(5)

Booksby
PROF.RAYMONDMACDONALDALDEN
ofLelandStanfordJuniorUniversity
TheArtofDebate
xv+279pp.i2mo.$1.12net.
Apracticalmanualofargumentationanddebating,
sufficientlysystematictobeserviceableasa
textbook.Legalargumentistakenasameansof
approachtothetreatmentofsuchmattersasburden
ofproofandevidence;andtheclassificationof
methodsofproofisbasedontheexigenciesof
actualdebate.
Prof.F.N.Scott,UniversityofMichigan:"Itis
afreshandinterestingtreatmentofthesubject,
packedwithideasexpressedinamostdelightful
andtakingway.Ihavegreatlyenjoyedreadingit,
andhaverecommendeditheartilytomystudents."
EnglishVerseWITH.SPECIMENSILLUSTKATINGITS
PRINCIPLESANDHISTORYxiv(459pp.English.
Readings.i6mo.$1.25net.
N.Y.CommercialAdvertiser;"Anadmirable
handbook;reallyservesthedoublepurposeofa
textbookandanEnglishversetreasury.''
ProfHenryVanDykeofPrinceton:"Itseemstome
anexcellentbook,muchneededandthoroughlywell
made."BlissPerry,EditoroftheAtlanticMonthly:

"Itisaskillfullyplannedandadmirablycompact
handbook.Iknowofnotreatiseonversification
whichissowelladaptedforpracticaluse
intheclassroom."
HenryHoltandCompany
NHWYORKCHICAGO
ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRYFORSTUDENTSOFENGLISH
LITERATURE
BY
RAYMONDMACDONALDALDEN,PH.D.
ASSISTANTPROFESSORINLELANDSTANFORD
JUNIORUNIVERSITYNEWYORK
HENRYHOLTANDCOMPANY
1909
COPYRIGHT,1909,
BY
HENRYHOLTANDCOMPANY
PREFACE
Thisbookistosomeextentaresultofthekind
receptionaccordedEnglishVerse,avolumeof
annotatedselections,illustratingtheprinciples
andhistoryofEnglishversification,which
appearedaboutsixyearsago.Somewhohavemade
useofthatbookhavefelttheneedofatreatise
whichshouldundertaketogiveamoreextended
accountofmattersofwhichtheplanoftheearlier
volumeallowedonlybriefmentioninnotes.And
whenitcametothepointofpreparingsucha
treatise,itseemedlikelythatsimilarneedswould
beservedbyincludingsomeaccountoftheelements
ofpoetryotherthanversification,sofaras
studentsofEnglishliteraturehavetoanalyze
them.Thepresentvolume,then,differsfrom
EnglishVerseinthreeprincipalways:itismore
franklydogmatic,attemptingtostateprinciples
withsomefullnessinsteadofmerelybringing
togetherthematerialsfortheinductivestudyof
thesubject;itincludesadiscussionofthe

imaginativeandspiritualaspectsofpoetry,
insteadoflimitingitselftoverseform;andit
omitsaltogetherthehistoricaltreatmentofthe
material,exceptwherethisisnecessarilyinvolved
inclearnessofdefinition.Forthemostpartonly
suchbriefandsimplediscussionhasbeen
undertakenas
iii
JvPREFACE.
issuitedtoanintroductoryhandbook,andthis
inevitablyresultsinacertainappearanceof
assertivenessordogmatismwhichwouldbeavoidable
inamoreelaboratework;buttheattempthasbeen
madealwaystoindicatethestillunsettledaspects
ofthesubject,andtoincludeinthesections
printedinsmallertypeabriefaccountofthe
stateofopiniononsuchdoubtfulmatters,with
referencestothemosthelpfulsourcesof
information.Thesesmallertypesections,then,
givethemorethoughtfulstudentaverysimple
introductiontothestudyofthehistoryofpoetic
theory.Furthermore,thetableofcontentsandthe
indexhavebeenpreparedwithsomecare,witha
viewtothepossibilitythatstudentswhodonot
care(orwhoseteachersdonotcaretohavethem)
tofollowthebookfrombeginningtoendmay
convenientlytakeupanyofitssectionsinany
desiredorder,oruseitratherasaworkof
reference.
Onecannothelpfeelingthatthereisroomformuch
doubtonquestionsofproportionandemphasis,in
thecaseofsobriefamanualonsolargea
subject.Ithasbeenthewriter'sefforttosettle
thesequestionsonthebasisofactualteaching
experience,askingalwayswhatismostimportant
forthestudentofpoetry,asidefromwhathecan
supplythroughhisownintelligenceandtaste.And
inthechoiceofillustrativeexamplesandof

referencesforcollateralreading,theoretical
excellenceandcompletenesshavebeensubordinated
totheconsiderationofwhatthestudentmaybe
presumedactuallytobereading,tohaveread,or
toundertaketoread.
Itcanhardlybehoped,however,thatthejudgment
ofanyonewillwhollysatisfyothersinthese
respects.Inparticular,itmaybethought
unfortunatethatthechaptersonmetricalform
shouldbulkmorelargelythanthosedealingwith
theinnerelementsofpoetry;towhichthereis
onlythereplythatmattersofmetricalformappear
tobe,notthemostimportant,butthosethat
presentmostdifficultytothestudentandrequire
themostcarefulexaminationofdetailsstillunder
debate.ChapterFour,onthefundamentalproblems
ofEnglishrhythm,dealswiththepointofgreatest
difficultyinthewholerangeofthesubject,and
istoberegarded,notasmakingclaimto
originality,butasthemostindividualportionof
thisbook.Sorecentlyasthetimeofpublication
oftheearliervolume,EnglishVerse,itseemed
impracticabletodogmatizeontheelementsofour
metres,withanyhopeofdoingmorethanadding
anothernotetothediscordantjangleofvoiceson
thatdangeroussubject.
Butthereisevidencethatconditionshavebecome
morehopeful;recentwritershaveseemedtotend
moreandmoretowardagreementoncertain
substantialprinciples;andwhileonemuststill
wait,nodoubt,foragenerallyaccreditedscience
ofEnglishprosody,itisperhapssafetoofferfor
theuseofstudentsarathermorepretentiousbody
ofdoctrinethanwouldhavebeenreasonablehereto
fore.Nearlytwentyfiveyearsagoappearedthe
firsteditionofProfessorGummere'sHandbookof
Poetics,inwhichitwasclearlystatedthat

"whentheeardetectsatregularintervalsa
recurrenceofaccentedsyllables,varyingwith
unaccented,itperceivesrhythm,"andthat"
measuredintervalsoftimearethebasisofall
versedoctrineswhollyinaccordwiththeteachings
ofthisbook,andwiththepresenttendencyof
metricalcriticism.Yeteveninthatadmirable
handbookthefurtherstatementwasmadethat"
accentisthechieffactorofmodernverse;"andit
isunfortunatelyprobablethatmostofthosewho
haveusedthebookhaveemphasizedthissecond(and
questionable)statementattheexpenseofthefirst
(andunquestionable).Thepresentmanualisbased
onthebeliefthatthetimehascometomakeit
cleareventotheelementarystudentthatthetwo
elementsofrhythm,timeandaccent,mustreceive
equalattention,andthathewilldowelltoattach
hisstudyofverserhythmtohisstudyofmusic,as
SidneyLanierfirsturgedusalltodo,without
followingLanierinhismoreunguardeddetails.
Suchabookasthisshouldofcoursebeusedin
connectionwithanthologiesandothervolumes
givingabundantexamplesoftheformsofpoetry.
Tothisend,inthechaptersonmetricalform,
frequentreferencesareincludedtoEnglishVerse,
theplanofwhichmadepossiblemuchfuller
quotationofillustrativematerial.Itmaybeadded
thatthepoemscitedbywayofillustrationhave
beenchosen,sofaraswasentirelytothepurpose,
fromthetwovolumesofPalgrave'sGoldenTreasury,
inordertorelatethemanualinsomedegreetoan
anthologyfamiliarandeasilyaccessibleto
students.
Manybookshavebeenofserviceinthepreparation
ofthisstudy,andthosespecificallydrawnupon
aredulyacknowledgedintheproperplaces.Buttwo
shouldalsobementionedhereasthecauseof
specialobligation:ProfessorsGayleyandScott's

IntroductiontotheMethodsandMaterialsof
LiteraryCriticism,andMr.T.S.Omond'sEnglish
MetristsintheEighteenthandNineteenth
Centuries,bothindispensabletotheserious
studentofpoetry.ThesecondvolumeofProfessor
Saintsbury'sHistoryofEnglishProsodycameto
handtoolatetobeused;itisregrettablethat
referencescouldnothavebeenincludedtohis
discussionofsuchsubjectsasblankverseandthe
heroiccouplet.Itisalsoregrettablethatuse
couldnothavebeenmadeoftheforthcomingvolumes
ofM.Verrier,anoteonwhichisincludedinthe
bibliographicalappendix,andwhich,whenthey
appear,willdeservewideandcarefulreading.
Finally,acknowledgmentisduetothewriter's
colleagues,ProfessorA.G.NewcomerandProfessor
HenryD.Gray,whohavekindlyreadportionsofthe
manuscriptandmadeanumberofhelpful
suggestions.
R.M.A.
STANFORDUNIVERSITY,CALIFORNIA,
January,1909,
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
DEFINITIONSANDORIGINSPAGE
POETRYDEFINED
(Definitionsofvariouscritics)I
Poetryasarepresentativeart4
Itsuseofthesoundsofspeech5
(Therelationsofpoetrytotheotherarts)6
Imitationandcreation8
Representationratherthancommunication10
(AristotelianandBaconiantheories)11
Universality12
Metricalform15
Emotionalappeal18
Theimaginativeelement19

Ispoetryeverchieflyreasonable?21
(Relationofpoetrytooratoryandromance)23
ORIGINSOFPOETRY26
Communalcharacterofearlypoetry28
CHAPTERII.
THECLASSESORKINDS.
Methodsofclassification31
THEPRINCIPALTYPES:Epic,Lyric,Dramatic31
SocalledDescriptivePoetry33
Combinationsoftypes:LyricalBallad34
DramaticLyric35
Othercombinations36
SocalledReflectivePoetry36
ix
xCONTENTS.
THEPRINCIPALTYPES.Continued.
SocalledDidacticPoetry37
SatiricPoetry40
PastoralPoetry40
THEEPIC41
Twomeaningsof"
epic
"
41
Thenationalepic42
Communalandindividualtypesofepic43
Epicqualities44
(Criticaldiscussionsoftheepic)44
Decayoftheepictype47
Variationsoftheepictype49
Themockepic50
Theballad50
Balladqualities51
Modernballads51
Themetricalromance51
Othernarrativeforms53
Descriptiveepicpoems54
THELYRIC55

Twomeaningsof"
lyric
"
55
Subjectivecharacter56
Structureofthelyric57
Formofthelyric58
(Criticaldiscussionsofthelyric)59
Methodsofclassification61
Songlyrics62
TheHymn63
Lyricsofmoreliterarycharacter64
Reflectivelyrics65
TheOde66
TheElegy68
Thepastoralelegy69
TheSonnet70
VersdeSociete71
THEDRAMA74
Compositecharacterofthedrama74
Lyricandepicqualitiescombined74
Languageofdramaticpoetry75
CONTENTS.
THEDRAMA.Continued.
Structureofthedrama76
Formofthedrama77
Decayofdramaticpoetry78
(Criticaldiscussionsofthedrama)79
Dramasclassifiedbyexternalform....80
Dramastendingtowardepicorlyriccharacter81
Classicalandromanticdramas82
ComedyandTragedy85
Thepleasureofcomedy86
Thepleasureoftragedy87
("Poeticjustice")89
Minglingofcomedyandtragedy91
Theburlesquedrama92
CHAPTERIII.

THEBASISOFPOETRY(INTERNAL),
Problemsoftheinnernatureofpoetry93
THEIMAGINATION93
Imaginationasaformofmemory93
Thecreativeimagination95
Theinterpretativeimagination97
AnexamplefromShelley98
AnexamplefromDryden99
AnexamplefromKeats100
AnexamplefromWordsworth101
Newcombinationsandinterpretationsmadebythe
imagination
102
Fancyasanaspectofimagination102
(Criticaldiscussionsoftheimagination)103
BEAUTYASANELEMENTOFPOETRY112
Beautyasaffectingpoeticstyle..113
Beautyaveryinclusiveterm114
THERELATIONOFPOETRYTOTRUTHIIS
Arebeautyandtruthidentical?117
Whenispoetrytruthful?118
xiiCONTENTS.
PAGE
THERELATIONOFPOETRYTOTRUTH.Continued.
Poetryasateacherofman118
(Criticaldiscussionsoftheidealinpoetry)120
HASPOETRYASPECIALKINDOFSUBJECTMATTER?122
Nolimitstopoeticmaterial.123
Thetwomethodsofpoetictreatment126
HASPOETRYASPECIALSTYLE?128
The"neutral"style129
Theprosaicstyle131
(Wordsworth'stheoryofstyleinpoetry)132
Sourcesofthequalitiesofpoeticalstyle138
Concreteness138
Beautyinconcretedetail141
Figurativelanguage142
Thesimile142

Themetaphor144
Personification145
Allegory147
Otherfigurativeforms148
Choiceofwordsforemotionalassociation150
Antiquateddiction153
Poeticlicense153
CHAPTERIV.
THEBASISOFPOETRY(EXTERNAL).
RHYTHMDEFINED,155
Thetwoelementsofrhythm157
Musicalandverserhythmcompared158
Rhythminhumanspeech160
Rhythminproseandversedistinguished161
THERELATIONOFSPEECHSTRESSESTOVERSERHYTHM164
Degreesofsyllabicaccent166
Alterationsofaccenttofitthemetricalscheme.
167
Hoveringaccent170
Summaryoflawsofverseaccents,171
(Conflictingcriticalviewsastotherelationof
speech
andverseaccents)173
CONTENTS.xiii
PAGE
THERELATIONOFSPEECHQUANTITIESTOVERSE
RHYTHM...175
Relationofquantityandaccent178
Quantityalteredtofitthemetricalscheme180
Pausesusedtocompletetimeintervals183
Pausescompensatingformissingsyllables184
Summaryoflawsofversequantities186
Theadjustmentofspeechtorhythm187
(Conflictingviewsastotheelementoftimeor
quantity
inEnglishverse)188
(MusicalnotationforEnglishverse)190
RHYTHMANDTHEINNERNATUREOFPOETRY193

10

Rhythmasameansofbeauty193
Rhythmasexpressiveofemotion195
Rhythmasameansofimaginativeidealization198
Rhythmasamodifierofcrudereality200
(Criticaldiscussionsoftheplaceandfunctionof
the
metricalelementinpoetry)202
NONRHYTHMICALELEMENTSOFVERSEFORM206
Tonequality207
Similarityofsounds(alliteration,assonance,
etc.)..209
Soundsimaginativelysuggestive212
Beautyormelodyinversesounds217
(Criticaldiscussionsoftonequality)218
CHAPTERV.
ENGLISHMETRES.
THETWOUNITSOFMETRE221
Thefoot222
(Objectionstotheuseoftheterm"foot"
inEnglish
verse)224
Significanceofvariousnamesoffeet226
(Areiambicandtrochaicverserhythmically
different?).228
Practicalmethodsofnamingmetres231
THEPRINCIPALMETRICALTYPES232
Variousexceptionalfeet233
(Thesocalledamphibrach,tribrach,choriambus,
and
paeon)234
xivCONTENTS.
PAGE
THEPRINCIPALMETRICALTYPES.Continued.
(Thedistinctionbetweenthesefootnamesin
classical
andEnglishprosody)236
(Thegraphicrepresentationofmetres)238
VARIATIONSFROMREGULARMETRICALFORM241

11

Changeofparticularfeetbyalteringthe
arrangementof
stressornumberofsyllables241
(Trisyllabicfeet;theirrelationtoelisionand
slurring).243
Metrescharacteristicallyvariable246
^Estheticvalueofmetricalvariety248
(Limitsofmetricalvariation)251
Truncationandextensionofverses(catalexis;
anacrusis;
feminineending)254
Thepause258
Thecesura258
Theendpause261
THEPRINCIPALMETRES264
Iambicmetres264
Fourstressiambicverse266
(Earlyandpopularfourstressversewithirregular
numberofsyllables)267
Fivestressiambicverse268
Heroiccouplet269
Blankverse271
Sixstressiambicverse276
Sevenstressiambicverse277
Anapesticmetres277
Trochaicmetres280
Dactylicmetres...282
TheEnglish
"hexameter"
283
Otherpseudoclassicalmetres288
CHAPTERVI.
RIMEANDSTANZAFORMS.
NATUREANDFUNCTIONSOFRIME.290
Masculineandfemininerime291
Triplerime
292
Internalrime

12

293
Halfstressedrime,296
CONTENTS.XV
PACK
NATUREANDFUNCTIONSOFRIME.Continued.
Imperfectrime296
Identicalrime298
(Criticaldiscussionsofrime)299
RlMEUSEDASANORGANIZINGELEMENTOFVERSEFORM
300
Rimeformingcoupletandterzarima300
Thestanza301
Rimeinthestanza302
Sourcesofstanzaeffects303
Stanzasaspoeticallyexpressive305
Particularstanzaformsclassified306
Distichs306
Tercets307
Quatrains307
Fivelinestanzas311
Sixlinestanzas312
Sevenlinestanzas314
Eightlinestanzas315
Ninelinestanzas317
Tenlinestanzas318
Refrainstanzas319
Modernstanzavarieties321
Pseudoclassicalstanzas322
(Criticaldiscussionsofstanzaforms)323
THESONNET325^'',
ThestrictItaliantype326
Bipartitecharacter326
TheEnglishtype328^
TheSpenseriantype329
Sourcesofsonneteffects330
(Criticaldiscussionsofthesonnet)331
FRENCHLYRICALFORMS332
Triolet333

13

Rondeauandrondel334
Villanelle335
Ballade336
Sestina337
Pantoum338
(CriticaldiscussionsofFrenchlyricalforms)338
xviCONTENTS.
PAGE
HEODE339
JThestrictPindarictype340
Thehomostrophictype342
Theirregulartype342
Thechoraltype345
Relatedirregularverseforms346
(Criticaldiscussionsoftheodeandrelatedverse
forms)347
APPENDIX351
INDEX359
AN INTRODUCTION TO POETRY
CHAPTER I
DEFINITIONS AND ORIGINS
THEwordPoetryisusedbothvaguelyandvariously,
andasyetnosingleattempttodefineithasmet
withgeneralacceptance.Forthepurposesofthis
StudyitwillbeconsideredPoetrydefined,as
imaginativemetricaldiscourse;ormoreexplicitly,
astheartofrepresentinghumanexperiences,inso
farastheyareoflastingoruniversalinterest,
inmetricallanguage,usually"withchiefreference
totheemotionsandbymeansoftheimagination.
Studentsofthesubjectwillbeinterestedtosee
otherstatementsregardingthenatureofpoetry
whichfromtimetotimehavebeenmadebycritics,
someofthemattemptsatlogicaldefinition,others
incidentalbutsignificantdescriptionsofthe
natureandattributesofpoetry.
Coleridge:

14

"Apoemisthatspeciesofcomposition,whichis
opposedtoworksofscience,byproposingforits
immediateobjectpleasure,nottruth;andfromall
otherspecies,havingthisobjectincommonwith
it,itisdiscriminatedbyproposingtoitselfsuch
delightfromthewhole,asiscompatiblewitha
distinctgratificationfromeachcomponentpart."
(BiographiaLiteraria,chap,xiv.)
Leigh Hunt:
"Poetryistheutteranceofapassionfortruth,
beauty,andpower,embodyingandillustratingits
conceptionsbyimaginationandfancy,and
modulatingitslanguageontheprincipleofvariety
inuniformity."(Essayon"WhatisPoetry?"
(InImaginationandFancy)
Macaulay:
"Bypoetrywemeantheartofemployingwordsin
suchamannerastoproduceanillusiononthe
imagination,theartofdoingbymeansofwords
whatthepainterdoesbymeansofcolors."
(EssayonMilton.)
Hazlitt:
"Poetryisthenaturalimpressionofanyobjector
event,byitsvividnessexcitinganinvoluntary
movementofimaginationandpassion,andproducing,
bysympathy,acertainmodulationofthevoice,or
sounds,expressingit."(EssayOnPoetryin
General")
Shelley:
"Poetry,inageneralsense,maybedefinedtobe
theexpressionoftheImagination."(ADefenceof
Poetry)
Wordsworth:
"Poetryistheimageofmanandnature."
"Poetryisthespontaneousoverflowofpowerful
feelings:ittakesitsoriginfromemotion
recollectedintranquility."(PrefacetoLyrical
Ballads)

15

MatthewArnold:
"Poetry....acriticismoflifeunderthe
conditionsfixedforsuchacriticismbythelaws
ofpoetictruthandpoeticbeauty."(EssayonThe
StudyofPoetry)
Emerson:
"Poetryistheperpetualendeavortoexpressthe
spiritofthething,topassthebrutebodyand
searchthelifeandreasonwhichcausesitto
exist."(Essayon"PoetryandImagination")
Carlyle:
"Poetry,therefore,wewillcallmusicalThought."
(Lectureon"TheHeroasPoet,"inHeroesandHero
Worship.)
Ruskin:
"Poetryisthesuggestion,bytheimagination,of
noblegroundsforthenobleemotions.Imeanbythe
nobleemotionsthosefourprincipalsacredpassions
Love,Veneration,Admiration,andJoy,andtheir
oppositesHatred,Indignation(orScorn),Horror,
andGrief."(ModernPainters,PartIV.)
Poe:
"Iwoulddefine,inbrief,thepoetryofwordsas
therhythmicalcreationofbeauty."(Essayon"The
PoeticPrinciple")
AlfredAustin:
"Poetryisatransfigurationoflife;inother
words,animaginativerepresentation,inverse,of
whatevermenperceive,feel,think,ordo."
(IntroductiontoTheHumanTragedy,ed.of1889.)
E.C.Stedman:
"Poetryisrhythmical,imaginativelanguage
expressingtheinvention,taste,thought,passion,
andinsightofthehumansoul."(TheNatureand
ElementsofPoetry)
TheodoreWatts:
"Absolutepoetryistheconcreteandartistic
expressionofthehumanmindinemotionaland

16

rhythmicallanguage."(ArticleonPoetry"in
EncyclopediaBritannica)
W.J.Courthope:
"BypoetryImeantheartofproducingpleasureby
thejustexpressionofimaginativethoughtand
feelinginmetricallanguage."(TheLiberal
MovementinEnglishLiterature)
D.Masson:
"Poetry,assuch,iscogitationinthelanguageof
concretecircumstance."(Essayon"Theoriesof
Poetry.")
C.M.Gayley:
"Poetrymaybedefinedastheimaginativeand
emotiveexpressionorsuggestionofthatwhichhas
significance,intherhythmicalandpreferably
metricalmediumoflanguageappropriatetothe
subject."(IntroductiontoThePrinciplesand
ProgressofEnglishPoetry.}
M.H.Liddell:
"Poetryisliterature,usuallyofahighdegreeof
HumanInterest,which,inadditiontoitsHuman
Interest,hasinitanadded/EstheticInterestdue
tothearrangementofsomeeasilyrecognizable
andconstantlypresentconcomitantofthought
formulationintoaformofaestheticappealfor
whichanappreciative^EstheticSentimenthasbeen
graduallydevelopedinthemindsofthosewho
habituallythinkbymeansofthelanguageinwhich
thepoetryiswritten."(Introductiontothe
ScientificStudyofPoetry)
Referencestootherdefinitionsanddiscussions,
withbriefcomments,willbefoundinGayleyand
Scott's
IntroductiontotheMethodsandMaterialsof
LiteraryCriticism,vol.i,pp.279349.)
Asomewhatdetailedexaminationofcertainphrases
inourdefinitionwillhelptowarditsfuller
understanding.Inthefirstplace,wselTatTvelrt,"

17

Poetryarisesfromthenaturaldesireofmaneither
toreproducewhatheseesandhears,ortoexpress
inpermanentformwhathethinksandfeels.Thisis
ofcourseequallytrueofallthearts.In
sculptureandpainting,manattemptstogive
permanentexpressiontohisimpressionsofthe
outerworld,ortohisinnerreflectionsuponit,
informsofspace,appealingtotheeye;inmusic
andpoetry,heattemptstodothesamethingin
formsoftime,appealingtotheear.Itisevident
thattheseartsdifferwidelyamongthemselvesin
theirparticularcapacitiesforaccomplishingtheir
purpose.Thesocalledplasticorformativearts,
dealingwithobjectsinspace,arepeculiarlywell
fittedtorepresenttheimpressionsofformand
colorreceivedfromthevisibleworld.Noarthas
beendevelopedsoperfectlysuitedtorepresentthe
soundsoftheworldofnature;partly,nodoubt,
becausenomediumhasbeendiscoveredbywhich
thesesoundscanbesoaccuratelyrepresented,and
partlybecausetheyseemnottoappealsostrongly
totheloveofbeautyasdocolorsandforms,orto
callforperpetuationintheiroriginalcondition.
Sotheartofmusic,whileoccasionallydescriptive
ofthesoundsofthenaturalworld,dealschiefly
insoundsdevelopedforitselfalone,whichare
onlyindirectlysymbolicofotherexperiences;it
mayberegardedastheartinwhichmanhasgone
farthestfromthemerereproductionofthedataof
lifethethingsgivenhimbynature,andhence,
fromonestandpoint,asthemostpurelycreativeof
thearts.
Fromanotherstandpoint,however,poetryiseven
lesspurelyimitativeorreproductivethanmusic.
Whileitssoundsrelatethemselvestoitsuseof
rathermoredefinitelytorememberedthesounds
experiencesthandothoseofmusic,theyareeven
morepurelysymbolic,lessdirectlydescriptive,in

18

character.Speech,whosesoundsconstitutethe
soundsofpoetry,hasmarvelouslydevelopedthe
powertosuggestnotonlytheexperiencesofthe
senses,butthosepurelyabstractandspiritual,
mostcharacteristicofhumannature,whichmanhas
soughttocommunicatetohisfellowsinhisbest
andwisestmoments.Considerthecapacityofpoetic
speechtoconveytwodifferentexperiences,oneof
theouter,oneoftheinnerlife,inthesetwo
passages:"Thedoubledoubledoublebeatofthe
thunderingdrumCries,Hark!thefoescome."
"AndIhavefeltapresencethatdisturbsmewith
thejoyOfelevatedthoughts;Amotionanda
spirit,thatimpelsallthinkingthings,all
objectsofallthought,androllsthroughall
things."Poetry,therefore,usesspeechintwo
distinctways:first,merelyasrhythmicalsound,
oneofthemediaofexpressionintermsofthe
senses,andsecondly,asrepresentativeofdefinite
ideasofeverypossiblecharacter,bymeansofthe
symbolicalsignificanceoflanguage.Becauseof
thisdoublepower,itmayberegardedasthe
greatestofthearts.Ontherelationofpoetryto
theotherarts,Hegel'sdiscussionisperhapsthe
mostimportant.Thefollowingsummaryisa
translationfromtheabstractofhistreatmentof
thesubjectinthe^sthctik,byBenard,inLa
PoetiqueparW.F.Hegel(Introduction,p.xxvii):
"Abovebothpaintingandmusic
appearspoetry,theartwhichexpressesitself
through
speech.Poetryistherealartofthespirit,that
which
appearsactuallyasspirit.Everythingwhichthe
intelligence
conceives,whichitworksoutintheinner
laborofthought,onlyspeechcanincludethis,
express

19

it,andrepresentittotheimagination.At
bottom,therefore,poetryistherichestofallthe
arts;
itsdomainislimitless.However,whatitgainson
thesideofidealityitlosesonthesideofthe
senses.
Sinceitdoesnotaddressitselftothesense,as
isthe
casewiththeartsofdesign,nortopure
sentiment,
likemusic,butundertakestorepresenttothe
imagination
spiritualideasdevelopedbythespirit,theform
ofexpressionwhichitemploysdoesnothavethe
qualityofaphysicalobject,wheretheideafinds
the
formwhichisfittedtoit.Inpoetry,sound,of
allthe
materialsofarttheleastfittedtothespirit,
doesnot
preserve,asinmusic,anindependentvalue,so
that
thearthasforitsessentialaimtogiveitform,
and
exhaustsitselfinthattask.Heresoundmustbe
penetratedbytheideawhichitexpresses,itmust
appearasthemeresignofthethought.Butbythis
veryfact,poetry,thankstothisuniversalmeans
of
expression,becomestheuniversalart.It
reproduces
initsowndomainallthemodesofrepresentation
whichbelongtotheotherarts."Inthispassage
Hegeldoubtlessunderestimatesthepowerofpoetry
asrhythmicalsound,althoughitisquitetruethat
thiselementofitsformdoesnothavetheseparate
andabsolutevaluewhichithasinmusic.Amore

20

appreciativeaccountofthecapacityofpoetryon
this
side,initsanalogywithmusic,maybefoundin
the
8ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
discussionofTheodoreWatts(Encyc.Brit.).Mr.
Watts'ssummaryisasfollows:
"Ascomparedwith
sculptureandpaintingthegreatinfirmityof
poetry,
asan'imitation'ofnature,isofcoursethat
the
mediumisalwaysandofnecessitywordsevenwhen
nowordscould,inthedramaticsituation,have
been
spoken....Thisbecomesmanifestenough
whenwecomparetheNiobegrouportheLaocoon
group,orthegreatdramaticpaintingsofthe
modern
world,witheventhefinesteffortsofdramatic
poetry,
suchasthespeechofAndromachetoHector,orthe
speechofPriamtoAchilles,naysuchaseventhe
criesofCassandraintheAgamemnon,orthe
wailings
ofLearoverthedeadCordelia.Evenwhen
writingthewordsutteredby(Edipus,asthe
terrible
truthbreaksinuponhissoul,Sophoclesmust
havefeltthat,intheholiestchambersofsorrow
andinthehighestagoniesofsufferingreignsthat
awfulsilencewhichnotpoetry,butpainting
sometimes,
andsculpturealways,canrender....It
isingivingvoice,nottoemotionatitstensest,
butto
thevariationsofemotion,itisinexpressingthe
countless

21

shiftingmovementsofthesoulfrompassionto
passion,thatpoetryshowsinspiteofallher
infirmities
hersuperioritytotheplasticarts.Hamletandthe
Agamemnon,theIliadandthe(EdipusTyrannus,
areadequatetotheentirebreadthanddepthof
man's
soul."Ontherelationofpoetryandmusicseealso
Combarieu'sLesRapportsdelaMusiqueetdela
Poesie.
Ithasalreadyappearedthatthephrase
imitationand
"
representinghumanexperiences"
creation,includesverydifferentthingsbothin
thewordrepresentandintheword
experiDEFINITIONS
ANDORIGINS.9
ence.Thefirstartisticinstinctismerelyto
reproduce
whatisseen.ThusAristotle,thefirstof
thegreatwritersonpoetry,said:
"
Poetryin
generalseemstohavesprungfromtwocauses,each
ofthemlyingdeepinournature.First,the
instinct
ofimitationisimplantedinmanfromchildhood,
onedifferencebetweenhimandotheranimalsbeing
thatheisthemostimitativeoflivingcreatures;
andthroughimitationhelearnshisearliest
lessons;
andnolessuniversalisthepleasurefeltinthis
imitation."(Poetics,chap,iv,Butcher's
translation.)
Butmansoongoesfurtherthanthis:he
seeksnotonlytorepresentwhathesees,butto
representimaginaryobjectswhichhaveonlybeen

22

suggestedtohimbywhathesees;notonlyto
record
occurrenceswhichhehasexperienced,butthose
whichhehasimaginedhimselftoexperience.
FromthispointofviewLordBacon,oneofthe
earliestwritersonthesubjectinourlanguage,
calledpoetryfeignedhistory,andsaidofit:
"The
useofthisfeignedhistoryhathbeentogivesome
shadowofsatisfactiontothemindofmaninthose
pointswhereinthenatureofthingsdothdenyit
theworldbeinginproportion
*inferiortothesoul;
byreasonwhereofthereisagreeabletothespirit
of
manamoreamplegreatness,amoreexactgoodness,
andamoreabsolutevarietythancanbefound
inthenatureofthings."(AdvancementofLearn
*i.e.,symmetryorbeautyofform.
I04NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
ing,Bookii.)Thisnewworld,greaterandmore
variedthannature,itisthebusinessofpoetryto
feign.BothAristotleandBaconwereevidently
thinkingchieflyofpoetrydealingwithevents,
whetherrealorimagined(suchpoetryaswe
commonly
callepicordramatic);thisischaracteristicof
earlycriticism.Stillanotherstepistherefore
necessary:furtherremovedthanimaginednarratives
fromthemereimitationoftheouterworld
isthatformofpoetrybestlovedinlatertimes,
whichexpressesmen'sinnerexperiences,their
hopes,fears,anddesires.Wemusttherefore
include
inthewordrepresentboththecopyingfrom
thatwhichisrevealedbythesenses,andthe
depicting
ofthatwhichhasbeenrevealedonlytothe

23

mind;andinthesamewaybytheexperiences
whicharethesubjectmatterofpoetrywemust
understandnotmerelythoseofthephysicalworld
butofthespirit.
Again,itisworthwhiletoinquirewhytheterm
representisamoreadequatewordforour
definition
thantheword"
communicate,"which
Representation
ratherthaniscommonlyapplicabletoallformsof
communication!1IThumanspeech.Inasenseitis
properly
applicabletopoetry;forpoetry,likeallforms
ofart,andperhapsrathermorethantheplastic
arts,
representsexperiencesforothersthantheartist.
Yetifwecompareitwithotherformsofspeech,
itwillbeseenthatthedesireofthepoettogive
formtohismaterialisheremuchmoreimportant,
DEFINITIONSANDORIGINS.!r
andthedesiretoconveyhismaterialtohis
fellows
islessimportant,thanthatofthespeakeror
writer
ofprose.ItwasthiswhichledJohnStuartMillto
gosofarastosay,whencontrastingpoetrywith
eloquence,thatthelatterisheard,theformer
overheard,
Ithaslongbeencommontorefertothe
Aristotelian
andBaconianconceptionsofpoetryasquite
different,
oreveninmutualopposition.ThusMasson,inhis
interestingessayon"
TheoriesofPoetry,"says:
"

24

Thoughitwouldbepossiblesotostretchand
comment
uponAristotle'stheoryofpoetryastomakeit
correspondwithBacon's,yet,primafacie,thetwo
theoriesaredifferent,andeven
antithetical....
Aristotlemakestheessenceofpoetrytoconsistin
itsbeingimitativeandtruthful;Bacon,inits
being
creativeandfantastical....Amidallthe
discussions
ofallthecriticsastothenatureofpoetry,
thisantagonism,ifsuchitis,betweenthe
Aristotelian
andtheBaconiantheories,willbefoundeternally
reproducingitself."(pp.200,201.)Butinfact,
whiletheterm"
imitation
"
maybeinadequatetoexpress
themoreidealisticorcreativenotionofthe
poet'swork,itisprobablethatAristotle
recognized
thisasclearlyasBacon,hisfamouspassageon
poetry
andhistory(chap,ix),andthatonpoetryand
probability
(chap,xxv),beingquiteconsistentwith,asthey
wereprobablythesourceof,theremarksofBacon.
SoButcher,inhischapteron'imitationasan
aestheticterm':
"Theideaofimitationisconnected
inourmindswithawantofcreativefreedom,with
a
literalorservilecopying:andtheword,as
transmitted
fromPlatotoAristotle,wasalreadytingedbysome
12ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.

25

suchdisparagingassociations....Aristotle,as
his
mannerwas,acceptedthecurrentphraseand
interpreted
itanew....Acrucialinstanceofthe
inadequacyoftheliteralEnglishequivalent
'imitation'
toexpresstheAristotelianideaisaffordedbya
passage
inch.xxv.Theartistmay'imitatethingsasthey
oughttobe':hemayplacebeforehiman
unrealised
ideal."(pp.121,122.)Butchergoesontopoint
out
thatforAristotlethesubjectmatterofpoetrywas
"humanlife,itsmentalprocesses,itsspiritual
movements,
itsoutwardacts."Thesenseofinadequacyin
thetreatmentofthesubjectbybothAristotleand
Bacon,asfeltbythemodernreader,isprobably
duein
greatpartasalreadysuggestedtothefactthatin
ourtimethepredominanceoflyricalpoetry,with
its
approachtohumanlifefromthesubjective
standpoint,
isinmarkedcontrasttotheobjectivemethodof
the
epicanddramaticformswhichdominatedboththe
classicalandtheElizabethanperiods.
Thedefinitionfurtherlimitsthematerialof
poetry
bythephrase,
"
insofarastheyareoflastingor
universalinterest."Thislimitation
Universality,againisnotpeculiartopoetry,but
is

26

characteristicofpoetryasliterature,
andofliteratureasart.Arttakesthematerials
of
humanexperiencefromeveryquarter,butrejects
thosewhicharepurelypersonalortemporary,and
workswiththoseelementswhichsometimesfor
subtleorevenmysteriousreasonsareofuniversal
significance.Inanartgalleryonemayoftenseea
paintingnamedsimply
"
PortraitofaLady."To
thelady'sfriendsitwouldbeofinteresttoknow
DEFINITIONSANDORIGINS.!3
thatitisthepictureofMrs.JohnSmith;tothe
biographerorthehistorianthesamequestionwould
occur;buttotheartisthernameisamatterof
indifference.
Herfaceistobeperpetuatedinsofar
asitcanbemadetoappealtotheinterestsof
human
natureathousandyearshence,whenherpersonality
haslongceasedtobeofaccounttoanyoneonthe
earth.Itissowithpoetry.
"
BeautifulEvelyn
Hopeisdead,"writesBrowning.Thismightbe
neighborhoodgossip,orastatementinthedaily
newspaperoneoflocalandtemporaryinterest.
ButBrowning'sEvelynHopeisnotapersonof
localandtemporaryinterest;herdeathwill
awaken
sadnessaslongastheEnglishlanguageisspoken,
becauseitistheuniversalandpermanentappeal
lyingwithinit,whichapoethasperpetuated.This
limitation,then,isanecessarypointof
distinction
betweentherecordoffactsandliterature.Imay
haveanexperiencewhichmovesmedeeply;Imay

27

recorditinwords;butthisisnotenough.IfI
have
notpresentedthataspectofitwhichisoflasting
interesttootherhumansouls,theresulthas
merely
relievedmyfeelingsithasnotbecomeaworkof
art.Itmaybewritteninverse,butitisnot
poetry.
IntheworkofsuchpoetsasMr.RudyardKipling,
arisingfromcontemporaryincidentsinpolitics,
commerce,andwar,oneshouldseektodistinguish
carefully(thoughthelinemayofcoursebea
disputed
one)betweenthegoodjournalisticverse,on
themesofessentiallytemporarysignificance,and
I4ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
therealpoemswhichthoughtheymaytakesome
triflingincidentasapointofdeparture,openup
universalthemesandmaybepresumedtohavelong
lifebeforethem.
Tosomeitwillperhapsseemthatanyexpression
ofgenuinehumanexperiencehastheelementsof
universalinterest,anditwillalreadyhave
occurred
tothethoughtfulstudentthatthelimitationjust
discussed
isinpartopposedtotheWordsworthiantheory
ofpoetry.Wordsworthheldthatpoetry,
"
thespontaneous
overflowofpowerfulfeelings,"ifitdealswith
essentialhumanemotions,oughttoawakensimilar
emotionsineveryopenheartedreader,andso
become
enduringlyvital.Butwhilethisgeneralprinciple
haswonacceptance,itremainstruethatthose
poems
ofWordsworth'sdealingwithpersonalexperiences

28

difficulttomakeofuniversalinterest,haveleast
ofthe
poeticalelement,andsurviveratherasliterary
curiosities
thanotherwise.OfthisthepoemcalledThe
IdiotBoyisaninterestingexample(see
Wordsworth's
defenseofit,inalettertoJohnWilson,Knight's
Life,i.398405).Tothepoethimselfidiotsdid
not
seemrepulsive;onthecontraryhetoldhis
correspondent
thatheoftenappliedtothem,inhisown
mind,
"
thatsublimeexpressionofScripturethat
'
theirlifeishiddenwithGod.'
"Hethereforewrote
thepoemdescriptiveoftheidiotboy
"
withexceeding
delightandpleasure/'andbelievedthatareader
nothinderedbyafalsestandardoftasteshould
and
wouldsharehispleasure.Experiencehasproved
thatthiswasratheranidiosyncrasyofthepoet
than
auniversalhumanelement.Otherexamplesmight
easilybeadded,butthisaspectofthesubject
belongs
rathertotheconsiderationofpoeticalthemes,and
of
DEFINITIONSANDORIGINS.!5
theplaceofbeautyinpoetry(seechap.iii).It
may
benotedhereassignificantthatcertainhighly

29

egoisticalpoets,whosethemesaresometimesof
questionably
universalinterest,suchasWaltWhitman
andthelateW.E.Henley,tendtoadoptmetrical
formsdifferentfromthosedevelopedbynatural
literary
evolutionfortheexpressionofpoeticalideas.
Onthispointseechap,iv,andespeciallythe
remark
ofCourthopeonWhitman'spoetry,citedonp.348.
Thequalificationnexttobenotedisthatof
metrical
language.Thatthelanguageofpoetrymust
bemetricalisnotuniversallyaccepted,
anditisjustherethatthevaguenessofMetrical
form,
thecommonuseofthewordischiefly
noticeable.Vulgarusageincludesinpoetryall
writingsinverseform;criticalusage,discarding
muchthatisnotmetrical,oftenincludeswritings
whicharepoeticalinthemeorstyle,thoughin
prose
form.Theoneclasshasinmindthecircleof
metricalliterature;theotherthecircleof
imaginative
literature.*Thesetwocirclesintersect,
*Somewriters,likeShelleyandRuskin,evenuse
Poetryasa
vaguetermforanycreativeart.Coleridge,inhis
firstessay
"On
thePrinciplesofGenialCriticism
"
(1814),said:
"Allthefinearts
aredifferentspeciesofpoetry,"anddividedthem
into"
poetryof

30

language(poetryintheemphaticsense,because
lesssubjecttothe
accidentsandlimitationsoftimeandspace);
poetryoftheear,or
music;andpoetryoftheeye,whichisagain
subdividedintoplastic
poetry,orstatuary,andgraphicpoetry,or
painting."Later,inthe
essay
"OnPoesyorArt"(i8i8?)heproposedtouse'poesy
'as
thegenericorcommonterm,andtodistinguishthat
speciesof
poesywhichisnotmutapoesisbyitsusualname'
poetry.'
"
!64NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
andcarefulusagerestrictsthetermpoetrytothe
territorycommontoboth:thatis,thewritings
whicharebothimaginativeincharacterand
metrical
inform.Ontheexternalside,then,weshould
thinkofpoetryfirstofallasrhythmicalsound,
oneoftherhythmicalarts,asAristotleclassified
it
longago;itssoundsbeingrepresentedbyprinted
wordsjustasmusicisrepresentedbyprinted
notes,
butreallyexistingintime,notspace,andforthe
ear.Whyitisthatliteratureofapoetical
character
thatis,literatureappealingtotheemotions
bymeansoftheimaginationiscommonlyin
metricalform,andwhetherwecanexplainthisas
notanincidentaloraccidentalconnection,butone
essentialtothenatureofpoetry,arequestions
which

31

willbeconsideredinchapteriv.Inthat
connection
alsoweshallseewhyitisnotsufficienttosay,
as
isoftensaid,thatpoetryisinrhythmicalform;
namely,becausethiswouldbeequallytrueofa
large
partofliteraryprose.
Thecontraryview,thatmetreisnotanecessary
elementoftheformofpoetry,hasofcoursegood
authority
behindit.Nottogofurther,SidneyandShelley,
writersofthetwogreat
"Defenses"
ofpoetryin
ourlanguage,takethisposition.
"
Itisnotriming
andversingthatmakethapoet,"saidSidney,
"no
morethanalonggownmakethanadvocate....
Onemaybeapoetwithoutversing,andaversifier
withoutpoetry."AndShelley:
"Thedistinctionbetween
poetsandprosewritersisavulgarerror.
DEFINITIONSANDORIGINS.
\>j
,Platowasessentiallyapoet....Lord
Baconwasapoet."Yetboththesewritersadmit
that
inactualusagethequalityofrhythmatleast,if
not
metre,isalmostuniversal.
"Thesenateofpoets,"
saysSidney,
"hathchosenverseastheirfittestraiment
;
"andShelleytellsusthat

