unlocked fully could
help advance the areas of dentistry by building artificial teeth or help with more
complex problems involving larger bones in the body. The medical industry has
already accomplished some uses such as the use of collagen in implants, bone
regeneration and biological scaffolds (Meyers 2010). The possibilities within the
medical industry are expanding and so it has the potential to perhaps help find a
cure to currently incurable diseases or disabilities.
Medical application is currently a more developing use of the process
biomineralization and the biominerals produced. But biominerals have been and
are continuing to be used by geologists to help date landscapes and produce
more evidence that helps to answer one of the key geologic questions of when
did the first life form on Earth. The use of amorphous silica or phytoliths is used
because phytoliths are frequently preserved in the fossil record as distinct and
identifiable microfossils (Morgan KD, 2013). The characteristics of these fossils
can be very useful in piecing together a timeline of when the first complex life
began to emerge, which is estimated to have started about 600ma in the
Cambrian Eon, to the point in history when life began to use biomineralization to
build a skeleton. The article rise of biomineral skeletons by Patricia Dove
provides evidence and a breakdown of that timeline and places the start of the
use of biomineralization by multicellular organisms at 542 million years ago
towards the end of the Ediacaran period. However it has been found that most
skeletons and functional materials developed at the time of the Cambrian
explosion in which over the next 25 million years around 178 distinct skeletal
Jamie Kelly

Jamie Kelly
structures were formed in calcifying marine animals (Dove P 2010). It wasnt until
the late Triassic period though until the first calcite skeletons were formed.
Geologists and paleobiologists have managed to use the fossil records left by the
process of biomineralization to trace back these events and many more. It shows
the importance of biominerals in the role of a geologist.
Overall the main biominerals within the carbonates, phosphates and silicates
have important applications in modern 21st century science helping solve
previously unsolvable problems. This alongside the actual functions of
biominerals such as calcium carbonate makes biominerals and the process of
biomineralization extremely important to survival. The use of calcium carbonate
by some marine life to form shells to protect against predators is just one
example within a wider context. The diversity of biomineralization as a process
has created new fields of scientific study most notably biomaterials science
which is pushing forward research in the production of synthetic materials for the
medical industry. Alongside manufacturing more efficient technological
equipment, dating the time of the first complex life and helping solve modern
climate change issues, it is clear to see why biomineralization has become an
important area of study across a wide range of sciences. What is clear is that the
future potential of biomineralization is exciting and growing continuously.

Jamie Kelly