32

"
thelanguageof
poetshaseveraffectedacertainuniformand
harmonious
recurrenceofsound,withoutwhichitwerenot
poetry,andwhichisscarcelylessindispensableto
the
communicationofitsinfluencethanthewords
themselves."
ThepositionofAristotleonthismatteris
ambiguous.AsButcherobserves,theobvious
implication
ofonepassage(inPoetics,chap,i),is"that
themeaningoftheword'
poet
'shouldbewidenedso
astoincludeanywriter,eitherinproseorverse,
whose
workisan'imitation'withintheaesthetic
meaning
oftheterm."(p.142.)Ontheotherhand,aswe
haveseen,hetreatspoetryasoneofthethree
rhythmical
arts,andfindsitssecondprincipalsourceinthe
universalinstinctforharmonyandrhythm.The
tendency
ofmoderncriticismhasbeenmoreandmore
towardemphasizingthiselementasfundamental.It
issufficientheretoreferthestudentto
Professor
Gummere'schapteron"
RhythmastheEssentialFact
ofPoetry,"inTheBeginningsofPoetry,andtothe
articleonPoetryintheEncyclopediaBritannica,
by
Mr.TheodoreWatts,whosays:
"Thetheorythat

33

versificationisnotanindispensablerequisiteof
a
poemseemstohavebecomenearlyobsoleteinour
time.Perhaps,indeed,manycriticswouldnowgoso
farinthecontrarydirectionastosaywithHegel
that
'metreisthefirstandonlyconditionabsolutely
demanded
bypoetry.'
"
Wenowreachthequalification
"
withchiefref1
84UINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
erencetotheemotions."Heretheemotionsarein
contrastwiththereason,anaspectof
Emotional
poetrywhichColeridgehadinmind
whenhesaidthattheproperoppositeof
poetryisnotprose,butscience.*Proseliterature
ordinarilymakesitsprimaryappealtothereason,
addingthematerialsofintelligentthinkingoneto
theother,withclearnessandcoherenceasits
essentialqualities.Emotionalappealis,of
course,
notexcludedfromthefieldoftheprosewriter;
but
itisproperlysubordinate,andwheneveritlooms
toolargethereaderislikelytofeelthatthe
region
ofpoetryisbeingintrudedupon.Thepoet,onthe
otherhand,althoughhetoomayappealtothe
intelligence
ofhisreader,seekshispointofcontact
withsomepossibleemotionwhichwillcorrespond
withtheemotiondominatinghisowntheme;andthe
reasonwillonlyassistindevelopingthis
emotional

34

appeal,astheemotionsmayintheothercase
assist
indevelopinganappealtothereason.Indifferent
typesofpoetry,andintheworkofdifferent
poets,
thesecontrastedelementswillofcourseshowvery
differentproportionalimportance,andoftentimes
wemayevensayusuallyagreatpoemismarked
bythepresentationofagreatidea.Yetitschar
*"Thecommonessenceofall[theformsofpoetry
orart]consists
intheexcitementofemotionfortheimmediate
purposeof
pleasurethroughthemediumofbeauty;herein
contradistinguishing
poetryfromscience,theimmediateobjectand
primarypurposeof
whichistruthandpossibleutility."(Preliminary
Essay
"Onthe
PrinciplesofGenialCriticismconcerningtheFine
Arts.")
DEFINITIONSANDORIGINS.
ig
acteristicqualitywillneverthelessbethefusion
of
thisideawithanutteranceofjoy,sorrow,love,
pity,orfear,bymeansofwhichitwillfind
lodgment
inthereader'smind,fusedtherealsowiththe
correspondingemotion.
Closelyconnectedwiththisemotionalelementis
thelastofthequalificationsofourdefinition,
"
by
meansoftheimagination."Incommon
lifeandinartalike,itistheemoimaginative
element,

35

tionswhichsettheimaginationinmotion,
and,viceversa,thelanguageoftheimagination
whichstirstheemotions.Theprocesseswhichwe
callimaginativeareopposedtotheprocessesof
reason,justaswesawthattheappealtothe
emotions
isincontrastwiththeappealtothereason.
Inparticular,theimaginativeprocessestreat
facts,
thedataofexperience,inawaytotallydifferent
fromtheprocessesofwhichthereasonavails
itself,
discardingexperienceswhichthereasonvalues,
utilizingexperienceswhichthereasondiscards,
and
meaningby
"
truth
"
somethingquitedifferentfrom
thetruthofscience.Thepoetmay,ontheone
hand,discardhistoryforthat
"
feignedhistory,"as
Baconcalledit,depicting
"
amoreamplegreatness,
amoreexactgoodness,andamoreabsolute
varietythancanbefoundinthenatureofthings;
"
or,ontheotherhand,hemaytakefamiliar
realities,
andseektoshowforthdifferentmeanings,which
hehasseenwithinthembyqualitiesofhisown.
Eitherprocessisincludedinwhatwecall
Imagina20
AXINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
tion,theformerbeingthemeaningusuallyattached

36

tothewordbyearlierwriters,thelatterthat
chiefly
emphasizedbywriterssincethetimeofWordsworth
andColeridge.ThusShaksperedescribed
themoreelementaryaspectoftheimaginationin
thewellknownpassage,playfulyetphilosophical,
inwhichhemadeoneofhischaractersplacethe
poetwiththelunaticandthelover.
"Thelunatic,theloverandthepoet
Areofimaginationallcompact:
Oneseesmoredevilsthanvasthellcanhold,
Thatis,themadman:thelover,allasfrantic,
SeesHelen'sbeautyinabrowofEgypt:
Thepoet'seye,inafinefrenzyrolling,
Dothglancefromheaventoearth,fromearthto
heavenr;
Andasimaginationbodiesforth
Theformsofthingsunknown,thepoet'spen
Turnsthemtoshapesandgivestoairynothing
Alocalhabitationandaname."
(MidsummerNight'sDream,v,i.)
Thepoet,then,islikethelunaticindiscarding
theordinaryfactsoflifeforthosewhichimpress
himwithvividness,thoughtheydonotbearthe
testsofscience;heisliketheloverinbeing
swept
alongbyemotion,and(again)inseeingunderits
guidancewhatthoseinmorecommonplacemoods
cannotsee.Allthreeexhibitthe"imagination"
ofthetypeemphasizedintheearlieruseofthe
DEFINITIONSANDORIGINS.21
word,thefeigningofvisibleexperiences.Forthe
"
imagination
"
oftheothertypewemaybestgo
tosomesuchpassageasthisfromWordsworth:
"

37

Ifthoupartaketheanimatingfaith
Thatpoets,evenasprophets,eachwitheach
Connectedinamightyschemeoftruth,
Haveeachhisownpeculiarfaculty,
Heaven'sgift,asensethatfitshimtoperceive
Objectsunseenbefore,thouwiltnotblame
Thehumblestofthisbandwhodarestohope
Thatuntohimhathalsobeenvouchsafed
Aninsightthatinsomesorthepossesses,
Aprivilegewherebyaworkofhis,
Proceedingfromasourceofuntaughtthings,
Creativeandenduring,maybecome
ApowerlikeoneofNature's."
(Prelude,Bookxiii.)
Herethepoetislikened,nottothosecarriedaway
byvisionaryexperienceswhichfeignthoseof
common
life,buttotheprophet,whohasbeengivena
divine"insight"bywhichheperceives"objects
unseenbefore
"
intheirrelationtothewhole
"
mightyschemeoftruth."This
"
insight
"
isthe
secondtypeofpoeticimagination.(Thewhole
matteroftheimaginationinpoetryisreservedfor
fulldiscussioninchapteriii.)
Thisinterpretationofpoetryasapf
i
Ispoetry
pealingtotheemotionsbymeansoftheever
chiefly
imaginationissofundamentalamatterreasonable?
thatformanycriticsit'isthesubstanceofthe

38

22^WINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
definition.ThusShelleysays:
"
Poetry,ina
generalsense,maybedefinedtobe'the
expression
oftheimagination;
':andTheodoreWatts:
"Noliteraryexpressioncan,properlyspeaking,
becalledpoetrythatisnotinacertaindeep
senseemotional."Why,then,wasthemodifying
wordusuallyadmittedintoourdefinition?
Merelytomakeplaceforcertaintypesof
literature
inverse,whichotherwiseitwouldbeexceedingly
difficulttoclassify.Sometimeshuman
experiences,whichmayberegardedasoflastingor
universalinterest,areexpressedinmetrical
language
andwithartisticformandfinish,yetwithout
chiefreferencetotheemotionsandbythe
processes
ofreasonratherthanoftheimagination.
Literature
ofthisdoubtfultypeisparticularlylikelytobe
foundamongthewritingsdatingfromthelatter
halfoftheseventeenthandtheformerhalfofthe
eighteenthcenturies,andinthatperiodtheywere
unquestioninglyclassedaspoetry.Examplesare
Dryden'sReligioLaid,anessayinverseonthe
subjectoftheChurchofEngland,Pope'sEssayon
Criticism,aliteraryessayinverse,and
Akenside's
PleasuresoftheImagination,anessayonwhatwe
shouldnowcallgeneralaesthetics.Forsuch
essays,
accordingtotheprevalentstandardsoflater
criticism,

39

theproseformwouldbemoreappropriate;
yetitcannotbedeniedthattheverseformin
which
theyarewrittengivesacertainsenseofartistic
finishorcompletenessandforsomereaders,at
DEFINITIONSANDORIGINS.23
leastaddstothepleasuretheyarecapableof
producing.
Ifnotpoetry,then,whataretheytobe
called?Analogouswiththisproblemisthatof
certainliterarytypesinproseform,foundinsuch
writersasDeQuinceyandRuskin,whichin
emotional
appealandimaginativemethodseemto
entertheregionofpoetryandalmosttodemand
metricalform.Boththesetypesliealongthe
bordersoftheregionwherethecircleof
imaginative
literatureintersectsthecircleofliteraturein
verse,
andtemptustoblurtheboundariesofour
definition
forthesakeofconvenienceinliterary
description.
Asimilarproblemisraisedbycertainrecognized
literarytypes,likeoratoryandtheproseromance,
whicharenormallyinprose,yetmakesuchlarge
use
ofimaginativemethodsandemotionalappealasto
introduceaconfusingelementintothedefinition
of
poetry.Inthecaseoftheproseromance
discrimination
alongthislineisexceedinglydifficult.Between
theMorteArthurofMaloryandTennyson'sIdyllsof
theKing,Lodge'sRosalyndeandShakspere'sAsyou
LikeIt,Scott'sIvanhoeandMarmion,thereisno
obvious

40

differenceoftypesavethesuperficialoneof
metricalform.Whethertheuseoftheproseform
forsuchimaginativemethodshasjustifieditself
as
fullyastheuseofverse,isarelatedquestion
which
cannotherebediscussed.Itmustsufficetonote
that
primitiveimaginativeliteratureisnearlyalways
in
verse,andtheearliercriticshadnosuch
difficultyin
fixingthelimitsoftheterm"
poetry
"
asbesetsthose
writingaftertheremarkablewideningofthefield
of
24^^INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
prose.ForAristotle,forexample,poetryand
fiction
areverynearlysynonymousterms.
Lessdifficult,onthewhole,istherelated
question
oftherelationofpoetryandoratory.Although
their
emotionallevelseemsoftenmuchthesame,wemay
safelyrecurtothefundamentaldistinctionthat
prose
movesonthegroundoffactandbythemethodof
reason,andwhenoratoryceasestodothis,it
trespasses
onthefieldofpoetry.Thedistinctioniswell
broughtoutbyabrilliantfigureofHazlitt's,
whenhe
saysthatBurke'sstyleis
"
thatwhichwentnearest

41

tothevergeofpoetry,andyetneverfell
over....
Itdiffersfrompoetry,asIconceive,likethe
chamois
fromtheeagle:itclimbstoanalmostequal
height,
touchesuponacloud,overlooksaprecipice,is
picturesque,
sublimebutallthewhile,insteadofsoaring
throughtheair,itstandsuponarockycliff,
clambers
upbyabruptandintricateways....The
principle
whichguideshispenistruth,notbeauty."(Essay
on"TheProseStyleofPoets."Works,
1903ed.,vol.vii,p.10.)Adifferentanswerto
the
questionisproposedbyJohnStuartMill,inhis
"
ThoughtsonPoetryanditsVarieties."Hefindsthe
distinctionbetweenpoetryandeloquenceinthe
fact
thatonlythelattersupposesanaudience.
"Weshould
saythateloquenceisheard;poetryis
o^rheard....
Whentheactofutteranceisnotitselftheend,
buta
meanstoanend,...whentheexpressionofhis
emotions...istingedalsobythatpurpose,by
that
desireofmakinganimpressionuponanothermind,
thenitceasestobepoetry,andbecomes
eloquence."
(DissertationsandDiscussions,1882ed.,vol.i,
pp.
97,98.)Whilethisisasuggestivepassage,Mill's
distinction

42

seemstoomuchbaseduponlyricalpoetry,and
thatofthemoremodernsubjectivesort.Primitive
DEFINITIONSANDORIGINS.2$
poetry,particularlyofthenarrativekind,very
generally
presupposesanaudience,afactillustratedby
theintroductory
"
Lordings,"andsimilarphrasesof
address,characteristicofearlyepicandballad.
Averyinterestingandmorecarefulworkingout
ofthesamesortofdifferentiationisthatof
Professor
F.N.Scott,inanarticleon"TheMost
Fundamental
DifferentiaofPoetryandProse,"inthe
Publications
oftheModernLanguageAssociation,vol.xix,p.
250.
ProfessorScottdrawsthefundamentallinebetween
literaturewhichmaybetermed"
expressionforcommunication's
sake
"andthatwhichmaybetermed
"communicationforexpression'ssake."Ifthe
desire
toexpress,ratherthantocommunicate,is
predominant,
thetypeisthatofpoetry.(Comparetheremarkson
page10above.)Insupportofthisdistinction,
Shelley
iscited,saying:
"Apoetisanightingale,whositsin
darknessandsingstocheeritsownsolitudewith
sweetsounds,"andMrs.Browning:
"Whatthepoetwrites,
Hewrites;mankindacceptsitifitsuits."
FurtherfromMr.Scott:

43

"
Anyonewhohaswritten
verseknowshowfataltotheversifyingmooditis
to
letthemindwandertoanticipatedreaders,and
busy
itselfwiththeirhypotheticalneedsanddesires..
..
Inwritingprose,however,thecaseisjustthe
opposite."
"
Prosepoetryresultswhenawriteradhering
tothetraditionalmediumofcommunicationthe
formsinvestedbylongusewithcommunicative
associations
becomesinterestedmainlyinexpression."
Finally,thestudentisreferredtoavaluable
discussion
ofthedifferencebetweenpoetryandprose
inMasson'sessayon"ProseandVerse"(reprinted
26<*NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
inWordsworth,Shelley,Keats,andOtherEssays).
Hissummaryisasfollows:
"Thatinthewholevast
fieldofthespeculativeanddidactic,proseisthe
legitimate
monarch,receivingversebutasavisitorand
guest,whowillcarrybackbitsofrichoreand
other
specimensoftheland'sproduce;thatinthegreat
businessofrecord,also,proseispreeminent,
verse
butvoluntarilyassisting;thatintheexpression
of
passion,andtheworkofmoralstimulation,verse
and
prosemeetascoequals,proseundertakingthe
rougher

44

andharderduty,wherepassionintermingleswith
the
stormofcurrentdoctrine,andwiththeplayand
conflict
ofsocialinterestssometimes,whenthusengaged,
burstingforthintosuchstrainsofirregularmusic
that
versetakesuptheechoandprolongsitinmeasured
modulation,leavingproseraptandlisteningto
hear
itselfoutdone;andlastly,thatinthenoblerealm
of
poetryorimaginationprosealsoiscapableofall
exquisite,
beautiful,powerful,andmagnificenteffects,
butthat,byreasonofagreatereasewithfancies
when
theycomeincrowds,andofagreaterrangeand
arbitrariness
ofcombination,verseheremoveswiththe
moreroyalgait.AndthusProseandVerseare
presented
astwocirclesorspheres,notentirelyseparate,
assomewouldmakethem,butintersectingand
interpenetrating
throughalargeportionofboththeirbulks,
anddisconnectedonlyintwocrescentsoutstanding
attherightandleft."(1875ed.,pp.289,290.)
Ingeneral,todefineanymatterincludessome
consideration
ofitsorigins;butasitisnecpoetry.
Sf
essarytoexcludefromthepresentbook
thehistoricalstudyofpoetry,andas
itsoriginsareinvolvedintheuncertaintiesof
preDEFINITIONS
ANDORIGINS.27

45

historicages,thisaspectoftheintroductory
definition
mustbepassedoververybriefly.Ingeneral,
whilethereisstillmuchdisagreementastothe
most
primitiveformsofpoetry,andtheirrelationto
the
otherarts,twothingsseemfairlycertain:first,
that
poetryistheearliestformofliteraryart,and
second,thatinitsoriginsitwasconnected
inseparably
withtheotherrhythmicalartsmusic,
song,andthedance.Foralongtimeitremained
theacceptedformfortheexpressionofall
artistic
orimaginativeutterancesinlanguage,fora
considerable
time,indeed,theacceptedformforwhatever
wasthoughtmemorable,orworthyofbeing
handeddownfromonegenerationtoanother.
Laterthecapacitiesofproseforpermanent,and
stilllaterforartistic,expressionnarrowedthe
field
ofpoetry.Again,primitivemanexpressedhis
emotionsbyacompositeartwhichgradually
dividedandhasgoneondividingintothenow
widelydivergentartsofpoetry,vocaland
instrumental
music,anddancing.Onemaystillseethe
originalconditionspreservedinIndian
ceremonials,
forwhichthemedicinemanofthetribewill
compose
whatisatonceapoeticritual,asongand
chorus,andadance,thesymbolicalmeaningofall
which,forthepurposeofexpressingsomegreat
tribalemotion,willbeinstantlyevidenttohis

46

associates.Suchamedicinemansaidtoavisitor,*
*Mrs.MaryAustin,bywhosekindpermissionthe
incidentis
citedfromastillunpublishedessay.
2g/WINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
indiscussingthedifferencebetweenhisartand
thatofthewhiteman:
"Whiteman'spoetryno
good:ittalkstoomuch."Thatistosay,the
white
man'spoetrywastohimamassofwords,lacking
inthatcomplexandsymbolicpowerofconveying
emotionwhichhisnativeartpossessed.As
civilization
hasadvanced,themoreintellectualaspectsof
thisoriginalcombinedart,suchaspoetryand
harmonic
music,havebeenveryhighlydevelopedaccording
totheirseparatepossibilities;whiletheless
intellectual,vocalmusicandthedance,have
declined
inpower,thelatterevenpassingaltogether
fromthegroupofthefinearts.
Further,althoughherethereissomewhatless
agreementthaninthecaseofthemattersjust
discussed,
itseemsfairlywellestablished
Communal
characterofthatpoetryarosefromthesocialor
iarypoetry,communalexpressionofemotionsheld
incommonbyprimitivegroupsofmen,andonly
bydegreescametobeameansofexpressionofthe
feelingsandideasofindividuals.Thiscommunal
aspectofpoetrymayalsobeseenveryclearlyin
survivingbodiesofprimitiveman;thetribeasa
wholespeaksthroughitspoetry,whetherfor
worship,
war,orthechase.Amongtheearliestpoetic

47

creationsofalmosteverypeopleareverses
designed
toserveascharmsagainstevil,aspropitiations
of
divinebeings,asexpressionsofthejoyofthe
mass
ofmeninsomecommonoccupation(hunting,
planting,fighting),oroftheemotionsexperienced
DEFINITIONSANDORIGINS.2g
atmomentswhenmarriageordeathbrings
themtogetherforsomecommonritual.Individual
artistsofcoursecontributetothedevelopmentof
thispoetry,andleadtheirfellowsinutteringit;
butitis,inaveryrealway,thevoiceofthe
people
asawhole.Thehistoryoflaterpoetryhas
beenthehistoryofthedevelopmentofindividual
expression.
"
Song,oncetheconsolationandexpression
ofthefestalcrowd,comestobetheconsolation
andexpressionofthesolitarypoet."
(BeginningsofPoetry,p.140.)Inthenarrative
poemsofScott,asProfessorGummerepointsoutso
suggestively,wehavethelatestexpressionofthe
communalballadspiritinmodernpoetry;onthe
otherhand,hefindsinKeats'swords,
"Ontheshore
OfthewideworldIstandaloneandthink,"
the
"modernlyricattitudeincontrastwithasinging
anddancingthrong."(p.157.)Alongwith
thisdevelopmenttherehasofcoursecomean
elaborate
developmentofconsciouslyartisticpoetical
forms,incontrastwiththesimplicityand
restrictive
conventionalityofearlierpoetry.Finally,ashas

48

beensuggestedinanearlierparagraph,itis
evident
thatpoetry(likeotherformsofliterature)has
all
thetimeturnedmoreandmorefromthe
representation
oftheexternalorobjectiveexperiencesofman,
totheinnerlifetheexperiencesofhisspirit.
30AXINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Thebestaccountofprimitivepoetryisthatof
Professor
Gummere,discussedwithelaborationanda
wealthoflearninginTheBeginningsofPoetry,
and,
inmorepopularform,inThePopularBallad.Onthe
unionoftherhythmicalarts,persistingthroughout
theclassicalGreekperiod,seeButcher's
Aristotle's
TheoryofPoetryandFineArt,pp.138140.
"The
intimatefusionofthethreearts...was
exhibited
eveninthepersonoftheartist.Theofficeofthe
poet
asteacherofthechorusdemandedapractical
knowledge
ofallthatpassedundertheterm'
dancing/including
steps,gestures,attitudes,andthevaried
resources
ofrhythmicalmovement....Thepoet,
lyricordramatic,composedtheaccompanimentas
wellaswrotetheverses;anditwasmadea
reproach
againstEuripides,whowasthefirsttodeviate
from
theestablishedusage,thathesoughttheaidof
lophon,

49

sonofSophocles,inthemusicalsettingofhis
dramas."
CHAPTERII.
THECLASSESORKINDS.
Toclassifytheformsofpoetrybyanysingle
adequatesystemmaybesaidt^
beimpossible,since
therearesomanystandpointsfrom
whichsuchaclassificationmaybeundertaken.
Onemay,forexample,classify
bysubjectmatter:poemsdealingwithexternal
nature,
withmanandhisemotions,withmanandhis
deeds,withGodandtheworldofspirit.Or,as
Wordsworthdidwithhispoems,accordingtothat
poeticalfacultywhichtheychieflyexhibit:poems
of
Fancy,ofImagination,oftheAffections,of
Sentiment
andReflection.Or,again,onemayclassify
accordingtometricalform,whichinmanycases
givesalsoacluetotherealcharacterofapoem,
as
inthecasesoftheballade,sonnet,orode.
Butthemostfamiliar,andprobablythemost
useful,
methodistoclassifypoemsaccord
.
r
r.Theprincipal
ingtothepointofviewofthepoetintypes:
Epic,
relationtohismaterial.Ifhestands
Lyric3)ramatic'
outsideit,representingsomethingexperiencedin
32ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
theworldbeyondhimself,bywhatisoftencalled
the

50

"
objective
"
method,theresultisnarrativeor
epicpoetry.Ifhespeaksforhimself,setting
forth
innerexperiences(notnecessarilyhisowninfact,
butmadehisownforthetimebeing)bythe
"
subjective
"
method,theresultislyricalpoetry.Ifhe
combinesthesetwomethods,presentinganaction
objectively,butdoingsointhewordsandthrough
theemotionalexperiencesoftheactors,theresult
isdramaticpoetry.Thisistheclassificationused
bytheancientGreeks,whosetact,asMatthew
Arnoldobserves,
"
inmattersofthiskindwasinfallible;''
and,whileitisnotadaptedabsolutely
withoutquestiontothewholebodyofmodern
poetry,itisthedivisionofthesubjectwhich
moderncriticismhasgenerallypreferred.
Theexplanationofthethreeclassesofpoetry,as
heregiven,issubstantiallyHegel's.Nocomplete
expositionofthematterhascomedowntousfrom
ancienttimes,Aristotle'sworkbeingnotoriously
deficient
onthesideoflyricalpoetry.Theoriginof
thethreefolddivision,however,wasdoubtless
purely
naturalratherthanphilosophical.Theepicwasthe
popularpoetryofrecital;thelyric(or
"
melic")was
songpoetry,intendedforusebyanindividual
singer

51

withaccompaniment,whilefromthiswere
distinguished
theelegiacandchorallyrics(aswenowshould
callthem),ratherbytheirmetricalformand
manner
ofdeliverythanbyanydeeperconsiderations;the
dramawasofcoursequitedistinct(although
involving
thechorallyric)forthesamereason.Hereas
THECLASSESORKINDS.33
elsewheretheinstincttoclassifyphilosophically
isa
moderndevelopment.
Certainminorgroupsofpoetry,noteasily
conforming
tothesethree,werehoweverrecognizedby
theancients;andasthedevelopmentof
Socalled
thearthasgoneonstillothertypeshave
descriptive
arisenwhichcanwithdifficultybepoetry'
placedwhollywithinthelimitsofanyofthe
groups.
Agroupcalled
"
descriptive
"
poetryisrecognized
bysomewriters,includingpoetrydevotedtothe
portrayalofexternalobjectsasdistinguishedfrom
thenarrativeofevents.Infact,however,
description,
inverseasinprose,isalmostinvariably
usednotforitsownsakebutasincidentaltosome
largerpurpose.Socalleddescriptivepoetryis
very
commonlylyrical,expressingthefeelingofthe
poet

52

fortheobjectorsceneinquestion,ratherthan
attempting
merelytorepresentit.Agoodexample
isWordsworth'sSonnetonWestminsterBridge,
beginning
"
Earthhasnotanythingtoshowmorefair,"
andending
"DearGod!theveryhousesseemasleep;
Andallthatmightyheartislyingstill!
"
Thisispurelydescriptive,yetsuchalineas
"
Ne'ersawI,neverfelt,acalmsodeep
"
34AHINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
givesaclueifacluewereneededtothefactthat
itisreallythefeelingofthepoetwhichforms
the
substanceofthepoem.Thereis,however,aclass
ofdescriptivepoetrywhichisrathertobegrouped
withtheepic,notonlybecauseitdealswith
nature
fromtheobjectivestandpoint,butbecauseit
follows
somethingofthemethodofnarrativepoetry,
movingthroughspace,andperhapseventhrough
time,toaccomplishitspurpose.Weshalltherefore
considerthisgroupofpoems,ofwhichThomson's
Seasonsisaconspicuousexample,underthe
headoftheepic.
Stillotherpoemspresentdeliberatecombinations
oftwotypesofcomposition,asissuggestedbythe
nameschosenbyWordsworthand
Combinations..
oftypes:lyricalBrowning,respectively,for
certain
poemsverycharacteristicoftheirartistic

53

methods:
"
LyricalBallads,"ontheonehand,
"DramaticLyrics
"
ontheother.Byalyrical
balladWordsworthmeantapoemwhichinform
wasnarrative,butinwhich,ashesaid,the
feeling
developed"givesimportancetotheactionand
situation,andnottheactionandsituationtothe
feeling."Thereisasenseinwhichthismightbe
saidtobetrueofanygreatnarrativepoem,sine
itssourceofpoweristheemotionarousedbyth<
poetinthetellingofthestory;butWordsworth
wentfurther,andhadinmindatypeofpoeti
whosenarrativeformismerelyaconvenienl
meanstoexpresssomefeelingofthepoethimseli
THECLASSESORKINDS.35
OfthistypearesuchpoemsasTheTwoApril
Mornings,LucyGray,TheSailorsMother,The
LastoftheFlock,andBeggars,ineachofwhicha
triflingincidentisrelatedandleftto
communicate
itsownlyricalimpression.Thesameterm,
"
lyrical
ballad,"isalsoconvenientlyappliedtonarrative
poemsofadifferenttype,likeDrayton'sodeon
the
battleofAgincourt,orTennyson'sontheCharge
oftheLightBrigade,poemswhichtellastory,
butonlyforthepurposeofarousingfeeling.
Browning's
"
dramaticlyrics,"ontheotherhand,
were,ashesaid,
"

54

thoughoftenlyricinexpression,
alwaysdramaticinprinciple,andso
manyutterancesofsomanyimagin^
raatic
arypersons,notmine."Thatisto
say,thepurposeofthepoetinthistypeisto
presentasituation,andnotinfrequentlyacertain
amountofaction,throughthewordsofthe
characters
concerned.GreatexamplesofBrowning's
dramaticlyricsareTheConfessional,Twointhe
Campagna,and(thoughhedidnotincludethese
othersunderthesamecaption)FraLippoLippi,
AndreadelSarto,andAbtVogler.Tennyson
adoptedasimilarforminUlysses,Tithonus,
Rispah,TheGrandmother,andotherpoems.A
strikingexampleinrecentAmericanliteratureis
Mr.W.V.Moody'sTheMenagerie.Mr.Rudyard
Kipling,inmanyofhispoemsdealingwiththe
soldiersoftheBritisharmy(DannyDeeveris
perhaps
themostnotableexample),hasdevelopeda
364NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
typeofminglednarrativeandlyricalexpressionto
whichonemightgiveeitherthenameoflyrical
balladordramaticlyric,accordingtothe
standpoint
taken.
Thedifferenttypesarealsofoundincombination
inpoemsdevelopedonamoreelaboratescale.Thus
Browning'sRingandtheBookisa
kmdfllU^CexPansionftnetyP6
alreadyillustratedfromhisshorter
poems;here,throughaseriesoftengreat
dramatic
lyrics,hetellsthesamestoryfromthestandpoint
ofeachseveralcharacterinvolvedintheaction.
Again,anumberofpurelyrics,representativeofa

55

singlecharacter,aresometimessettogetherto
tella
storyinwhatisreallydramaticform.Thistype
(calleda
"
monodrama,"ordramawithasingle
actor)appearsinTennyson'sMaudandBrowning's
JamesLee'sWife.
Thereremaintobeconsideredcertaindoubtful
groupsorclasses,whicharesometimesattachedto
oneoranotherofourthreeprincipal
Socalled.
*
reflectivekinds,andsometimesgiven
subordmpoetry,
atepjaceskvthemselves.Aclassis
occasionallymadeofpoemscalledreflectiveor
philosophical.
Thistypeofpoetry,whichordinarily
arisesonlyinhighlydevelopedandselfconscious
times,isfurthestremovedfromtheprimitive
impulse
todealwiththesimpledataofhumanexperience.
Usually,accordingtotheformand
methodofeachexample,itmaybeconsideredasa
THECLASSESORKINDS.37
developmentofeitherthelyricortheepic.
Sometimes
theeffortofthepoetistoexpoundhuman
life,ortherelationofmantotheuniverse,in
partly
narrativeform,oratanyratebytheprogressive
methodoftheepic;examplesofthischaracterare
Cowper'sTask,Wordsworth'sExcursion,Browning's
FifineattheFair,and(insmallercompass)
Tennyson'sLucretius.Again,thepoetmaydothe
samethinginhisownperson,orthroughthe
imagined

56

voiceofanother,bythemethodofthelyric;
examplesofthischaracterareWordsworth's
TinternAbbey,Browning'sRabbiBenEzra,and
Tennyson'sSt.SimeonStylites.InMemoriamis
aninstanceofthegroupingoflyricsfor
reflectiveor
philosophicalends,asinMaudtheyaregroupedfor
moredramaticends.Eventhedramaticform,in
aprofoundlyreflectivepoetlikeBrowning,may
becomethevehicleforpoetryofthisorder.
Verycloselyconnectedwithsocalled
"
reflective
"
poetryisthatsometimesgivenaseparateclass
under
thecaption
"
didactic."Thisterm,go_called
literallymeaning
"
teaching,"isadidactic
troublesomeandambiguousoneaspoery'
appliedtopoetry.Inasensemostgoodpoetry
teaches(is,inArnold'swords,a
"
criticismof
life");andwhenwehaveexcludedthatinwhich
theteachingiswhollyveiledorincidental,there
remainsverymuchwhichamountstotheexplicit
communicationoftruth.Letthereaderconsider
thesethreepassages:
38ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
"Ourbirthisbutasleepandaforgetting;
Thesoulthatrisesinus,ourlife'sstar,
Hathhadelsewhereitssetting,
Andcomethfromafar."
"Heprayethbest,wholovethbest

57

Allthingsbothgreatandsmall;
ForthedearGodwholovethus,
Hemadeandlovethall."
"Thequalityofmercyisnotstrained.
Itdroppethasthegentlerainfromheaven
Upontheplacebeneath.Itistwiceblest:
Itblessethhimthatgivesandhimthattakes."
Allthreeareabsolutelydidactic,literally
speaking,
andyetarefromthreegreatimaginativepoems.
Oneisfromalyricoftheodetype,anotherfroma
narrativeinballadform,thethirdfromaromantic
drama.Thepresentationoftruth,then,evenin
directform,maybeanelementinapoemofany
type;andinanycasetoclassifyapoembythe
purposeofthepoetwouldbeinadequate.Thereis,
however,aclassofpoems,alreadyconsideredin
chapteri,whichdealprimarilywiththe
presentation
oftruth,andindoingsofollowtheprocesses
ofthereasonratherthanoftheimagination;they
border,therefore,onthefieldoftheproseessay,
andcannotreadilybeassociatedwithlyric,epic,
or
drama.WhenDrydensetsforththeproofsofthe
divineoriginoftheBibleinapassagesuchas
this,
THECLASSESORKINDS.39
"
Ifonthebookitselfwecastourview,
Concurrentheathensprovethestorytrue:
Thedoctrine,miracles;whichmustconvince,
ForHeaveninthemappealstohumansense;
Andthoughtheyprovenot,theyconfirmthecause,
WhenwhatistaughtagreeswithNature'slaws,"
*
wemaycallhismethoddidacticinanarrowersense
thaninthecaseofthepassagesquotedamoment

58

ago.AndWordsworth,despitehisusualreliance
onthemethodsoftheimagination,occasionally
givesussuchpassagesasthatagainstwhich
MatthewArnoldprotested:
"Thisimperialrealm,
Whilesheexactsallegiance,shalladmit
Anobligation,onherpart,toteach
Themwhoareborntoserveherandobey;
Bindingherselfbystatutetosecure,
Forallthechildrenwhomhersoilmaintains,
Therudimentsofletters,andinform
Themindwithmoralandreligioustruth."
(TheExcursion,Bookix.)
OfthesametypeissomeofthepoetryofPope,
muchofthatofYoungandhiscontemporaries,and
notalittleofthatofCowper.Ifthisgroupis
properlyadmittedtobewithintheboundsof
poetry,
forreasonssuggestedinchapteri,itseems
necessary
toclassifyitseparately;expositoryoressay
*
RdigioLaid,146151.
40/WINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
poetrywouldperhapsbeamoresatisfactorycaption
than
"
didactic."
Satiricpoetrymayalsoberegardedasonthe
borderlineofthepoeticrealm;andsincethe
word
"
satire
"
properlydescribesnotaform
SatiricSQmucfaasaspiritoramodeof
utterance,
itisinaccuratetouseitas

59

thenameofapoetictype.Theimportanceof
certain
greatversesatires,however,notablythoseof
Dryden,Pope,andByron,hasledtothedoubtful
recognitionofthisgroupasaseparateclassof
poetry.Inreality,satiricpoemswillbefoundto
fallordinarilyintotheexpositoryclassjust
considered;
unless,indeed,theytakeoneofthemore
standardforms,suchastheepic(exemplifiedin
Pope'sDunciad)orthelyric(exemplifiedin
Burns'sLouseonaLady'sBonnet}.
Anothertermformerly,buterroneously,applied
asindicatingaseparatepoeticalclassisthe
pastoral.
Thissortofpoetry,dealingoriginally
poetry,withtherealitiesofthelifeofherdsmen,
shepherds,andothercountry
folk,andlaterwiththeconventionalizedlifeof
the
traditional"'GoldenAge,"wasexceedinglypopular
duringtheperiodofclassicalimitationbetween
the
latterpartofthesixteenthandthemiddleofthe
eighteenthcenturies;andfromthatperioddatea
numberoftreatisesdealingwithitasoneofthe
leadingpoeticaltypes.Wecannowsee,notonly
thatforgenuinehumanemotionssuchanartificial
THEEPIC.4I
formhasquestionablevalue,butthat
"
pastoral
"
is
atanyrateatermrelatingtosubjectmatteror
style,andapplicabletoanyoftheprincipal
types.
Wemayhaveapastoralidyl(asTennyson'sDora),

60

apastoralelegy(asMilton'sLycidas),apastoral
drama(asFletcher'sFaithfulShepherdess),or
expositorypoetryofdidacticorsatiricquality
under
theguiseofpastoraldescription(asinseveralof
thepoemsinSpenser'sShepherd'sCalendar).In
moderntimesthelifeofthehumblerclassof
society
isevenmoreoftenthanformerlythethemeof
poetry,butitistheessentiallyhumanelementsin
it*nottheaccidentalenvironmentwhichfurnish
thepoeticaltheme.
Letusnowturntoamoredetailedconsideration
ofthethreeprincipalkindsofpoetry.
A.THEEPIC.
Epicpoetryisatermusedintwodifferentways:
first,asincludingallstrictlynarrativepoetry,
dealing
objectively,aswehaveseen,with
humanexperiences;fsecondly,asde^?**inss
scribingthemostimportantsingleform
ofnarrativepoetry,theepicproper,orepopee.
*As,forexample,inWordsworth'sMichael,which
hecalled"a
pastoralpoem."
tTheetymologyofthetermconnectsitwithword,
andisperhaps
duetoadiscriminationbetweenpoetrytobespoken
orrecitedand
thattobesung.
42ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Oftheepicinthisnarrowerorstrictersensean
admirabledefinitionisgivenbyProfessorGayley:
"
adispassionaterecitalindignified
Thenational1,1*,<
cpiCirhythmicnarrativeofamomentous
themeoractionfulfilledbyheroic

61

charactersandsupernaturalagenciesunderthe
control
ofasovereigndestiny."(Intro,toThe
PrinciplesofPoetry,p.xciv.)Thisisthetype
ofpoetrywhichinancienttimeswasbelievedtobe
greatest,notonlybecausetheepicsofHomer
wereineveryone'smindasthegreatest
achievements
ofpoetryknowntoman,butbecausethese
epicsweresoexpressiveofthenoblestelementsin
nationallife.Andthisisthemoststriking
characteristic
oftheearlyepic:thefactthatitexpresses
theloreandtheemotionsofawholepeople,rather
thanofanindividual.ThusHegelsays:
"
Its
basisandformaredeterminedbythetotalityof
the
beliefsandideasofapeople;"itssubjectissome
pastactionwhich"
includesthewholelifeofa
nationandthehistoryofanepoch."Suchepics
aswearehereconsideringoriginallygrew,rather
thanwerecomposedinthemodernsense.They
aroseintheageofwanderingsingers,likethe
HomerofGreektradition,orthescop
(minstrelpoet)
ofAngloSaxonlore,whowentaboutrepeating
nowtokingandcourtiers,nowtomore
humbleassembliesthestoriesoftheheroes,both
humanandsuperhuman,inwhomallhadaninterest.
Atlengththerecameatimewhensome
THEEPIC.43
singleartisticpoetarose,withmorecapacityfor
givingformtohismaterialsthanhispredecessors,
andgavetheaccumulatedepicmaterialstheir
finishedshape.Thisisassumedtohavebeenthe

62

historyoftheIliad,thenationalepicofthe
Greeks;
oftheSongofRoland,theepicofearlyFrance;
of
Beowulf,theepicofearlyEngland.
Itisevident,then,thatwemayroughlydivide
theseepicsintotwogroups:thosewhich,inthe
formwehavethem,representthedevelopment
ofalongperiodofcommunalCommunal
,
...
J
..
A
.andindividual
compositionandofnationaltradition,typesof
epic,
andwhoseindividualauthorshipis
eitherunknownorofcomparativelyslight
importance,
andthosewhichthoughdealingalsowithnational
traditionsaretheproductofconsciousindividual
art,theworkdistinctivelyofasinglepoet.
Oftheformerclassarethethreeepicsmentioned
in
thepreviousparagraph;alsotheMahabharata,the
epicofIndia;theKalevala,theepicofIceland;
the
Niebelungenlied,theepicofancientGermany;and
theCid,theepicofSpain.Inthesecondclass
somewouldplacetheOdyssey,sincealthough,like
theIliad,itisbasedontraditionalnational
lore,it
showsmoreunityandconsciousartisticform;the
TEneid,whichwastheresultoftheconscious
effort
ofVergiltogivehispeopleanationalepic;the
Jerusalem,DeliveredofTasso,theeffortofan

63

Italianpoettogivehisraceanepic,foundednot
on
anationalthemebutontheconquestoftheworld
44ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
byChristianity;andtheParadiseLostofMilton,
thesimilareffortofanEnglishmantoformanepic
poemonthethemeofthecreationandfallofman.
Allthesepoems,differinginsomanyparticulars,
arealikeinthematterssuggestedbyour
definition.
Theyareallimpersonalorobjective:^Poetan<^
^isownemotionsappear
veryslightly,ifatall.Theyall
dealwithsomegreataction,whosegreatnessis
familiarthroughtraditionandisconcentratedin
somesingleheroicfigure;theyallincludenot
only
thedeedsofman,butsupernaturaloccurrencesand
mythicalordivinecharacters,insomecases
because
thesewereuniversallybelievedinatthetime
ofthepoet'swriting,inothercasesbecausethey
hadbecomeapartoftheepicstory,andlentit
dignityandcompleteness.Inallcasestheyappeal
eithertonationalideals,ortoidealswhichhave
takentheirplaceinsomemeasure,likethatofthe
worldlyempireofChrist,asinthecaseofTasso,
orthespiritualgovernmentofGod,asinthecase
ofMilton.Whenoneconsidersthedignityof
theme,theloftystyleandmagnitudeofaction,
characteristicofthesepoems,itisnowonderthat
formanycenturiesitwasheldthatepic(or,asit
cametobecalled,"heroic")poetrywasthe
highestachievementofthepoeticart.
ThebestauthoritiesontheepicareAristotle's
Poetics,chaptersxxiiiandxxiv;thetreatiseof
Le
THEEPIC.45

64

Bossu,whoin1675formulatedthedoctrinesof
classical
criticismonthesubject;thediscussionofDryden
inthePrefacetohisVirgil;thediscussionof
Hegel(representedinBenard'swork,alreadycited)
;
thearticleonPoetryintheEncyclopedia
Britannica,
byTheodoreWatts;thatontheEpicinthe
UniversalEncyclopediabyProfessorA.R.Marsh;
Ker'sEpicandRomance;andClark'sHistoryofEpic
Poetry.Aristotle'sdefinitionoftheepicis
characteristic
oftheverysimpleconceptionoftheform
prevalentinhistime:itisdistinguishedfromthe
dramabybeing
"
narrativeinformandemploying
asinglemetre."Thisunityofmetricalform
hasbeencharacteristicalmostthroughoutits
history
ineverylanguage,andisofcourseduetothe
senseofunityandcontinuitynecessaryforthe
successofanelaboratestory.Aristotle's
principal
ruleforthestructureisalsofundamental:the
subject
mustbe"
asingleaction,wholeandcomplete,
withabeginning,amiddle,andanend."The
objective
standpointisalsoclearlyindicated,intherule
thatthepoetshouldspeakaslittleaspossiblein
his
ownperson.LeBossu'sdefinitionoftheepicshows
thefalselydidacticviewofpoetryassumedinthe
neoclassicalperiod:
"

65

adiscourseinventedbyart,
toformthemannersbysuchinstructionsasare
disguised
undertheallegoriesofsomeoneimportant
action,whichisrelatedinverse,aftera
probable,diverting,
andsurprisingmanner."(Englishtranslation
of1695.)Onthestructure,LeBossutellsusthat
theconflictnecessaryfordevelopingtheactionis
found
intheendeavorsoftheheroforaccomplishinghis
design,
andtheendeavorsofthoseagainstit;these,with
thesuccessfulsolution,formthebeginning,
middle,
andenddemandedbyAristotle.Anotherinteresting
46ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
suggestionisthatthelengthoftheactionofthe
epic,
incontrastwiththetragedy,makesnecessaryits
less
violentactionanditshappytermination.Hegel's
discussion
isofchiefinterestforitsemphasisonthe
nationalspirit.Itisnecessary,heobserves,that
the
epicpoetshouldliveintheveryideasandbeliefs
which
formthesubstanceofhisage;ifthisaffinity
between
thespiritofhistimeandtheeventdescribeddoes
notexist,hispoemasanepicwillbeincongruous,
aconsiderationfullofsuggestivenessin
connection
withsuchmodernattemptsatrevivedepicasthose
ofSouthey.Hegel'sremarksonthedifference
between

66

theactionofepicandtragedyarealsoof
interest:
inthedrama,externalcircumstanceshavean
importancedependentonthewayinwhichthey
exhibit
thewillandpassionsoftheactors,whileinthe
epic,externalcircumstancesareequallyimportant
withtheinteriorwill,andeventhemoreinward
actionresemblesanexternalpageantpassingbefore
theeyes.Inotherwords,thedramapresents
individual
rights,thoughperhapsinconflictwithnecessity
;theepicshowsindividualactionswallowedupin
theuniversaldominionofnecessity.Finally,we
shouldnoticeHegel'sfamousremarkinillustration
of
thedifferencebetweentheobjectivecharacterof
the
epicandthesubjectivecharacterofthelyric:
thatwe
areignorantof,andcomparativelyindifferentto,
the
authorshipoftheHomericpoems,whereasweare
equallyignorantofandindifferenttothe
personality
oftheheroesofthelyricsofPindar.InWatts's
discussion
oftheepicthemostoriginalmatteristhaton
thedifferencebetweentheepicsoftheeasternand
thewesternpeoples.Itisonlyinthe
Niebelungenlied,
hebelieves,thatawesternepicpoethasshown
real
unityofpurposecombinedwithfreedomofmovement.
THEEPIC.47
Ontheotherhandtheheroesofthewesternepics
are

67

moretrulyheroicfighters,andshowaTitanic
spirit
ofrevoltagainstauthority,ofwhichtheSatanof
Miltonisthemostsublimeembodiment.
Inmoderntimestheepichaswhollyfailedto
maintaintheimportantplacewhichithashadin
the
earlyperiodofalmosteverynation,and
thehistoryoftheattemptstoreviveit
byconsciouseffortisforthemostpart
thehistoryofaseriesoffailures,manyofthem
beautifulandimportantfailures,butnonetheless
failures.Thereasonsforthisarenotfartoseek.
Inthefirstplace,nationalspirit,inthesimple
emotional
senseinwhichweuseitofprimitivepeoples,
decayswithcivilization,andceasestogather
about
heroicfiguresandearlyracialtraditions.We
strip
themysteryandthereverencefromthepast,as
intelligenceadvances,andthereisnogreat
English
kingwhomweallrecognizeasthehistoricleader
oftherace;forournearestapproachtoitwego
toArthur,notanEnglishmanatall,butanearly
Briton,andrecognizefranklythatwedothis
onlyforpoeticalpurposes.Secondly,the
remarkable
developmentofthesubjectivespiritmoreand
moreturnsawayourinterestfromthemeredeedsof
mentotheircharacter,emotions,andspiritual
development,whichotherformsofpoetrytreat
farbetterthantheepic.Forthisreasoneven
thosemodernpoemswhichprofesstobeepics,like
Spenser'sFaerieQueeneandMilton'sParadise
4B4KINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Lost,becomeepicsoftheinnerratherthanthe

68

outerworld.*Thirdly,thehugescaleonwhicha
greatepicwasproducedunfitsitforthemore
concentrated
expressionofanagewhenliteratureis
abundant,andwhentherecitalofpoetryhasgiven
waytorapidreading.Fourthly,theenormous
developmentofprosefictioninmoderntimes
satisfiestheinstinctforstorytowhichtheepic
formerlyministered,andpoetryhasturnedmore
andmoretothesatisfactionofneedswhichcannot
bemetadequatelyinprose.Theepicpoemsof
Southey,suchasTheCurseofKehamaand
Roderick,togetherwiththeGebirofLandor,are
examplesofmoderneffortstorevivetheform,
transferringintoEnglishpoetryepicinterests
drawnfromotherpeoples,butwithcomparatively
smallsuccess.Moresuccessfularetheepic
fragments,
inwhichsuchaneffortisconcentratedinto
thepresentationofamereepisodeofalmost
lyrical
unity,poemslikeLander'sAgamemnonand
IphigeneiaandArnold'sSohrabandRustum.
*Comparetheremarkofarecentwriter,Dr.H.B.
Alexander,
totheeffectthatthecommunalidealsofearly
poetry
"resulted
fromthelimitationsofasocietyinwhichthe
individualexistedfor
thecommunityandsubordinatedhisdesirestoits
will.Anditis
justbecausewehaveoutgrownthestage,the
milieu,whichthey
wereadaptedtocelebrate,thattheepicandballad
haveceasedto
benaturalvehiclesforpoeticexpression.Onlyin
man'ssubordination

69

toworldfateistherearelationsufficiently
analogoustowarrant
epicalcelebration;andsoitisthatinits
matureragesthe
worldhasproducedbuttwogreatepicpoems,the
cosmicalepicsof
DanteandMilton."(PoetryandtheIndividual,p.
n.)
THEEPIC.49
Wehavenexttoconsidercertainpoemswhich
approximatetotheepictype,thoughtheylackits
artisticformandsignificance.From
earlyperiodstherearethelays*of
popularheroes,briefepics,onemight
callthem,withoutthedignityofnationalfeeling.
SuchisthefamiliarlayofKingHorn,aheroof
themediaevalperiodinEngland.Again,thereare
chroniclepoems,summarizingnationalhistoryin
verse,oftenpossessedofepiclength,butwithout
itsunityeitherfromhavingasingleheroor
otherwise.
Ofthistheprincipalearlyexampleisthe
BrutofLayamon,apoemdatingfromtheendof
thetwelfthcentury,andoutliningthelegendary
historyofEnglandfromthedaysofBrutus.
Somewhat
akintothesearethehistoricalpoemsofthe
Elizabethanage,suchasDaniel'sCivilWars,a
versenarrativeoftheWarsoftheRoses,and
Drayton'sMortimeriadorBarons'Wars,ofwhich
theformertitlewasintendedtosuggestagenuine
epicqualityandacentralhero.
Verydifferentfromthesetypes,becauseits
interest
iswiththeinnerlifeofthehero,notwith
outwardaction,issuchaspiritualor
psychological
epicasBrowning'sSordello,ofwhichtheauthor

70

*Thewordlayproperlymeansalyricalpoem,akin
toasong,but
iscommonlyappliedtonarrativepoemsofthetype
indicated,
whichwerenodoubtoftenchantedorsungby
wanderingminstrels.
Cf.Scott'sLayoftheLastMinstrel.
504NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
wrote:
"Mystresslayontheincidentsinthe
developmentofasoul."
Acuriousseparatetypeisthemockheroicpoem,
ormockepic,whichtellsastoryintheepic
manner
forpurposesofridicule.Thiswas
Themockepic,knowneventotheGreeks.InEnglish
literaturethemostimportantmock
epicsareButler'sHudibrasandPope'sRapeofthe
Lock.
Toreturntomoreprimitiveformsofnarrative,
thechiefofthemistheballadatermveryloosely
used,butmostproperlyappliedtoa
Theballad,briefpopularnarrativepoemona
romantictheme.Theearlyballads
representthesamecommunalstageofpoetryasthe
earlyepic:manyofthemmayhavehadindividual
authors,butthesearetotallylostintheirwork,
and
spokeforthewholecommunitywhichthey
represented.
Theseballads,too,takeusbacktothetime
whennarrativeandlyricalpoetrywereasyet
hardly
separated.Manyofthemmustoriginallyhave
beensung;inothersthereisarefrainwhichmay
havebeensungbythecompanywhilethemore
purelynarrativeportionwasrecited.Forexample:
"Ohdidyeeverhearo'braveEarlBrand?

71

AyIdly,olillylally.
Hecourtedtheking'sdaughteroffairEngland
Alli'thenightsoearly."
(Gummere'sOldEnglishBalladsfp.206.)
THEEPIC.
5!
Thethemesoftheballadsarefewandsimple,
chivalrousadventure,fairiesandghosts,love
(happyortragic),andthelike,and
forthemostparttheyprofessnonational
significance,althoughinsome
cases,suchastheBattleofOtterburn,areally
important
eventisthesubject.Theimaginativevalue
ofmanyofthesenarratives,asseenespeciallyin
thetreatmentoftragicsituations,andthe
dramatic
powershowninthetellingofthem,arevery
great;
aftercenturiesofneglect,theyarenowrecognized
asamongthetreasuresofearlyEnglishpoetry.
Imitationsoftheballads,madeinthedaysof
consciousliterarypoetry,arerarelysuccessful,
but
tothistheballadsofScottareanotable
exception;andcertainotherpoetsjjj^ds
havemadeuseoftheirformand
mannerinimportantinstances,asKeatsinLa
BelleDamesansMerciandRossettiinSisterHelen.
Ofmodernpoemsintheballadmannerthegreatest
beyondquestionisColeridge'sRimeoftheAncient
Mariner,whichcombinesthemarveloussimplicity
ofprimitivepoetrywiththeprofound
suggestiveness
ofmoreintensivemodernart.
Themetricalromanceortaleisanotherimportant
typebelongingtothisgroup,whichhadanearly
originandhasneverwhollyfailedtobe

72

apopularform.Itisdistinguished
Themetrical
Jromance.
fromtheepicbybeinglessformal,
lessdignifiedintheme,lessextensiveinscope,
and
52<4NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
usuallybythefactthatitemphasizesnotsomuch
heroicdeedsasthemoreromanticepisodesof
chivalrousadventureandlove.Ofthistheearliest
importantexampleinourliteratureisananonymous
poemofthefourteenthcentury,calledSir
GawainandtheGreenKnight(latelyparaphrased
inmodernEnglishverse),whileinthesame
periodwereproducedtheromancesofChaucer
(includingboththelongandelaborateTroilusand
Cressida*andtheshortertalesoftheCanterbury
series),thegreatestmasterofpurestory
poetrythathasappearedinEngland.Ofmodern
poetsDryden,Scott,Byron,andWilliamMorris
arethechiefmastersofthemetricalromance;
whileothershaveremadeoldromancesintolater
poetry,asMatthewArnoldandSwinburnewith
thestoryofTristramandIseult.Ofallthe
romancesnone,perhaps,havefoundsomanyreaders
socontinuouslyasScott'sMarmionandLady
oftheLakeandLongfellow'sEvangeline.To
Byronweoweavarietyofthisformcorresponding
tothemockorburlesqueepic,themockorironic
romance,representedbyDonJuan,whichcombines
inoneextraordinaryblendingbrilliantnarrative
*TroilusandCressidashowsatendencytoward
satiriccriticism
oflife,andarealismofdetail,whichalmost
temptonetocallita
novelinverseratherthanapureromance.Of
modernnovelsin

73

verseaformwhoselegitimacyishardlyestablished
interesting
examplesareClough'sBothieofTobernaVuolich
andLytton's
Lucile.
THEEPIC.53
power,romanticbeauty,laughingburlesque,and
invectivesatire.Itisworthnotingthat,while
both
theballadandtheepichaveusuallyfollowed
single
metricalformsofgreatsimplicity,thegreater
complexity
andvarietyoftheromance(contenttomiss
thesustaineddignityoftheepic)haveusually
been
markedbyawidevarietyofmetricalforms.*
Thereremainsaconsiderablevarietyofnarrative
poemswhichitisimpossibletodefineorclassify
withaccuracy.Theymaypartakeof
thenatureoftheepicindignity
andmethod,butlackitswidescope
andcompleteness:ofthissortaretheseparate
poemsinTennyson'sIdyllsoftheKing,and
MatthewArnold'sSohrabandRustum.(Ofthese
theformerisalsodistinguishedfromthetrueepic
byitsessentiallyreflectiveandspiritual
character;
thelatterisperhapsthemostperfectreproduction
inmodernpoetryofthesimpleobjectivityofthe
ancientepicstyle.)Theymaybedesignedtoshow
howtheepicmannermaybeappliedtosimple,
familiarthemes,likeWordsworth'sMichaelandthe
lesssuccessfulDoraofTennyson.Theymayre
*Scott,intheIntroductiontoTheBridalof
Trierntain,said:
"

74

Accordingtotheauthor'sideaofromanticpoetry,
asdistinguished
fromepic,theformercomprehendsafictitious
narrative,framedand
combinedatthepleasureofthewriter;beginning
andendingashe
mayjudgebest;whichneitherexactsnorrefuses
theuseofsupernatural
machinery;whichisfreefromthetechnicalrules
ofthe
epee;andissubjectonlytothosewhichgood
sense,goodtaste,and
goodmoralsapplytoeveryspeciesofpoetry
withoutexception."
544NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
sembletheballadinthegreaterbrevity,rapidity,
andlyricalenthusiasmoftheirform,like
Tennyson's
RevengeandBrowning'sHerveRiel.Or,
theymayratherresemblethemetricalromancein
theirloveofromanticdetailsandfreedomof
structure,
likeKeats'sEveofSt.Agnes,Arnold'sForsaken
Merman,andBurns'sTarnO'Shanter.The
lyricalballad,inwhichthestoryrelatedis
evidently
merelyameanstothepresentationofaparticular
emotion,hasbeendiscussedinanearlier
paragraph.Finally,wemaynotetheversefable,a
briefnarrativepoem,usuallydealingwithevents
ofasupernaturalorextranaturalcharacter,
designed
toillustrateaspecificmorallesson.Admirable
EnglishfablesinversearethoseofJohn
Gay;LeighHunt'sAboubenAdhemisanexample
ofasomewhatdifferentsort.
Asakindofpendanttothisepicalgroupwemay
considerthatclassofpoemswhicharedescriptive

75

ratherthannarrativeintheirprincipal
character,poemsinwhichobjects
orscenes,ratherthanevents,form
thesubjectmatter,butwhich(seepage34above)
followtheepicmethodofmovingthroughspace
andperhapstimeinthepresentationoftheir
material.
ForthisclassWordsworthproposedthe
nameIdyllium,*whichhasneverbecomenaturalized
*Theterm"
Idyl
"
isverylooselyused,mostcommonlyofdescriptive
narrativepoemsinapastoralsetting.Tennyson's
Idylls
oftheKingisnotacharacteristicinstance.
THELYRIC.
55
inEnglish.GreatexamplesareThomson's
Seasons,presentingtheprogressofnaturethrough
thecycleoftheyear;Goldsmith'sDesertedVillage
andBurns'sCotter'sSaturdayNight,inwhich
humansocietyinaparticularsettingformsthe
theme;andChaucer'sProloguetotheCanterbury
Tales,inwhichparticularindividualswhoare
neverthelessrepresentativeofthewholeviewof
Englishsocietyintheiragearedescribed.Inall
thesepoemsnarrativeelementsareusedtoaidin
presentingthedescriptive.Herealsowemust
probablyplaceByron'sChildeHarold,whichbegins
asagenuineepic,centeringtheinterestina
hero,
butpresentlybecomespurelydescriptive,thehero
servingasamerelinktoconnectthevarious
scenes
whichheispresumedtohaveviewed;thisis
perhaps
themostvividlyemotional,ifnotthemost

76

imaginative,descriptivepoeminthelanguage.
B.THELYRIC.
Likethewordepic,thewordlyricisusedinboth
ageneralandamoreparticularsense,having
gradually
beenextendedfromitsoriginal
meaning,apoemtobesungbya
Jf|Tg8
singlesinger,toincludeallpoetryexpressing
subjectivelytheemotionofthepoetor
thosewhomherepresents.Inthislargersenseit
hascometoincludethegreatbulkofmodern
poetry,
56AHINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
somuchsothatProfessorGummereisledto
observe:
"Thehistoryofmodernverse,withepic
anddramaindecay,ismainlythehistoryof
lyrical
sentiment."(BeginningsofPoetry,p.147.)To
classifysatisfactorilythegreatbodyofthis
lyrical
poetryisevenmoredifficultthaninthecaseof
narrativepoetry.Onethingitsvariousformshave
incommon:theexpressionofasingleemotionor
imaginativeconception.
Thesubjectiveorpersonalstandpointofthelyric
mustnotbeunderstoodtoimplyeitherthatitis
necessarilyautobiographicalorthatit
character.
6
representstheemotionofanindividual
standingquitebyhimself.For
thepoet,likeotherartists,iscapableof
entering
intotheexperiencesoftherestofhumanity,not
simplyofrecordinghisown;or,tolookatitfrom
theoppositestandpoint,hemakestheexperiences

77

ofothershisownbymeansofhisimaginative
sympathy.
Inthemostprimitiveconditions,thelyrical
poet,liketheepicpoet,representsnothimselfso
muchasthewholecompanyofhisfellowsforl
whomhesingsandwhomheleadsinsong;and
againintheveryhighestpoetryhespeaksnot
simplyforhimselfbutfortheuniversalinstincts
ofhumanity.TheearliestEnglishsongthathas
survivedisasongofsummerandthecuckoo:
"Sumerisicumenin,
Lhudesingcuccu!
"
THELYRIC.
57
Herethenamelesspoetspokeforthepervading
senseofjoyintheseasonwhichwasfeltbythe
wholecommunityandwhichtheywouldjoinin
expressing.Ifwecomparethissongwiththat
greatsonnetofShakspere's,beginning
"Whenindisgracewithfortuneandmen'seyes
Iallalonebeweepmyoutcaststate,
"
weseethatthelatter,whileitrepresentsa
maturer
sentimentandamorepersonalemotion,isstillthe
voicethroughwhichacommonexperienceofhumanity
makesitselffelt.Itdoesnotatallfollow
thatShaksperewas"
indisgracewithfortuneand
men'seyes
"
atthetimehewroteit.*Othergreat
lyrics,however,suchasBurns'sToMaryin
Heaven,Byron'sStanzastoAugusta,Milton's
SonnetOnhisBlindness,andthelyricsof
Tennyson's
InMemoriani,areknowntobethedefinite

78

outcomeofpersonalexperiences.
Beingthustherecordofasingle
emotion,andnotdependent,likethe
epicandthedrama,uponthedevelopment
ofaseriesofeventsorthepresentationof
*Astrikingexampleofthisnonautobiographical
characterof
poetrywhichisnonethelesssaturatedwith
personalfeelingisfound
inthe"
Lucy
"
poemsofWordsworth,whichwerewritten,sofaras
hasbeendiscovered,withouttheslightestbasisin
hisownexperience.
Yetthisisapointwhereindividualpoetic
charactersdiffer;
withsuchapoetasShelleywemaybesurethat
everylyricisthe
recordofarealexperience,howevertransitory.
58ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
characterincompleteness,thelyrichasamore
absolute
unitythananyoftheotherformsofpoetry,
andisusuallyexceptwheretheintellectualor
reflectiveelementispresenttoamarkeddegree
decidedlybrief.Itsstructuremaybesaidto
depend
inpartuponitsrelationtotheouterandthe
innerworlds.Simplestofallisthelyricthat
remains
intheouterworld,thoughitexpressesthe
inwardemotionarousedbyit;anexampleofthis
typeistheoldEnglishsongreferredtointhe
previous
paragraph,whichbeginsandendswiththe
comingofsummerandthecuckoo.Morefamiliar

79

isthelyricwhichtakesitsbeginningatapoint
in
theouterworld,butpassestotheinvisibleworld
ofemotionalreflection;ofthistypeagreat
example
isKeats'sOdeonaGrecianUrn,whichtakesits
pointofdepartureatthevisibleobject,and
passestoprofoundlyemotionalreflectiononthe
immortalityofthespiritofbeauty.Or,still
further,wemayhavethelyricwhichiswhollyof
theinnerlife,likecertainofShakspere'ssonnets
(forexample,thatbeginning
"Poorsoul,the
centerofmysinfulearth").Lyricsofthislast
classaremostlikelytobereflective,andhence
to
movefurthestawayfromthepureorsongtype.
Finally,wemaynotethattheforms
theiyrio
^tyr^ca^poetryaremorevariedthan
thoseofanyoftheclasses.Originally
theyadaptthemselvestoallmannerofmusical
melodiesandaccompaniments,andwhen,separating
THELYRIC.59
frommusic,theybecomepurelyliterary,they
preserve
thisvarietyandadaptability.Thelyrichas
noneedofthesustaineddignityofthecontinuous
metricalmovementofepicpoetry;itrequiresmore
rapidmeasures,adaptingthemselvestoitsmore
directandbrilliantemotionalexpression,andfor
thisexpressionallthepossibilitiesofrhythmical
art
aredrawnupon.Thereisnolyricalmoodso
serious,somerry,sostirring,solanguid,thatit
doesnotfinditsappropriatemetricalform.On
theotherhand,thebrevityandconcentrationof
thelyricdemandafinerfinish,amorecameolike

80

accuracyofform,thantheotherclassesofpoetry;
hence,withintheformchosen,thelyricalpoetis
allowedlessflexibilityandfreedomthanthe
writer
ofeitherepicordramaticverse.Afamiliarpoetic
licenseinepicordramaticpoetrybecomesa
conspicuous
faultinalyric.Thetypeisoneforever
aspiringafterinfiniterichesandperfectbeauty
"
in
alittleroom."
Themostusefuldiscussionsoflyricalpoetrywill
befoundinHegel'swork;Werner'sLyrikund
Lyriker;
Gummere'sBeginningsofPoetry(especially
thechapteron"
theDifferencingElementsofArt");
Dr.JohnErskine'sElizabethanLyric(chapteri,on
"LyricalQualityandLyricForm");the
Introductions
toSchelling'sElizabethanLyricsandSeventeenth
CenturyLyrics;theIntroductiontoCarpenter's
volumeofselectionscalledEnglishLyricPoetry;
and
theIntroductiontoPalgrave'sGoldenTreasury.
60>4#INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Hegel'sdiscussionismarkedbyanemphasisofthe
subjectiveandindividualelement,incontrastto
epic.
"Thebasisofthelyricalworkcannotbethe
development
ofanactioninwhichawholeworldisreflected
inalltherichnessofitsmanifestations,butthe
soulofaman;morethanthis,ofthemanasan
individual,
placedinindividualsituations."
"Manhimself

81

becomesaworkofart;whereasfortheepicpoet
thesubjectisaherooutsideofhimself."
"Thesoul
ofthepoetisthentobeconsideredasthereal
principle
ofunityforalyricalpoem.Ontheonehandthere
isnecessaryadefinitesituationofthesoul;in
the
nextplace,thepoetmustidentifyhimselfwith
that
situation."(Benard'sparaphrase,i,pp.245,257,
280.)HereHegelseemstorecognizetooslightly
therepresentativecharacterofthelyricalpoet,
both
inprimitivetimesandelsewhere.Inanother
passage,
however,hepointsoutthatinpopularnational
poetry
'*thepoetisamereorganbymeansofwhich
thenationallifemanifestsitself."(Ibid.,p.
264.)
AnotherremarkofHegel's,thatthemostperfectly
lyricalpoemisonerepresenting
"
asentimentofthe
heartconcentratedinaparticularsituation,"is
closely
paralleltoPalgrave'srequirementthateachpoem
admitted
tohiscollectionoflyrics
"
shallturnonsome
singlethought,feeling,orsituation.In
accordance
withthis,narrative,descriptive,anddidactic
poems,
unlessaccompaniedbyrapidityofmovement,
brevity,

82

andthecolouringofhumanpassion,havebeen
excluded."
(Pref.toTheGoldenTreasury.)Therequirement
ofbrevityisfurtheremphasizedbySchelling,
whoholdsthat
"
byitsveryconditionsthelyric
mustbeshort,asanemotionprolongedbeyonda
pleasurable
lengthwilldefeatitsownartisticaim."(EHs.
Lyrics,p.ix.)Asimilarpositionistakenby
Erskine,
THELYRIC.6l
who,indiscussingtheunityofthelyricwhich
depends
onthemaintenanceofasingle
"
lyricstimulus,"suggests
that
"
manylongpoems,whichinqualityare
undoubtedlylyrical,informshouldbeconsidereda
seriesoflyricunitsratherthanonesong,"for
example,
Spenser'sEpithalamium.Allthisistokeep
closelytotheoriginalsongtypeoflyric;but
when
wehaveinviewthelargerclass,itisclearthat
many
poemshaveanemotionalunityoftheme,andare
yetbuiltupbyanelaboratestructurewhichan
added
intellectualelementmayhelptodetermine.In
Erskine's
discussionmayfurtherbefoundanoriginaland
suggestivepassageonthestructureofthe
successful
lyric,which,itisheld,shouldhavethreeparts.

83

"
In
thefirst,theemotionalstimulusisgiventhe
object,
thesituation,orthethoughtfromwhichthesong
arises.Inthesecondparttheemotionisdeveloped
toitsutmostcapacity,untilasitbeginstoflag
the
intellectualelementreassertsitself.Inthethird
part,
theemotionisfinallyresolvedintoathought,a
mental
resolution,oranattitude."(TheEliz.Lyric,p.
17.)
Toclassifylyricalpoems,ashasalreadybeen
said,isevenmoredifficultthaninthecaseof
narrative
poetry:thedifferencesbetween
thetypesseemtobe
jess
distinct.An"^^
obviousmethod,whichdoesnottake
usveryfar,istogroupthemaccordingtotheir
theme:lyricsoflove,ofgrief,ofpatriotism,of
nature,andthelike.Anothermethod,less
superficial
thanitmightseemtobe,istogroupaccording
tometricalforms:lyricsinsongstanzas,inthe
elegiacorheroicstanza,invariousshortstanzas,
624NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
odes,sonnets,ballades,rondeaus,andsoforth.
Butifwewishaclassificationsomewhatless
mechanicalthaneitherofthese,wemayperhaps
distinguishbetweenthoselyricswhichkeepclosest
totheoriginalsongtype,andthosewhichmove
furtherandfurtherawayfromthisinthedirection
ofthemoreformalorreflectiveexpressionof
emotion.

84

Thefirstgroup,then,willbeformedofthetrue
songlyrics,thosewhicharefittedbynatureto
musicalutterance.Thesearemore
Songlyrics,purelyemotionalthanthoseofother
groups,morespontaneousandrapidin
utterance,moresimpleinstyle,andarelikelyto
morebrief.Sometimestheirsimplicityissuchthai
theyseemalmostpurelyavehicleforthe
expressioi
ofemotionthroughmusic,andwillnotshowtheir
worthwhentestedbymerereading.Itisinth<
earlierperiodsofpoetry,whenemotionsan
simplerandlessmingledwithintellectualideas,
and
whenmusicisamoregenerallydiffusedart,that
thesesonglyricsareattheirbest.Inthe
Elizabethan
agetheseconditionswerecombinedwitha
highdevelopmentofpoeticalimaginationand
poeticalstyle;hencethoseEnglishlyricswhich
are
truesongs,andatthesametimehavepermanent
literaryworth,datemorenumerouslyfromthat
periodthanfromanyother.Greatexamplesare
certainofthesongsofShakspere,Mistress
Mine,ComeuntotheseYellowSands,Whois
THELYRIC.63
Sylvia,andHark,Hark,theLark,togetherwith
Sidney'sMyTrueLoveHathmyHeart,Nash's
Spring,theSweetSpring,Dekker'sOSweetContent,
andJonson'sDrinktomeOnlywiththine
Eyes.Inthemodernperiodthelyricofthistype
hasprovedtobeoneofthemostdifficultand
rarest
ofallformsofpoetry,andonlyoneauthor,Burns,
hasdonemuchworkinitofthefirstquality.To
Burnsthesonglyricwaswhatitwastoprimitive
man:hecomposedhissongsnotasliterature,on

85

paper,butasaudibleutterancetomelodiesalready
flowinginhismind.BesidesthoseofBurns,
notablesongsbymodernpoetsareScott's
imitations
ofthepopularScottishballadsongs(Proud
Maisiebeingperhapsthebest),Shelley'sIndian
Serenade,Tennyson'sSweetandLow,andBrowning's
CavalierTunes.
Aparticulartypeofthesonglyricisfoundinthe
hymn,devotedtotheemotionsofreligionand
usually
intendedforchoralutterance,although
informofexpressionitmaybeThehymn,
aspersonalasanylyricaltype.Hymns
ofpermanentliteraryvalueareveryrare,chiefly,
nodoubt,becausethestatementofreligious
doctrine
islikelytoincreasetheexpositoryelementto
theclangeroftheimaginative.Thoseoftheearly
churchwereinLatin,andamongthebestof
Englishhymnsaretranslationsofthese,suchas
Neale'sJerusalemtheGoldenandEllerton'sWelcome
HappyMorning.Insuccessfulhymnsofthis
64/WINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
character,somedoctrineofthechurch,orsome
aspirationoftheindividualspirit,givesformto
a
simpleemotionwhichfindsnoblelyrical
expression.
AmongthegreatoriginalEnglishhymnsaresome
ofCharlesWesley's(notablyJesus,Loverofmy
Soul},someofCowper's(suchasforaCloser
WalkwithGod),Heber'sTheSonofGodGoes
ForthtoWar,Stone'sTheChurch'sOneFoundation,
andHow'sForalltheSaintszvhofromtheir
LaborsRest.Otherreligiouslyrics,notintended
originallyashymns,havebeenusedforchoral
worship,

86

andwilldoubtlessalwaysberememberedin
connectionwiththeappropriatemusic;examplesof
thissortareNewman'sLeadKindlyLightand
certain
ofthepoemsofFrederickWilliamFaber,John
GreenleafWhittier,andAdelaideProctor.
Passingfromthesonglyric,wemayputina
secondclasslyricswhichseemanalogoustothe
songintheirformativeimpulseandthe
Lyricsofmore.,.......
literarysimplicityandspontaneityoftheir
uttercharacter,
ance>SQthattheymayeasilybethought
ofasseekingmusicalexpression,butwhichare
neverthelessmoreliteraryinstylethanthepure
song,andarecapableofgivingtheirfullmeedof
pleasurewhenreadasliterature.Ofthisclassare
certainofTennyson'slyrics,suchasTears,Idle
Tears,representedinThePrincessasbeingsungto
theharp,yetquiteaswellfittedtoordinaryoral
utterance.
Lamb'sOldFamiliarFaces,Wordsworth's
Daffodils,Byron'sIslesofGreece,andBrowning's
THELYRIC.65
Prospicemightbeplacedinthesamegroup.Going
astepfurther,wefindlyricswhichinemotional
intensityandunityarealliedtothesonglyric,
but
whichareelaboratedtoalengthandwithawealth
ofimagerywhichinevitablydissociatethemfrom
theideaofmusicalutterance.Agreatexampleof
thistypeisShelley'sSkylark;withitwemight
groupHood'sBridgeofSighs,Collins'sOdeto
Evening,andWordsworth'sHighlandGirl.This
testcapacityorfitnessformusicalutterance
mayberegardedasthemostgenuineforthe
gradationoflyricalpoetry;yetbyitsnatureit
is

87

alsovague,anddifferenceofopinionwouldsoon
arisesuchastomakeimpossiblethedrawingof
clearlinesofdivision.*
Butwemoveawayfromthesong
inanotherwaythanbyelaboration:
namely,bytheincreaseofthereflective
*Wordsworth,inhisclassificationofpoetry
(Prefacetothe
editionof1815),includedunderLyricalnotonly
thesongandhymn,
buttheode,theelegy,andtheballad,andsaid
thatinallthese,
"fortheproductionoftheir/z///effect,an
accompanimentofmusic
isindispensable."Ofhisownpoemsveryfewof
whichwould
seem,tomostpersons,tobewhollyadaptedto
musicalutterance
hesaid:
"Someofthesepiecesareessentiallylyrical,and
therefore
cannothavetheirdueforcewithoutasupposed
musicalaccompaniment
;but,inmuchthegreatestpart,asasubstitute
fortheclassic
lyreorromanticharp,Irequirenothingmorethan
ananimatedor
impassionedrecitation,adaptedtothesubject."
Thishasindeed
becomethesubstituteformusic,inourtime,
throughawiderange
ofpoetry.OnthispointseeErskine(Eliz.Lyric,
pp.3,4),who
quotesBrunetieretotheeffectthatourmodern
lyricssingthemselves
intheheart,notonthetongue.
66AHINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
ortheintellectualelement,whichinthepureor

88

typicallyricplayssoslightapart,butwhichhas
beenmoreandmoreintroducedhereasinother
formsofpoetrywiththedevelopmentofman's
reflectiveandintellectualnature.Thusthelyrics
of
apoetlikeWordsworth,suffusedastheyarewith
emotion,areneverthelesssoreflectiveforthe
most
partthatashasalreadybeensuggestedthey
couldrarelyfindaplaceinthewidestboundaries
ofthesonggroup.TheodesofKeats(theGrecian
Urn,theNightingale,andAutumn),although
purelylyricalandnotatalldidactic,are
sufficiently
reflectivetocarryusintothesamepoetical
region;
andwhenwepasstosuchpoemsasBrowning's
AbtVogler,Tennyson'sHigherPantheism,Arnold's
RugbyChapel,andGeorgeEliot'sMayI
JointheChoirInvisible,weareinaregionwhere
thethemeissocharacteristicallyintellectual
(though
stillinterpretedthroughemotionalappeal)that
the
songtypemaybesaidtobealtogetherlost.
Itisastrikingcircumstancethatthreeimportant
lyricalforms,originallyassociatedwithsongand
music,havebecomeformodernpoetryelaborateI
literaryformsofahighlyintellectualor
reflective!
type.Thesearetheode,theelegy,andthesonnet.
I
Wemustconsidereachofthembrieflybyitself.
Odeisatermverylooselyusedml
Theode,Englishterminology,butbyderivationi<
isproperlyappliedtoelaboratelyricsI
intendedforchoralutterancewithequally
elaborate!

89

THELYRIC.67
musicalaccompaniment.Ofthistypethereare
veryfewEnglishexamples,themostnotablebeing
Dryden'stwoodesforSt.Cecilia'sDay.Ingeneral
wemayacceptthedefinitionoftheodeproposedby
Mr.GosseintheIntroductiontoEnglishOdes:
"
Anystrainofenthusiasticandexaltedlyrical
verse,
directedtoafixedpurpose,anddealing
progressively
withonedignifiedtheme."Whilethetermisoften
usedofbriefpoemshardlytobedistinguishedfrom
otherlyrics(ausechieflyduetofamiliaritywith
thesocalledodes,reallycarminaorsongs,of
Horace),thetypicalodeisahighlyelaborated
form.Havingacertainemotionalunity,likeall
lyrics,itsthemeisneverthelessdevelopedbythe
progressofthoughtguidedbytheunderlying
emotion.
Inasense,therefore,itmaybecalledthe
mostintellectualoflyricalforms;agoododeis
usuallymoresusceptibleofanalysisbyprose
paraphrase
thanlyricsofotherkinds.Odesofthis
elaboratecharacterarecommonlydividedintomore
orlessintricatemetricalsections,orstrophes,*
whichcorrespondmoreorlesscloselybothwiththe
structureofthethoughtthusbeinganalogousto
paragraphsinprosecompositionandwiththeebb
andflowofthepoet'semotion.Examplesofodes
notablysuccessfulinthisrespect,andconforming
inallparticularstoourdefinition,areSpenser's
Epithalamium,Collins'sOdeToLiberty,Gray's
*Onthetechnicalcharacteristicsoftheode
forms,seechaptervi.
684NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
ProgressofPoesy,Dryden'sAlexander'sFeast

90

(peculiarinbeingsetinnarrativeform),
Shelley's
OdetoNaples,Wordsworth'sIntimationsof
Immortality,
Tennyson'sOdeontheDeathofWellington,
andLowell'sHarvardCommemoration
Ode.Insuchpoemsitistheintenseemotional
exaltationandthedignityofthethemewhich
support
thelyricthroughalengthandanintellectual
elaborationwhichwouldotherwisebedestructiveof
.lyricalunity.
Elegyisatermalsoverylooselyused.Originally
perhapsmeaningapoemoflamentationforthe
dead,settomusicalaccompaniment,it
Theelegy,cametobeusedinGreekandLatin
literatureofallpoemswrittenina
particularmetre,theirsubjectsbeingvery
various.
InEnglishusagetheelegyhasusuallybeenapoem
dealingwithgriefconnectedwithdeath,although
insomeinstancesclassicalusagehasbeenfollowed
inapplyingthetermtopoemsincludingawide
varietyofsubjects(as,forexample,theelegies
of
Donne).Butinanycasetheelegymustbeviewed
notasasimplelyricalutterance,butasamoreor
lessformalizedandelaboratedexpressionofa
seriousemotion.Thegreatexampleofthetypeis
Gray'sElegyinaCountryChurchyard,wherethe
mingledemotionsarousedbythecontemplationof
eveningandthehomeofthedeadbecometheimpulse
whichdevelopsageneralizedreflectiveportrayal
ofthetransitorinessofhumanlife.ThereTHE
LYRIC.69
suitisevendidactic,inasense;butlyricalnone
theless,inthelargeuseoftheterm.
Aparticulartypeofthisformisthepastoral

91

elegy,inwhichthepoet'ssorrowforalostfriend
is
setinaframeworkofpastoralnarrative
ordescription,conventionalized^6Pastoral
afterafashionprevalentinlateGreek
poetry.Itmightseemthatsuchanunrealsetting
wouldbeutterlyinappropriatefortheexpression
ofgenuinepersonalgrief;butexperiencehasshown
thatsorrowmayfindreliefinartisticutterance
notonlyofthemoredirectsort,wherepoetry
comesnearesttofamiliarprosespeech(asin
Tennyson's
"
Isometimesholdithalfasin
ToputinwordsthegriefIfeel"),
butalsoinarestrainedandformalizedart,
suggestive
oftheconventionalceremoniesoffuneral
pomp.Examplesofthesepastoralelegiesinour
literatureareSpenser'sPastoralEclogueonthe
deathofSirPhilipSidney,Milton'sLycidas,and
Arnold'sThyrsis.InShelley'sAdonaisasomewhat
similarclassical(thoughnotpastoral)setting
isadoptedfortheopeningofthepoem,but
issoonleftbehind.Finallyitshouldbenoted
thatthetermelegyissometimesappliedtoabrief
lyricoflamentation,morefittinglycalleda
dirge.
70^INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Thesonnetderivesitsnamefromthefactthatit
wasoriginallyasongtobesungtoaccompaniment;
yetitisnowtheleastsonglikeofall
Thesonnet,brieflyrics.Thisseemstobedue
chieflytothefactthatitsfixedlength
andintricatestructure(ontherulesforthis,see
chaptervi)earlyappearedtofititforthe
elaborated
andhencemoreorlessreflectiveexpression

92

ofemotion;andthis,trueinotherlanguages,is
doublytrueforEnglish,sinceEnglishwritershave
alwaysshunnedhighlyintricatemetricalformsfor
theexpressionofsimpleemotions.Thesonnet,
therefore,whileafavoriteformwithmanyofour
greatestpoets,israrelyusedforotherthan
distinctly
consciousandformalexpression;atitsbest,
too,itexpressesadefiniteintellectual
conception
fusedwithasingleemotion.Itstwopartstructure
(inthecaseoftheItalianform)makesit
peculiarly
fittedforthatlyricalmovementdescribedona
previouspage,wheretheimpulsetakesitsrisein
theouterworldandpassestoapointintheinner.
Originallytheemotionoflovewastheconventional
themeforthesonnet;andthelovesonnetsofthe
Elizabethanage,notablythoseofSidney,Spenser,
andShakspere,remainthebestexamplesofthis
typeinourlanguage.MiltonandWordsworth
madeuseoftheformforverydifferentthemes,
acircumstancetowhichLandorfinelyalludesin
thelines:
THELYRIC.ji
"He*
caughtthesonnetfromthedaintyhand
OfLove,whocriedtoloseit,andhegave
ThenotestoGlory;
"
andtheirpoemsincludeonthewholethefinest
examplesofwhatmaybecalledthespiritualized
sonnet.Inthesonnetbeginning
"Nunsfretnotattheirconvent'snarrowroom"
Wordsworthbrieflydiscussesthelimitationsofthe
highlyrestrictedform,suggestingthatasoul
whichhas
"

93

felttheweightoftoomuchliberty
"
mayfindpleasureinbeingconfinedwithinsuch
a
"
scantyplotofground."Thissuggeststhe
characterofthelyricalpleasurederivedfrom
thisform:apleasurerestrained,fixed,derivinga
certainzestfromthedifficultyandfinishofthe
formalexpression,andashasalreadybeen
suggested
dependentveryoftenonthecombination
ofaconceptofthemindwitharelatedemotion.
Finally,wehavetonoticeunderlyricalforms
ofpoetryatypewhichisalliedtothesongin
lightnessandgrace,butdistinguished
fromthemorefamiliarsongtypesVersdesocieteby
bothmatterandmanner.Both
mannerandmattergiveititsnameinaFrench
phrasewhichhasthusfarfoundnoadequate
*i.e.,Milton.Therewere,itshouldbenoted,
notafewwriters
of"
spiritual
"sonnetsevenintheElizabethanage.
72ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Englishequivalent:*versdesodete.Thissort
ofpoetrytakesasitstheme,inthewordsof
ProfessorSchelling,"manlivinginahighly
organized
stateofsociety;"itturns
"
theconventions
ofsociallifeintoasubjectforart/'
(Introduction
toSeventeenthCenturyLyrics.)Or,inthe
wordsofMr.AustinDobson,itrepresentsthemood
andmannerof"thoselatterdayAthenianswho,in

94

townandcountry,spendtheirtimeintellingor
hearingsomenewthing,andwhosegraverand
deeperimpulsesaresubordinatedtoacodeof
artificial
manners."Inthesameconnectiononemay
noteastanzainreminiscentpraiseoftheverseof
SirFrederickLockerLampson,inwhichMr.Dobson
againsuggeststhequalitiesofversdesodete:
"
aversesoneat,
Sowellbredandsowitty
Sofinishedinitslastconceit,
Somixedofmirthandpity."|
Allthisisdifferentfromtheusuallyrical
method,
whichislikelytoseparatefromtheirtrivial
environing
associationstheelementalemotionsof
man;yetthemodernwritersofsocietyverseoften
touchtheirbanteringmannerwithgenuinefeeling
andimaginativeinsight.Examplesofthistypeof
*Theeditorofarecentanthologyofsociety
verse,MissCarolyn
Wells,proposesthename"
gentleverse."
IBothquotationsarefromtheprefatorymatterof
thesecond
RowfantCatalogue(1901).
THELYRIC.73
poetrywillbefoundamongthelyricsofWaller,
Cowley,Herrick,Carew,andPrior,initsearlier
manner;ofthelatermannerWilliamM.Praed,
CharlesS.Calverley,SirFrederickLockerLampson,
andMr.AustinDobsonarenotablerepresentatives,
soalso,amongAmericanpoets,Oliver
WendellHolmesandThomasBaileyAldrich.A
singlestanzafromPrior'sversescalledABetter

95

Answerwellexhibitsthespiritandstyleof
society
verse:
"WhatIspeak,myfairChloe,andwhatIwrite,
shows
Thedifferencethereisbetwixtnatureandart:
Icourtothersinverse;butIlovetheein
prose:
Andtheyhavemywhimsies;butthouhastmy
heart."
Examplesshowingmoreofthetenderness,thegentle
reminiscentmanner,introducedintotheformbythe
laterpoets,areLocker'sTomyGrandmother,
Holmes'sDorothyQ.andLastLeaf,andAldrich's
Thalia,inwhich"
amiddleagedlyricalpoetis
supposedtobetakingleaveoftheMuseof
Comedy."Onagroupofverseformsespecially
connected,inrecentpoetry,withversdesociete,
see
belowinchaptervi,pages378384.
Forcriticalaccountsofversdesocicte,onemay
see,
besidesthepassagefromSeventeenthCenturyLyrics
citedabove,theprefaceofLockerLampsontothe
anthologycalledLyraElegantiarum,andMiss
Wells's
PrefacetoAVersdeSocieteAnthology.
74ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
C.THEDRAMA.
Thedramaisuniqueamongtheformsofpoetry
inbeingnotmerelyaformofpoetrybutinasense
anartbyitself,oraunionofarts.It
Composite,f11r
characterofrepresentslifenotonlybymeansof
thedrama.
speech,liketheotherliteraryarts,

96

butbyvisibleaction,usuallywithavisible
setting
ofscenery,andsometimes(asalwaysintheGreek
drama)withtheadditionalaidofmusicand
dancing.Thusithaslawsofitsown,andahistory
ofitsown,whichdifferentiateitclearlyfromthe
othertypesofpoetry.Wemayofcourseconsider
thedramaonlyasliterature,thatis,onlyas
written
andread;butinthatcasewehavetosupplyby
theimagination(helpedbytheoccasional
suggestions
oftheauthor)alltheactionandsomeofthe
scenery.Thereis,moreover,aconsiderablebody
ofdramawritteninprose,thegeneralstructure
and
methodofwhicharenotessentiallydifferentfrom
thatwritteninpoetry,afactwhichfurther
suggests
thatthedramacannotbeconsideredmerelyas
apartoftheterritorycoveredbypoetry.Much
confusioninthehistoryandcriticismoftheform
wouldbeavoidedifthiswerefranklyrecognized.
Licand
Dramaticpoetry,nevertheless,isone
epicqualitiesofthegreattypesincludedinour
study,andwehavetoconsideritfrom
thatstandpoint,omittingasfaraspossiblethose
THEDRAMA.75
aspectsofitwhichdonotproperlyconcernits
poeticalcharacter.Assuch,itrelatesitselfat
the
sametimetobothlyricalandepicpoetry:likethe
epic,presentinghumanexperienceobjectively,and
intermsofaction;and,likethelyric,viewing
this
experiencethroughthemindsandfeelings,and
expressing

97

itthroughtheutterancesof,thecharacters
themselves.Combiningthus,inasense,the
pointsofviewofbothepicandlyric,andalso
includingsomethingofthemethodsofthearts
whichdealinrelationsofspaceaswellasthose
of
time,itmaybesaidtopresentthemostcomplete
viewoflifeofallthearts.
Owingtothefactthatdramaticpoetrypresents
lifeasactuallyinprogress,throughtheactions
andutterancesofthecharactersconT,
Language01
cerned,itfollowsthatitslanguagedramatic
attemptstorepresenttheactualspeech
]
ofmanmoredirectly,orasissometimessaid
realistically,thantheotherformsofpoetry.The
epicpoetbeginstospeakwhentheactionisover,
andisconsciousthatheisweavingintoan
artistic
formtheexperiencesofhisheroes;thelyricpoet
interpretshisthemeintermsofasingleemotion
throughwhicheverythingisviewedandwhichgives
itsownartisticformtohisexpression;butthe
dramaticpoetislettingushearmenandwomen
speakatthemomentwhentheirexperienceisstill
incomplete,andbeforeithasshownitsfinal
artistic
significance.Thisofcoursedoesnotmeanthat
764NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
theirspeechisamerecopyofwhattheywould
sayinreallife:otherwiseweshouldnotbe
concerned
withitaspoetry;itisidealized,made
beautiful,andgivenartisticform,likeallthe
materials
takenbypoetsandtransfiguredbytheir
art.Butthespeechofthedramaticpoemis,on

98

thewhole,certainlyclosertothespeechofreal
life,ormadetoappearso,thanthatofepicor
lyric.
Thisisnodoubtonereasonwhythemetricalform
called
"
blankverse
"
(tobediscussedindetailin
chapterv)isuniversallypreferredfordramatic
poetry:asdevelopedbyourgreatdramatists,it
hasasingularpowerofrepresentingthechanging
cadencesofnaturalhumanutterancewhileatthe
sametimeliftingthemintothelanguageofart.
Fromwhathasbeensaidintheprecedingparagraph
ofthepositionofthedramaticpoetinrelation
tohismaterial,ascontrastedwith
t\Tdram
e
a,
0f
thetyricalandtheCPicPOet>*follows
alsothattheunityofthedramaisadifferent
thingfromtheunityofeitheroftheother
forms.Wearenothereconcerned,asintheepic,
withadominatingherowhomovesonthestraight
lineofsomegreataction,meetingoccasional
obstacles
onlytoovercomethem,andassistedwhen
needfulbytheoverrulingpowers;nor,asinthe
lyric,withasingleemotionofasingleindividual
orgroup.Wehavetodowithmanypersons,with
complicatedactionandconflictingemotions,andit
maybethatwedonotseeuntilthepoemis
finished
THEDRAMA.77
whatistherealendtowhichthepoethasbeen
moving.Dramaticpoetrypresentshumanlifein

99

conflict,inasensewhichistrueofnoother
poetry,
andtheunitywhichisatlengthseentoemerge
fromthisrepresentedconflictisalargerandmore
subtleunityattainedaftergreaterdifficultythan
thatcharacteristicofepicorlyric.
Theformofthedramaismorefixedthanthatof
theotherformsofpoetry.Theepicpoemisof
indeterminate
lengthitsonlylimit,in
earlypractice,beingthememoryoftheFormof
.,....thedrama,
reciterandthepatienceofhisaudience;
norisitintendedtobeheardorreadata
singlesitting.Thelyricpoemisbrief,but
nevertheless
ofuncertainlength,asmelodyorother
animatingimpulsemaysuggest:anditsform,as
wehaveseen,maybeoneofathousand.The
drama,beingintendedforpresentationinlimited
periodsoftimeoncertainpublicoccasions,early
tookonacertainprescribedlengthnotironcladin
regularity,butwithoutverywidevariation;and
othercircumstancesconnectedwithitspublic
presentation
resultedinitsbeingdividedintoregular
parts,calledacts,ofafairlyfixednumber(three
tofivebeingtheusuallimits).Thisfixityof
form,
togetherwiththefactdiscussedinthepreceding
paragraphthepresentationofconflictslowly
giving
placetoasenseofunity,makesthedramathe
formofpoetrybestadaptedtopresenttheidea
oflaiuinhumanlife.Itshowsmanstruggling
784NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
eitherwithhisfellowsorwiththeoverruling

100

powers,throughaseriesofexperiences,toan
outcome
whichoftenperhapsusuallysuggeststhe
triumphofsomelawwhichisasmuchgreaterthan
theindividualstrugglerasthewholeoflifeis
greaterthananyofitsparts.
Sincedramaticpoetryischaracterizedbysuch
greatdignity,andhasthisspecialpowerofpre
Decasentinglifeinmorecompletenessthan
dramatictheotherformsofpoetry,itisatfirst
thoughtsurprisingthatitshouldhave
declinedasithasinmodernEnglishliterature.We
cannotaccountforit,asinthecaseoftheepic,
by
thegrowinginterestintheinnerlifeofman;for
althoughthedramapresentsman'slifeintheform
ofoutwardaction,itsspiritualcharacterisoften
no
lessmarkedthanthatoflyricalpoetry.Onepos1
siblereasonforitslesseningpoweristhatthe
poet'spersonalityisconcealedinthedramaeven
morethanintheepic,whereasarthastendedto
becomemoreandmoresubjective,thatistosay,
toexpressmoreandmorevividlythepersonality
oftheartist.Asecondreasonmaybefoundin
thefactthatinrecenttimes(sincetheendofthe
seventeenthcentury,forcomedy,andtheendofthe
eighteenthcenturyfortragedy)therehasbeena
growingtendencytowritetheEnglishdramain
prose,thustakingitoutoftheregionofpoetic
art,
anddeprivingitofthosespecialpowerswhich
poetryconferreduponitinthedaysofits
splendor
THEDRAMA.79
theageofShakspere.Thistendencyhasnot
beenfelttothesamedegreeinthedramaofother
modernlanguages,andtheirdramaticliteraturehas

101

notsufferedsogreatly.Buttheprincipalcauseis
doubtlessthefactthat,fromthecloseofthe
Elizabethan
period(forreasonswhichcannotbediscussed
here),theacteddramahasdeclinedin
dignityandartisticimportance;whereasthepurely
literarydramathedramaticpoemnotproduced
onthestagenecessarilyappealstobutasmall
classofreaders.Sincetheimaginationmustsupply
theactionnotdescribedinthepoemitself,and
sincetheimaginationisafacultymadeeffective
onlybyexercise,thereadingofadramaisforthe
bulkofhumanityasomewhatexhaustingtask.It
isquitepossible,however,totrainthe
imagination
sothatthishindrancewillnotbefelt,sothat
even
fineractionandscenerywillbesuppliedbythe
inner
eyethancanpossiblybepresentedonthestage.
Usefulreferencesonthedramaarethediscussions
ofAristotleandHegel,Volkelt's^Esthetikdes
Tragischen,
Freytag'sTechniqueoftheDrama,Schlegel's
LecturesontheDrama,Bradley'sShakespearian
Tragedy,andWoodbridge'sTheDrama:itsLawsand
itsTechnique.Aristotledidnotdefinedramatic
poetry
asawhole,butdescribedTragedy,inwhichhewas
chieflyinterested,as
"animitationofanactionthat
isserious,complete,andofacertainmagnitude;
in
languageembellishedwitheachkindofartistic
ornament,
theseveralkindsbeingfoundinseparateparts
goAHINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.

102

oftheplay;intheformofaction,notof
narrative;
throughpityandfeareffectingtheproper
purgation
oftheseemotions....Astragicimitationimplies
personsacting,itnecessarilyfollows,inthe
first
place,thatscenicequipmentwillbeapartof
tragedy.
Next,songanddiction,forthesearethemedium
ofimitation."(Chap,vi;Butcher'stranslation.)
The
succeedingchaptersdiscusstheunityofthetragic
plot(consistingnotinitshero,butinits
action),the
structureoftheaction,probabilityofcharacters,
etc.
This,likemostworksonthedrama,treatsit
rather
asanartbyitselfthanasaformofpoetry.An
exception
isfoundinHegel'sdiscussion,onwhichwas
basedtheprecedingtreatmentofdramaticpoetryas
a
combinationofthesubjectivemethodofthelyric
with
theobjectivemethodoftheepic.Freytag's
analysis
ofthestructureofadramaisthemostelaborate
andinfluentialtobefoundinmoderncriticism.
Expanding
Aristotle'stwofolddivisionintoComplication
andDenouement(orSolution),hefindsin
thetragedyanintroductoryExposition,a
Complication
markedatitsheightbythe
"
climax

103

"and
atitsclosebythe
"
tragicmoment,"whenceitpasses
totheSolutionandthentotheCatastrophe.
Toclassifydramaticpoetrysatisfactorilyisno
lessdifficultthaninthecaseoftheothertwo
forms.
DramasclasHere,aselsewhere,thereare
different
sifiedbyexstandpointsfromwhichlinesmaybe
ternalform,,..,.drawnwhichwillcrossone
another
variously.Perhapsthesimplestbasisof
classification
wouldbetheextenttowhichthedramadepends
foritseffectuponexternalpresentation,
THEDRAMA.$!
visibleaction,scenery,music,andthelike.
According
tothisdivision,weshouldfindatoneextreme
theformcalledthemasque,exceedingly
popularintheearlyseventeenthcentury.Insome
casesthisformcontainsonlyaslightliterary
element,
beingforthemostpartavehicleforelaborate
scenicandmusicaleffects(asinthemasquesof
Ben
Jonson);inafewinstances,notablytheComusof
Milton,ithasimportantpoeticalanddramatic
values.Attheotherextremefromthemasque,in
respecttothisschemeofclassification,isthe
socalled
"
closetdrama,"notintendedforstagepresentation,
butworkingoutthedramaticprocessin
poetryaddressedtotheearandtheinwardeye.
ExamplesareByron'sManfred,Shelley'sPrometheus

104

Unbound,andBrowning'sPippaPasses.
Betweenthesetwoclassescomesthegreatbodyof
thosedramaticpoems,headedbyShakspere's,
which,thoughoriginallywrittenforstage
presentation,
haveforthemodernworldaplaceinpure
poetryevenmoreimportantthantheirplaceonthe
stage.
Asecondmethodofclassification,suggestivein
somerespects,wouldbetodividedramasintothose
morestrictlydramatic,andthosetending
ontheonehandtowardthelyrical
orontheothertowardtheepicalcharac
^characterter.
Themasques,alreadybrieflyconsidered,would
belongalsointhelyricalclass,aswouldpastoral
dramaslikeFletcher'sFaithfulShepherdess,
because
824NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
oftheprevalenceofthesongelementintheir
texts.
Soalso,thoughonsomewhatdifferentgrounds,
wouldthosedramasinwhichthepoet,insteadof
representingobjectivelythecharactersofthe
action,
makesthemvehiclesfortheexpressionofhisown
emotions.MostofthedramasofByronand
Browningtendtowardthischaracter,asdoesthe
PrometheusofShelley.Ofdramastending,on
theotherhand,towardtheepiccharacter,the
great
examplesarethe
"
histories
"
orchronicleplays,so
popularinthesixteenthcentury,whosemethodwas

105

nottosetforthmaninconflictwithhisfellows
or
hisfate,buttopresentapageantofnationallife
in
aseriesofscenes,ortoshowforththetriumphs
of
ahero.Amongthemostepicalofsuchplaysis
Shakspere'sHenryVaheropoemratherthana
puredrama.Similar,sofarasthepresent
standpoint
isconcerned,werethesocalled
"
heroic
"
playsofthelateseventeenthcentury,ofwhich
Dryden'sConquestofGranadaistheleading
example.
Oncemore,consideredwithreferencetotheir
formalstructure,wemayclassifydramasaccording
Classicaland
astheyconformtowhatiscalledthe
romanticclassicalstandard,orastheyexhibit
thegreaterfreedomofstructureoften
calledromantic.Thedramatistsof.theclassical
group,includingboththeancientGreetsandthose
inmodernperiodswhohaveimitatedorresembled
theGreeksintheirstandardsofpoeticalform
THEDRAMA.83
(notably,forexample,theFrenchdramatistsofthe
seventeenthcentury),presenthumanexperiencein
arestrainedandformalizedfashion,concentrating
theactionofthedramaintocomparativelyfew
important
scenes,avoidingallextraneousmaterial,and
movingforwardseverelyanduninterruptedlytothe
appointedend.Theromanticdramatists,onthe
otherhand(notablythoseofElizabethanEngland),
presenttheirmaterialinaformcloserto

106

actualexperience,withasmuchfreedomasthe
dramaticformwillpermit,withanabundanceof
scenesoftenapparentlydigressiveincharacter,
thoughalwaysintendedtocontributesomethingto
theprincipalpurposeoftheplay,andprogressing
towardtheconclusionbywhatmightbedescribed
asdartingandeddyingmovements,incontrastwith
thestraightlineoftheothertypeofstructure.
Thus,forexample,theclassicaldramabringsall
theactionintoasingleplace,anddoesnot
attempt
torepresenteventsmorethanafewhoursapart;
whileintheromanticdramawemaypassfrom
VenicetoRome,fromLondontoCalais,from
RometothebattlefieldatPhilippi,andmayalso
leapovermonthsandyearsinpassingfromoneact
toanother.(Compare,asaparticularlystriking
example,Shakspere'sAntonyandCleopatra,the
actionofwhichoccupiesnolessthanfortytwo
distinct
scenes,inallquartersoftheRomanempire,
withDryden'sAllForLove,inwhichthesame
materialismadeoverintosomethingmorenearly
844NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
approachingtheclassicalform.)Theromantic
dramahasinthiswayagreatercapacityfor
presenting
developmentsofcharacterandvarietiesof
passion;itspictureoftheworldislikethatof
one
unhinderedbyspaceortime,whomaycarryus
hitherandthitheratwillonthewingsofthe
imagination,
showingushowevents,nowherenow
there,areallcontributingtowardthecoming
conclusion.
Theclassicalform,ontheotherhand,has
arestrainedpowerofitsown,showinghowwhole

107

lifetimesandcyclesoffatemaybeconcentratedin
particularmomentsandplaces,andemphasizingthe
reignoflawordestinybytheswiftandinexorable
movementofitsaction.ThegreatEnglishdramas
arelargelyintheromanticform;butShakspere's
Tempestcloselyapproachestheclassicalstandard
intheformal
"
unities
"
oftimeandplace,while
Othello,whichinvolvesbutoneimportantflight
throughtimeandspace,andwhichhasfewerof
whatcanpossiblybecalledirrelevantdetailsthan
anyofhisotherplays,approximatestotheswift
andsevereeffectofclassicaltragedy.*
Sincethematterofthe
"
unities,"likeotheraspects
oftheconflictofclassicalandromanticqualities
inthedrama,isnotstrictlyapartofthe
consideration
ofthedramaaspoetry,itmustbeslightedhere.
The
bestaccountofitwillbefoundinLounsbury's
Shaks
*Addison'sCatoisoneofthefewEnglishdraiias
following
Strictlytheclassicalstructure,withunityof
bothplaceandtime.
THEDRAMA.85
pereasaDramaticArtist.Landmarksinthehistory
ofthediscussionareCorneille'sDiscourses
(published
withhiscollecteddramasin1660),thedispute
which
centeredaboutTheCid(seethevariouspamphlets

108

includedinCaste'sLaQuerelleduCid),Dryden's
Essay
ofDramaticPoesy(1667),Rymer'sTragediesof
thelastAge(1678),Kames'sElementsofCriticism
(1762),Johnson'sPrefacetoShakspere(1765),
Lessing'sDramaturgic(176769),andColeridge's
ShakspereLectures(delivered1818).Theneo
classical
insistenceontheunitiesoftimeandplacewasin
parttheresultofthemisunderstandingof
Aristotle's
dictum(whichwassimplytotheeffectthat
"
tragedy
endeavors,asfaraspossible,toconfineitselfto
a
singlerevolutionofthesun,"incontrasttothe
limitless
timeofepicaction),andchieflytothe
exaggerated
authorityofclassicalmodels.Theoldargument
againsttheromantictypeofdrama,thatitmade
excessivedemandsupontheimaginationofthe
spectator,
isentirelyobsolete;Dr.Johnson'sanswerto
it,inhisPrefacetoShakspere,leftlittletobe
desired.
Therealsourceofpleasureinthehighlyunified
dramaisnotitsreasonableness,butwhathas
beenslightedbythecriticsoftheromanticperiod
itsremarkablesenseoforderandofconcentration.
Butfinallyandchiefly,themostfamiliarand
important
classificationofdramasisintothetwoprevailing
formscalledComedyandTragedy.
IndifferentperiodsthesetermsComedyand
havebeenusedwithdivergentmeanings;
butingeneralthecomedyisadrama

109

characterizedbythefactthatitdealswith
familiar
life,withthemesofcomparativelyslightdignity,
36ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
andwithsuccessfulissuesintheconflictof
humanity
withopposingforces;whilethetragedyisa
dramadealingwithlifeonanidealplane,with
themesofgreatdignity,andwithfailureordefeat
astheissueofhumanconflict.*Comedymaybeof
aromantictype,layingstrongemphasisonthe
elementsofadventure,beauty,andlove,inwhich
caseitisnaturallypoetical,andatitsbestin
verse;
oritmaybemorerealistic,likethepure
"
comedy
ofmanners,"inwhichcaseittendsalsotobe
satiric,andtomoveoutoftheregionofpoetry
into
thatofprose.Tragedy,fromitsverynature,is
essentiallypoeticalincharacter,andisusually
in
verse,fBoththeseformsaresofamiliarasto
requirenoillustration.
Thepleasurederivedfromcomedyiseasyto
understand;
itliesapartfromtheincidentalamusement
usuallycharacteristicoftheform
~inthepresentationofthoseconflictsin
humanexperiencewhichdonotstirthe
emotionstoodeeplytobeenjoyedwithalight
heart,setforthinamannerwhichassuresahappy
*The"
unhappyending
"
associatedsogenerallywithmodern

110

tragedywasnotoriginallyanessentialpartofthe
conception;compare,
forexample,theAlcestisotEuripides.Neitherwere
theterms
comedyandtragedyalwaysconfinedtodramatic
poems;thusDante
calledhisgreatpoemaCommedia,mediaevalusage
applyingthe
termtoanynarrativeofanillbeginningwitha
goodending.
Chaucer,ontheotherhand,usestheterm"
tragedie
"ofanystory
offortuneturningfromgoodtoill.
tOnthispoint,seep.200below.
THEDRAMA.87
outcome.Theproblemofthepleasurederivedfrom
tragedy,inwhichtheprofoundestemotionsare
stirred,andunderconditionswhich
leadinevitablytoacatastropheinvolving
defeatand(usually)death,ismore
difficult.Manyexplanationshavebeenofferedfor
it;someofthemsuperficialandunsatisfactory,as
forexample,thatweenjoyseeingapresentationof
thesufferingofotherswhenitisnottoohorrible
fromthesensethatwearemorefortunatethan
they.Butrightmindedpersonsdonothingofthe
kind.Itisalsopointedoutthatthereisa
pleasure
inthemereimitationorrepresentationofany
human
experience;andthisistrue,butitaccounts
onlyforthepleasurablenessoftragedyaspoetry,
notastragicpoetry.Threemoresatisfactory
explanations
maybesuggested.First,inthevery
stirringofthedeeperemotions,eventhose
connected

111

withpathosandpain,providedone'sown
personality
isnottoointimatelytouched,thereisastrange
pleasure,suchasisgiventomanypersonsby
funeralpompandthemusicofdirges.*Second,
*Thisexplanationsuggeststhe"katharsis"or
"purgation"
theoryofAristotle,asinterpretedbysometobea
referencetothe
reliefproducedbytheoverflowofthedeeper
emotionswhichnormally
existandseekfunctionalexpression.Comparethe
remarks
ofMiltoninthePrefacetoSamsonAgonistes:
"
Tragedy...said
byAristotletobeofpower,byraisingpityand
fear,orterror,to
purgethemindofthoseandsuchlikepassions;
thatis,totemperor
reducethemtojustmeasurewithakindofdelight
stirredupby
readingorseeingthosepassionswellimitated.Nor
isNatureher88
AKINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
thefactthatthesedeeperemotionsformthetheme
oftragedy,togetherwiththefactthattragedy
deals
withconflictsofthemostprofoundsignificance,
enablesthetragicpoettoemployhispowersof
eloquentlanguageandofimaginativeconception
morecompletelythaninanyotherpoeticform.
Third,andprobablymostimportantofall,the
defeatpresentedintragedyusuallysuggestsatthe
verymomentofitsmostsorrowfulexhibitionthe
presenceofsomegreatlawtriumphingover
individual
weakness;andthisisanobleconception,

112

inwhichthehumanmindalwaystakesasternand
mysteriouspleasure.Allthesethingsare
illustrated
intheconclusionofoneofthegreatestof
moderntragedies,Hamlet.Thereader'shorror
andpityhavebeenstirred,yetbycircumstancesso
distantandsoidealizedasnottohavethe
painfulness
ofimmediatesuffering.Hissenseofthe
selfwantinginherowneffectstomakegoodhis
assertion;forso,
inphysic,thingsofmelancholichueandquality
areusedagainst
melancholy,souragainstsour,salttoremovesalt
humours.""In
otherwords,"Butcheraddsinquotingthepassage,
"
tragedyisa
formofhomeopathictreatment,curingemotionby
meansofan
emotionlikeinkind,butnotidentical."Abroader
interpretation
ofthedoctrineunderstandsby
"katharsis
"akindofpurification
orennoblingofthepassions,byrelievingthemof
thatwhichispersonal,
selfish,ormorbid,andexertingtheminconnection
with
sufferingwhichisgreat,worthy,andexternalto
one'sself.In
Butcher'sphrase,again:theemotions"are
disengagedfromthe
pettyinterestsofself,andareonthewayto
beinguniversalized."
Seehiswholediscussioninchapterviof
Aristotle'sTheoryofPoetry;
alsoWorsfold's,inThePrinciplesofCriticism.

113

THEDRAMA.89
beautyofsorrowisawakenedbythewonderful
dyingwordsofthehero
"Absenttheefromfelicityawhile,
Andinthisharshworlddrawthybreathinpain
Totellmystory."
Andhehasbeenledbythemovementofthewhole
tragedytoperceiveamysteriousdestinytriumphing
overhumansinsanderrors,whosefinaloutworking,
whenallthepersonsoftheactionhave
beatenthemselvesagainstitinvain,leaves
blended
withhissadnessanimpressionofreconciliation
and
peace.
Theterm"
poeticjustice
"
issometimesappliedto
dramaticoutcomeswhichnotonlysatisfythis
deeper
moralperceptionofthetriumphofdestiny,but
which
alsosatisfythemoresuperficialdesirethatgood
and
evilincharactershallmeettheirappropriate
ends.
Thissortofjusticeisusuallysatisfiedin
comedy,but
bynomeansalwaysintragedy.Intheeighteenth
centurycertaincriticstriedtoinsistuponits
place
intragicstructure,notablyJohnDennis,who
attacked
theCatoofAddisonbecauseitpresentedvirtue
finallydefeated,andDr.Johnson,whocouldnot
but
feelthatShakspere

114

"makesnojustdistributionof
goodorevil."Addisonansweredtheargumentsof
DennisinTheSpectator,No.40.Thedemandfor
poeticjusticeisbasedonanexaggerationofthe
doctrine
ofidealisminpoetry,thatitmusttranscend
reallifeinitsorderandbeauty.But,asAddison
pointedout,thisdoesnotmeanthatitmustflyin
the
faceofcommonexperience,whichinvolvesthegood
94NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
andevilalikeintragiccircumstance.Assometimes
stated,amoderndoctrineofpoeticjusticewould
require
thatalldramaticcatastrophesmustinsome
waybethelogicaloutcomeofthecharacters
concerned
;butitisdifficulttoseehowsuchaviewcould
bemadetoincludeallthetragicelementsofLear,
Hamlet,Othello,orRomeoandJuliet,evenifwe
can
finditexemplifiedinJuliusCasarandMacbeth.
The
matterisprofoundinitscriticalsuggestiveness;
it
issufficient,perhaps,tosuggestherethe
distinction
betweenjusticeasworkedoutforindividuals,and
a
senseoforderinthecyclicprogressofevents.
The
latteritiscertainlyausualfunctionoftragedy
tosatisfy.
Onthissubjectinterestingdiscussionswillbe
foundinButcher'sAristotle,Bradley's
Shakspearian
Tragedy,Volkelt's^EsthetikdesTrag'ischen,
Thorndike's

115

Tragedy,andMr.ChurtonCollins'sEssayon
"
SophoclesandShakspere."SeealsoMoulton'sMoral
SystemofShakspereforadefenseoftheuseof
theelementofaccidentintragedy.Ontheproblem
ofthepleasurablecharacteroftragedyonemay
seeHume'sessayonTragedy,inwhichhecitesthe
explanationsofferedbytheFrenchcriticsDubos
andFontenelle.Thesamematterisconsideredby
Mr.AlexanderinhisPoetryandtheIndividual,
from
whichthefollowingisasuggestiveextract:
"
Realization
ofhumanpowerlessnessiswhatgivestragedy
itspain,andifthetragedyrestswiththisitis
pessimistic
Buttragedyofthenoblersortnever
acceptsdefeat,orratherintheordinarydefeats
of
lifeitrecognizestheonetruevictory.Thehuman
soul,wemightsay,nevercomestoitsownuntilit
hasundergonethekatharsisoftragicsorrow....
Thereasonwhydeathisthefittingendoftragedy
I
taketobethefactthatdeathmeansthefinal
suTHE
DRAMA.
gr
premacyofthesoul;itisthesignofthe
breaking
awayfromthepaltrinessandhindrancesofmortal
days.Inbeautythereisaneternityofpromise
which
deathcannotsubdue,andthestrangecalmwhich
succeeds
thespectacleoftragicdissolutioncomesnot

116

fromasenseofdefeatbutfromaweofthe
fulfilment."
(pp.230,231.)
Wehavetonotealsothatcertaindramasrefuse
tobeclassifiedaseithercomedyortragedy,but
combine
inthemselvessomeoftheeler
,,
.
,Minglingof
mentsofeach.Theepicorheroictype,tragedyand
alreadybrieflyconsidered,isofthiscomedyi
character,dealing,liketragedy,withlifeonan
idealplaneandwiththemesofgreatdignity,yet
withouttheelementoftragicconflict.Soalso
with
thesocalled
"
tragicomedy
"
oftheseventeenth
century,nowoftencalled
"
dramaticromance."In
thistypeofdramawefindallthematerialsof
tragedy,conflictofimportantpersonages,animated
byhighemotions,apparentlymovingtoward
acertaincatastrophe;thenanunexpectedreversal
oftheaction,whichisbroughttoahappy,or
sometimestoanonlypartiallyhappy,conclusion.
ExamplesofthistypearePhilaster,byBeaumont
andFletcher,andcertainofthelateplaysof
Shakspere,
notablyCymbelineandAWinter'sTale.
Anothernameforthiskindofplay,borrowedfrom
theGermans,is
"
reconcilingdrama,"whichsuggests

117

thattheeffortofthedramatististoreconcile
orharmonizetheopposingstandpointsofcomedy
92ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
andtragedy.Manycharmingdramasofthistype
havebeenwritten,whichweshouldbesorryindeed
tohavemissed;butingeneralcriticismregards
the
typeasinferiortoeitherofthelegitimateforms
comedyandtragedy.Forthepurposeofthis
reconciling,romantictypeofstory,thedramais
the
leastappropriateform.
Inthecriticismoftheseventeenthandeighteenth
centuriesthediscussionofthistypeofdrama,the
"
tragicomedy,"wasconstantlyconfused(for
example,
byDr.Johnson)withthediscussionofthe
useofcomicepisodesintragedy,familiar
throughout
theElizabethandrama.Moderncriticism
distinguishes
thetwothingscarefully:thelatterisadevice
eitherforthereliefortheheighteningoftragic
effect,
theotherisamatterofconfusedorcompromised
dramatic
structure.Thebestaccountofthecharacterof
thedramaticromancesoftheseventeenthcenturyis
tobefoundinThorndike'sInfluenceofBeaumont
and
FletcheronShakspereandhisIntroductionto
Beaumont
andFletcher'sPhilasterandMaid'sTragedy.
Inconclusion,wemaynotetheexistenceofthe
burlesquedrama,analogoustotheburlesqueormock
epic.Itmaytaketheformofcomedy,
likeBeaumontandFletcher'sKnight

118

oftheBurningPestle,orofmock
tiagedy,likeFielding'sTomThumbtheGreat.In
eithercase,fromitsverynatureittendstopass
outofthefieldofpoetryintothatofprose
satire.
CHAPTERIII.
THEBASISOFPOETRY(INTERNAL).
INthischapterwehavetoconsidercertainmatters
alreadytoucheduponinchapteri,relatingto
thenatureofpoetryapartfromitsex
jroblemsofthe
ternalform.Theyinvolveafurtherinternalnature
considerationofwhatismeantbythe
maginationasthemeansbywhichexperiencesare
Doeticallyrepresented;oftherelationofthis
factorofpoetrytothepresentationofbeauty
andtruth;andofthewaysinwhichitaffectson
theonehandthesubjectmatterofpoetry,andon
theotherhanditsstyle.
Insayingthatpoetrytreatsitsmaterialwith
reference
totheemotionsandbymeansoftheimagination,
wehaveseenthatthisimpliesa
contrastwiththeprocessesofreasonj^
imagina~
asusedbyscienceintheobservation
andclassificationofobjectivefacts.Letussee
furtherinwhatwaysimaginationistobe
contrasted
withthepurereason.
Thewordsuggeststhemakingof
.,,
*
,Imagination
imagesimagesinthemindseyewhichasaformof
moreorlessresembletheimageswhichmemoryi
aretherewhenanobjectisseen;andinthe
simplest

119

93
94ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
useofthetermnothingmoreisimplied.Thus
Addisonincludedinhis
"
pleasuresoftheimagination
"
only
"
suchasarisefromvisibleobjects/'
eitherseenorremembered.Fromthisstandpoint
theimaginationisapeculiarlyvividformof
memory,andisthebasisofthepicturemakingor
storymakingfacultywhichweallfeelthatwehave
somewherewithinuswhenwerecallthebestthings
thatwehaveseen.Notonly,however,thethings
thatwehaveseen:for,whilebothmemoryand
imaginationareperhapsmoreathomewithobjects
ofsightthanwiththoseperceivedbytheother
senses,theyarequitecapableofrepresenting
sounds,odors,andtheperceptionsoftasteand
touch.
Ifthepoetdidnothingmorethanthis,then,his
imaginationwouldbeoftheutmostimportance.
Hecanrecall,firstpicturingtohimselfandthen
tohisreader,agreatwindowinsomeancient
castle,
"
Allgarlandedwithcarvenimageries
Offruits,andflowers,andbranchesofknotgrass,
Anddiamondedwithpanesofquaintdevice,
Innumerableofstainsandsplendiddyes;
"
or,itmaybe,thesoundsofanautumnevening,
when
"
fullgrownlambsloudbleatfromhillybourn;
Hedgecricketssing;andnowwithtreblesoft

120

Theredbreastwhistlesfromagardencroft;
"
THEIMAGINATION.
95
ortastes,asof
"
jelliessootherthanthecreamycurd,
Andlucentsyrops,tinctwithcinnamon;
"
orscents,asofagardenwhere
"
therose
Blendethitsodorwiththeviolet;
"
orsomesuchsensationoftouchaswhenonehas
felt
"
thecoldfullspongetopleasurepressed,
Byminist'ringslaves,uponhishandsandfeet."*
[nallthesecasestheimaginationofthereader
nstantlyrespondstohis,andreproducesstillby
theaidofmemoryanimageandarelatedemotion
suchasthepoethadwithinhimself.
Butthisisnotall;fortheimaginationismore
thanmemory.Itnotonlyrecallspastsensations.
Diitaddstothemandsubtractsfrom
hem,making,fromthematerialsthus
'urnished,newimageswhichhaveno
precisecounterpartinnature.Indeedthefirst
examplejustquotedisaninstanceofthis:the
windowdescribedwasnotarealwindowofthe
*Allthesequotationsarefromthepoetryof
Keats,whoisina
peculiarsensethepoetofvividphysical
sensations,imaginatively
jeautifiedandperpetuated.
96AKINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
poet'sexperience,butonemadeupofthebeauties

121

ofmanywindowsseenandremembered,now
broughttogethertoformanewcreation.Such
creationsmayeventakeusoutoftheregionof
ordinaryexperience,asinthecaseofthehomeof
Arnold'sMerman,
"Sandstrewncaverns,coolanddeep,
Wherethewindsareallasleep;
Wherethespentlightsquiverandgleam,
Wherethesaltweedswaysinthestream,...
Wheregreatwhalescomesailingby,
Sailandsail,withunshuteye,
Roundtheworldforeverandaye."
Or,stillfurther,theymaydealwithexperiences
quitebeyondhumanpossibility,asinthewondrous
music,suchaswasneverheardbymortalear,
described
inTennyson'sVisionofSin:
"ThenmethoughtIheardamellowsound,
Gatheringupfromallthelowerground;
Narrowingintowheretheysatassembled
Lowvoluptuousmusicwindingtrembled....
Thenthemusictouchedthegatesanddied,
Roseagainfromwhereitseemedtofail,
Stormedinorbsofsong,agrowinggale;
Till,thronginginandin,towheretheywaited,
As'twereahundredthroatednightingale,
Thestrongtempestuoustreblethrobbedand
palpitated."
Yetoncemore,thepoet'simaginationmaycreate
THEIMAGINATION.
97
newpersonages,withcharacterssorealthatthey
becomeourfriendsandcompanions,thoughthey
wereneverseenonearth:Portia,Shylock,
Macbeth,
Chaucer'spilgrims,Tennyson'sKingArthur,
weknowhowtheselookandspeakandfeel.
Theyaremorerealtousthanmenwhodieda

122

hundredyearsago;yettheyareonlythecreatures
ofpoeticimagination.Itissuchacapacityas
this
thatleadsustoapplythetermcreativetothe
imaginative
arts:theyremindusoftheprimalpowers
oftheCreatorhimself.
Inearlierusagethisisaboutasfarastheterm
Imaginationwent.Itwouldseemtobequiteas
muchasShaksperemeant,forexampleTheinterin
thepassagefromtheMidsummerpretative
NighfsDream,quotedinchapteri,
***&*"*
wherethe
"
imagination
"
iscomparedwiththe
capacityoftheloverandthemadmanforseeing
thingsthatdonotexistobjectively,bodyingforth
"
theformsofthingsunknown."*Butinlater
times,especiallysincethedaysofColeridgeand
Wordsworth,whowereamongthefirstwritersto
usethewordwithadistinctivelylargermeaning,
theimaginationhasmeantsomethingmorethan
thispowertoproducementalexperiencesresembling
*Hegoesontosaywhatwehavealreadyseentobe
true,in
termsofmodernpsychologythatsuchimaginative
processesare
calledintoactionbysomedominatingemotion:
"Orinthenight,imaginingsomefear,
Howeasyisabushsupposedabear!
"
98AHINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
thoseofthefivesenses.Inthelargersenseit
includesthepowerofcomparingandcombining

123

suchimages,notingresemblancesbetweenthem
whichhaveameaningfortheinnerlife,though
theymayhavenoneforthesensesorthepure
reason,andofleapingtoconclusionswhich
resemble
thosedrawnbythereasonfromcommonex|
perienceonlymorerapidlyandindifferent
regions.Thisistheaspectoftheimagination
whichisespeciallyopposedtothemoreelaborate
reasoningprocesses,asthesimpleraspectisin
contrastwiththosesimplerreasoningprocesses
whichenableustotellwhatisobjectivelyreal.
Letusillustratethissecondaspect.InShelley's
Skylarkthereisaseriesofstatementsaboutthe
larkandwhatitresembles:inone
from^SheSey.
stanzawearetoldthatitspringsfrom)
earth"likeacloudoffire;"inanother
thatitisasinvisibleas
"
astarofheavenin
thebroaddaylight;
"
inanotherthattheearthand
airareasfullofitsvoiceastheyareof
moonlight
"whennightisbare;
"
inothersthatthelarkis
likeapoetsingingunbiddenhymns,likeamaiden
shutinatower,likeaglowwormscatteringits
lightinadarkdell,likearosethatmakesthe
wind
faintwithitssweetness.Allthesearecomparisons
betweenimagesofthesenses;firstofall,aswe
shouldexpect,imagesofthesenseofsound,but
alsoofthatofsightandthatofsmell;andnone
of

124

themaresuchcomparisonsasthereasonwould
THEIMAGINATION.99
suggest.Thereasonrepliesaswemayconceive:
!askylarkisnotatalllikeacloud,stillless
likea
Irose,leastofalllikeamoonlightnight.But
the
imaginationofthe.poethasdeclaredthis
resemblance,
becausetheemotionawakenedinhimbythe
skylarkhasleapedfromonethingtoanother,
fromthesensationproducedbymoonlighttothat
producedbyahauntingsongortheravishingodor
ofarose,intheefforttorevealthatemotionin
allitsbeauty.Itgoesfurtheryet,andinstill
anotherstanzapassesaltogetheroutoftherange
ofimagesofthesenses,declaringthatthelarkis
"
likeanunbodiedJoy."Thiscannotbepictured
_byeyeorear,butinapurelyspiritualwaysuch
asonlythepoet,ofallartists,canmakeuseof
presentsthethemetoaninnerimaginativesense.
Again,inDryden'sSongforSt.Cecilia'sDaythe
poetbeginshispraiseofmusicbyareferenceto
the
traditionalteachingsuggestedbothby
certainGreekphilosophersandbythe
sayinginthebookofJobthatat
thecreation
"
themorningstarssangtogether
"
thatthemakingoftheuniversewasaccompanied
bysupernaturallygloriousmusic.
Fromharmony,fromheavenlyharmony
Thisuniversalframebegan:
Fromharmonytoharmony
Throughallthecompassofthenotesitran.

125

ThediapasonclosingfullinMan."
1004NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Then,atthecloseofthepoem,carryingonthis
conceptionbyasuddenleapoftheimagination,he
representstheendoftheworldannouncedbythe
"
lasttrumpet
"
spokenofintheNewTestament
astakingplaceinaninfinitelytremendous
dissonance,
afinalharmoniccrash:
"Sowhenthelastanddreadfulhour
Thiscrumblingpageantshalldevour,
Thetrumpetshallbeheardonhigh,
Thedeadshalllive,thelivingdie,
AndMusicshalluntunethesky."
Thusthepoet'simaginationbringstogethertwo
conceptionswhichforthereasonareabsolutely
distinct:themakingofharmonyanddissonanceto
theearbydifferentmusicalsounds,andthe
progress
ofthecreateduniversefromsomeunknownbeginning
tosomeunknownend.
Oncemore:intheOdeonaGrecianUrnKeats
picturesanancienturnonwhicharecarvedfigures
ofmenplayingonpipesandtimbrels
ln&buriedrecordsofsomechoraltune
foreverlosttoourknowledge.Instea<
however,oflamentingthislostmusic,thepoett<
usthat
"Heardmelodiesaresweet,butthoseunheard
Aresweeter;therefore,yesoftpipes,playon!
Howplayon?asksthereason,ifwepermitittq
intrude.
THEIMAGINATION.IOI
"Nottothesensualear,but,moreendeared,
Pipetothespiritdittiesofnotone."

126

Thusagain,ledbyhisemotionofdelightinthe
perpetuatedbeautyofancientart,thepoet's
imagination
declaresthatthosepipescanforeverplay
unheardmusictotheinnerear.
AfinalillustrationmaybedrawnfromWordsworth's
IntimationsofImmortality.Asayoung
boy,Wordsworthhadbeendeeplyim^exam^
pressedbythebeautyandgloryofnat
fromWordsure,
andintheodeherepresentshimself
asfinding,inmiddlelife,thatthisgloryhad
fadedforhim,hecouldnotseeinflowerand
hillside
theunearthlybeautyofhischildishexperience.
Byanabruptleapoftheimaginationheisthenled
todeclare,asareasonforthis,thatthespirit
of
manhasagloryaboutitatbirthwhichcomesfrom
theimmortalworldofsouls,andisdimmedbythe
experiencesofearthlylife.Sohebreaksoutin
the
wonderfullines:
Ourbirthisbutasleepandaforgetting:
TheSoulthatriseswithus,ourlife'sstar,
Hathhadelsewhereitssetting,
Andcomethfromafar:
Notinentireforgetfulness,
Andnotinutternakedness.
Buttrailingcloudsofglorydowecome
FromGod,whoisourhome,"
102ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
NowWordsworthdidnothaveareasonedout
theoryofaspirituallifebeforebirth,ashewas
carefultoexplaintoinquirers.
"
Itisfartoo
shadowyanotion,"hesaid,tobeurgeduponpeople

127

asabelief;buthas
"
sufficientfoundationin
humanity,"thatis,inmen'semotions,aspirations,
andimaginations,
"
forauthorizingmetomake
formypurposethebestuseofitIcouldasa
poet."
Wesee,then,howinthesefourinstances,which
aretypicalofwhatmightbemultipliedfromall
the
NewcombingreatPoets>thepoeticimagination
not
ationsandinonlyreproducestheremembered
images
terpretations
"
,
madebytheofthesenses,butcomparesthemby
imagination,ncwmet]lot|ssuggestedbythe
emotions,
combinesthemintonewvividwholes,and
leaps"toconclusionswhichremindusofthe
laborious
conclusionsofthereason,yetarequitedifferent
bothinmethodandresults.Itisthisfacultythat
makesthegreatpoetsakintotheprophetsand
teachersoftherace:fortheynotonlyrecoverfor
usourforeverfleetingpleasuresofthesenses,
but
interprettheseinawaythatrevealsthehidden
significanceoflife.
ThewordFancyisoften,andverynaturally,
confused
withthewordImagination.Originallyboth
Paneasan
meantverynearly,ifnotquite,thesame

128

aspectofimthing,beingappliedtoillusionsof
the
agination,t1,sensesandalsototheimages
raised
inthemindbypoetryandart.Buttheirhistory
hasledthemapart,andthetermImaginaTHE
IMAGINATION.103
tionhasgaineddignity,whileFancyhaslost
it.Inmoderncriticalusage,especiallyasapplied
topoetry,fancyisappliedtotheprocessof
reproducingandrecombiningimagesofatrifling,
superficial,ortransientcharacter,madeuseofin
themoreplayfulandconsciouslydecorativepoetic
styles;whileimaginationisreservedforthe
making
ofimageswhichgotoshowtherealnatureof
things,theirspiritualvalues,andtheirpermanent
significance,aprocessmadeuseofinthemost
exaltedandseriousmoodsofthepoet.Acommon
exampleofthisdistinctionisfoundinthesaying
thatShakspere'sMidsummerNight'sDreamisa
productofthepoeticfancy,especiallythefairy
creatures,Oberon,Titania,Puck,andRobin
Goodfellow;whereastheTempest,inwhichthe
actionandcharactersareequallyremotefrom
reality,butarepresentedwithadignityanda
suggestion
ofdeepsignificancequitedifferentfrom
thestyleoftheearlierplay,isaproductofthe
imagination.LedbyColeridgeandWordsworth
especially,writersoftentreatthesetwoprocesses
asentirelydistinct;butsofarasweare
concerned
withthetermsintheanalysisofpoetry,fancy
seems
tobeonlyoneaspectoftheimagination,separated
forconvenienceindescribingpoeticalmethods
andeffects.

129

Fordiscussionsoftheimagination,thestudentmay
bereferredinthefirstplacetoanystandardwork
on
104/ININTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
psychology,wheretherelationsofthisfacultyto
the
memoryarediscussed;forexample,Sully'sHuman
Mind(seeespeciallyvol.i,pp.377380).Sully
suggests
asaverybriefdefinitionofthecreative
imagination
"
aharmonisingoffactsinconformitywith
theneedsoffeeling."Ofmoreextended
psychological
discussionsthemostimportantisRibot'sEssayon
theCreativeImagination.Fromtheliterary
standpoint,
theimaginationisdiscussedinrecentworks
byEverett,inPoetry,ComedyandDuty,by
Santayana,
inthefirstessayinhisvolumecalledPoetry
andReligion,andbyAlexanderinPoetryandthe
Individual
(chap.v).Alexandersuggeststhisdefinition
ofimaginativeimagery:
"
spontaneousmentalembodiments
ofsenuouselementssosynthesizedasto
possessanorganicunitynottobedistinguished
from
theunitsofrealthings."(p.125.)Butthe
standard
discussionsofthecreativeimaginationarethose
of
LeighHuntinImaginationandFancy,ofWordsworth
inhisPrefaceof1815,ofColeridgeinthe
Biographia

130

Literaria,andofRuskininModernPainters.For
the
generalreaderLeighHunt'sessayisperhapsthe
most
valuable,chieflyfromtheabundanceandexcellence
of
theillustrativeexamples;andtheeditionofit
madein
1893byProfessorA.S.Cookincludesinan
appendix
theimportantpassagesfromWordsworthand
Coleridge,
aswellasarelatedpassagefromJeanPaul
Richter.
SignificantpassagesfromWordsworth'sPreface
arethese:
"
Imagination,inthesenseoftheword
asgivingtitletoaclassofthefollowingpoems,
hasnoreference
toimagesthataremerelyafaithfulcopy,
existinginthemind,ofabsentexternalobjects;
but
isawordofhigherimport,denotingoperationsof
THEIMAGINATION.105
theminduponthoseobjects,andprocessesof
creation
orofcomposition,governedbycertainfixedlaws.
...Theseprocessesofimaginationarecarriedon
eitherbyconferringadditionalpropertiesuponan
object
orabstractingfromitsomeofthosewhichit
alreadypossesses,andthusenablingittoreact
upon
themindwhichhathperformedtheprocesslikea
new
existence....Theimaginationalsoshapesand

131

creates;andhow?Byinnumerableprocesses;and
in
nonedoesitmoredelightthaninthatof
consolidating
numbersintounity,anddissolvingandseparating
unityintonumber,alternationsproceedingfrom,
and
governedby,asublimeconsciousnessofthesoulin
herownmightyandalmostdivinepowers...
Toaggregateandtoassociate,toevokeandto
combine,
belongaswelltotheimaginationastothefancy;
buteitherthematerialsevokedandcombinedare
different,
ortheyarebroughttogetherunderadifferent
law,andforadifferentpurpose.Fancydoesnot
require
thatthematerialswhichshemakesuseof
shouldbesusceptibleofchangeintheir
constitution
fromhertouch;andwheretheyadmitof
modification,
itisenoughforherpurposeifitbeslight,
limited,
andevanescent.Directlythereverseoftheseare
the
desiresanddemandsoftheimagination.Sherecoils
fromeverythingbuttheplastic,thepliant,and
the
indefinite....Whentheimaginationframesa
comparison,ifitdoesnotstrikeonthefirst
presentation,
asenseofthetruthofthelikeness,fromthe
moment
thatitisperceived,growsandcontinuesto
growuponthemind;theresemblancedependingless
uponoutlineofformandfeaturethanupon
expression

132

andeffect;lessuponcasualandoutstandingthan
upon
inherentandinternalproperties:moreover,the
images
invariablymodifyeachother.Thelawunder
106A**INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
whichtheprocessesoffancyarecarriedonisas
capriciousastheaccidentsofthings,andthe
effects
aresurprising,playful,ludicrous,amusing,
tender,or
pathetic,astheobjectshappentobeappositely
produced
orfortunatelycombined.Fancydependsupon
therapidityandprofusionwithwhichshescatters
her
thoughtsandimages;trustingthattheirnumber,
and
thefelicitywithwhichtheyarelinkedtogether,
will
makeamendsforthewantofindividualvalue....
Ifshecanwinyouovertoherpurpose,andimpart
to
youherfeelings,shecaresnothowunstableor
transitory
maybeherinfluence,knowingthatitwillnotbe
outofherpowertoresumeituponanaptoccasion.
Buttheimaginationisconsciousofan
indestructible
dominion;thesoulmayfallawayfromit,not
being
abletosustainitsgrandeur;but,ifoncefelt
andacknowledged,
bynoactofanyotherfacultyofthe
mindcanitberelaxed,impaired,ordiminished.
Fancy
isgiventoquickenandbeguilethetemporalpart
of

133

ournature,imaginationtoinciteandtosupport
the
eternal."
LeighHuntdescribestheimaginationunderseven
kindsordegrees:
"
First,thatwhichpresentstothe
mindanyobjectofcircumstanceineverydaylife;
second,thatwhichpresentsreal,butnoteveryday
circumstances;third,thatwhichcombinescharacter
andeventsdirectlyimitatedfromreallife,with
imitative
realitiesofitsowninvention;fourth,thatwhich
conjuresupthingsandeventsnottobefoundin
nature
;fifth,thatwhich,inordertoillustrateone
image,
introducesanother
"
(asinfigurativephrasing);"
sixth,thatwhichreversesthisprocess,andmakes
a
varietyofcircumstancestakecolorfromone,"as
when
natureismadeexpressiveofhuman"emotions;
seventh,andlast,thatbywhichasingle
expression,
THEIMAGINATION.107
apparentlyofthevaguestkind,notonlymeetsbut
surpassesinitseffecttheextremestforceofthe
most
particulardescription,"whichHuntillustratesby
the
linesfromChristabel:
"Hergentlelimbsdidsheundress,
Andlaydowninherloveliness."
Thisclassification,whilesuggestive,isobviously
not

134

logical.OntherelationofImaginationandFancy,
HuntobservesthatFancy
"
isayoungersisterof
Imagination,withouttheother'sweightofthought
and
feeling.Imaginationindeed,purelysocalled,is
all
feeling;thefeelingofthesubtlestandmost
affecting
analogies;theperceptionofsympathiesinthe
naturesofthings,orintheirpopularattributes.
Fancyisasportingwiththeirresemblance,real
orsupposed,andwithairyandfantastical
creations.
...Imaginationbelongstotragedy,orthe
serious
muse;fancytothecomic.Macbeth,Lear,Paradise
Lost,thepoemofDante,arefullofimagination:
the
MidsummerNight'sDreamandtheRapeoftheLock,
offancy:RomeoandJuliet,theTempest,theFairy
Queen,andtheOrlandoFurioso,ofboth....
Spenser
hasgreatimaginationandfancytoo,butmoreof
the
latter;Miltonbothalso,theverygreatest,but
withimagination
predominant;Chaucerthestrongestimagination
ofreallife,beyondanywritersbutHomer,Dante,
andShakespeare,andincomicpaintinginferiorto
none;Popehashardlyanyimagination,buthehasa
greatdealoffancy;Coleridgelittlefancy,but
imagination
exquisite.Shakespearealone,ofallpoetsthat
everlived,enjoyedtheregardofbothinequal
perfection."
ThemostimportantpassagesinColeridge'sacI08

135

ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
countoftheimaginationarefoundinthe
Biographia
Literaria,chaptersiv,xii,andxiii.
"Thefirstand
mostimportantpointtobeprovedis,thattwo
conceptions
perfectlydistinctareconfusedunderoneand
thesameword,and(thisdone)toappropriatethat
wordexclusivelytoonemeaning,andthesynonyme
(shouldtherebeone)totheother....Inthe
presentinstancetheappropriationhasalready
begun,
andbeenlegitimatedinthederivativeadjective:
Milton
hadahighlyimaginative,Cowleyaveryfanciful
mind....TothefacultybywhichIhad
characterized
Milton,weshouldconfinethetermimagination;
whiletheotherwouldbecontradistinguishedas
fancy.Nowwereitoncefullyascertainedthatthis
divisionisnolessgroundedinnature,thanthat
of
deliriumfrommania,orOtway's
'
Lutes,lobsters,seasofmilk,andshipsofamber/
fromShakespeare's
'What!havehisdaughtersbroughthimtothis
pass?
'
orfromtheprecedingapostrophetotheelements;
thetheoryofthefinearts,andofpoetryin
particular,
couldnot,Ithought,butderivesomeadditional
andimportantlight."
"
AfteramoreaccurateperusalofMr.Wordsworth's
remarksontheimagination,inhisprefaceto

136

theneweditionofhispoems,Ifindthatmy
conclusions
arenotsoconsentientwithhisas,Iconfess,I
hadtakenforgranted....Ifbythepowerof
evokingandcombining,Mr.Wordsworthmeansthe
sameas,andnomorethan,Imeantbythe
aggregative
andassociative,Icontinuetodenythatitbelongs
at
THEIMAGINATION.
alltotheimagination;andIamdisposedto
conjecture
thathehasmistakenthecopresenceoffancy
withimaginationfortheoperationofthelatter
singly.
(TheimaginationColeridgedistinguishesas
"
shapingandmodifyingpower.")
'Theimagination,then,Iconsidereitheras
P"mary
orsecondary.TheprimaryimaginationIhoId
bethelivingPowerandprimeAgentofa"human
Perception,andasarepetitioninthefiniternind
ofthe
eternalactofcreationintheinfiniteIAMThe
secondary
imaginationIconsiderasanechooftheformer
coexistingwiththeconsciouswill,yetstillas
identical
withtheprimaryinthekindofitsagency,and
differng
onlyindegreeandinthemodeofitsoperat.on.
It
g
dissolves,diffuses,dissipates,inorderto
recreate;
orwherethisprocessisrenderedimpossible,yet
still

137

atalleventsitstrugglestoidealizeandtounify
isessentiallyvital,evenasallobjects(as
objects),are
essentiallyfixedanddead.Fancy,onthecontrary
hasnoothercounterstoplaywithbutfixitiesand
definites.Thefancyisindeednootherthanamode
of
memoryemancipatedfromtheorderoftimean
soace
"Thefurtherexpositionofthesubject,prom
;,
P
edaspartofanessay"ontheusesofthe
supernatural
inpoetry,"Coleridgeneverachieved.
Fortheadequateunderstandingofthedistinction
betweenimaginationandfancy,asdevelopedby
Coleridgeandhiscontemporaries,farmorestudyof
itsphilosophical
basisisnecessarythancanevenbe
outlinedinthisbook.Thebestdiscussionof
matteristhatofMr.J.Shawcross,,nthe
Introduction
tohisrecenteditionoftheBiographiaLtterana.
followingareamongthemorehelpfulofhisco,
theapprehension
ofbeauty,therefore,thesoul
110ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
projectsitselfintotheoutwardformsofnature,
andinveststhemwithitsownlife....The
symbol,andthemindthatinterpretsit,must
partake
inacommonspirituallife.Theimaginative
interpretation
ofnatureisaheightenedconsciousness,though
stillonlyamediateconsciousnessofthepresence
of

138

thatlife....Thesymbol,whileremaining
distinct
fromthethingsymbolized,isyetinsome
mysterious
wayinterpenetratedbyitsbeing,andpartakes
ofitsreality.Suchsymbolismistheworkof
imagination,
andanexampleofitisfoundinthepoetry
oftheHebrews,inwhich'
allobjectshavealifeof
theirown,andyetpartakeofourlife.InGod....
theyhavetheirbeing/'
1
(pp.xxxix,xl.)Thedistinction
drawnbyColeridgebetween"
primary
"and
"
secondary
"
imagination,Mr.Shawcrossobserves,
"
isevidentlybetweentheimaginationasuniversally
activeinconsciousness...andthesamefaculty
inaheightenedpowerascreativeinapoetic
sense.
Inthefirstcaseourexerciseofthepoweris
unconscious:
inthesecondthewilldirects,thoughitdoes
notdetermine,theactivityoftheimagination..
Theordinaryconsciousness,withnoprincipleof
unification,
seestheuniverseasamassofparticulars:
onlythepoetcandepictthiswholeasreflectedin
the
individualparts.Itisinthissense(asColeridge
had
writtenmanyyearsbefore)thattothepoet

139

'each
thinghasalifeofitsown,andyettheyhaveall
ourlife/
"Inthesameconnectionhequotesthe
philosopherSchelling'sremarkthat
"
everysingle
workofartrepresentsInfinity."(pp.Ixvii,
Ixviii.)
"Ifthereisonemotivecommontoallgenuine
poetic
impulse,itissurelythedesiretoobjectify,and
inthis
,objecttoknowandlove,allthatinthe
individual
experiencehasseemedworthyofdetachmentfromthe
THE1MAGINATION.111
fleetingpersonallife.Itisatleastpossible
thatsuch
wasColeridge'smeaning,bothintheBiographic
Literaria,andwhen,yearsbefore,hehadspokenof
theimagination.
'asadimanalogueofcreation.'
"
(p.Ixxv.)
Ruskin'saccountoftheimaginationcannotwellbe
representedbybriefextracts.Hisfundamental
statement
istotheeffectthat
"
theImaginationhasthree
totallydistinctfunctions.Itcombines,andby
combination
createsnewforms....Again,ittreats,
orregards,boththesimpleimagesanditsown
combinations
inpeculiarways;and,thirdly,itpenetrates,

140

analyzes,andreachestruthsbynootherfaculty
discoverable."
Thesethreetypesofimaginationhecalls
"
CombiningorAssociative,"
"
RegardantorContemplative,"
and"
AnalyticorPenetrative."Allthree
areexpoundedatlengthinthesucceedingchapters.
RuskinalsodistinguishedbetweenFancyand
Imagination
;forexample:
"Thefancyseestheoutside,
/andisabletogiveaportraitoftheoutside,
clear,
Brilliant,andfullofdetail.Theimaginationsees
the;
Heart","andinnernature,andmakesthemfelt,but
is,
oftenobscure,mysterious,andinterrupted,inits
giving
ofouterdetail."
"
Fancy,asshestaysatthe
externals,canneverfeel.Sheisoneofthe
hardesthearted
oftheintellectualfaculties....Shecannot
bemadeserious,noedgetoolsbutshewillplay
with.
WhereastheImaginationisinallthingsthe
reverse.
Shecannotbebutserious;sheseestoofar,too
darkly,
toosolemnly,tooearnestly,evertosmile."Butin
the
introductiontotherevisededitionofthispartof
ModernPainters(1883),Ruskinsaid:"Thereader

141

mustbewarnednottotroublehimselfwiththe
distinctions
...betweenFancyandImagination.
Thesubjectisjaded,thematterofit
insignificant,and
1124NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
thesettlementofitpracticallyimpossible....I
ammyselfnowentirelyindifferentwhichwordIuse
;
andshouldsayofaworkofartthatitwaswell
'
fancied,'orwell'
invented,'orwell'
imagined/with
onlysomeshadesofdifferentmeaninginthe
application
oftheterms,ratherdependentonthematter
treated,thanthepowerofmindinvolvedinthe
treatment."
Studentsofthesevariousdiscussionswhodonot
seektopenetratethedeepermeaningofthe
philosophical
doctrineoftheImagination,willforthemost
parttendtoagreewithRuskin'slaterview.
Psychology
recognizesnodistinction,assuch,betweenthis
facultyandthe
"
Fancy;
"andfromthestandpointof
literarycriticismitisprobablysufficient,as
hasalready
beensuggested,toregardthelatterasbutone
aspectoftheimagination,discriminatedattimes
because
itdealswithdifferentmaterialsorfordifferent
ends.
Inthenextplacewehavetoconsidertheplaceof

142

Beautyinpoetry.Thisterm,whichisevenmore
Beautasan
difficulttodefinethanImagination,was
elementofomittedfromourdefinition,except
sofarasimpliedinthelatterword;
butinthedefinitionsofsomecriticsitisgiven
animportantplace.Thatsenseofsatisfaction
whichwefeelinanythingwhichwecallbeautiful
iscertainlyakintothesatisfactionwhichwe
feelinworksofart,poetryincluded.Andifwe
comparetheseworksofartwiththeobjectsin
naturewhichinsomedegreetheyrepresent,wesee
thattheartistseizesuponthebeautiful,rejects
the
BEAUTYANDTRUTH.n$
anbeautiful,andmoreovermakesthebeautifulstill
morebeautifulbytheforminwhichherepresents
it.Clearlythis,then,isoneofthegreatusesof
the
imagination,aswehavediscusseditinthe
preceding
paragraphs;byitspowerofaddingandrejecting,
ofcombining,ofcarryingoutaprocessofthe
sensestosomepointofinteriorperceptionwhich
thesensescannotreachofthemselves,itseparates
anddevelopsthebeautifulasdiscoveredinthe
outerworld.Stillfurther,fromthecountless
imperfect
beautiesoftheworlditisledtoconceive
ofamoreperfectbeautythantheworldcanshow;
justasShelley'slarksuggestednotonlyvarious
visibleandaudiblebeauties,butan
"
unbodiedjoy
"
beyondthemall,andasWordsworth'smemoryof
thebeautifulimpressionsofhischildhood
suggested

143

aregionofspiritualbeautyandjoyofwhichthe
earthlylifefurnishedonlyadimmedandfleeting
aspect.
Notonlydoespoetryliketheotherartsdeal
withbeautyasitsmaterial,andrevealitbeyond
whatisotherwiseperceived,butitworks
Ee&^
bythemethodofbeautyinitsformandaffecting
poetic
style.Thepoetmaylingeronamatter8tye'
whichisnotessentialtohispurpose,asonemay
lingerbytheroadsidetopickflowersorwatchthe
clouds,whennottoohurriedonone'serrand,
simply
forthebeautythathecanindulgeinbytheway;
andhewillchoosehiswords,hissentences,his
structure,hisrhythmsandrimes,tothesameend.
1I4ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Inotherwords,hetakesourordinaryprosespeech,
crudeandhomelyasitcommonlyis,justashe
takeshisscenesandsubjects,andtransfiguresit
tosomethingwhichwerecognizeasthesameand
yetasanewandbeautifulcreation.(Thismatter,
sofarasitconcernsexternalform,willbe
further
discussedinchapteriv.)
Butwemustnoticefurtherthatforthispurpose
thewordbeautifulistobeunderstoodina
somewhat
differentandwidersensefromthat
veryinclusiveinwhichwecommonlyuseit.
Otherterm>
wisewhatofsuchapoeticalpassageas
thatintheFaerieQueene,describingthefoul
monsterError,fromwhosemouththereflowed
"Afloodofpoisonhorribleandblack,...
Withloathlyfrogsandtoads,whicheyesdidlack,
Andcreepingsoughtwayintheweedygrass

144

"
?
OrofBrowning'sCaliban,lying
"Flatonhisbellyinthepit'smuchmire,
Withelbowswide,fistsclenchedtoprophischin
"
?
Herewehavedeliberateugliness,notonlyin
subjectmatterbutinstyle.Andthesameproblem,
carriedfurther,willleadustotherevolting
themes
ofsufferingandsin,suchaswehavealready
considered
brieflyinconnectionwithtragedy.Such
mattersraiseverydeepquestions,overwhichwe
cannotpauseforthepresentpurpose.Itisenough
BEAUTYANDTRUTH.!j5
tonoticethat,justaswesawthatthereisa
strange
pleasurederivedfromthecontemplationofpain,
whenpresentedunderproperpoeticalconditions,so
thereisastrangebeautyperceivedinugliness,
under
properconditions.Sometimeswemayregarditas
beautifulonlybecauseitsetsoffmorestrikingly
thebeautyofotherobjectswithwhichitis
associated;
sometimesbecauseitseemsthatanyobject
ofcreationmaybebeautifulifportrayedinaway
tosetforthitsrealcharacterandsignificance;
sometimes,
again,becausetheuglyobjecthasaplacein
thedevelopmentofsomegreatbeautifulwhole
whichthepoetiscreating.Allthreeofthese
explanations
areillustratedbythehideous,grinning
gargoyleswithwhichthemediaevalarchitects
decorated

145

theircathedrals,andwhichalmostinfinitely
uglyinthemselvesbothcontrastwithand
contributetothegreattotalityofbeautyand
worship
forwhichthecathedralstands.Thetestof
beauty,then,isnotintheformornatureofan
objectoratheme,butintheimpressionof
satisfaction
whichitproducesaspresentedbytheartist.
Wearenowledverynaturallytoournextquestion,
whichhastodowiththerelationofpoetryto
Truth.AllthatcanbesaidonthisrTherelation
matterisdirectlydeduciblefromwhatofpoetry
wehavealreadydiscussed.Inthefirst
totruthl
chapterwesawthatpoetryistobecontrastedwith
science,asnotconcernedfortruthintheliteral
or
objectivesenseinwhichscienceisconcernedfor
it.
4NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Itusesexternalfactsjustasfarasitchooses,
adding
toorsubtractingfromthemwheneveritspurpose
willserve.Thereasonforthiswasexplainedby
Bacon,inthepassagealreadyquoted:
"
the
world,"hesaid,is
"
inproportion
"
thatis,in
symmetryorperfectionofform"
inferiortothe
soul;byreasonwhereofthereisagreeabletothe
spiritofmanamoreamplegreatness,amoreexact
goodness,andamoreabsolutevarietythancanbe

146

foundinthenatureofthings."AndBaconwasno
doubtonlyechoingwhathehadreadinAristotle,
thefirstofwritersonpoetry,that
"
poetryisa
morephilosophicalandahigherthingthan
history/'
becauseasheexplainedhistoryislimitedto
particular
facts,whilepoetrydealswiththeuniversal
truthswhichparticularfactsonlypartially
represent.
Shelleysetforththesamethoughtinthesewords:
"Thereisthisdifferencebetweenastoryanda
poem,thatastory
*isacatalogueofdetachedfacts,
whichhavenootherconnectionthantime,place,
circumstance,causeandeffect;theotheristhe
creationofactionsaccordingtotheunchangeable
formsofhumannature,asexistinginthemindof
theCreator,whichisitselftheimageofallother
minds....Astoryofparticularfactsisas
amirrorwhichobscuresanddistortsthatwhich
shouldbebeautiful:poetryisamirrorwhich
makes
beautifulthatwhichisdistorted."
*Bystoryhemeansanarrativeoffacts.
BEAUTYANDTRUTH.H7
Itisevidentfromthisuseoftheword"
beautiful
"
thatShelleyhasinmindwhatwealreadyconsidered
thefactthattheimagination
formsfromthenumberlessfactspreandtruth
,,JL,'iiidentical?
sentedbythesensesanidealgreater
andmoresatisfyingthananyofthem;this
iswhatismeantbothbyidealbeautyandby

147

universaltruth.Nowarethesethesamething?
CanweacceptthesayingofKeats,drawnfromhis
reflectionsontheGrecianurn,that
"
Beautyis
Truth,TruthBeauty
"
?Certainlynot,ifwehave
inmindmerebeautyofform.Notonlyisthe
uglytobeacceptedashavingitsplaceinthe
world,
aswehaveseenistrueeveninpoetry,butweknow
thatmanyofthefinestandtruestthingsinlife
are
presentedtousinaformthatdoesnotappealat
alltowhatwecalltheaestheticsense,thesense
of
beautyofform.ItwasevenwrittenoftheManof
Sorrows,asforeseenbytheprophet:
"Hehath
noformnorcomeliness;andwhenweseehim,
thereisnobeautythatweshoulddesirehim."But
ifwemeanbybeautythateternalsenseofinward
perfectionwhichthespiritofmaniseverseeking
after,andimaginingassuggestedandforeshadowed
bythethingsofthevisibleworld,then
wemaythinkitpossiblethoughwecannotcertainly
saythatbeautyfullyrevealedwouldbethe
samethingastruthfullyknown.Wemaysay,
atanyrate,thatthegreatestpoetshavehadfor
theiraimsomethingwhich,thoughitincludesthe
ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
givingofpleasuretothesenses,isakintothe
aim
ofscientistsandphilosophersintheirsearchfor
truth.
When,then,ortowhatextent,canwespeakof

148

poetryastruthful?Whenitistruetohuman
experience
ingeneral,whenitawakens
Whenis.
poetrygenuineemotions,andwhenitsetsforth
truthful?
true^eaistneimagination.Perhaps
nomoresuggestiveexampleofthedifference
betweenobjectiveandpoeticaltruthcouldbefound
thanthefigureofKingArthur,heroofBritish
legendry,whopassedfromtheplaceofapersonage
innationaltraditiontothatofthecentralfigure
in
agreatimaginativecycleofromance.Now,
throughtheresearchesofscientifichistorians,he
hasbeenrelegatedtotheplaceofasuccessful
tribal
chieftainontheWelshborders,doubtlessa
thoroughbarbarian,nottosaypagan.Yetwe
easilydismissthishistoricArthurfromourminds,
admittinghimtobeobjectivelytrue,andthere
remains
livingwithusinsteadtheotherfigureofthe
ArthuroftheIdyllsoftheKing,idealleaderof
an
idealhostofChristianchivalry,whoseconflicts
withinnerandouterfoesareforevertypicalof
"
senseatwarwithsoul."
Itisbecauseofitsfunctionofpresentingthese
Poetras
universalandidealtruthsthatpoets
ateacherhavecommonlybeenregardeddeofman.
pleasuretothemselvesandtoothersashavinga
BEAUTYANDTRUTH.ng
placebesideprophetsandteachersoftherace.
ThusShelleywasledtosay:
"

149

Poetryisindeed
somethingdivine.Itisatoncethecentreand
circumference
ofknowledge;...atthesame
timetherootandblossomofallothersystemsof
thought."AndWordsworth:
"
Poetryisthe
breathandfinerspiritofallknowledge;...
thepoet,singingasonginwhichallhumanbeings
joinwithhim,rejoicesinthepresenceoftruthas
ourvisiblefriendandhourlycompanion."And
Emerson:
"Theonlytellerofnewsisthepoet.
Whenhesings,theworldlistenswiththeassurance
thatnowasecretofGodistobespoken."Inall
thesesayingstheemphasisisevidentlyonthat
ideal
truthwhichwehaveseenitisthebusinessof
poetry
toreveal.
Nopoethasspokenonthesubjectoftherelation
ofarttotruthmoreclearlythanBrowning.In
leavingit,letusnoticetwosuggestivepassages
fromhisworks.InthefirsthetellsusthatArt
maybecalled
"
theloveofloving,rage
Ofknowing,seeing,feelingtheabsolutetruthof
things
Fortruth'ssake,wholeandsole,notanygood
truth
brings
Theknower,seer,feeler."(FifineattheFair,
xliv.)
Intheother,atthecloseofhisgreatestpoem,
The
RingandtheBook,heimaginesoneaskinghim

150

12QANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
"Whytaketheartisticwaytoprovesomuch?
"
andanswers:
"
Because,itisthegloryandgoodofArt
ThatArtremainstheonewaypossible
Ofspeakingtruth,tomouthslikemineatleast."
Aparticulartruthaboutaparticularman,hegoes
ontosay,islikelytobemisunderstoodandto
fail
ofitspurpose;artisaddressednottoindividual
men,but
"
tomankind,"andtells
"
atruthobliquely."
"Soyoumaypaintyourpicture,twiceshowtruth,
Beyondmereimageryonthewall,
So,notebynote,bringmusicfromyourmind,
Deeperthanevere'enBeethovendived,
Sowriteabookshallmeanbeyondthefacts,
Sufficetheeyeandsavethesoulbeside."
Onthesubjectofthebeautifulandtheidealas
relatedtopottrythestudentwillfindvaluable
discussions
inButcher'sAristotle'sTheoryofPoetry,
Hegel'sremarksontheIdealasrelatedtoArt,
Emerson's
essayonPoetryandImagination,Wordsworth's
Prefaces,Knight'sPhilosophyoftheBeautiful(Pt.
II,chap,viii),Santayana'sPoetryandReligion,
and
Alexander'sPoetryandtheIndividual.
ImportantpassagesfromHegelarethese:
"
Man,

151

then,shutinoneveryhandinthefinite,and
aspiring
topassoutofit,turnshisglancetowardahigher
sphere,truerandpurer,wherealltheconflicts
and
contradictionsofthefinitedisappear,where
liberty,
BEAUTYANDTRUTH.121
expandingwithoutobstaclesorlimits,attainsits
supreme
end.Thisistheregionofart,andofitsreality,
theideal.Thenecessityofthebeautifulinart
and
poetryarises,then,fromtheimperfectionsofthe
real.
Themissionofartistorepresent,undersensible
forms,thefreedevelopmentoflifeandespecially
of
thespirit.Itisonlythenthatthetrueis
detached
fromaccidentalandephemeralcircumstances,
delivered
fromthelawwhichcondemnsittorunthecourse
offinitethings....
"Truthinart,then,isnotmerefidelity,as
implied
inthedefinition'.imitationofnature.'It
consistsin
theperfectexpressionoftheideawhichart
manifests
andrealizes....Itisexclusivelythefunctionof
theidealtoplaceexteriorforminharmonywith
the
soul,tobringtogetherexteriorrealityand
spiritual
nature,sothatexternalappearanceshallconform
to

152

thespiritofwhichitisthemanifestation.But
this
spiritualizingprocess,eveninpoetry,doesnotgo
so
farastopresentthegeneralideaunderits
abstract
form;itstopsattheintermediatepoint,where
purely
sensibleformandpurespiritmeetandagree.Art
isfoundatthatprecisepointofmediationwhere
the
idea,notbeingabletodevelopunderitsabstract
or
generalform.,standsenclosedinanindividual
reality."
(Benard,vol.i,pp.xixiii.)
Thelastofthesesentencesremindsusofthe
exaggeration
ofthedoctrineofthe
"
universal
"
asthe
themeofart,nowrecognizedascharacteristicof
the
neoclassicalperiod,atitsheightinEnglandin
the
eighteenthcentury.SirJoshuaReynoldsrepresents
thisdoctrine,bothinhisDiscoursesonPainting
and
inthepaperswhichhecontributedtotheIdler
(Nos.
76,79,82),whichareapleaforgeneralization.
Since
artisbasedontheuniversalorideal,itisat
itsbest
122^NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
whenithas

153

"
theleastofcommonnature;
"
thesource
ofbeautyisthediscardingofparticularsandthe
discovery
ofthetypicalorgeneralform.Studentswill
finditprofitabletocomparetheportraitsof
Reynolds,
inillustrationofthis,withthoseofan
individualist
likeGeorgeFrederickWatts.InDr.Johnson's
remarks
onthestyleofDryden'sAnnusMirabilisweget
acluetothewayinwhichthesamedoctrineledto
the
avoidanceofconcretedictionsocharacteristicof
the
neoclassicalpoetry.
"
Itisageneralrule,"heobserves,
"
inpoetrythatallappropriatedtermsofart
shouldbesunkingeneralexpressions,because
poetry
istospeakanuniversallanguage."Thedangerof
thedoctrinelayinitsfundamentalcorrectnessas
to
theprincipleofideality,withoutthecaution,as
indicated
byHegel,thatthisidealityisneverthelesstobe
expressedintermsofindividualreality.
Ournextquestionhastodowiththerelationof
whatwehavebeenconsideringtothesubjectmatter
ofpoetry:isthereanyclassof
Haspoetrya..
specialkindofthemeswithwhichit
characteristically

154

subjectmatter7
areexcludedfromitsterritory?Atfirstthought
oneislikelytotrytodefinesomelimitationsof
this
sort,becauseofageneralimpressionthatpoetry
treatsasaruleonlyloftyordignifiedthemes,
more
particularlysuchaslove,beauty,andfaith,and
avoidsthelowandthecommonplace.Yetfurther
reflectionwillperhapssuggestthatwhatwehave
inmindisnotsomuchthesubjectmatterofthe
poet,asitiswhathemakesofthatsubject
matter;
andtheweightofthetestimonyofthecriticsis
SUBJECTMATTER.123
againstlimitinghimatallinthechoiceof
material.
ThusLeighHuntsaysofpoetry,afterdefiningit
as
"
theutteranceofapassionfortruth,beauty,and
power,"that
"
itsmeansarewhatevertheuniverse
contains."AndEmersonsaysofthepoet:
"There
isnosubjectthatdoesnotbelongtohim,
politics,
economy,manufacturesandstockbrokerage,as
muchassunsetsandsouls;only,thesethings,
placed
intheirtrueorder,arepoetry;displaced,orput
in
kitchenorder,theyareunpoetic."(Poetryand
Imagination.)Inbothcasestheinferenceisthat
whatwecallpoeticalisnotanattributeof
objectsin
themselves,butofthetreatmenttheyreceive,the

155

purposeofhimwhohandlesthem,andtheresultof
hiswork.
Itisclearthattherearecertainobjectswhichwe
instinctivelyfeelaremoresusceptibleofpoetical
treatmentthanothers:flowersrather
thanpotatoes,sunshineratherthan
electriclight,sailingvesselsrather
thansteamships,horsesratherthanautomobiles.
Analyzingourfeelingalittlefurther,weseethat
wearemorelikelytoattachimaginative
conceptions
tothingswhichareobviouslybeautifulthan
tothosewhicharemerelyuseful,andtothings
whicharedistantinplaceortimethantothose
recentandfamiliar;forthisreasonallthefine
arts
dealmorelargelywiththeformerclassesthanwi.h
thelatter.Butafterall,apoetmayatanytime
showtheimaginativepossibilitiesofobjectsin
the
I24A**INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
otherclasses.ThepoetsofShakspere'stime
including
evenShaksperehimselfheldthatfor
greatpoemsgreatpersonagesandtheiremotions
werethemostfittingmaterial,kings,princes,and
othersobviouslyimpressiveandheroic.Thereis
notragedyearlierthanthemodernperiodtreating
of
thesufferingsoflowlypeopleinfamiliarlife.
But
thisopinionhaschanged.WordsworthinMichael,
TennysoninDora,BrowninginTheRingandthe
Book,haveshownthattheelementsoftragedyand
ofpoetryarethesameforpersonsofanyclass.*
Again,itiscommontosaythatforthepoetthe
sunstillrisesandsets;thatthemodern
scientific

156

notionoftheearthgoingroundthesun,withall
the
otherplanets,hasnoplaceinpoetry.YetTennyson
hasusedthismodernnotioninoneoftheloveliest
ofhislyrics:
"Moveeastward,happyearth,andleave
Yonorangesunsetwaningslow:
Fromfringesofthefadedeve,
Ohappyplanet,eastwardgo....
Ah,bearmewiththee,smoothlyborne,
Dipforwardunderstarrylight,
*Thetendencyisstilltopreferdignifiedpersons
andthemesfor
thematteroftragedy,andthereisnodoubtthat
tomaketragic
poetryofthoseoflowlifeisaverydifficult
problem;Tennyson's
PromiseofMayisaninstanceofsuchan
experiment,farfromsuccessful.
Buttherehasbeentoolittlepoetictragedyin
modern
Englishliteraturetoenableonetogeneralizeas
toitsnormal
development.
SUBJECTMATTER.x25
Andmovemetomymarriagemorn,
Androundagaintohappynight."
Oncemore,weareaccustomedtothinkofmachinery
bothbecauseitislessbeautifulinitself
thanmorenaturalprocesses,andbecauseits
associations
aresofamiliarandsordidasshutoutfrom
poetryandtheotherarts.ButKipling,inoneof
hismostinterestingpoems,McAndrew'sHymn,
hasrefutedthisideabothinpreceptandexample.
Thethemeisthesteamenginethatdrivestheocean
liner,whoseunerringandmajesticmovements
suggest

157

totheScotchengineernotonly
"Law,order,dutyandrestraint,obedience,
discipline,"
buttheverymajestyoftheordainedmovements
oftheuniverseaccordingtoapredestinating
Mind.*Andasiftoscornsomeimaginedcriticof
thisunpromisingmaterialthepoetrepresentsthe
engineerasrelatingthequestionofa
conventionally
superficialpassenger,whoasksifhedoesnot
think
"
thatsteamhasspoiledromanceatsea."
Followingupthecontemptuousreplytothis,we
havethepetition
"GodsendamanlikeRobbieBurnstosingthesong
of
steam!
"
*ComparethesonnetbyCharlesTennysononASteam
Threshing
Machine,whichsuggestedtohim"mindandmatter,
willand
law."
126AHINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Thisinitselfisfullofsuggestion.Burns,though
writingbeforetheageofsteam,hadwidened
thefieldofpoetrytoincludethefieldmouse,the
jollybeggar,anyoftheleastofGod'screatures;
McAndrewfeelsinstinctivelythatitisofthesame
spirittowidenthefieldofpoetrysoasto
include
allthenewforcesofmodernlife.
Wemayconclude,therefore,thatthematerialof
poetry,ifitdoesnotembracewhateverthe
universe
contains,admitswhatevermaybe
Thetwo..

158

J
methodsofpoeticseizedbytheimaginationand
madeto
appealtotheemotions;andweshould
beveryslowtomarkanythingasoutsidethis
possibility.
Itistruethatcertaingreatandobviously
imaginativethemes,thesamethatwecall
"
romantic
"
incharacter,suchaslove,war,faith,and
death,willnodoubtalwaysremainthechief
themesofpoetry;yeteventhesethemesmaybe
foundinalmostanycorneroflife.Inthis
connection
wemayrecallthatgreatsayingofColeridge,
astothepurposewhichheandWordsworth
hadinwritingtheLyricalBallads,abookwhich
was
theforerunnerofawholenewageofideasof
poetry:oneaim,asexemplifiedespeciallyinThe
AncientMariner,wastotreatromanticand
unfamiliar
objects
"
yetsoastotransferfromourinward
natureahumaninterestandasemblanceof
truthsufficienttoprocurefortheseshadowsof
imagination
thatwillingsuspensionofdisbelieffor
themomentwhichconstitutespoeticfaith;
"
the
SUB/ECTMATTER.!27
other,exampledespeciallyinthenarrativepoems
ofWordsworth,was"
togivethecharmofnovelty

159

tothingsofeveryday,"andawakenfeelingsno
less
romanticthanthosesuggestedbytheunfamiliaror
eventhesupernatural,bydirectingthemind"
to
thelovelinessandthewondersoftheworldbefore
us."(Biog.Lit.,chap,xiv.)Oneortheotherof
thesetasksisalwaysbeforethepoet,andbetween
thetwoitisnowonderifalltheobjectsof
experience
areincludedinhismaterial.
Ofthevariousdiscussionsoftheappropriate
subject
matterofpoetry,themostinterestingisthat
arousedbythecontroversybetweenRev.Samuel
BowlesandLordByron,inconnectionwiththe
poetry
ofPope.Agoodaccountofitmayconvenientlybe
foundinBeers'sRomanticismintheNineteenth
Century,
chap,ii
;theprincipalcontributionofByronto
thediscussionisreprintedinRhys'sLiterary
Pamphlets,
vol.ii.Bowles'schiefdoctrinewassummarized
inthestatementthat
"
allimagesdrawnfromwhatis
beautifulorsublimeintheworksofnatureare
more
beautifulandsublimethananyimagesdrawnfrom
art,andtheyarethereforeperse(abstractedly)
more
poetical."Byron,ontheotherhand,maintained
that
objectsofartarequiteaspoetical,perse,as
objects
ofnature;thattheParthenonismorepoeticalthan

160

therockonwhichitstands,andthatifBowles
were
correct,apigscuddingbeforeagaleofwindwould
bemorepoeticalthanashipscuddingbeforethe
gale.
AsProfessorBeersjustlyobserves,thewhole
discussion
wasfutile;thedistinctionbetweenobjectsof
natureandofartcannotbedrawnwithcritical
accuracy,
andinanycasenoobjectiseitherpoeticalorthe
I28^NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
contraryinitself.Moreimportant,thoughnoless
unsatisfactory,wasthecontentionofWordsworth
thatpersonsandobjectsofhumbleandrusticlife
formthemostfittingsubjectofpoetry,
"
becausein
thatconditionoflifeourelementaryfeelingsco
exist
inastateofgreatersimplicity,andconsequently
may
bemoreaccuratelycontemplatedandmoreforcibly
communicated;becausethemannersofrurallife
germinate
fromthoseelementaryfeelings;...and
lastly,becauseinthatconditionthepassionsof
menare
incorporatedwiththebeautifulandpermanentforms
ofnature."(Pref.toLyricalBallads.)
Inthelastplace,wehavetoinquirewhatisthe
relationofthematterswehavebeenconsidering
tothestyleofpoetry.Fundamentally
t^iequestinariseswhetherthestyleof
poetryistoberegardedasdifferent
fromthatofprose,aquestiontowhichdifferent
answershavebeenmadebydifferentcritics,andto
whichthesafestreplyisprobablythis:thestyle

161

ofpoetrydoesnotdiffernecessarilyfromthatof
prose,sincebotharemadeupofhumanspeech
dealing
with,theobjectsofhumanexperience;but,as
aresultoftheemotionalandimaginativequalities
oTpoetry,itsstyleshowscertaintendenciesofits
ownwhichdeserveseparateconsideration.This
maybeconvenientlyillustratedbyconsidering
certain
passages.
"Andnow,whenLukehadreachedhiseighteenth
year,
Therebythelightofthisoldlamptheysat,
STYLE.I29
Fatherandson,whilefarintothenight
Thehousewifepliedherownpeculiarwork."*
"Aperfectwoman,noblyplanned,
Towarn,tocomfort,andcommand;
Andyetaspiritstill,andbright
Withsomethingofangeliclight."f
"Whatisthecourseofthelife
Ofmortalmenontheearth?
Mostmeneddyabout
Hereandthereeatanddrink,
Chatterandloveandhate,
Gatherandsquander,areraised
Aloft,arehurledinthedust,
Strivingblindly,achieving
Nothing;andthentheydie."J
"Thennonewasforaparty;
Thenallwereforthestate;
Thenthegreatmanhelpedthepoor,
Andthepoormanlovedthegreat:
Thenlandswerefairlyportioned;
Thenspoilswerefairlysold:
TheRomanswerelikebrothers
Inthebravedaysofold."**
Inallthesethereisnotawordandnota

162

phrasewhichisinanywaycharacterThe"neutral"
isticofpoetry;destroytherhythmstyle>
andtherime,andyouwillhaveaseriesofsen
*Wordsworth:Michael.
tWordsworth:ShewasaPhantomofDelight.
\Arnold:RugbyChapel.
**Macaulay:Horatius.
I3o4NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
tencessuchasmightoccurinanyprosepassageon
a
similarsubject.ThisisthestylewhichColeridge
called
"
neutral,"equallyappropriateforproseor
poetry.Butonecouldnoteasilyfindanentire
poeminthisstyle.Ifwelookalittlefurther,
for
example,inthepoemfromwhichthefirstpassage
wastaken,wefind:
"AndwhenbyHeaven'sgoodgracetheboy
grewup
Ahealthylad,andcarriedinhischeek
Twosteadyrosesthatwerefiveyearsold."
Orinthethirdpoem,this:
"Nooneasks
Whoorwhattheyhavebeen,
Morethanheaskswhatwaves,
Inthemoonlitsolitudesmild
Ofthemidmostocean,haveswelled,
Foamedforamoment,andgone."
Orinthefourth:
"MeanwhiletheTuscanarmy,
Rightglorioustobehold,
Cameflashingbackthenoondaylight,
Rankbehindrank,likesurgesbright
Ofabroadseaofgold."
Inthesepassages,thoughtheremaybefewwords
orphraseswhichcannotbeimaginedasoccurringin

163

legitimateprose,yetwefeelatoncethatthe
style
isdistinctiveofpoetry.
STYLE.,3I
Ontheotherhand,considersuchTheprosaic
passagesasthese:style
"Andheisleanandheissick;
Hisbody,dwindledandawry,
Restsuponanklesswol'nandthick;
Hi'slegsarethinanddry.
"*
"
I'vemeasureditfromsidetoside,
Tisthreefeetlong,andtwofeetwide."f
"
Onlytheass,withmotiondull,
Uponthepivotofhisskull
Turnsroundhislongleftear."J
"'Thussanctioned/
Thepastorsaid,
'
Iwillinglyconfine
Mynarrativestosubjectsthatexcite
Feelingswiththeseaccordant;love,esteem,
Andadmiration....
Andyetthereare,
Ifeel,goodreasonswhyweshouldnotleave
Whollyuntracedamoreforbiddingway.
Forstrengthtopersevereandtosupport,
Andenergytoconquerandrepel
Theseelementsofvirtue,thatdeclare
Thenativegrandeurofthehumansoul
*Wordsworth:SimonLee.
tWordsworth:TheThorn.
Theseverseswerealteredintherevisededitionof
Wordsworth's
poems,soastoread:
"Thoughbutofcompasssmall,andbare

164

Tothirstysunsandparchingair."
\Wordsworth:PeterBell.
1^2ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Areofttimesnotunprofitablyshown
Intheperversenessofaselfishcourse/
"*
Inallwhichwediscoverastylethatisfelttobe
moreappropriatetoprosethantopoetry,onewhich
arousesafeelingofsurprise,perhapsannoyance,\
atfindingitconjoinedwiththeverseform.The
reasonsfortheseimpressionseachreaderwilldo
welltotrytodiscoverforhimself.
Theillustrationsofstyleinappropriatetopoetry
werechosenfromWordsworthinordertosuggest
thediscussion,herenaturallyinplace,ofhis
theoryof
poeticdiction,ascomparedwithhispractice.This
theorywaslargelyduetotwothings:hisdesire
to
presenthisownemotionstohisreadersasdirectly
as
possible,andhisdislikeoftheconventionalized
"
poetic
diction
"
oftheeighteenthcentury,overlaidasadecoration
uponnaturalspeech.Themostsignificant
passagesfromhisdiscussion'ofthesubjectare
these\\
"Thelanguage,too,ofthesemen"
(i.e.,thoseof
humblerurallife)
"
hasbeenadopted(purifiedindeed
fromwhatappeartobeitsrealdefects,fromall
lasting

165

andrationalcausesofdislikeanddisgust),
because
suchmenhourlycommunicatewiththebestobjects
fromwhichthebestpartoflanguageisoriginally
derived
;andbecause,fromtheirrankandsocietyand
thesamenessandnarrowcircleoftheir
intercourse,,
beinglessundertheinfluenceofsocialvanity,
they
conveytheirfeelingsandnotionsinsimpleand
tinelaborated
expressions.Accordingly,suchlanguage,
arisingoutofrepeatedexperienceandregular
feelings,
isamorepermanent,andafarmorephilosophical
*Wordsworth:TheExcursion.
STYLE.
'33
language,thanthatwhichisfrequentlysubstituted
for
itbypoets."
"Thereaderwillfindthatpersonifications
ofabstractideasrarelyoccurinthesevolumes,
andareutterlyrejectedasanordinarydeviceto
elevate
thestyleandraiseitaboveprose.Mypurpose
wastoimitate,and,asfarasispossible,to
adoptthe
verylanguageofmen;andassuredlysuch
personifications
donotmakeanynaturalorregularpartof
thatlanguage....Therewillalsobefoundin
these
volumeslittleofwhatisusuallycalledpoetic
diction;
asmuchpainshasbeentakentoavoiditasis
ordinarily

166

takentoproduceit;thishasbeendoneforthe
reasonalreadyalleged,tobringmylanguagenear
to
(he.languageofmen.""
Itmaybesafelyaffirmed
thatthereneitheris,norcanbe.anyessential
difference
betweenthelanguageofproseandmetrical
composition....Thelanguageofsuchpoetryas
is
hererecommendedis,asfarasispossible,a
selection
ofthelanguagereallyspokenbymen;[and]this
selection,
whereveritismadewithtruetasteandfeeling,
willofitselfformadistinctionfargreaterthan
would
atfirstbeimagined,andwillentirelyseparate
thecomposition
fromthevulgarityandmeannessofordinary
life....WhatisaPoet?Towhomdoesheaddress
himself?Andwhatlanguageistobeexpectedfrom
him?Heisamanspeakingtomen....Itwillbe
thewishofthePoettobringhisfeelingsnearto
those
ofthepersonswhosefeelingshedescribes,nay,
for
shortspacesoftime,perhaps,tolethimselfslip
into
anentiredelusion,andevenconfoundandidentify
hisownfeelingswiththeirs:modifyingonlythe
language
whichisthussuggestedtohimbyaconsideration
thathedescribesforaparticularpurpose,that
ofgivingpleasure.Here,then,hewillapplythe
principleofselectionwhichhasbeenalready
insisted
134ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.

167

upon.Hewilldependuponthisforremovingwhat
wouldotherwisebepainfulordisgustinginthe
passion;hewillfeelthatthereisnonecessity
totrick
outortoelevatenature:andthemore
industriouslyhe
appliesthisprinciplethedeeperwillbehisfaith
that
nowordswhichhisfancyorimaginationcansuggest
willbetobecomparedwiththosewhicharethe
emanationsofrealityandtruth."(Prefacetothe
Lyrical
Ballads.)IntheAppendixon"
PoeticDiction
"
occursthisconcludingsummaryof
"
aprinciple
whichhasbeenmychiefguideinallIhavesaid,
namely,thatinworksofimaginationandsentiment,
for
oftheseonlyhaveIbeentreating,inproportion
as
ideasandfeelingsarevaluable,whetherthe
composition
beinproseorverse,theyrequireandexactone
andthesamelanguage."
Itwillbeobservedthatinmanyaccountsof
Wordsworth's
theoryofthelanguageofpoetryhiscautious
modificationsofthegeneralstatementthatitdoes
not
differfromthatofprosehavebeenneglected.It
isto
bein
"
aselectionofthelanguagereallyspokenby
men;

168

"
thepainfulanddisgusting,thevulgarandthe
mean,willbeexcluded;anditisonlyinworksof
imaginationandsentimentthatproseandverse
style
arealike.Dueconsiderationofthesematterswill
perhapsleadustoquestionwhetherthecommon
saying
iscorrect,thatWordsworth'spoetrywassuccessful
onlyinsofarasheabandonedhistheory.
Coleridge'sreplytothisPreface,andhiscritique
of
thepoemsespeciallyconcernedwithit,arefound
in
chaptersxviixxoftheBiographicLiteraria,the
last
ofthechaptersbeingheaded:
"
Languageofmetrical
composition,whyandwhereinessentiallydifferent
fromthatofprose."Perhapsthemostsuggestive
passagesarethese:
STYLE.
135
"NowIwilltakethefirststanzaonwhichIhave
chancedtoopenintheLyricalBallads.Itisone
of
themostsimpleandpeculiarinitslanguage:
*IndistantcountriesIhavebeen,
AndyetIhavenotoftenseen
Ahealthyman,amanfullgrown,
Weepinthepublicroads,alone.
Butsuchaone,onEnglishground,
Andinthebroadhighway,Imet;
Alongthebroadhighwayhecame,
Hischeekswithtearswerewet.
Sturdyheseemed,thoughhewassad,
Andinhisarmsalambhehad/

169

Thewordsherearedoubtlesssuchasarecurrentin
\
allranksoflife:andofcoursenotlesssointhe
hamletandcottage,thanintheshop,manufactory,
college,orpalace.Butisthistheorderinwhich
the
rusticwouldhaveplacedthewords?Iam
grievously
cfeceived,ifthefollowinglesscompactmodeof
commencing
thesametalebenotafarmorefaithfulcopy.
'
Ihavebeeninmanypartsfarandnear,andIdon't
knowthatIeversawbeforeamancryingbyhimself
inthepublicroad:agrownmanImean,thatwas
neithersicknorhurt,'etc.,etc.ButwhenIturn
tothe
followingstanzainTheThorn:
'Atalltimesofthedayandnight
Thiswretchedwomanthithergoes,
Andsheisknowntoeverystar
Andeverywindthatblows:
Andtherebesidethethornshesits,
Whenthebluedaylight'sintheskies:
Andwhenthewhirlwind'sonthehill,
Orfrostyairiskeenandstill;
<*NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Andtoherselfshecries,
Ohmisery!Ohmisery!
Ohwoeisme!Ohmisery!
'
andcomparethiswiththelanguageofordinarymen,
orwiththatwhichIcanconceiveatalllikelyto
proceed,
inreallife,fromsuchanarratorasissupposed
inthenotetothepoemcompareiteitherinthe
successionoftheimagesorofthesentences...
I

170

reflectwithdelighthowlittleameretheory,
though
ofhisownworkmanship,interfereswiththe
processes
ofgenuineimaginationinamanoftruepoetic
genius."
"Metreinitselfissimplyastimulanttothe
attention,
andthereforeexcitesthequestion,Whyisthe
attention
tobethusstimulated?...NeithercanIconceive
anyotheranswerthatcanberationallygiven,
short
ofthis:Iwriteinmetre,becauseIamaboutto
usea
languagedifferentfromthatofprose."
"Nowpoetry,
Mr.Wordsworthtrulyaffirms,doesalwaysimply
passion:whichwordmustbehereunderstood,inits
mostgeneralsense,asanexcitedstateofthe
feelings
andfaculties.Andaseverypassionhasitsproper
pulse,sowillitlikewisehaveitscharacteristic
modes
ofexpression....Lastly,Iappealtothe
practiceof
thebestpoets,ofallcountriesandinallages,
asauthorizing
theopinion(deducedfromalltheforegoing)
thatineveryimportofthewordessential,
whichwouldnothereinvolveameretruism,there
maybe,is,andoughttobe,anessential
difference
betweenthelanguageofproseandofmetrical
composition."*
Ingeneral,criticismhasacceptedthisasthe
final
wordonthesubject.OflateProfessorRaleigh,in

171

*Inthelastofthefourchapters(xx)Coleridge
developshisview
ofthe"neutralstyle
"
orlinguacommunis.
STYLE.137
hisbookonWordsworth,hasfurtherdevelopedthe
discussion,pointingoutthatthedefectin
Wordsworth's
theoryandinhis(occasional)practicewasdueto
aninadequateappreciationofthesuggestiveor
connotative
poweroflanguage.
"Wordsworth'sdevotion
tothemerefact,hisfixedandjealousgazeon
truth,
broughthimintodifficultiesanddangersunlike
those
whichbesetpoetswhoindulgetheimaginationwith
a
freercourse.Themerefactsaideverythingtohim;
thedatesonatombstonespokeeloquently;anda
parish
register,withoutaddition,touchedthespringof
sympathyandtears.Butthemerefact,whichsays
everything,comesperilouslynearalsotosaying
noth
Jng.Aparishregisterisnotinitselfapoem;
andthe
poetwhoaimsatasimilareconomyofmatter,while
he
avoidsallthefloweryenticementsthatallure
weaker
feet,islikelyenoughtofalloutofpoetryonthe
other
'side....Wordsworthfoundthatlanguage,the
instrument
ofpoetry,whichhadplayedotherpoetsfalse,

172

wasnottruetohim;thatwordsweredeceitful,
clumsy,unmanageable,andtricky....Thething
tobeexpressed,evenatitssimplest,isfar
beyondthe
limitedcompassoftheinstrument,and,saveby
partial
indications,cannomorebeinterpretedinwords
thanasymphonycanberenderedupontheflute."
"Hisreasonforchoosinghumbleandrusticlifeas
his
academyoflanguagewasthus,liketherestofhis
theoryofpoetry,purelymystical.Heknewno
dialect,
anddidnottroublehimselftoacquireone.His
strongestmotiveappearsclearlyintheshort
sentence
wherehesaysthatinahumbleconditionoflife
'men
hourlycommunicatewiththebestobjectsfromwhich
thebestpartoflanguageisoriginallyderived.'
Coleridge
madeshortworkofthisphilologicaltheory.But
itsinterestremains;foritshowsthatthebest
part
138ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
oflanguage,toWordsworth'smind,wastobefound
inthemerenamesofnaturalobjects....Another
society,whichusesalanguagegreater,more
passionate,
andpurerthanthelanguageoftheshepherdsof
theLakes,was,inhistheoryatleast,overlooked
by
Wordsworththesocietyofpoets,livinganddead.
Itistheywhopreservelanguagefrompollutionand
enrichitwithnewpowers.Theyredeemwordsfrom
cfegradationbyasinglenobleemployment.They
establish
atraditionthatbridgesoverthetreacherous

173

currentsandquicksandsoftimeandfashion.And
theywereWordsworth'smasters,thoughhepays
themscantacknowledgment."(Wordsworth,pp.115
122.)
Withthismuchclear,then,thattherearestyles
peculiarlyappropriatetopoetry,peculiarlyinap
**i.propriatetopoetry,andneutralinresources
ofthe*
qualitiesofspecttopoetryandprose,letustry
toanalyzealittlemoredefinitelythe
qualitiesofcharacteristicallypoeticalstyle.All
thesequalitieswillbefoundtobe,not
conventional
devices,bywhichpoetshaveagreedtodecoratethe
languageoftheirpoems,butdirectresultsofthe
emotionalandimaginativeelementsoftheart.
Themoststrikingqualityofthestyleofpoetryis
itsconcreteness.Despitethefactthatitdeals
with
themesofuniversalorgeneralsig
OoncretenesB,nificance,itavoidsgeneralor
abstract
words.Indeedthisissomuchmore
thanameredeviceofstyle,issomuchapartof
theimaginativepresentationofthematerialof
STYLE.139
poetry,thatsomecriticsincludeitasessential
totheverydefinitionofpoetry.ThusTheodore
Watts,afterdefiningpoetryas
"
theconcreteandartistic
expressionofthehumanmindinemotional
andrhythmicallanguage,"addsthiscomment:
"Withabstractionsthepoethasnothingtodo,
save
totakethemandturnthemintoconcretions.''*
AndMassondefinesthepoeticorimaginative
faculty

174

as
"
thepowerofintellectuallyproducinganewor
artificialconcrete,"andpoetryitselfas
"
cogitation
inthelanguageofconcretecircumstance."The
plasticarts,andinasensetheartofmusic,
cannot
bytheirverynaturedealwiththeabstract;
poetry,
madeupofwords,hasthatpower,andmostreaders
wouldprobablyagreethatsometimesitmayuseit
wiselyandwell;butitcertainlytendsalwaysto
avoidtheabstractbecauseofthe
characteristically
intellectualascontrastedwithimaginative
character
ofthattypeofspeech.Thechosenwordof
thepoetisfirstofallthewordwhichwillrecall
the
mostvividimagetotheimaginaryimpressionsof
thesenses:fhewillprefer"daybreak"to"early
morning,"becauseofitsappealtotheinnereye,
or
*ThatMr.Wattsexaggeratesthisaspectmay
perhapsbeinferred
fromtheexamplewhichhequotesfromGeorgeEliot,
"
Speechisbutbrokenlightuponthedepthofthe
unspoken,"
objectingtothephrase
"theunspoken
"
asabstractandtherefore
prosaic.
tSoGrantAllenpointsout,inhisPhysiological
Aesthetics,that

175

thepoetsshowapreferenceforthemorevivid
colorwords,suchas
crimson,azure,andthelike.
1404NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
perhapsmaychoose
"
cockcrow,"withitssimilar
appealtotheinnerear.Evenwhenthethought
dealtwithisofaprofoundlyintellectualand
generalized
character,asinthispassagefromIn
Memoriam,
"Ohyetwetrustthatsomehowgood
Willbethefinalgoalofill,
Topangsofnature,sinsofwill,
Defectsofdoubt,andtaintsofblood;
"Thatnothingwalkswithaimlessfeet;
Thatnotonelifeshallbedestroyed,
Orcastasrubbishtothevoid,
WhenGodhathmadethepilecomplete;
"Thatnotawormiscloveninvain;
Thatnotamothwithvaindesire
Isshrivelledinafruitlessfire,
Orbutsubservesanother'sgain.
"
Behold,weknownotanything;
Icanbuttrustthatgoodshallfall
Atlastfaroffatlast,toall,
Andeverywinterchangetospring;"
insuchapassage,then,weseehowthe
generalization
ismadetopassbeforeusinaseriesofconcrete
images,"goal,""taintsofblood/'"aimless
feet,""rubbish,""pile,""wormcloven,"
"mothshrivelled,"winterchangingtospring.So
trueisthisthatwhenpoetryforsakesaltogether
theconcreteimagemakingstyle,wefeel
instincSTYLE.

176

I4I
tivelythatitislosingitsvitalelementand
fading
intoanillegitimateliteraryform.
Thisconcreteness,thisdetail,wemayfurther
notice,ismoreoftendevotedtothepresentation
of
beautythantoanyotherelement.In
poetrythewritermaylingeraswas
noticedinanearlierparagraphover
beautifuldetails,mayheapupbeautifulwords,in
a
mannernotessentialtohismainpurpose,andtoa
degreewhichinawriterofprosewouldnotbe
tolerated.Whenwereadsuchastanzaasthis
fromKeats'sOdetoPsyche,
"Olatestbornandloveliestvisionfar
OfallOlympus'fadedhierarchy!
FairerthanPhoebe'ssapphireregion'dstar,
OrVesper,amorousglowwormofthesky;
Fairerthanthese,thoughtemplehastthounone,
Noraltarheap'dwithflowers;
Norvirginchoirtomakedeliciousmoan
Uponthemidnighthours;
Novoice,nolute,nopipe,noincensesweet
Fromchainswungcenserteeming;
Noshrine,nogrove,nooracle,noheat
Ofpalemouth'dprophetdreaming,"
itisdifficulttobelievethatanythingotherthan
the
sheerloveofbeautifulwordsfortheirownsake
thatis,forthesakeofthebeautyoftheimages
they
awakenwillaccountfortheprogressionofthe
style.Andnotonlywordsbeautifulbecauseofthe
imagesforwhichtheystand,butwordsbeautiful
142ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
fortheirmeresound,thesealsoarefavoredbythe

177

poet,aswillbefurthersetforthinthenext
chapter.
Themostimportantandlargestaspectofthe
imaginativeconcretenessofpoeticalstyleisits
use
ofwhatiscalledfiguredorfigurative
language,languageturned,bywhat
arealsocalledtropesor
"
turnings"
fromitsliteralmeaningtosomethingalliedto
that
meaningthroughanimaginativeprocess.*The
figures
ofpoetryarenodifferent|romthoseofprose,
andthestudyofthemindetailbelongsratherto
rhetoricthantopoetics;itissufficienthereto
note
howtheircharacteristicqualityconsideredunder
theirprincipalkindsistoservethepowerofthe
imaginationtoseeresemblanceswherethereason
doesnotfindthem,comparingandcombiningimages
andthusbringingouttheirrealcharacterand
their
emotionalsignificance.
Thesimplest,andwhatmaybecalledtheleast
poetical,ofthesefigures,isthesimile,inwhich
a
resemblanceisstated;leastpoetical,
Thesimile,thatis,ascontrastedwiththe
metaphor
andalliedfigures,inwhichtheresemblance
isassumedbyamoredaringandintense
imaginativeprocess.Thatgreatseriesofsimiles
in
*Somerhetoriciansdistinguishbetweenthetrope
andthe

178

figure;as,forexample,ProfessorGummere,inhis
Handbookof
Poetics:
"Poeticalstyleisdistinguishedfromordinary
stylebythe
use(i)ofadifferentkind,and(2)ofadifferent
arrangementof
words...Wecallthefirst,whichreferstothe
meaning,Trope;we
callthesecond,whichreferstotheorder,Figure"
STYLE.143
Shelley'sSkylark,alreadydiscussedas
illustrating
imaginativeprocesses,issufficientevidencethat
the
simplerfiguremaybeusedwithgreatpower.Ofvr
thefancifultypeisafamoussimileof
Suckling's:
"Herfeetbeneathherpetticoat
Likelittlemicestoleinandout,
Asiftheyfearedthelight."
(BalladuponaWedding.)
Itwouldperhapsnotberashtosaythatthemost
^majesticsimileinmodernpoetryisthatin
Shelley's
Adonais:
"
Life,likeadomeofmanycoloredglass,
Stainsthewhiteradianceofeternity."
Halfwaybetweensimileandmetaphoristhefigure
inwhichlikenessissuggestedbythephrasing,
thoughnotstatedexplicitly;asinTennyson's
"Menmayriseonsteppingstones
Oftheirdeadselvestohigherthings,"
orShakspere's
"Thisroyalthroneofkings,thisscepteredisle,
Thisearthofmajesty,thisseatofMars,
ThisotherEden,demiparadise,

179

ThisfortressbuiltbyNatureforherself
Againstinfectionandthehandofwar,
Thishappybreedofmen,thislittleworld,
144ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Thispreciousstonesetinthesilversea,
Thisblessedplot,thisearth,thisrealm,this
England."
(RichardII,Actii,sc.i.)
Aparticulartypeistheepicsimile,elaboratedin
aj
consciouslydecorativemanner,andalwaysin
modernpoetryfranklyimitativeofthestyleof
theHomericpoems.Atypicalexampleisthis
fromMilton:
"Aswhenascout,
Throughdarkanddesertwayswithperilgone
Allnight,atlastbybreakofcheerfuldawn
Obtainsthebrowofsomehighclimbinghill,
Whichtohiseyediscoversunaware
Thegoodlyprospectofsomeforeignland
Firstseen,orsomerenownedmetropolis
Withglisteningspiresandpinnaclesadorned,
Whichnowtherisingsungildswithhisbeams;
Suchwonderseized,thoughafterHeavenseen,
TheSpiritmalign,butmuchmoreenvyseized,
Atsightofallthisworldbeheldsofair."
(ParadiseLost,iii,543ff.)
Moreintenselypoetical,ashasbeenobserved,
isthemetaphor,whichfusesthetwoimagesintoa
newidentity,allowingnotimetothe
Themetaphor,reasonforinquirywhetherto
identify
themisjust.Threestrikingexamples
areincorporatedinonestanzaofBrowning'sRabbi
BenEzra:
STYLE.!45
"
Thoughtshardlytobepacked

180

Intoanarrowact,
Fanciesthatbrokethroughlanguageandescaped;
AllIcouldneverbe,
Allmenignoredinme,
ThisIwasworthtoGod,whosewheelthepitcher
shaped."
Tennyson'sCrossingtheBar,ontheotherhand,
isasinglecomplexmetaphorelaboratedalmostto
thepointofallegory,inwhichsailor,voyage,
ocean,
andpilotareallfusedimaginativelywiththe
elements
ofthehumanexperienceforwhichthey
stand.Whenpassionisintense,orutterance
hurried,
differentmetaphorsmaycrowdoneanother
eventothepointofcontradiction,asinthe
familiar
"
takeuparmsagainstaseaoftroubles
"
ofHamlet's
soliloquy.
Theothertypesoffigurativelanguagewhichare
importantforpoetrymayberegardedasformsof
themetaphor.Chiefamongthemis
personification,inwhichalifelessobject
Personification,
isclothedintheformorattributesof
alivingperson.Itisofconstantoccurrencein
fleetingimagery,aswhenMiltoncallstheocean
"
theremorselessdeep,"whenShaksperesays:
"Hiscowardlipsdidfromtheircolorfly,"
orLowell:
"
EarthgetsitspriceforwhatEarthgivesus."
I464NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.

181

Inothercasesthepersonificationformsthe
substance
ofawholepoem,asinGray'sHymnto
Adversity(''DaughterofJove/')Shelley'sCloud
("Iamthedaughterofearthandwater,")and
Wordsworth'sOdetoDuty("Sterndaughterof
thevoiceofGod").Ofasomewhatdifferenttype
arecaseswherethepersonificationstandsnotso
muchforalifelessobjectasforanentiregroup
orclassofpersons,asinGray's
"
LetnotAmbitionmocktheirusefultoil,"
orinCollins'sOdetoEvening,inwhichFancy,
Friendship,ScienceandHealthappearasfigures
inwhichtheindividualspossessedofthose
qualities
aremerged.Different,again,thoughincidentally
exemplifiedinthepoemsofGrayand
Wordsworthcitedaboveisthepersonificationof
anabstractqualitypureandsimple,asinthe
lines
"
FairSciencefrownednotonhishumblebirth,
AndMelancholymarkedhimforherown."
Thesepersonificationsofabstractqualitiesare
particularly
characteristicofeighteenthcenturypoetry,
andinittheyoftenrepresentrathera
conventional
formofphrasingthanagenuinemetaphoricalimage.
Thus,intheElegy,suchlinesas
"
HeaptheshrineofLuxuryandPride,"
STYLE.I47
"
ChillPenuryrepressedtheirnoblerage,"
"
IfMemoryo'ertheirtombnotrophiesraise,"

182

callupveryfaintimages,ifany,andmightstand
forpurelyabstractstatementsifthenounsin
question
wereprintedwithoutcapitals.Ofquiteanother
sortarethepersonificationsinCollins'sOde
onthePassions,inwhichFear,Anger,Despair,
Hope,andtherest,appearbeforeusinvivid
symbolic
forms,whichremindusofthemythologized
abstractions,liketheFuries,theGraces,andthe
Muses,ofclassicalliteratureandart.Equally
vivid
isthepersonificationofAutumninKeats'sode,
afigureseen
"
Sittingcarelessonagranaryfloor,
Thyhairsoftliftedbythewinnowingwind."
Thisfigureofpersonification,whengenuinely
imaginative,
takesusstraighttotheheartofpoetry,
especiallythatofprimitivetimes,whenthe
mythmaking
facultywasalwaysbusywiththeobjectsof
natureandtheconceptionsofthemind,andformed
livingimagessolikethoseoftherealworldthat
theywerenotonlypictured,butfeared,honored,
andworshippedinturn.
Thepersonificationelaboratedbecomes
allegory,inwhichanumberofAllegory,
thesepersonificationsformthecharacters
inepicordramaticstory,andreactuponeach
I48ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
otherbothasabstractqualitiesandassymbolic
figures.Thisformofartisespecially
characteristic
ofthemediaevalperiod,whentherewasa
strangefondnessforthemysticaljres^ri^JticiruQf
spiritualtruthinsymbolicmaterialform.Inlater

183

timesthefashionhasdisappearedverylargely,
moderntastebeinglittledisposedtoenterinto
the
intricatestructureofallegoricalcomposition,and
moderncriticismholdingthatpersonificationlike
othermetaphorsisafiguretobeapprehendedin
asingleimaginativeflash,ratherthantobe
consciously
elaborated.Itischaracteristic,then,that
ourgreatallegoricalpoemsareofearlyperiods;
chiefamongthembeing,oftheepictype,thePiers
PlowmanofthefourteenthcenturyandSpenser's
FaerieQueeneofthesixteenth,and,ofthe
dramatic
type,thesocalled
"
moralities,"notablythatentitled
EveryMan.Thepoeticallegorymayalso
becomesatirical,asinDryden'sAbsalomand
Achitophel,
oritmaybeoftheexpositoryordidactic
jype,asinhisHindandthePanther.
Itremainstonoticethattherearecertainforms
offigurativephrasingcloselyalliedtometaphor,
in
other
whichoneobjectisexpressedbythe
figurativefigureofanotherbecauseithasa
particular
ass_gciatiye^
relationtothelatter.
TypicalinstancesarethepassageinwhichMilton
speaksofatableonwhich"
allAutumn"
ispiled
"
allAutumn"
meaningallthefruitsofAutumn,

184

andthatinwhichShaksperespeaksofbringing
STYLE.
I49
"
whitehairsuntoaquietgrave."*Thesefigures,
Iunlessunusuallybold,aresoslightintheir
image
makingqualityastoattractlittleattention,
andarescarcelymorecharacteristicofpoetry
thanofprose.Thesameistrueofothersocalled
figures,whicharenotbasedonimaginative
imageryatall,suchasjrony,antithesis,
aposiopesis,etc.ThefigureofApostrophe,,in
which
Ianobjectisdirectlyaddressed,isaformof
personification
whenithasanyimaginativesignificanceat
ail"
Agoodaccountoffiguresofspeechcanbefoundin
anystandardworkonrhetoric.Foraconvenient
brief
analysisoftheirkindsasrelatedtopoetry,see
Gayley's
IntroductiontoThePrinciplesofPoetry,pp.
xliiixlix.
ProfessorGayleydividesfiguresinto(i)those
which
arepoeticalinthesenseofrepresentingacreated
image,(2)figuresoflogicalartificewhichappeal
to
thereasonratherthantheimagination,and(3)
rhetorical
figureswhichhavetodowiththeorderingof
words.Itisinterestingtonotethat,whereas
formerly
themetaphorwasoftentreatedasanabbreviated
simile,
itisnowrecognizedasbeingthemostprimitive

185

andpurelynaturaloffigures,connectedwiththe
mythmakingfacultytowhichallusionhasalready
beenmade.Thisindirectmethodofphrasingis
constant,
too,inthedescriptivestyleofoldEnglish
poetry,asinthe
"
kennings
"
orepithetsconven
*Tothesefiguresthetermssynecdocheand
metonymyaretechnically
applied:theformer,whentherelationofthetwo
objectsis
thatofawholeandapart,thelatterwhenitis
moreindirectly
associative.
ISOANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
tionalizedfrommetaphoricalassociations:
"
whale's
bath
"
or
"swanroad
"
forthesea,
"
battleserpents
"
forarrows,
"
battlegleam
"
forsword,etc.
Theimaginativeprocess,whichfindsitsexpression
inthisconcretenessofthepoeticalstyle,isin

186

ChoiceofwordsgoodParttheresultofthe
emotionalapfor
emotionalpealwhichwehaveseentobe
characterassociation,
"*'..",.PT
isticofthemethodofpoetry.Inan/
otherwaythisemotionalelementactsuponstyle:
namely,byviewingwordsnotonlyasmeansof
presenting
ideasorimages,butasmeansofarousing
feelingthroughassociation.Thisisofcoursenot
strictlyadistinctmatterfromtheother,forit
must
bebytheimagesorideasassociatedwiththemthat
wordswillarousefeeling;butwhentheydothisby
automaticandinfinitelyrapidassociations,wemay
thinkofitasamatterbyitself.Allstyle,
prosaicas
wellaspoetic,involvesaconsiderationofthe
fact
thatwordsdothesetwodifferentthings:they
copvey
meanings,andtheyconveysuggestions.The
distinctionissometimesexpressedbythestatement
thattheyhaveboth
"
denotative
"and"
connotative
"
values.Whiletheprosewritermakesfrequent
useoftheconnotativevaluesofwordstheir
powerofsuggestingemotionalrelationshehas
donehischiefdutyifhehaschosensuchwordsas
meanexactlywhathehastosay;thatis,words
properlydenotativeofhisideas.Butthepoet,
also
dependentuponthedenotativevaluesofhiswords,

187

STYLE.15!
accomplisheshispeculiartaskinlargepartby
choosing
themfortheirconnotativevalues,theircapacity
tosuggesttheemotiontowhichhewishes
toappeal.Thedefectivestyleofcertainpassages
quotedonanearlierpage,characteristically
unpoetical
althoughappearinginpoetry,appearstobe
duetoaneglectofthisconnotativeelement.
Describing
thegraveofachild,Wordsworthwishedto
giveanimpressionofitspatheticallysmallsize,
and
usedthewords:
"
I'vemeasureditfromsidetoside,
'Tisthreefeetlong,andtwofeetwide."
Thepicturepresentedtothemind'seye,andthe
denotativedescriptionofthegrave,areprecisely
whathewishedthemtobe;butunfortunatelythe
wordshadasuggestivepowerwhichhecouldnot
escape,theiraccuracyofmeasurementsuggested
anunemotionalaspectofsize,
"
described,"touse
ProfessorDowden'swords,
"
asifithadbeenstudied
byanundertaker."Hence,whenthishadbeen
pointedoutbyColeridgeandothers,thepoetfelt
obligedtodestroysomethingoftheexactnessof
theimage,thatitsemotionalvaluemightbesaved,
andmadethechangetothewords"
thoughbut
ofcompasssmall."Equallyinstructiveisthe
change
madeintherevisedversionofTheBlindHighland

188

Boy;inthefirstversiontheboyhadembarkedon
hisstrangevoyagein
152ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
"Ahouseholdtub,likeoneofthose
Whichwomenusetowashtheirclothes."
Therewasmoretroubleherethanabadrime;the
householdtubwastoosuggestiveinthewrong
direction,andwaschanged,onColeridge's
suggestion,
toaturtleshell.*Ontheotherhand,_consider
theemotionalsuggestivenessofsuchaphrase
asthatbywhichJonsondescribesthelily,
"
the
plantandfloweroflight/'whichcanhardlybe
said
topresentanydefiniteimage,buthasavividand
invaluable
associativepower;orofthesuddenoutburst
ofafamiliarwordofvituperationinthe
lamentofTennyson'sCEnone:
"
Iwishthatsomewhereintheruinedfolds,...
Orthedrythickets,Icouldmeetwithher
TheAbominable!
"
ofawordofrepulsiveassociationinconnection
withonegivingareverential,intensifying
sanction
toitsuse,inthislinefromTheAncient
Mariner:
"Theverydeepdidrot:OChrist!"
Inallthesecasesitisnottheimagearoused,
for/
thatisvagueatbest,butthemarvelous
associativei
*SeeDowden'sIntroductiontoWordsworth'sPoems,
Athenaeum

189

Pressed.,p.xciii.
STYLE.
,53
powerofwordstoawakentheappropriateemotion,
whichproducesthepod'sdesiredeffect.
Aparticularandcommoninstanceofthispoetical
useofwordsemotionallysuggestiveisthechoice
ofantiquateddiction,includingsuch
simpleexamplesastheuseoftheobAntiquated
diction.
soletesecondpersonsingular,andsuch
elaborateonesastherevivedballadstyleofThe
AncientManner.Thatwhichisoldhasanemotional
value,quiteapartfromanythingelseabout
it;andinEnglishusagethereisanother
circumstance
givingapeculiarvaluetodictionofthe
sixteenthcentury,namely,thatthestandard
version
oftheBibleisconstantlyreadinthatdiction,
aswellasimitatedinprayersandhymns;hence
itspowerofassociatingreverentialemotionis
greatlyintensified.
Inconclusion,then,wefindthatallthese
qualities
ofpoeticalstyleappeartobe,aswaspredictedat
the
outset,directresultsoftheimaginativeand
emotional
elementsofpoetry.Withtheseinview,the
poetreachesoutforwordswhichhewouldnot
otherwiseuse,rejectswordswhichhewould
otherwiseuse,andusesstillotherwordsin
transfigured
meaningsorinrelationswhichgivethem
newandalmostlimitlesspowers.
Beforeleavingthesubject,weshouldperhaps
noticethatthestyleofpoetry'

190

,
.,,,Poeticlicense,
isnotinfrequentlymarkedbyirregularities
whichtogethergounderthenameof
!54^INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
"
poeticlicense,"implyingacertainfreedomof
conductallowedtopoetsinvocabularyand
phrasing,
tocompensatethemfortheexactrequirements
ofrhythmicalform.Themostcommon
ofsuchlicensesaretheinversionofthenatural
orderofwordsandtheadmissionoftheauxiliary
verb
"do"
or
"
did
"
asamereexpletivetofillout
therhythm.Bothareillustratedintheline
"Andtheyalldeaddidlie,"
fromTheAncientMariner.Otherlicensesinclude
theforcingofrimes,ortheuseofantiquated
orunusualformsofwords,forthesal^eofrimeor
rhythm.Butalltheselicensesareadmitted
sparingly
inmodernpoetry,andaretobereckonedas
blemishesunlessasisnotinfrequentlythecase
thechangefromthenormalchoiceofwordsor
orderofwordshasacertainstylisticvalueofits
own.
CHAPTERIV.
THEBASISOFPOETRY(EXTERNAL).
Wesawattheoutsetthatpoetryischaracterized
bytwoelements,onehavingtodowithits
imaginaive
nature,theotherwithitsmetricalform.The

191

formerwasconsideredintheprecedingchapter;
thelatterisnowtobeexamined,sofaras
concerns
thefundamentalcharacterofrhythmasapplied
tohumanspeech,andthereasonswhyitisan
essentialelementofpoetry.
Rhythmisacharacteristicofmovementintime,
andhenceofalltheartswhichareexpressedin
timeratherthaninspace,dancingRhythm
music,andpoetry.Somewritersspeakdefaied'
ofrhythmasalsocharacteristicoftheartsof
space,usingthetermofsuchregularlyrecurrent
elementsasthepillarsofacolonnade;butthisis
reallytospeakfiguratively.Thereisacertain
resemblancebetweenthepleasurederivedfrom
regularityofspacerelationsandthatderivedfrom
regularityoftimerelations,butthetwokindsof
pleasureappealtowhollydifferentsenses,andthe
elementsoftimewhichgotomakeuprhythm
appealprimarilytotheear.Weshould,therefore,
ashasbeensaidinanearlierchapter,thinkof
verse
155
ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
asconsistingofsoundsrhythmicallyarranged,and
ofthewordsprintedonthepageasmeresymbolsof
thosesounds.
Togofurthertowardadefinition,rhythmoccurs
whensoundsaredividedintoequalintervalsof
timeandwhentheseintervalsaremarkedby
stresses.*Assoonasagroupofsoundsmarked
bytheseconditionsisheard,theearsetsupa
standardofrhythmofthecharacterindicated
thatis,withtimedivisionsofthatparticular
length
andattemptstorefertoitallsucceedingsounds,
untiltherhythmisbrokenoffsocompletelyasto
be

192

lost.Morethanthis,soeageristheeartoenjoy
thesensationofrhythm,thatitimaginesthe
necessary
elementsevenwheretheyarenotactually
present.Thusifwehearasteampistondriving
regularstrokesoutsideourwindow,wearelikely
to
imagineadifferenceinthestressofthose
strokes,
soastoarrangetheminrhythmicalgroups,or
perhapstoimagineothersilentbeatscoming
between
them,thusformingrhythmicalgroupsofa
differentcharacter.Andthestrokesoftheclock,
evenwhenreallyallalike,weimaginetoalternate
betweena"tick"anda
"
tock,"thatis,
betweenastrongerandalighterstress,thus
forming
(again)rhythmicalgroupswhichsatisfythe
innerearbetterthanthemererepetitionof
identical
stresses.Insuchwaysastheseweseekto
*Onthemeaningoftheterm"stress,"seep.i6$n.
below.
RHYTHM.157
imposerhythmicalorderuponthedisorderedsounds
oftheworld.
Itisimportanttonoticethattwoelementsare
equallynecessarytotheformingofrhythm:the
equaltimeintervals,andthestresses_
Inetwo
whichmarkthem.Asuccessionofelementsof
soundsalternatingbetweenstressandnor**]
stressorbetweenstrongandweakstress,butnot
at

193

regularintervalsoftime,doesnotimpresstheear
as
rhythmical;andasuccessionofsoundsoccurring
at
equaltimeintervals,butallofthesamestress,
does
notseemrhythmical(unless,asinthislattercase
we
haveseenwillprobablybetrue,theearimagines
difference
ofstresswherenonereallyexists).Wherever
rhythmispresent,thesetwoelementsmust
occur.*Itistrue,however,thatthereisa
difference
intheirconspicuousness.Intherhythmof
dancingbothtimeintervalsandstressesare
strongly
emphasizedanduniversallyfelt.Intherhythm
ofmusicthetimeintervalsaremorestrongly
feltthanthepresenceofthestresseswhichmark
them,andpoorplayersandsingersoftenneglect
thesestresses,becausetheyarenotexpressly
indicated
intheprintedmusicaltext.Intherhythmof
verse,ontheotherhand,thestressesaremore
stronglyfeltbymanypersonsthanthetime
intervals
whichtheymark,becausethesestressesareso
*Thishasbeenprovedexperimentallyin
psychologicallaboratories.
SeeanaccountbyT.L.Bolton,intheAmer.
Journalof
Psychology,vol.vi,p.145.
I58AHINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
largelythestressesofordinaryspeech;andpoor
readersoftenneglecttheequaltimeintervals,
because
thereisnothinginthetextoftheverse

194

expresslyindicatingthem.Thisdifferencehas
resulted
inthefamiliarcarelessstatementthatthe
rhythmofversedependsonlyonstressoraccent.
SidneyLanier,amusicianandpoetwhotriedto
showhowthelawsofmusicalrhythmapplyto
Englishverse,wentcleartotheotherextreme,and
declaredthatequaltimeintervalsaretheonly
necessary
elementinrhythm.*Bothstatementsare
wrong,since,aswehaveseen,bothelements
arenecessary.Butitisquitetruethatmusic
variesitsregularstressesmorefreelythanverse,
andthatversevariesitsregulartimeintervals
more
freelythanmusic.
Intherhythmofmusictheproblemofthecomposer,
theplayerorthesingeriscomparatively
simple.Thesoundswhicharethema
Musicaland
verserhythmterialsofhisart,nomatterbywhat
instrument
theyareproduced,hemay
makeaslongorasshortashewishes,andmay
stressthemtowhateverextenthepleases,without
anylimitationexceptthatoftheformwhichhe
wishestogivethem.Musicalrhythm,therefore,
islimitedonlybythecapacityofthehumanearto
perceiveandtoenjoyrhythmicalformsofsound.
Butwiththerhythmofverseitisquitedifferent.
Verseismadeupofsoundswhicharealreadyfixed,
*ScienceofEnglishVerse,p.65.
RHYTHM.159
tosomeextent,bothastotheirlengthandtheir
stress,bythefactthattheyareusedinfamiliar
speech.Thepoetcannotuseothersoundsthanthose
foundinthewordsofordinaryintercourse,andhe

195

cannotalterthem,orprovideforanywidely
different
pronunciation,merelybecausehewishestoarrange
theminverse.Fromtherhythmicalstandpoint,
therefore,theartofthepoetismuchmore
difficultandintricatethanthatofthemusican;
so
alsoistheartofthereaderofpoetry,whounlike
theperformerofmusichasnoclearguidetothe
rhythmoftheverseinitsprintedtext,butmust
readthewordsofwhichitiscomposedaswords
andsentences,yetatthesametimereadthemas
rhythmicalsound.
Thisaspectofverserhythmmaybeillustrated
inthisway.Therhythmoftheartistmaybe
conceived
asachainofinnumerableequallinks,which
movespasthimatafixedrateofspeed,yetwhose
speedisunderhiscontrolsothathemayeither
hurryorretardit.Intothischainofrhythmical
unitsthemusician,wishingtofitaseriesof
sounds,
mayalwaysputasound,oragroupofsounds,
preciselyoftherightsizeandcharactertofit
the
severallinks,withouthindranceorlimitationof
any
kind.Ifalongsoundisneeded,hewilltake
whatever
soundhewishesandlengthenittofititslink;
ifastressedsoundisneeded,hewilltakewhat
soundhepleasesandstressitasthechainof
rhythm
maysuggest.Butthepoet,wishingalsotofita
!6o^#INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
seriesofsoundstothesteadilymovingchain,has
onlyagivennumberofsoundsfromwhichhemay
choose;andwhenhehaschosenoneofthesesounds

196

becauseitpleaseshimasameansofexpressinghis
ideasorfeelings,hefindsthatitalreadyhasa
certain
lengthandacertainstresswhichnaturallybelong
toit,andthatthesemayperhapsnotatall
fitthelinkforwhichitisneeded.Withincertain
limits,asweshallpresentlysee,hemayindeed
vary
thenaturalsoundsofspeech,ormayfindthem
already
variable,forhispurpose;buttheselimitsare
clearlydrawnandmaynotbedisregarded.Likethe
musician,too,hemayoccasionallyalterthespeed
atwhichthechainmovespast,inorderbetterto
servehispurpose,butnotsomuchastoseemto
breakthesteadilyonwardmovementofitsrhythm.
Thequestionnowariseswhetherhumanspeech,
withitstimedivisionsandstressesalreadypartly
Rhythm
determinedbyquiteotherthanrhythin
humanmicalconsiderations,fallseasilyinto
speech,
rhythm,andinparticularwhether
rhythmisfoundinproseaswellasverse.Both
thesequestionsmaybeansweredintheaffirmative.
Itwouldbestrange,seeingthatthehumanearis
so
fondofrhythmthatitimaginesitevenwherethe
necessaryconstituentsarenotpresent,ifour
speech
didnotoftentendtoberhythmicalwithoutany
attempt
toorganizeittothatend.Suchasimpleand
commonplacesentenceastheonesetdownamoment
ago,
"Boththesequestionsmaybeansweredin
RHYTHM.T6l

197

theaffirmative,"isatleastapproximately
rhythmical,
thestressesonthesyllablesboth,ques,an,
andfirm,ocurringatfairlyequaltimeintervals.
Personsofsensitiveearwilloftenfindthemselves
alteringtheorderofwordsinasentencefromthat
whichtheyfirsthituponinwritingit,not
because
itdoesnotadequatelyexpresstheirmeaningin
thatform,butbecauseonreadingitaloudthe
cadenceisnotasrhythmicalastheycanmakeitby
a
slightchange.Andinliteraryprose,especially
whenitrisestoexpressgreatdignityorstrong
emotion,
rhythmisstillmorenoticeable.Largeparts
oftheLord'sPrayer(notably
"
Thykingdomcome,
thywillbedone,onearthasitisinheaven")
fall
intoanaturalandbeautifullyperfectrhythm.
Professor
Lewis,inThePrinciplesofEnglishVerse,
\quotesthissentencefromtheBookofGenesisas
onewhichhewouldreadinrhythmicalform,
according
totimeintervalsindicatedbytheitalicized
stresses:
"AndGodsawthatthewickednessof
imanwasgreatintheearth,andthatevery
imagination
ofthethoughtsofhisheartwasonlyevil
icontinually."Otherswouldnodoubtreadthe
sentencedifferently,butstillwithanunconscious
efforttomakethetimeintervalsbetweenthe
stresses
approximatelyequal.

198

What,then,isthedifferencebetweentherhythm
ofproseandthatofverse?andwhyisit,ifprose
issooftenrhythmical,thatitisconsidereda
fault
!62AHINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
ifitsrhythmreachesthepointwhereitcanbe
called
notonlyrhythmbutmetre?Themost
Rhythmin
''
proseandverseobviousdifferenceisthatinprose
no
distinguished,continuOuschainorstreamofrhythm
is
foundpersistingforanylongperiod.Itwas
necessary
tosay,inspeakingoftheLord'sPrayer,
thatpartsofitarerhythmical;perhaps,indeed,
all
itspartsmayberegardedasrhythmical,butnot
accordingtoanysinglerhythmicalmovement.
Wenosoonerdetecttherhythminaprosepassage,
afterbeginningtoanalyzeit,thanitbreaks
offandnewrhythmicalcadencesappear;andifthe
samerhythmgoesonfortoolongatime,wefeel
thatwearecrossingthelineintoverse.Suchan
instanceisthisfromDickens:
"WhenDeathstrikesdowntheinnocentandyoung,
foreveryfragileformfromwhichheletsthe
panting
spiritfree,ahundredvirtuesrise,inshapesof
mercy,
charity,andlove,towalktheworld,andblessit.
Of
everytearthatsorrowingmortalsshedonsuch
green
graves,somegoodisborn,somegentlernature
comes."

199

(OldCuriosityShop,chap.Ixxii.)
Asecondcharacteristicofmetre,asdistinguished
fromrhythm,andimpliedinitsname,isthatits
rhythmisnotonlyformedbytheusualbriefequal
timeintervals,butthatthesearegroupedinto
largerequalunitsformingverses.Inproserhythm
therearerhythmicalgroupingsorperiods,butthey
arenotrepeatedinparalleltypes.Inthepassage
RHYTHM.163
justquotedfromDickens,however,suchgroups
as
"
inshapesofmercy,charity,andlove,"and
"somegoodisborn,somegentlernaturecomes,"
suggestaregularityappropriatetoverse.
Yetoncemore,therhythmicalunitsofprosemay
bedistinguishedfromthoseofverseinbeingfound
toconsistofveryirregularnumbersofsyllables.
Thusinthepassagequotedabovefromthebook
ofGenesis,thenumberofsyllablesintheseveral
timeintervalswhosecloseismarkedbythe
italicized
stressrunssomethinglikethis:two,one,
three,four,two,three,three,five,four,three,
two,
two,three.Wheretherearefourorfivesyllables,
theyarehurriedoversoastobepronouncedina
periodoftimeapproximatelyequaltothattaken,
in
othercases,byone,two,orthree.Inthisrespect
therhythmofprosemorecloselyresemblesthatof
musicthanthatofverse;forinmusicitisvery
commontofindthenumberofseparatesounds
withintheequalmeasuresvaryinginnumberand
length.Thesamethingmaybetrueofverse,as
weshallseealittlelater;sothatitis
erroneousto

200

say,assomehavedone,thattheonedistinction
between
proseandverserhythmisthatthelatteris
measuredintogroupsofafixednumberof
syllables.
NeverthelessitistruethatinmodernEnglish
verse
thetimeintervalsareusuallyformedeitherbythe
regularalternationofstressedandunstressed
syllables,
orbythealternationofonestressedandtwo
unstressedsyllables,thenumberofsyllablesin
the
X64ININTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
rhythmicalunitbeingthereforeusuallylimitedto
twoorthree,andthenumberinthelarger
verseunit
toamultipleoftwoorthree,varyingcommonly
fromsixtoeighteenorthereabouts.This
givesthemetreofversearegularityofmovement
greaterthanthatoftheusualrhythmsofmusic
andprose.
Metreorverse,then,isformedofrhythmical
groupsofsyllables,divided(asinallrhythm)by
stressesintoequaltimeintervals,andalso
divided
intoregularlargergroupswhich,persistently
repeated,
carryonafixedrhythmthroughoutthe
compositionwhichtheyform.Inprose,rhythm
maybesaidtobesnatchedup,fromtimetotime,
asanaccessoryadornmentofspeech;inverse,
rhythmabsorbsallspeech,bearsitupandcarries
itoninacontinuousmovementtoaperfectly
orderedend.*
Itisnowtimetoinquiremoreindetailhowthe
soundsofordinaryEnglishspeechare
TherelationofJ

201

..,
speechstressestofitted,eithernaturallyor
artificially,to
verserytm.^Qregularstressesandtime
intervals
ofverserhythm.Andfirstastostressesorac
*Inapaperon"TheScansionofProseRhythm,"in
thePublications
oftheModernLanguageAssociation,vol.xx,p.
707,Professor
F.N.Scottdistinguishesthe"
rhythm
"ofprosefromthat
ofverseasbeingbasedonchangesofpitchrather
thanofstress.
Interestingashisdiscussionis,thephenomena
withwhichitisconcerned
areofsocompletelydifferentacharacterfrom
thoseunder
considerationhere,thatonedoubtsthepropriety
ofusingthesame
word,rhythm,todescribethem.
ACCENT.i65
cents.*Theseareconspicuouselementsinthe
naturalsoundsofthelanguage,andareformed
primarilysimplybythelouderutteranceofcertain
syllables(thoughtheymaybecharacterized
incidentallybyotherchanges,suchasdifference
ofpitch).Ingeneralasyllableisstressedfor
one
oftworeasons:becauseitistherootsyllableof
a
word,orbecauseitoccupiesanimportantplace
inasentence.Thesetworeasonswillverycommonly
worktogether,syllablesbeingstressedfor
bothreasonsatonce,orleftunstressedbecause
neitherapplies.Buttheymayconflict.Thusa
rootsyllablemaybeveryslightlystressedifthe

202

wordinwhichitstandsisoflittlegrammaticalor
rhetoricalimportance;as,forexample,thefirst
syllableofover,inthesentence
"Hejumpedover
thefence,"comparedwiththesentence,
"
Isaid
*Inthisbooktheterms"accent
"and"stress
"
areusedas
synonymous,andashavingprimaryreferencetothe
forceorloudness
ofthesoundinquestion.Eithertermmaybeused
more
generally;as,forexample,byMr.Omond,whenhe
remarksthat
"
anythingwhichgivesimportancetoasyllablemay
besaidtolay
stressonit."Andagain:
"'Accent'withusdoesnotnecessarily
implyeitherelevationofpitch,orincreaseof
loudness,orprolongation
oftime.Normallyweliketouniteallthreeonone
syllable,
andthisisprobablyourcommonesttypeofaccent.
But
anydevicewhichthusdistinguishesasyllablefrom
itsfellowsmakes
itconspicuous,andthisconspicuousnessiswhatwe
reallymeanby
'accent.'"(EnglishMetrists,pp.5,4.)Intheory,
thisistrue;
actually,however,forthemodernGermanic
languages,Englishincluded,
anaccentedsyllableisoneutteredwithmoreforce
orloudness

203

thanitsneighbors(inFrenchthesamestatement
willnotcertainly
hold).Withthisforcetheremaybeassociateda
change
ofpitchorachangeofduration,butneither
necessarily.
!664NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
over,notunder."Ontheotherhand,asyllable
bearingnoetymologicalaccent(thatis,accentdue
toitsbeingtherootsyllable)willveryrarelybe
stressedforrhetoricalreasons;andwhilewecan
easilypronounce
"over
"
inasentencewithlittle
ornostressonthefirstsyllable,wecannot
pronounce
thesecondsyllablewithanystressatall.
Monosyllablesarecommonlystressedorleft
unstressed
accordingtothesecondprinciplealone
theirgrammaticalorrhetoricalimportance.Many
words,especiallycompoundsinwhicheachmember
isstrictlyentitledtoanetymologicalaccent
(like
newfound),maydividethestressalmostequally
betweentwosyllables,orshiftittoeither
according
tothepreferenceofthespeaker.Thenumerals
in
"
teen
"
areofthisclass,beingusuallystressed
onthelastsyllableattheendofaclause,
otherwise
onthefirst.
Thusfarithasbeenimpliedthattherearebut

204

twokindsofsyllables,consideredwithreference
to
accent:stressedandunstressed.But
f
hisisfCOUrSenOttheCaSe'Theoretically
theremaybeanalmostinfinite
numberofdegreesofstress,astheintensityof
utteranceisincreasedordiminished.Practically
wethinkofsyllablesasfallingintothreeclasses
:
(i)thosenotstressed,orstressedsoslightlyby
comparisonwiththeirneighborsastoseem
unstressed
;(2)thosefullystressed;and(3)those
halfstressedorbearingwhatiscommonlycalled
ACCENT.
asecondaryaccent.Thusinmanywordsofthree
syllables,andinnearlyalloffoursyllablesand
more,twoarestressedonefully,theother
secondarily.
Examplesarethethirdsyllableofcircumstance,
thethirdofordinary,thesecondofimagination,
thefifth(perhapsalsothefirst)of
unpremeditated,
thesecondofintelligibility.Thesesecondary
stressesexistonaprincipleakintothe
etymological,
thehereditarytendenciesofthelanguageorthe
historyoftheparticularword.Butinthecaseof
compoundwordsandofmonosyllablesasecondary
stressmaybeduetothesecondprinciple,the
grammaticalorrhetoricalimportanceofthe
syllable
inquestion.
Whenwecometofitthesesyllablestoametrical
scheme,whoserhythmrequiresstressesatequal
intervals,
itisevidentthatcertaingroupsAiterationsof

205

ofwords(aswehaveseenisthecasesfresstofit
themetrical
eveninprose)willconformreadilyscheme,
tothemetricalscheme,dividingthemselves
naturally
intostressedandnonstressedsyllables,whether
foretymological,grammaticalorrhetorical
reasons.
Thusintheverse
'''Thecertainsecretthinghehadtotell
"
thereisaregularalternationofstressedand
unstressed
syllables,whichwouldoccurinthecase
ofthesamesentenceinprose,andwhichnaturally
conformstotheparticularkindofmetrehererep!
68^#INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
resented.Theaccentsonthefirstsyllablesof
certainandsecretareduetoetymologyandcould
notbewhollydispensedwith;thing,had,and
tell,beingmonosyllables,couldtheoreticallybe
stressedorunstressed,butthingisanimportant
nouninthesentence,andtellanimportantverb,
sothatbothareentitledtogrammaticalor
rhetorical
stress.Hadistheonlywordinthesentence
whichisstressedalittledifferentlyinthemetre
fromwhatitwouldbeinprose;onefeelsthatin
proseitsstressbecauseofitsslighterimportance
wouldbelighterthanthatonthingortell;yet
itwouldcertainlybeheavierthanthatoneither
ofitsneighbors,heandto,whicharewholly
unstressed,
anditthereforeeasilyassumesthemetrical
stressdesiredforitspositioninthesentence.
But
itisnotoftenthataphrasewillbefoundso
naturally

206

adaptedtothestressesofverserhythm.Thus
intheline
"Noreverdidhespeaknorlookedatme"
itisevidentthattherhythmasksformorestress
ondidthatitwouldhaveinprosespeech;andthis
isreadilygranted,foritisawordwhichcan
easily
takeastress,andeveninproseisstressedrather
morethanthelastsyllableofever,whichprecedes
it,orthehewhichfollowsit.Intheline
"Hesweptthespringthatwateredmyheart's
drouth
"
ACCENT.T69
thesyllablemyalsoneedsastrongerstressfor
the
rhythmthanitwouldhaveintheprosesentence;
andthiscannoteasilybegrantedit,sinceto
accent
themystronglywouldgiveafalseemphasisanda
falsemeaning.Onecansee,however,thateven
thismymaybestressedalittlemorethanthe
preceding
lastsyllableofwatered,andperhapsalittle
moreinversethanitwouldbeinprose.*Once
more,letusconsidertheline
"
Onlyourmirroredeyesmetsilently."
Hereitisthelastsyllablewhichseemstorequire
astrongstressforthecompletionoftherhythm,
but
whichinproseutterancewouldbearlittleornone.
Yetthelineisneitherunusualnordisagreeable.
In
readingitwedonot,indeed,asintheother
cases,
givethelightsyllableastrongerstressthanin
prose,butrathermaybesaidtothinkastressfor

207

it;andsogenerallyforthefinalsyllableofthe
line,twhenitiscapableofbearingtheslightest
secondarystress.Thefinalsyllableof
"
silently
"
issuchasyllable,sinceitisnotsocompletely
unstressed
(eveninprose)astheonepreceding;for
thesecondsyllableofsilentorsilentlyitwould
beverydifficulttoimagineastress,nomatter
how
muchtherhythmmightrequireit.
*Itmaybenoticedagainthatthewantofstress
in"tered"and
"my"
iscompensatedforbytherepeatedstressonthe
following
syllables,"heart'sdrouth."
tComparetheprivilege,inclassicalprosody,by
whichevena
naturallyshortsyllableisregardedaslongatthe
endoftheverse.
ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Allthesecaseshavebeenthoseinwhich,for
purposesofverserhythm,asyllablehasbeen
stressedmorestronglythanitwouldhavebeen
stressedinprose,yetwithoutgoingbeyondcertain
limitsofnaturalwordaccent.Wemayalso
findcaseswherethesyllablemaybestressedless
stronglyforthesamepurpose.Intheline
"Thenthedarkripplesspreadtowavinghair
"
theadjectivedarkwouldbear,inproseutterance,
aboutthesamerhetoricalstressasthefirst
syllableofripples.Inverse,however,sinceit
occupiestheplaceofalightsyllableinthe
rhythmical

208

scheme,itsstressmaybelightenedsufficiently
tobringastrongerstressonthesyllablethat
follows.
Itwouldbeeasytofindevenmoreobvious
illustrationsofthesameprinciple.
Wemayalsofindmanyinstanceswherethese
Hovering
^woprocesses,ofincreasingordiminaccents,
ishingthenaturalprosestressesof
syllables,takeplacesuccessivelyinthecaseof
adjacent
syllables,thusformingacompromisedpairof
stresseseachonerepresentingsomethingyielded
bynaturalutteranceforthesakeofrhythm,yet
withoutdestroyingthenormaltotalofstress.The
verse
"AndasIstooped,herownlipsrisingthere
"
ACCENT.171
showssuchapairofsyllablesinownlips.In
prose,lipswouldbestressedmorestronglythan
own;theverserhythmexpectsthatthereverse
willbethecase.Theresultis,sinceownisquite
capableoftakingastresswithoutinjuringthe
sense,
thatthetotalstressiseasilydividedbythe
reader
betweenownandlips.Thesamecompromisemay
bemadewiththesyllablesthatsoundintheline
"Inthelowwave;andthatsoundcametobe."*
Suchcompromisedaccentsareoftencalledhovering,
andareparticularlycommoninthecaseof
compoundwords,wherethestresseasilyshiftsto
eithermemberorisdividedbetweenboth;asina
lineofoneofShakspere'ssongs:
"Thato'erthegreencornfielddidpass."
Letusnowtrytosummarize,intheformofa
fewdefiniteprinciples,whatwehave.

209

.Summaryof
seentobetherelationsofnormalspeechlawsof
verse
accenttothestressesofverserhythm.
accents
I.Ingeneral,thesyllablebearingtheprincipal
stressinanEnglishwordcanbeusedonlyinthe
stressedplaceintheverse;or,ifusedinanother
place,ittriumphsovertheverserhythm,andthe
latterisaltered.Inlikemanner,awhollyun
*Thesesevenexamplesareallfromthefirstof
Rossetti'sWillowwood
sonnets,anotablestudyinthedelicatevariation
ofrhythmical
stresses.
I72^INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
stressedsyllablewillbeusedonlyinan
unstressed
placeintheverse.*
2.Butasyllablebearingthesecondaryaccent
maybetreatedaseitherstressedorunstressed,
for
metricalpurposes;soalsomayamonosyllable,
provided
itsgrammaticalorrhetoricalstressbenot
violated.
3.Wherethemetricalstressconflicts,notwith
thenormalwordaccent,butonlywiththe
grammatical
orrhetorical,thedifferencemaybecompromised,
andthestressbedivided(ormadeto
"hover")betweenthetwo.
4.Ingeneral,stressisrelativeratherthan
positive;
sothatasyllableatonetimebearingafull
stressmayatanotherbearonlyasecondarystress.
Inparticular,ifasyllablenaturallytakesa
lighter

210

stressthantheoneimmediatelyadjacenttoit,it
mayberegardedasunstressedformetrical
purposes,
evenifstressedinitsownword;fandconversely,
ifitnaturallytakesaheavierstressthan
theadjacentsyllable,itmayberegardedasmetri
*Theonlyexceptiontothisruleiswherean
unstressedsyllable
isusedinsuchawayforexample,ismadetobear
therimeas
toindicatethatthepoetwishesittobestressed
inviolationofword
accent;inthiscasetheaccentiscalled
wrenched.Examplesare
suchconventionalballadterminationsascountree
(thesecondsyllable
bearingtherimingstress),andanoccasionalbold
licenselikethat
ofSwinburneinTheLeper,where"wellwater"rimes
with"her,"
orofRossettiinWillowwood,where"
wingfeathers
"rimeswith
"hers."
tInillustration,comparethefirstsyllableof"
over"
insucha
verseas"Faroverseas,andbeyondallthe
mountains"withthe
samesyllableinsuchaverseas"Overtheocean
wave."
ACCENT.173
callystressed(especiallyinthelastplaceinthe
verse)evenifunstressedinitsownword.
Theviewsherepresentedastothevariationof
speech
stressesinshiftingconformityto,orinconflict
with,

211

themetricalscheme,mayberegardedasholdingthe
middlegroundbetweentwoextremepositions,
according
towhichwordstressontheonehand,ormetrical
stressontheother,istobepreservedatany
cost.
Criticswhorepresent,onthewhole,theeffortto
base
versestructureontheordinaryarrangementsof
speechstresses,includenolessdistinguisheda
scholar
thanProfessorSkeat,whowishestoanalyzeverse
by
"
thenaturalmethodofgroupingthesyllables
aroundtheaccentedsyllableswithwhich,inactual
pronunciation,theyareassociated/'andMr.
MarkLiddell,whoinasomewhatsimilarmanner
representsmetricalrhythmasrestingfundamentally
ontherhetoricalstressesofpoeticalsentences.
(Seefurther,onboththesecriticsandMr.Robert
Bridges,inchap,vbelow.)Attheotherextreme
aretheviewsofProfessorJ.W.Bright,whowishes
topreservetheregularmetricalstressofEnglish
words,evenwhereitconflictsboldlywiththeir
ordinarystressvalues,andinordertodoso
constructs
atheoryofakindof
"
pitchaccent,"avarietyofthe
secondarystress.Thissecondarystress,inwhich
theelementofpitchismoreconspicuousthanthat
of
purestressorofquantity,hebelievesisnormally
imposed
uponallsyllableswhichoccupythepositionin
whichmetricalaccentisexpected,whentheybear
nonaturalwordaccentofthemselves.Thusinthe

212

verse
"Tobeornottobe:thatisthequestion"
174ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
heplacesthispitchaccentormetricalictuson"
is,"
althoughadmittingtheprincipalrhetoricalaccent
on
"that."(Seehispaperonk<
ProperNamesinOld
EnglishVerse,"inthePublicationsoftheModern
LanguageAssociation,vol.xiv,p.347,andthaton
"
GrammaticalIctusinEnglishVerse,"inthe
Furnivall
Miscellanyof1901.)Mostpersonsfindthis
"pitchaccent"
adifficultmattertounderstand,andthe
theoryseemstohavefoundacceptanceonlywith
certain
pupilsandassociatesofProfessorBright.Certain
ofthesehavedevelopeditmoreindetail;for
exampleDr.Geo.D.Brown,inamonographcalled
SyllabificationandAccentintheParadiseLost,
Dr.
RaymondD.Miller,inSecondaryAccentinModern
EnglishVerse,andDr.W.F.Melton,inThe
Rhetoric
ofJohnDonne'sVerse.AsMr.Omondobserves
ofsuchofthesepapersashehasseen,
"
theircentral
positionisalwaysassumed,neverestablished
byargument."Itprobablyamountstoasubjective
experimentinthewayofinterpretingtheconflict
of
rhetoricalandrhythmicalaccents;andthe
examples
ofsuchconflict(whichbymostcriticswouldbe

213

calledinstanceseitherofinvertedorhovering
accent),
accumulatedinthesestudies,arevaluableforall
students
ofmetre.ThepoetryofDonne,studiedindetail
byDr.Melton,haslongbeenrecognizedasgiving
the
mostremarkablegroupofsuchconflicting
arrangements
ofstresstobefoundinEnglishpoetry.Dr.
Meltonhasaccumulatednolittleevidencelooking
toward
theconclusionthatthepeculiaritiesofDonne's
versearedeliberatedevicesofhisart,andbyno
means
duetoindifferencetoformortoanuntrainedear.
Butmostreaderswillprobablyfindmore
satisfaction
intheinterpretationofferedbyProfessorH.M.
Belden,inanunpublishedpaperon"Donne's
ProsQUANTITY.
!75
ody
"fromwhichDr.Meltonquotes(p.56),thanin
hisownapplicationofthe
"
secondaryaccent
"
theory.
ProfessorBeldensaysinpart:
"Theverserhythm
ofDonne'spoetryisthenaturalandoutwardform
ofhismentaltemper....InDonnethemeaning,
strainingagainsttherhythmofthefore
established
metreinthereader'smind,reproducestherethe
slow,
tenseemphasisofDonne'sthought.Themelodists,

214

fromGreeneandMarlowetoSwinburne,arealwaysin
danger(ifitisadanger)oflullingthemindto
sleep
withthemusicoftheverse.Theversepatternis
caughtatonce....Donne'sverseisneverlyric
in
thissense.Insteadheleavesyou,lineafterline
and
phraseafterphrase,indoubtofthepattern,orof
howthelineistobefittedtothepattern,
producing
therebyasearchingpauseonalmosteverysyllable,
asortofperpetual
'
hoveringaccent.'
"
Wenowcometothematteroftherelationofthe
soundsofEnglishspeechtoverserhythmsofar
asconcernstheirquantityorlength.
,..Speechquanti
Hereweshallfindtheconditionsverytiesand
verse
similartothosealreadyconsideredrytm'
withrespecttoaccent,butwiththisdifference:
thatthequantitiesofEnglishsyllablesare
evenlessfixed,andconsequentlymoreflexible,
than
theirstresses.Intheearlyperiodsofthe
language
syllableswereevidentlydistinguishablequite
generally
aslongorshort,justastheyaredistinguished
aslongandshortintheLatinandGreeklanguages.
ButinmodernEnglishveryfewsyllablesare
obviously
longorobviouslyshort,toadegreewhich
isfeltbyeveryone,orwhichamountstoa1
require4H

215

INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
mentofpronunciationatallcomparabletothe
requirement
thatcertainsyllablesshallbestressed.
Certainvowelsarecommonlycalled
"
long,"likethe
ainpane,theoincone,theeinbeet;butthese
vowelsarereallyprolongedbutslightly,andthere
isnodifficultyinpronouncingpanein
substantially
thesametimeaspan,coneinthesametimeascon,
andbeetinthesametimeasbet.Wedonothear
suchobviouslyprolongedA^owelsasmaystillbe
heardintheGermanlanguage,inwordslikeSaal
andSee.Certaindiphthongs,especiallythatfound
intownandthatincoin,maybesaidtobe
perceptibly
longerthanmostothervowelsounds;yet
eveninthesecaseswhatwemeanisratherthat
theytendtobelong,orthattheymayeasilybe
prolonged,
ratherthanthattheymustbe.Thelength
ofvowelsoundsmaymakeagooddealofdifference
inthemelodyofourverse,butitisrarelyofa
sufficientlydefinitecharactertomakemuch
difference
initsrhythm.
Syllablesaresaidtobelong,however,notmerely
becauseoflongvowelsbutbecauseofthepresence
ofconsonantsoundsinadditiontothevowels.It
isafamiliarprincipleofLatinquantitythattwo
consonantsfollowingavowel(withfewexceptions)
makelongthesyllableinwhichitstands;and
theoreticallythisrulemaybesaidtoholdgood
for
Englishalso.Whentwoconsonantsfollowavowel

216

(unlesstheybesuchascoalesceintoasingle
sound,
likeblandthelike),thefirstofthemis
attached
QUANTITY.177
tothevoweltoformthesyllableinwhichit
stands,
whiletheotherisusuallyattachedtothe
following
voweltoformthenextsyllable.Theconsonant
thus
"
closes
"
thesyllablebehindit,and
requiresthatitbeutteredmorecompletely,in
otherwords,thatitbeprolonged.Thusthefirst
syllableofplentyisperceptiblylongerthanthat
of
penny,simplybecausethetafterthenclosesup
thefirstsyllable,makingitnecessaryto
pronounce
thenasapartofthatsyllable;intheotherword
then(whichisbutasinglesound,thoughwritten
indoubledform)goesoverandbelongs,insyllable
pronunciation,withthey.Consonantquantities
ofthissort,however,likethequantitiesofvowel
sounds,whiletheyplayalargepartinthe
smoothness
andmelodyofourverse,arebutslightly
significantforitsrhythm.Thedispositionofour
speechistohurryoverunstressedsyllableswith
rapidity,andthismaybedoneandisdoneeven
whenthesyllablesaretheoreticallylongbecause
of
thepresenceofseveralconsonants.Whenthese
consonantsbecomesonumerousastomakeit
difficult

217

topronouncethemrapidly,asisthecaseina
wordlikestrange(asyllablelonginevery
possible
way),thentheyperceptiblyfillupthetimeofa
rhythmicalperiod;andthislengthiseagerly
availed
ofasweshallseetomakeasinglesyllable,on
occasion,fillthetimeoftwo.Yetontheother
hand,whenthepoetwishesustohurryoverthem
178^INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
inthesmallestrhythmicalperiod,asSwinburne
does,forexample,intheline
"Timeshedsthemlikesnowsonstrangeregions,"
wefollowhisbidding,thoughperhapswithsome
complaintattheworkwhichthetonguehastodo
tokeepupwiththepaceoftherhythm.
Thestatementmadeamomentago,thatitis
characteristic
ofourspeechtohurryoverunstressed
Keiationofsyllablesrapidly,suggeststhe
converse,
quantityandthatitisalsoourtendencytolinger
onsyllablesstronglystressed.Ifthis
istrue,itappearsthatthereisanintimate
connection
betweenstressandquantityinEnglish
speech;andthisfacthasledsomewriterstogoso
farastosaythatforEnglishusagequantityand
accentarethesamething;*Thisiscertainly
erroneous.
Evenifeveryaccentedsyllablewerelong
andeveryunaccentedsyllableshort,quantityand
accentwouldstillbedifferentelementsofsound,
producedindifferentways.Anditisquite
possible
tofindstressedsyllableswhichareuttered
quickly,
andunstressedsyllableswhichmaybeprolonged.

218

Itisneverthelesstruethatinbothourproseand
ourverselengthandstress,shortnessand
lightness,
tendtogotogether.Onemayseeatleasttwo
reasonswhythisisso:(i)astressismore
pleasing
totheearwhenitrestsonasoundthatcan
*Forexample,Poe,inhisessayon"TheRationale
ofVerse."
QUANTITY.
beprolonged,suchastoll,thanwhenitrestsona
veryshortsyllablelikebit;and(2)thestressed
syllables,beingtheimportantones(whetherfrom
etymological,grammatical,orrhetoricalreasons),
arelikelytobeprolongedbecauseofthisvery
importance,
whilethoseunimportantforanyofthese
reasonsarelikelytobeneglectedbothinrespect
ofstressandtime.Ifwewishtomakean
expression
emphatic,suchas
"Youdon'tmeantotell
methatthatisJohnJones!
"weshallfindthatwe
notonlystressbothJohnandJones,butthatwe
tendtolengthenboththosesyllables.Ifwesimply
say
"
JohnJones'sbrotherwasherethismorning,"
JohnandJoneswillbebothlighterandshorter
syllablesthanintheformerinstance.Thisshows
ushownaturalitis,fromthesimplestandpoint
ofrhetoricalemphasis,thatquantityandstress
shouldkeeptogether.
Verserhythm,beingpeculiarlysensitivetoboth
stressandquantity,isevenmorelikelythanprose
speechtokeepthesetwoelementstogether.Mr.
Omond,inAStudyofMetre,bringstogetherthese

219

lines,
"
takenalmostatrandomfromTennyson's
blankverse,"asillustrationsoftheusageof
poets
*
inchoosingnaturallylongsyllablestobearthe
metricalstresses:
Theweightofallthehopesofhalftheworld.
Thevoiceofdaysofoldanddaystobe.
*Notallpoets,certainly,doittoanequal
degree.Forsome,the
elementofquantityisbutfaintlyrecognized.
^INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Whereallofhighandholydiesaway.
Againforglory,whilethegoldenlyre.
TobreaktheheathenandupholdtheChrist.
Thecraftofkindred,andthegodlesshosts
Ofheathenswarmingo'ertheNorthernSea.
ThencamethyshamefulsinwithLancelot.
IguardasGod'shighgiftfromscatheandwrong.
Asinthegoldendaysbeforethysin.
Ifwewishillustrationsoftheconversetendency,
thetendencytochooseshortsyllableswherethere
isnometricalstressexpected,weshallfindthem
mostobviousintrisyllabicmetres,wheremore
rapid
utteranceconstantlymakestwoshortsyllablesfill
thetimewhichasinglelongonemightoccupy.
SucharetheselinesfromSwinburne'sIntheWater:
IITheseaisawake,andthesoundofthesongof
the
joyofherwakingisrolled
Fromafartothestarthatrecedes,fromanearto
thewastesofthewildwideshore.
Hercallisatrumpetcompellingushomeward:if
dawninhereastbeacold,

220

Fromtheseashallwecravenothergraceto
rekindle
thelifethatitkindledbefore,
Herbreathtorequicken,herbosomtorockus,
herkissestoblessasofyore?
"
Yet,rememberingthesenaturaltendenciesof
syllablestowardlongorshorttimesofutterance,
we
musthaveevenmoreclearlyinmindthefactthat
theirquantityisaflexiblething,whichcanbe
QUANTITY.igi
adaptedtotherequirementsofthetimeintervals
ofrhythm.Asyllablenaturallylongmaybemade
tofilltheplaceoftwoshortsyllables,so
Quantityaltered
astokeeptheunitofrhythmofthetofitthe
metrisame
length;andasyllablenotnatcalsclleme'
urallylongmaybesoprolongedastoservethe
samepurpose,unlessitssoundbesoconspicuously
shortastomakeitunfitforsuchprolongation.In
thepassagejustquotedfromSwinburnewefind
thesyllablewidefillingtheplaceoftwoshort
syllables,
inlinetwo;andalittlefurtheroninthe
samepoemthesyllablesyearnsandfleckedserve
thesamepurpose.Intheselasttwocasesthe
syllables
areevidentlywellfittedbynaturallengthfor
suchasubstitution;wideisnotsoessentially
long,
butiseasilymadeso,whileinotherplacesit
might
befairlyshort.Inthisverse,
"
Islessthantheraptureofspiritwhereby,though
theburdenitquitsweresore,"

221

itappearsthatthesyllableweremustbemadeto
filltheplaceoftwoshortsyllables;andthisit
is
notfittedtodo,eitherbynaturallengthor
rhetorical
importance.Itwillbefoundthatinreading
thelinethedutyisshiftedbackupontheword
quits,whichnotonlyfillsthetimeofthelong
syllable
initsownplace,butthatofamissingshort
syllableinthefollowingtimeunit.Thesamething
istrueofthesyllableduresinthisline:
"
Inthelifethatenduresnoburden,andbowsnot
theforehead,andbendsnottheknee."
!g2ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
OthertypesofflexibilityinthelengthofEnglish
syllablesareadmirablyillustratedbyColeridge's
Christabel,apoeminwhichaconstantvariationin
thenumberofsyllablesisnotpermittedto
interfere
withthegeneralequalityofthetimeintervals
between
stresses.Forexample:
"Thereisnotwindenoughintheair
Tomoveawaytheringletcurl
Fromthelovelylady'scheek
Thereisnotwindenoughtotwirl
Theoneredleaf,thelastofitsclan,
Thatdancesasoftenasdanceitcan,
Hangingsolight,andhangingsohigh,
Onthetopmosttwigthatlooksupatthesky."
Andagain:
"Alittledoorsheopenedstraight,
Allinthemiddleofthegate,
Thegatethatwasironedwithinandwithout,
Whereanarmyinbattlearrayhadmarchedout."

222

Herethechieftaskofthereaderistoshorten
unstressed
syllablesinordertohurryontothenext
stress.Insomecasesthetaskiseasy,becauseof
the
naturalshortnessorunimportanceofthesyllables;
inothersitisnotsoeasy,notablyinthecaseof
thesyllablemarched,inthelastlinequoted,
whichis
naturallyverylong,butisheretobeshortenedin
thedeliberateefforttokeepthetimeintervals
oftherhythmequal.Thelongsyllableironed,
however,
isgivenabundanttimeforutterance,
occupyQUANTITY.
183
ingnotonlyitsnaturaltimebutthatofamissing
shortsyllableintheplaceimmediatelyfollowing.
Ontheotherhand,itwillbenoticedthatboth
syllables
ofthewordslittleandmiddlearenaturally
soshortthatthereisdifficultyinfinding
sufficient
quantityofsoundtofillupthetimeintervalsin
whichtheystand.
Whenquantityisdeficientbecausesyllablesas
pronounceddonotfillupthetimein
Pausesusedto
tervals,thereisamethodofcompensacomplete
timetion
whichwehavenotyetnoticed.It
r
maybeillustratedbythislineofPope's:
"Notforthedoctrine,butthemusicthere."
Herethesyllabletrineisbothunstressedand
veryshort,andthefollowingbut,thoughitis
capable
ofbearingastressandofbeingprolonged,

223

cannotherebemadestrongerwithoutinjuringthe
rhetoricalemphasis.Thecomma,however,indicates
apause,andeveryreaderwouldmakeapause
sufficienttocompensateforthelackofquantity
in
thesyllables.*Similarinstancesmaybefoundon
almosteverypageofpoetry.Inthefirstlineof
ParadiseLost,forexample,
"Ofman'sfirstdisobedience,andthefruit,"
*Ofcourseitmustnotbeunderstoodthatall
rhetoricalpauses,
indicatedbycommas,arecompensatoryandcountin
therhythmical
time.Manysuchpauseshavetostealtheirtime
fromtherhythmical
intervals,likeordinaryphrasepausesinmusic.
184ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
notonlycanthewordandbeslightlylengthened
(thatis,pronouncedmoredeliberatelyand
distinctly)
fromitsusualproseutterance,butthe
pauseindicatedbythecommahelpstocompensate
foritsslightquantity.Inlikemanner,again,the
line
"Comefromthedyingmoon,andblow"
requiresustolengthenthesyllabledyfarbeyond
itsnormalproselength,andevensuggestsa
slightrhythmicalpausebeforemoon;whilethe
lengtheningofmoon,astilleasierchangeof
quantity,
isassistedbythefollowingpauseindicatedby
thecomma.Thuseverywherethetwomethodsof
compensationlengtheningandpausinghelpto
fillthetheoreticallyequaltimeintervals.Itis
of
courseobservablethattheordinaryreaderdoesnot
makeuseofthesecompensationswithsufficient
exactnesstopreservetheperfectequalityofthe

224

rhythmicalintervals;inthisrespect,aswehave
seen,therhythmofverseismoreflexibleand
irregular
thanthatofmusic,becauseofitsconstant
conflictwiththenormalutteranceofthewords
whicharebroughtintoitsscheme;butthetendency
isalwaystomakethesewordsfittherhythmical
schemebysuchchangesaswehavebeennoticing.
Thepossibilityoffillingarhythmi
Pansescompent.,
eatingformisscalintervalbyapauseiseven
more
ingsyllables.dearlyshownininstanceswherethe
pausetakestheplaceofawhollymissingsyllable,
QUANTITY.!85
notmerelycompensatesfortheshortnessofa
syllable.Thispause,analogoustoamusicalrest
equaltooneofthebeatsofthemusicaltime,is
notatallunusualinourverse,althoughitis
often
neglected.Strikingexamplesarefoundinsuch
doggerelrimesas
"
Polly,putthekettleon,
WellallAtakeAtea;
"
insuchsongsas
"Shouldauldacquaintancebeforgot,
AndauldAlangAsyne?
"
andinsuchexpressivelyricalrhythmsas
"
Break,Abreak,Abreak,
Onthycoldgraystones,Osea!
"
Sometimestheyareregularlyusedtogivea
peculiar
charactertoarhythm,asinKipling'sLast

225

Chantey,inwhichthefirstverseofeachstanza
omitstwounstressedsyllables:
"LoudAsangthesoulsAofthejolly,jolly
mariners."
*
Indramaticpoetrysuchpausesmayservethe
purpose
ofindicatinganaturalpauseinthespeaker's
utterance,eithermarkingthetransitionfromone
passagetoanother,orgivingspaceforamomentof
*Inthisinstancethetimeofthemissingsyllable
maybepartly
filledbylengtheningtheprecedingsyllable,asis
easilydonewith
"loud"and"souls;"thesamethingisobservablein
thethreeexamples
quotedabove.Aconsiderablepause,however,is
clearly
necessary.
!86ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
silentaction.InShakspere'sverse,forsuch
purposes
asthese,evenastressedsyllableseemssometimes
tobeomitted;asinthelines
"Kneelthoudown,Philip.AButrisemoregreat
"
(KingJohn,I,i,161)
and
"Thanthesoftmyrtle.AButman,proudman."
(MeasureforMeasure,II,ii,117.)
SuchinstancessupportthesayingofMr.Omond,
that
"
adroppedaccent,likeadroppedsyllable,
mayministertoourperceptionofperiodic
recurrence."
Andallthesepausesemphasizethesimilar
remarkofSidneyLanierthatrhythm

226

"
maybedependent
onsilences
"
aswellasonsounds.Indiscussing
accentwesawthatthereaderofversemay
sometimesthinkastressevenwherethesyllable
mustbeleftunstressedinutterance;stillmore
remarkableisthepoweroftheinnereartoenjoy
rhythmsdependentonsilenttimeintervalsbetween
sounds.
Letusnowtrytosummarize,aswasdoneinthe
matterofstress,theprinciplesgovern
SummaryofF
lawsofverseingtherelationsoftheelementof
quantities,
quantityinordinaryspeechtothetimeintervals
ofverserhythm.
i.MostEnglishsyllablesarelongorshortonly
relatively,andmaybeeitherprolongedor
shortened
tofitrhythmicalintervals,subjectinsomedegree
totheirrhetoricalimportance.
QUANTITY.187
2.Syllables,however,whicharemosteasily
prolongedarepreferredatthoseplacesinthe
verse
wheretherhythmicalstressisexpected;and
syllables
mostnaturallyshortarepreferred(particularly
intrisyllabicmetres)fortheunstressedplaces.
3.Whenthenaturalquantityofthesyllablesis
insufficienttofillthenormaltimeinterval,the
deficiency
isoftensuppliednotonlybylengthening
anadjacentsyllable,butbyintroducinga
compensating
pause.

227

4.Pausesmayalsofilltheplaceofwhollymissing
syllables,inordertocompletetheapproximate
equalityofthetimeintervalsbetweenstresses.
Sucharesomeofthewaysinwhichboththe
writerandthereaderofEnglishversemeetthe
wonderfullyintricateproblemofthead
Adjustment
justmentofournaturalspeechtotheofspeech
lawsofrhythm.Sufficientmusthave
beensaid,atanyrate,toshowthedelicacyand
the
complexityofbothartsthatofreadingandthatof
writingverseinourlanguage.Ontheonehand
lietheinfinitevariationsofstressandtime
values
whichusagehasdevelopedforthepurposeof
communicating
thoughtandfeelingthroughlanguage;
ontheotherthegreatprinciplesofrhythmwhich
arenolesstrulynatural,andwhichweknowmost
clearlythroughmusic.Theresultisinasensea
compromise,letusrathersayacombinationof
forms,whichgivespleasureatthesametimebythe
fidelitywithwhichthelanguageofpoetryfits
itself
*NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
torhythmandthepersistencywithwhichitvaries
fromrhythm.*ItwassaidofChopinthatinplaying
hiswaltzeshislefthandkeptabsolutelyperfect
time,whilehisrighthandconstantlyvariedthe
rhythmofthemelody,accordingtowhatmusicians
calltemporubato,
"
stolen
"
ordistortedtime.
Whetherthisistrueinfact,orevenphysically
possible,

228

hasbeendoubted;butitrepresentsaperfectly
familiarpossibilityofthemind.Twostreamsof
soundpassconstantlythroughtheinnerearofone
whounderstandsorappreciatestherhythmofour
verse:one,neveractuallyfoundinthereal
sounds
whichareuttered,istheabsoluterhythm,its
equal
timeintervalsmovingonininfinitelyperfect
progression;theother,representedbytheactual
movementoftheverse,isconstantlyshiftingby
quickening,retarding,strengtheningorweakening
itssounds,yetalwayshoversalongthelineofthe
perfectrhythm,andbidstheearrefertothat
perfectrhythmthesuccessionofitspulsations.
Theextenttowhichquantityortimevaluesmaybe
consideredessentialtothenatureofEnglish
rhythms,
andtherelationofthiselementtothatofstress,
are
themostwarmlydisputed,anddoubtlessthemost
trulydifficult,matterswhichthestudentofour
verse
hastoconsider.TheyhavebeendiscussedbySidney
*Guyauinterestinglycomparestheartificeby
whichsyllablesare
givenspecialvaluestofitthemtothemetrical
scheme,withthe
"
temperedscale
"
ofthemodernpianoforte,toformwhichasimilar
artificewasdevisedforthepitchoftheseveral
notes.(Probtemes
deVEsthetiqueContemporaine,p.185.)
QUANTITY.189
Lanier,inTheScienceofEnglishVerse;byPoein
hisessayon"TheRationaleofVerse;

229

"
byT.D.
Goodell,inanarticleon"
QuantityinEnglishVerse/'
intheProceedingsoftheAmericanPhilologicalSo
'
cietyfor1885;byWilliamLarminie,inanarticle
on
"TheDevelopmentofEnglishMetres
"
intheContemporary
RevieivforNovember,1894;byJohnM.
Robertson,intheAppendixtoNewEssaystowardsa
CriticalMethod;byMarkH.Liddell,inAn
Introduction
totheScientificStudyofPoetry;byT.S.Omond,
inAStudyofMetre;byWm.Thomson,inTheBasis
ofEnglishRhythm;andbymostofthosewhohave
takenpartinthecontroversyregardingEnglish
imitations
oftheclassicalhexameter(seereferencesin
chap.v).Twoextremesmaybenotedatonce
inthesediscussions:thepositionofthosewho
would
analyzeEnglishverseprimarilyintoexactlyequal
timeintervals,andassignexacttimevaluestothe
separatesyllables,astotheseparatenotesin
musical
rhythm,treatingstressasinmusicasan
incidental
meansofmarkingthetimeintervals;andthe
position
ofthosewhomakeourrhythmstodependwhollyon
arrangementsofvariouslystressedsyllables,
regarding
itasamistakenanduselessefforttoseekfor
regular

230

timeintervalsorfeet,muchlessforregular
syllabic
quantities.Ofthefirstextremethebest
representatives
towhichstudentsofthesubjectmaybereferred
arethediscussionsofSidneyLanierandMr.
William
Thomson;oftheotherextremethediscussionof
Mr.
Liddell.Fortheone,metrehasfundamentallythe
natureofmusic,sofarasitsrhythmicalelements
are
concerned;fortheotheritissimplyoneformof
rhetoric,
thearrangementofwordsbyapeculiarlyregular
andexpressivesystemofstresses.Equally
conflicting
arethevariousopinionsofthesewritersonthe
I9ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
questionastowhether,inEnglish,astressed
syllable
andalongsyllablemeansubstantiallythesame
thing.
Itisimpossibletorepresentbybriefextractsthe
arguments
onthesematters;forsomedetailedcommenton
them,thestudentmaybereferredtoEnglishVerse,
PartIII.Ingeneral,thetendencyofrecent
prosodical
literaturehasbeentoavoideitherextreme,andto
recognizesomewhatafterthefashionsetforthin
the
presentchaptertheexistenceandtheimportanceof
boththeelementsoftimeandaccent,sometimes
conflicting,
sometimesagreeing,accordingasournatural
speechutterancefitsmoreorlessreadilythe
theoretical

231

measuresoftherhythmicalscheme.Butitcannot
besaidthatanythinglikeanagreementhasyet
been
reachedonthequestionwhetheritispossibleto
analyze
anddescribethelengthofsyllablesandfeetwith
accuracy.Mr.Saintsbury,thelatestwriteron
English
verse,givesitashispersonalopinionthat
"
inEnglish
accentisacauseofquantity,butnottheonly
cause,andnotastableone;
"
butheavoidsthereal
issueastotherelationofthismattertothe
analysisof
metres,usingtheterms
"
long"and"
short
"
with
explicitambiguity.
"
Icallthetwoclasses'
longs
'
and'shorts'withouttheveryslightestinnuendo
or
insinuationthatIbelievethesourceofdifference
tobe
thegreaterlengthoftime,thegreaterquantity,
inthe
technicalsense,oftheoneascomparedwiththe
other.
...Icallthesetwovalues'long'and'short'just

232

asImightcallthem'Abracadabra'and'Abraxas
'
absolutelywithoutprejudiceorpreferencetoany
theoryoftheexactprocessbywhichtheone
becomes
AbraxasortheotherAbracadabra."(Hist,ofEng.
Prosody,vol.i,p.5.)
Oneofthemostsuggestive,andreallypractical,
aspects
ofthediscussionisthatwhichconcernsthe
possiQUANTITY.
191
bilityofrepresentingEnglishmetresbymusical
notation.
Thisinvolvestwosubordinatequestions:
whetherourmetresareproperlydivisibleinto
equal
intervals,andwhethertheseparatesyllablesare
exactly
relatedtoeachotherinproportionsoflengthsuch
as
musicalnotesarefittedtorepresent.Iftheviews
setforthintheearlierpagesofthischapterare
sound,
weshouldprobablyanswerthefirstquestioninthe
affirmative,butthesecondinthenegative.The
best
wayfortheindividualstudenttosolveitfor
himselfis
toconsidercarefullytheexamplesgivenbyLanier
andThomsonofversedescribedbymusicalnotation.
(ThoseofThomsonarealmostcertainlythebest
that
havebeenundertaken;stillothersmaybefoundin
Dabney'sMusicalBasisofEnglishVerse.)Fromthe
standpointofthepresentwriter,itisa
significantfact

233

thatthesedefendersofthemusicalsystemdiffer
radically
amongthemselvesononeofthemostfundamental
questionstowhichthesystemimmediately
givesrise:howshallwerepresent,musically,a
normal
verseofourcommoniambicfivestressmeasure?
LanierandThomsonanswer,inthreeeighttime,
givingtoeachstressedsyllableatimevalue
approximately
twiceaslongasthatofthealternatesyllables.
Dabneyanswers,intwoeight(ortwofour)time;
and
Omond(althoughnotusingthemusicalnotation)
tendstosupportthisview,treatingourcommon
iambic
measuresasincommonor
"
duple
"
time.Thesame
question,puttoalargenumberoffairly
intelligentstudents
ofEnglishpoetry,hasusuallymetwithresponses
asdifferentastheseofthecritics.Whyisit
that,in
thepresenceofperfectlyfamiliarmusicaltimes
and
perfectlyfamiliarpoeticalmetres,wecannotsay
which
oftheoneismostlikeanyoftheothers,whenit
comes
toaccuratedenotation?Thebestansweristhatthe
I92ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
valuesofthealternatingsyllablesofourcommon
verse
correspondneithertodoublenortripletime;no
ordinary

234

readerreadsthestressedsyllablewithtwicethe
lengthoftheunstressed,norwiththesamelength.
It
isverylikelythatameasuremadeupofaneighth
noteplusadottedeighth(equaltooneandone
half
thetimevalueoftheeighth)wouldfairly
represent
thenormalsyllabicpairsofsomemetres;in
othersan
eighthnoteplusadoubledottedeighth(equalto
one
andthreequartersthetimevalueoftheeighth)
would
dobetter.Nosuchmeasure,ofcourse,isknownto
music.Andifthisistrueoftheperfectlyregular
andtypicalmetre,howmuchmorecomplicatedthe
problemofrepresentingtheconstantanddelicate
alterationsofsyllabictimewhichwehaveseenare
madebythereaderinadjustingnormalspeech
utterance
totherhythmimposeduponit!Itisonething
toagreethatthetimeintervals,theunitsof
rhythm,
inanormalversetendasregularlytoequalityof
lengthasthemeasuresofmusic;butquiteanother
thingtosaythattheseparatesyllableswithin
thoseintervalshavethefamiliarmathematical
relations
oflengthwhichweuseintherhythmsof
music.No;whenapoemissettomusic,its
syllables
takeonnewandartificialtimerelations,other
than
thatwhichtheyhaveeveninthemostregular
metrical
reading.
Mr.Omond,althoughaswehaveseenhefindsit

235

convenienttodistinguishourmetresasofduple
and
tripletime,supportstheseconclusionsinthis
characteristically
reasonablesummary:
"
Itwillalsobeevident
howfutileitistoexpectcorrespondencebetween
themethodsofmetreandmusic.Musicalnotesare
almost
puresymbols.Intheoryatleast,andnodoubt
substantiallyinpractice,theycanbedividedwith
FUNCTIONSOFRHYTHM.!93
mathematicalaccuracyintofractionsof12,14,
18,
116,etc.andtheidealofmusicisabsolute
accordance
withtime.Versehasothermethodsandanother
ideal.
Itswordsareconcretethings,notreadilycarved
tosuch
exactpattern....Theperfectionofmusiclies
inabsolute
accordancewithtime,thatofverseincontinual
slightdeparturesfromtime.Thisiswhynomusical
representationsofverseeverseemsatisfactory.
They
assumeregularitywherenoneexists....Onthe
otherhand,tosupposethatthisimperfectionis
itself
rhythmicalthattheseaberrationsfromtype,
variations
ofstressandquantityandwhatnot,constitute
inthemselvesthelawofversewouldbeastill
more
fatalblunder."(AStudyofMetre,p.59.)
Wehavenexttoconsidertheconnectionbetween
thisrhythmicalcharacterofpoetryanditsinner

236

imaginativecharacteraspreviously
studied,askingourselveswhymetretheinnernahas
provedtobeanessentialelementin
tureofPetrypoetry,
andwhatfunctionitperformsinthetotal
purposeoftheart.Manyanswerstothesequestions
havebeenproposedbyvariouscritics,butit
willbefoundthatmostofthemmaybeconsidered
underthreeheads:therelationofmetretopoetry
(i)asapleasuregivingworkofart,(2)asthe
expressionofemotion,and(3)asameansof
idealizing
experiencesthroughtheimagination.
Inthefirstplace,then,allartsseekthe
expression
ofbeauty,poetrJynolessthantherest,.
Rhythmasa
andrhythmimpressestheearwithanmeansof
effectakintothatofbeautytothebeautyi
eye.Theexplanationofthisimpressionisoften
I94ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
soughtintheprincipleof
"
VarietyinUniformity
"
(whichonlycarriesthematterastepfurtherby
givingitaname),accordingtowhichweenjoy
thatwhichseemsperpetuallyapproximatingto
regularity
orlikeness,yetisforeveralteringitsforms.
(Wordsworthspeaksofthesameprincipleinthe
phrase
"
theperceptionofsimilitudeindissimilitude.")
Howcharacteristicthisqualityisofthe
rhythmsofourverse,thegreaterpartofthis
chapter
hascertainlytendedtoshow.Butfurtherthan

237

this,themetricalformofpoetry,withits
approximation
toaccuraterhythm,givesasenseofperfection,
ofcompleteness,andofpermanence,whichin
thesamewayarousesthepleasure
characteristically
producedbyworksofart.Somewillhave
itthattheveryappreciationofdifficulties
overcome,
arisingfromourknowledgethattofitthewordsof
commonspeechtorhythmicalformisnolight
undertaking,
isanelementinthispleasure.Whether
thatbesoornot,theresultingperfectionis
certainly
perceivedandenjoyedbyanalmostuniversal
humansense.LeighHunt,inanefforttoexpress
thiseffectofperfectformproducedbymetre,
spoke
ofitas
"
thatfinishing,androunding,and*tuneful
planeting
'ofthepoet'screationswhichisproduced
ofnecessitybythesmoothtendenciesoftheir
energyorinwardworking,andtheharmonious
danceintowhichtheyareattractedroundtheorb
ofthebeautiful;"anallusiontothe"nebular
hypothesis,"accordingtowhichtheformsofthe
FUNCTIONSOFRHYTHM.195
planetsinthesolarsystemweresupposedtohave
beenduetotheactionofthelawofgravitation
upon
theirpartsandtheirmovements.Inthesameway,
Huntimplies,theformofpoetryisnottobe
thoughtofasamerelyarbitrarythingimposed
uponspeech,butasthataspectwhichspeech
presents

238

whenitsaspirationtowardbeautyhasworked
outitslawfulandperfectends.Emersonmakes
useofasimilaranalogywhenhesays,
"
thepoet
...bringsyouheapsofrainbowbubbles,opaline,
airborne,sphericalastheworld,insteadofafew
dropsofsoapandwater."Thesphereisasymbol
ofperfectiontotheeye;rhythmasymbolof
perfection
totheear.
Inthesecondplace,thelanguageofpoetryseeks
metricalformbecauseitisinanespecialsense
theexpressionofemotion.Toexplain,
,..
L
Rhythmasexthis
ishardlypossibleexceptbyrestatpressiveof
ingindifferentformsthefactthat
emotioni
humanemotionseeksrhythmicalutterance,always
andeverywhere.Children,barbarians,andmadmen
thosewhoabandonthemselvestoemotional
expressionwiththeleastinterferencebythe
reason
breakintorockingmovementsofthebody,ifnot
intodancing,andintorhythmicalutterancesof
voice,withinstantandspontaneousresponsetoany
emotionalstimulus.Ascivilizationadvances,and
menbecomemoreandmoresuspiciousofunrestrained
emotion,theyteachtheirbodiesandtheir
voicestomodifyandcurtailtheseexpressions;
1964NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
dancingbecomesamerelyconventionalamusement,
songemphasizesmelodyandharmonyratherthan
purerhythm,andversecomestoberead
rhetorically
ratherthanmetrically.Yethappilythe

239

naturalinstinctremains,whichnot
"
allthatisatenmitywithjoy
Canutterlyabolishordestroy."
For,althoughweuseproseincreasinglytoexpress
ideaswhichhaveemotionalassociations,yetwhen
emotiontakesthereinsfromthehandsofreason,
andbreaksforthunrestrained,thepacebecomes
rhythmicaland,ifnaturalexpressionisreally
attained,
regularmetrefollows.*Or,toreversethe
order,thepulsationsofrhythm,whetherinthe
case
*ComparesomeremarksofGuyau,inLesProbtemes
dePEsthe'tique
Contemporaine:
"Allofushavespoken[thelanguageofverse]
atcertainmomentsofourlife,oftenestwithout
knowingit;our
voiceshadmelodicinflections,ourlanguagetook
onsomethingof
thatrhythmwhichcharmsusinthepoet;butthe
emotionaltension
passed,andwereturnedtoordinaryspeech,which
correspondsto
theaveragestateofsensibility....Tofixand
toperfectthismusic
ofemotionwasattheoutset,andstillis,theart
ofthepoet.Ideal
versemightbedefinedastheformwhichevery
emotionalthought
tendstoassume."(p.179.)TothisviewM.
Combarieuobjects,in
LesRapportsdelaMusiqueetdelaPoesie,
maintainingthatemotion,
sofarfromseekingregularutterance,breaksdown
regularity,andthat

240

bothmusicandverse,whenmostpassionate,burst
thebondsofthe
normalrhythm,andtendtowardlawlessness.From
onepointof
viewboththeseobservationsaretrue,andnot
contradictory.
Emotionisitselfirregularandlawless;yetinso
farasitattemptsto
becometolerable,orismadepleasurable,ittends
towardarestraining
regularityofutterance.Comparetheremarkof
Wordsworth,
citedjustbelow.
FUNCTIONSOFRHYTHM.197
ofadrum,astrainofmusic,orapassageof
verse,
willstimulatetheemotions,excitingthemtothat
endwhichthedrummer,themusician,orthepoet
desired.Wordsworthsuggestedthatnotonlydoes
rhythmexcitetheemotions,butatthesametime,
byaparadox,itrelievesthemthroughits
regularity
andmakesthempleasantratherthanpainful.
"Excitement
isanunusualandirregularstateofthe
mind;...thecopresenceofsomethingregular
...cannotbuthavegreatefficacyintempering
andrestrainingthepassion."Forthisreason,he
goesontoobserve,painfulscenes,suchasthose
oftragedy,aremoretolerableevenpleasurable
inversethaninprose;afactnotedbyothersand
ofnolittleimportance.Otherreasonsforthis
fact
willbeconsideredunderthenexthead.Hereitis
sufficienttoseethatrhythmicalexpression
stimulates
emotionwhereitisnotalreadypresent,and
formsasatisfyingandsoothingmeansofgiving

241

itutterancewhichisnaturaltoallmankindfrom
thechildandthebarbariantothemusicianandthe
poetofmaturedartisticskill.Inthisway,too,
it
formsameansofcommunicatingemotion,aswhen
itbindsindividualstogetherintheexpressionof
sentimentscommontothemall,orwhenit
perpetuates
thesymbolsofemotionalexpressionthrough
indefinitelylongperiods.Thuswhenadramaof
Shakspere'sisrecitedoractedtoday,the
listeners
aremovedbytheemotionwhichheoriginally
expressed
forhiscontemporaries;andthisnotmerely
!9g^INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
throughthemeaningsofhiswords,butthrough
thesuggestivecadenceofhisrhythm.
Inthethirdplace,metricalformisameansby
whichpoetryidealizesexperiencesthroughthe
imag
Ehythmasa
ination.Wehaveseensomethingof
meansofimag{hisaspectofpoetryinthe
preceding
inativeideali
J
zation,chapter,howittakesthecrudematerials
ofcommonexperience,andtransmutesthem
tosomethingofpermanentandidealsignificance.
Thechangefromthebrokenrhythmsofprose
speechtothemoreperfectmetricalrhythmofverse
isatonceasymbolofandanaidtothis
transformation.
AsHazlittputsit:
"Thejerks,thebreaks,
theinequalitiesandharshnessesofprosearefatal
totheflowofapoeticalimagination....But

242

poetry
*makestheseoddsalleven/Itistosupply
theinherentdefectofharmonyinthecustomary
mechanismoflanguage,tomakethesoundanecho
tothesense,...inshort,totakethelanguageof
theimaginationfromofftheground,andenable
ittospreaditswingswhereitmayindulgeitsown
impulses,
'
Sailingwithsupremedominion
Throughtheazuredeepofair/
withoutbeingstopped,orfretted,ordivertedwith
theabruptnessesandpettyobstacles,and
discordant
flatsandsharpsofprose,thatpoetrywas
invented."
Emersongivesusasimilarthought:
"Youshallnotspeakidealtruthinprose
uncontraFUNCTIONS
OFRHYTHM.
dieted:youmayinverse.Thebestthoughtsrun
intothebestwords;imaginativeandaffectionate
thoughtsintomusicandmetre."AndMr.Courthope
haspointedouthowthiscapacityofmetreto
liftlanguageabovethelevelofproseenablesit
to
makethosedaringflightsofimaginativestyle
which
prosewouldbreakdowninattempting.
"When
Marlowewishestorepresenttheemotionsof
Faustus,
afterhehascalledupthephantomofHelen
ofTroy,itisplainthatsomeveryrapturousform
ofexpressionisneededtoconveyanadequateidea
ofsuchfamousbeauty.Marlowerisestothe
occasion
inthose*

243

mightylines
'ofhis:
'Wasthisthefacethatlaunchedathousandships,
AndburnedthetoplesstowersofIlium?
'
Butitiscertainthathecouldonlyhaveventured
onthesublimeaudacityofsayingthataface
launchedshipsandburnedtowers,byescapingfrom
thelimitsofordinarylanguage,andconveyinghis
metaphorthroughtheharmoniousandecstatic
movementsofrhythmandmetre."Thesameprinciple
isillustratedbyconsideringhowessential
isverseformtothatpoetrywhichismostpurely
imaginative.Pope'sEssayonMancouldbe
paraphrased
inprosewithlittleloss;Gray'sElegywith
lesssatisfaction;Wordsworth'sIntimationsof
Immortality
withstillgreaterimpoverishmentofits
value;whileShelley'sSkylarkturnedtoprose
wouldbeanintolerableabsurdity.Onemightal200
/WINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
mostsay(returningtoafigureofHazlitt's)that
theimaginationmovesasmuchmoreeasilyby
rhythmthanwithoutitasabirdmovesmoreeasily
byhiswingsthanbyhisfeet.
Thisidealizingpowerofrhythmhasastilldeeper
significance,whichwassuggestedbythe
observation
inanearlierparagraphthattragicexmodifier
ofcrudeperienceismuchmoretolerableinverse
reality,thaninprose.This,wesaw,might
beregardedaspartlyduetothesoothingand
controllingeffectoftheregularstressesofthe
metre;itisstillmoreclearlyduetothefact
that
themetricalformliftsthematerialabovethe
planeofcrudereality.Itnotonlysoftensand

244

beautifiesit,byimposinguponittherhythmical
form,butseemsalsoinasensetoshowits
universal
significance.Theproseutteranceofatragic
suffererissopurelyindividualastobealmost
wholly
painful;verseutterancegivesacertainimpression
ofuniversallawunderlyinghiswords,andhe
becomes
aspokesmanforthesorrowsofthewhole
race.Forthesereasonsprosetragediesarefew;
inEnglishliteraturenotasinglegreatonecanbe
named.*TothesameprincipleGoethetestifiedin
*Inthisconnectionthequerynaturallyarises:
why,then,isprose
adequatefortheromantic(andsometimestragic)
novel?Nosingle
andwhollysatisfactoryanswercanbegiven.Ithas
alreadyappeared
(seechapteri)thattheproseromanceformsthe
mostdifficult
problemintheattempttofixtheboundaries
betweenpoetic
literatureandliteratureinprose.Thatitis
often"poetic,"incertain
sensesoftheword,thereisnodoubt.Twobrief
answersto
FUNCTIONSOFRHYTHM.2OI
aninterestinglettertoSchiller,atthetimehe
was
engagedinwritingFaust:
"
certaintragicscenes,"
hesaid,
"werewritteninprose,buttheyarequite
intolerablecomparedwiththeothersthroughtheir
naturalnessandstrength.Iamtryingthereforeto

245

putthemintorime,forthentheideaisseenasif
\
throughaveil,andthedirectimpressionofthe/
tremendousmaterialissoftened."*Shakspere's
practiceonthewholepointstothesametruth.It
istruethatincertainofhistragedies(andmore
especiallyinthelaterones)heusesa
considerable
amountofseriousprose.Butitwillbefoundthat
thiscanusuallybeexplainedinoneoftwoways:
asduetothepresenceofanextraordinaryamount
oftheintellectualelement,blendingwriththe
imaginative
(asinHamlet},orwhatisstillmoresignificant
forourpurposetotheefforttomake
tragicsufferingaspainfulaspossible.Inthis
latter
casewehavegoneallthewayroundthecircle,to
thepointwherepainwillnotbeveiledor
reconciled,
butwillappearintremendousandchaoticinthe
questionmaybesuggested.First,thenovel
whateverthe
excellenceofitsworkmanshipmayberegardedas
oneoftheless
fixedandperfectartforms,demandingtheexact
adaptationof
meanstoendslessimperiouslythan(forexample)
thedrama.
Secondly,ithasrarelybeensosuccessful,andhas
notsocompletely
justifieditself,intheregionofromanceand
tragedyasin
thatofcomedyandsatire,forwhichtheproseform
isobviously
moreperfectlyfitted.
*Letterof5May,1798.SeealsoSchiller'sreply,
of8May.

246

(JenaeditionoftheSchillerGoethe
Correspondence,1905,vol.ii,
pp.98etc.)
202^NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
tensity.Suchamomentisthatoftheoncoming
madnessofKingLear,orthatwhenOthellobreaks
intoravingbeforehefallsinacataleptictrance.
Thesescenesarepathetic,inWordsworth'sphrase,
"
beyondtheboundsofpleasure;
"
andmostreaders
doubtlesspassoverthemhurriedly,awaitingthe
momentwherethepassionisagaincontrolledbythe
reconcilingpowerofverse,passagessuchas
"HaditpleasedHeaven
Totrymewithaffliction;hadtheyrained
Allkindofsoresandshamesonmybarehead,
Steepedmeinpovertytotheverylips,
Giventocaptivitymeandmyutmosthopes,"
orsuchas
"Absenttheefromfelicityawhile,
Andinthisharshworlddrawthybreathinpain."
Throughwhatevervicissitudesitpasses,atits
conclusion
thetragedywillbefoundtobecomemetrical
andtheverseincreasinglysweetandregular,the
utteranceofthedefeatedactorsfallingintoa
steadily
pulsingrhythmthatseemstosymbolizethe
underlyingimperturbableorderoftheuniverse.
Theplaceandfunctionofthemetricalelementin
poetryarediscussedinanumberofpassagesto
whichreferencehasbeenmadeinthepreviouspages
:
Wordsworth'sPrefacetotheLyricalBallads;
Coleridge's
BiographiaLiteraria,chap,xviii;Hazlitt's

247

lectureOnPoetryinGeneral;LeighHunt's
IntroFUNCTIONS
OFRHYTHM.203
ductiontoImaginationandFancy;Watts'sarticle
on
PoetryintheEncyclopediaBritannica;Emerson's
PoetryandImagination;Gurney'sTertiumQuid
(essayon"
Poets,Critics,andClassLists,"vol.ii,
especially
pp.162179);Masson'sessayon"Proseand
Verse;
"
Courthope'slecturesonLifeinPoetry;Stedman's
NatureandElementsofPoetry,pp.5155;
Gummere'sBeginningsofPoetry(chap.ii).Extended
extractsfrommostofthesewriterswillbe
foundinEnglishVerse,pp.423436.
Coleridge'sdiscussionofthesubject,centering
aboutWordsworth'stheoryofpoeticalstyle,
emphasizes
thevitalconnectionbetweenthelanguageof
poetryanditsmetricalform.
"Asfarasmetreacts
inandforitself,ittendstoincreasethe
vivacityand
susceptibilitybothofthegeneralfeelingsandof
the
attention....Asamedicatedatmosphere,oras
wine
duringanimatedconversation....Metreinitself
is
simplyastimulantoftheattention,andtherefore
excites
thequestion,Whyistheattentiontobethus
stimulated?Nowthequestioncannotbeansweredby
thepleasureofthemetreitself;forthiswehave
shown

248

tobeconditional,anddependentonthe
appropriateness
ofthethoughtsandexpressionstowhichthe
metrical
formissuperadded....Metre,therefore,having
beenconnectedwithpoetrymostoften,andbya
peculiar
fitness,whateverelseiscombinedwithmetre
must,thoughitbenotitselfessentiallypoetic,
have
neverthelesssomepropertyincommonwithpoetry,
as
anintermediumofaffinity."
Gurney'sdiscussionofthepleasurableelementsin
verserhythmisofnolittleinterestand
suggestiveness."
When,asinverse,thesoundsarepointedly
addressed
bothtotheearandtheunderstanding,therarity
of
thecombinationofaspectscontributesastrainof
feel204
INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
ingpartlyakintothatwithwhichwefollowan
exhibition
ofskill,andpartlytothatwithwhichwereceive
anunexpectedgratuity....Rhythmperpetually
transfigures
thepoeticalexpressionofanidea,butmakes
theexistenceofthatexpressionpossible..
Language,whichinprosedoeslittlemorethan
transmit
thought,likeclearglass,becomesevenasthat
becomes
byart'sadjustmentsandthemouldingofa
measuredform,alens,wherethethoughttakesfire
asitpasses....Itisasenseofcombinedparts,
and

249

theirindispensablenessonetoanother,whichgives
us
asenseofpermanenceinanarchascomparedwitha
casualheapofstones;itisasimilar
indispensableness
whichgivestometricallanguageanairof
permanence
impossibleeventothemostharmonioussentence
whosesoundsconformtonogenuinescheme."*
Masson'sdiscussioncentersabouttheproperlimits
anddistinctionsofproseandverseasliterary
forms.
(Seethepassagequotedfromthesameessayabove,
p.26.)Hisopinionsonthequestionastojust
where
creativeliteratureinsistsonbecomingmetrical
maybe
illustratedbytheseexcerpts:
"
Inthefirstplace,there
isapeculiarrichnessofliteraryconcreteof
which
proseseemstobeincapable.Byrichnessof
concrete
wemeanverymuchwhatismeantbyexcessof
imagery.
...Inthesecondplace,acertaindegreeoi
arbitrarinessinanimaginativecombinationseems
placeitbeyondthecapacityofordinaryprose,.
sometimestakingthecharacterofmerelight
extravagance,
sometimesleadingtoaghastlyandunearthb
*CompareLamartine'slines(inRecueillements
Poetiques),beginning
"Toutcequisortde1'hommeestrapideet
fragile,
Maisleversestdebronzeetlaprosed'argile."
FUNCTIONSOFRHYTHM.205

250

effect,andoftensurprisingthemindwith
unexpected
gleamsofbeautyandgrandeur.For,thoughwehave
alreadyclaimedforprosethecapabilityofpure
grandeur
andsublimity,wemustnotehere,intheinterest
ofverse,tnatonesourceofgrandeuristhisvery
licenseofmostarbitrarycombinationwhichverse
gives."
Gummere'sdiscussionisofspecialinterestasan
attempttoprovethatfromthehistorical
standpoint
rhythmis
"
theessentialfactofpoetry,"anargument
whichcannotberepresentedbyexcerpts.His
conclusion,basedonthestudyofthecommunaluse
of
rhythmintheworkandplayofprimitiveman,
emphasizes
itssocialsignificance:
"
Inrhythm,insounds
ofthehumanvoice,timedtomovementsofthehuman
body,mankindfirstdiscoveredthatsocialconsent
whichbroughtthegreatjoysandthegreatpainsof
lifeintoacommonutterance....Themerefact
of
utteranceissocial;howeversolitaryhisthought,
a
poet'sutterancemustvoicethisconsentofman
with
man,andhisemotionmustfallintorhythm,theone
andeternalexpressionofconsent.This,then,is
why
rhythmwillnotbebanishedfrompoetrysolongas
poetryshallremainemotionalutterance;for
rhythmis

251

notonlysignandwarrantofasocialcontract
stronger,
deeper,vaster,thananyfanciedbyRousseau,but
itis
theexpressionofahumansensemorekeeneventhan
thefearofdevilsandtheloveofgodsthesense
andsympathyofkind."
Finally,anexplanationofthefitnessofversefor
poeticexpressionsomewhatdifferentfromany
previously
suggested,isthatofProfessorF.N.Scott,ina
paperon"TheMostFundamentalDifferentiaof
PoetryandProse,"inthePublicationsofthe
Modern
LanguageAssociation,vol.xix,p.250.Withthe
206ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
fundamentaldistinction(citedinchapteri,above)
that
proseisprimarilycommunicative,poetry
expressive,
ProfessorScottadducesevidencetoshowthat
rhythmical
formisthenaturalvehicleforexpressive
utterance,
asdistinguishedfromthebrokenformof
communicative
utterance,examplesbeingdrawnfromthe
utterancesofanimalsandchildren.Theconclusion
is:
"Wemaythereforesaythattheearliest
communicative
utterancewascharacterizedbytwomainfeatures
:(
i)Ithadaswaying,fluctuatingmovementofa
seeminglyirregularkind;(2)itdisplayed
cumulative
intensityorclimax,conjoinedwithdiminishing
intensity

252

orcadence.These,Ineedhardlysay,arethe
characteristicsofproseinalllanguages.Onthe
other
hand,intheexpressivetypeofspeechthe
individualis
busyprimarilywithhisownthoughtsandfeelings.
...Undersuchcircumstancesitispossiblefor
the
rhythmtobeshapedbypurelyphysiologicalor
psychological
causes.Thusexpressiveutterancefallsnaturally
intoafairlyregularseriessubjecttochangesin
tempoandpitchcorrespondingtothesuccessive
moods
ofthespeaker....Thechiefcharacteristicof
expressive
utteranceisthisthatitconsistsofbriefunits
of
approximatelyequallengthsoarrangedasto
constitute
aregularrhythmicalseries.Thisisthechief
formal
characteristicofpoetryinalllanguages."(pp.
262,
263.)
Beforeleavingthegeneralstudyofthesubject
ofverseasrhythmicalsound,itremainstoinquire
whethertherearenototherqualities
Nonrhythmical
elementsofofsoundthanthosestrictly
characterverse
form,
jgticofrhythm>whichplayanim_
portantpartintheexternalorganizationof
poetry.
TONEQUALITY.2O?
Rhythmbeingformedbytheelementsthatgo
toformstressandquantity,therearetwoother

253

elementswhichtheoreticallymightbeconcerned,
thoseofpitchandoftonequality.Differencesof
pitchmay,aswehaveseen,sometimesbeassociated
withdifferencesofstressinafashionpeculiarly
characteristicofverse;*butingeneraltheyare
of
courseusedinverseonlyastheyareusedin
prose,
forthepurposeofindicatingvarietiesofmeaning
grammaticalandrhetoricalrelationshipsofwords.
Pitchhasthereforenopartofitsowntoplayin
the
organizationofverse.Withtonequalitywehave
toconcernourselvessomewhatmore.
Differencesoftonequality,inourspeech,sofar
astheyarenotcharacteristicofindividualvoice
utterance,amountsimplytothedifferences
invowelandconsonantsounds
whichgotomakeupourwords.Thesevoweland
consonantsoundsareofcourseneveralteredin
versefromtheirnaturalpositionorpronunciation
asfoundinprose;butthewriterofverse
exercises
morecareinselectingwordswithreferenceto
themthanthewriterofprose.Wehavealready
seenanexampleofthis,inconnectionwith
rhythm,inthefactthatvowelswhichareeasily
prolongedarepreferredtobeartheaccent,and
thatconsonantswhichtakeperceptiblylongtimeto
utterareavoidedincertainpartsoftheverse.
Far
*SeeespeciallythetheoryofProfessorBright,
citedonp.173above.
2o8AHINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
moreconspicuousisthepartplayedbysimilarity
ofvowelandconsonantsounds,mostfamiliarin
thecaseofendrime.*Apartfromthischoiceof
soundswithreferencetotheirquantity,andthe

254

othersortofchoicewhichresultsinthegrouping
ofversesbysimilar(orrimed)soundsattheir
ends,
thereisagreatvarietyofmoreorlessobvious
meansbywhichpoetsincreasethebeautyandthe
expressivenessofversethroughthechoiceofthe
tonequalityofitssounds.Forthemostpartthe
principlesgoverningthischoiceareinnorespect
differentfromthoseapplicabletoprosestyleas
usedbythemostcarefulwriters;butowingtothe
factthatthewriterofversehastheelementof
beautybeforehimfarmoregenerallythanthe
writer
ofprose,andtothesimilarfactthatheismore
interestedintheimaginativesuggestivenessof
speechsounds,wemayproperlyregardthematter
asonewithwhichverseformisconcerned.
Thesubjectofrimewillbeseparatelydiscussed
later,inconnectionwiththeorganizationof
stanzas
andotherlargerunitsofverse.Hereletus
briefly
noticethelessformalvarietiesoftonequalityas
usedforthegreaterbeautyorexpressivenessof
poeticalform.Theymaybeconsideredintwo
groups:(i)thearrangementofsoundswith
reference
tosimilarityafaintappearanceofthesame
principlewhichisinvolvedinrime:and(2)the
*Onthisregularuseoftonequality,seechapter
vi.
TONEQUALITY.209
choiceofsoundsfortheirimaginative
suggestiveness
inconnectionwiththeideaortheemotionto
berepresented.
Themostconspicuousexamplesofthefirsttype
arefoundintherepetitionofinitialconsonants,

255

calledalliteration.Thismeansoflinking
togetherdifferentpartsofverses,^rityof
whichintheearlyperiodofEnglish
versewasusedregularlyasastructuralelement,
hasbeenafavoritepracticeofourpoetsinalmost
everyage.Inmodernpoetry,whenused
withapproximateregularityorwithgreat
conspicuousness,
itisregardedasablemish;butits
subtleandskilfuluseisapartoftheversestyle
of
most,ifnotall,importantpoets.Verseslike
these,
"Withlispofleavesandrippleofrain,"
"Amightyfountainmomentlywasforced,"
"Dreamlandliesforlornoflight,"
"Sweeterthyvoice,buteverysoundissweet,"
"
Fireanswersfire,andthroughtheirpalyflames,"
"
Tinklehomewardthroughthetwilight,strayor
stop,"
"Asfairasthefabulousasphodels,"
"
Glidesglimmeringo'ermyfleecelikefloor,"
"Ashieldedscutcheonblushedwithbloodofqueens
andkings,"
allshowtheendlesscharmoftheseparallel
sounds,
sometimeshiddeninthelessemphaticportionsof
theverse,sometimessettingoffitschief
syllables.
2io^NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Lessnotable,butbynomeansslight,isthepart
playedbytherepetitionofvowelsounds,called
assonance.Hereitisusuallythestressed
syllables
whicharelinkedtogetherandmadeevenmore

256

emphaticthanbystressalone;similarityofvowels
inunaccentedsyllableswillhardlybenoticed.
Because
ofthisgreaterconspicuousnessofassonance
itwouldseemtobefoundlesspleasingthanthe
subtlersoundcorrespondenceofalliteration;and
whenintentionallyused,itismorelikelytogive
a
definitetoneormoodtothewholeverseinwhich
it
appears.Thefollowingaretypicalexamples:
"Frompoppies(breathed;andbedsofpleasant
green,
Whereneveryetwascreepingcreatureseen."
"Thecountrycocksdocrow,theclocksdotoll."
"
Iarisefromdreamsofthee,
Inthefirstsweetsleepofnight."
"
ItisanisleunderIonianskies."
"
Tillyoumightfaintwiththatdeliciouspain."
"Toheightofnoblesttemperheroesold."
"Foreheadtoforeheadheldtheirmonstroushorns."
"Andboweryhollowscrownedwithsummersea."
"Todyingears,whenuntodyingeyes."
"
Larchheartthatcharstoachalkwhiteglow."
Acharacteristiceffectisalsoproducedbytheuse
ofvowelsorconsonantsoflikebutnotidentical
character;forexample,ofopenvowels,likelong
o,
Italiana,andthelike,ofliquidconsonants(/,
m,n,
TONEQUALITY.211
andr),orincontrastthemoreexplosive
consonants,
likep,b,t,andd.Forsuchcombinationsone

257

writer*hasproposedthename"
phoneticsyzygy,"
thatis,thelinkingtogetherofwordsbysounds
notidenticalbutsimilar.RobertLouisStevenson,
indiscussingthesamephenomena,gaveasan
illustration
theselinesfromShakspere,ofwhichthe
linkingconsonantalsoundsareindicatedin
parenthesis
:
"Butinthewindandtempestofherfrown,(W.P.
V.
F.ST.)
Distinction,withaloudandpowerfulfan,(W.P.
F.
ST.L.)
Puffingatall,winnowsthelightaway."(W.P.F.
S.L.)
(TroilusandCressida,I,iii.)
Stillmoreremarkable,andwithsomewhatmore
conspicuousthoughstillincidentaluseof
alliterative
consonants,issuchapassageasthisfrom
Tennyson'sEnochArden:
"Asdowntheshoreheranged,oralldaylong
Satoftenintheseawardgazinggorge,
Ashipwreckedsailor,waitingforasail:
Nosailfromdaytoday,buteveryday
Thesunrisebrokenintoscarletshafts
Amongthepalmsandfernsandprecipices;
Theblazeuponthewaterstotheeast;
Theblazeuponhisislandoverhead;
*ProfessorJohnSylvester,inTheLawsofVerse.
2124NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Theblazeuponthewaterstothewest;
Thenthegreatstarsthatglobedthemselvesin
heaven,
Thehollowerbellowingocean,andagain

258

Thescarletshaftsofsunrisebutnosail."
Wemaynotetheorganizationofconsonantal
soundsintheselinesmoreeasilybysettingthem
downinthisfashion:
.d.
TONEQUALITY.213
istheuseofwhatarecalledonomatopoeticwords,
wordsoriginallyformed,oratanyrateconceived
tohavebeenformed,intheeffortto
representdescriptivelythesoundsofexperience.
Theseareinconstantuseinordinaryspeech,and
likeallthesevarietiesoftonequalityor
tonecolor
arepeculiartoverseonlyfromitsoccasional
emphasisoftheirdeliberatechoiceandimaginative
use.SoTennysonchoosesforthewarsongin
TheComingofArthurtherefrain,characterized
byonomatopoeticassonance:
"
Clangbattleaxe,andclashbrand!Lettheking
reign."
Again,inasonginThePrincessheusesan
extraordinary
combinationofpartlyalliterativeliquidsin
describingthesoundsofasummerlandscape:
"Themoanofdovesinimmemorialelms,
Andmurmuringofinnumerablebees."
Yetoncemore,andstillmorenotably,inapassage
ofEnochArdenclosetothatanalyzedamoment
ago,Tennysonadaptsthesoundsoftheverseto
fourdistinctpartsofthedescriptionofthe
desert
landscape:
"Themyriadshriekofwheelingoceanfowl,
Theleaguelongrollerthunderingonthereef,
Themovingwhisperofhugetreesthatbranched
Andblossomedinthezenith,orthesweep
Ofsomeprecipitousrivulettothewave,"

259

214ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Browningwillbefoundmoreoftenusing
combinations
ofsoundswhichaidintheexpressionof
irregular,distorted,orgrotesqueimages.Thusin
TheHeretic'sTragedythedescriptionofthe
kindling
oftheexecutioners'fireinvolvessuchcuriously
soundingversesas
"
Pinestumpsplitdeftly,dryaspith;
"
andinCalibanthepictureofthemonstersprawling
intheoozeofhispitisenhancedbycombinations
like
"
fistsclenchedtoprophischin
"
and"
kicks
bothfeetinthecoolslush."Miltonoftenshows
anobviouslydeliberatechoiceofharsh,aswellas
melodious,sounds,fordescriptiveemphasis,asin
theaccountoftheinfernaldoorswhich"ontheir
hingesgrateharshthunder,"orthesongsofthe
falseshepherdswhich
"Grateontheirscrannelpipesofwretchedstraw."
Inotherinstancestheappropriatenessofthe
sounds
tothedescriptivemoodislessobviousandless
easytoexplain,yetsuchasaskilfulreaderwill
makeinstantuseof:examplesmaybefoundinthe
fairyspeechesofTitaniainShakspere'sMidsummer
Night'sDream,theopeningstanzasof
Thomson'sCastleofIndolence,andthedecaying
gardenofShelley'sSensitivePlant,where
"
plantsatwhosenamestheversefeelsloath

260

Filledtheplacewithamonstrousundergrowth,
TONEQUALITY.21$
Prickly,andpulpous,andblistering,andblue,
Livid,andstarredwithaluriddew."
Greatcautionshouldbeobservedinthe
analysisofsuchdescriptiveorsuggestive
tonecolor
aswehavebeenconsidering,sinceitiseasy
toexaggeratethepartplayedbythemeresounds
oftheverse,evenwheretheyaremostconspicuous.
Itwillalmostinvariablybefoundthatsoundsare
notofthemselvessuggestiveofdefiniteobjectsor
evenofdefinitemoods,butthattheyemphasizeand
filloutsuggestionsdependentonthemeaningof
words.Thesameistrueofinstrumentalmusic.
Mr.Gurney(inanessayinTertiumQuid)has
gonesofarastosaythataforeigner,wholly
ignorant
oftheEnglishlanguage,wouldnotbeableto
distinguish,merelyassound,betweenthemost
melodiouspassageinEnglishliteratureandan
advertisement
fromthedailypaper.AndProfessor
Lewismorerecently(inThePrinciplesofEnglish
Verse)hasadoptedanalmostexcessivelycautious
attitudetowardthephenomenawehavebeen
studying.
'''WhenTennysonspeaksoftheshrilledged
shriekofamother,hiswordssuggestwithpeculiar
vividnesstheideaofashriek;butwhenyou
speakofstarsthatshylyshimmer,thesamesounds
onlyintensifytheideaofshyshimmering.",The
illustrationisadmirablyinstructiveastothe
danger
oftryingtogeneralizeonthesubjectofthe
suggestive
powerofparticularsounds;yetsurelyto
2i64NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.

261

saythatthealliterationmerelyemphasisesthe
meaningofthewordsistoerrontheotherside.
Both"
shriek
"and"shimmer"
areessentiallydescriptive
words;apartfromtheirmeaning,they
conveynodefiniteideas,butwhenoneunderstands
whatparticulartypeofsoundormovementthe
"
sh
"
isintendedforthemomenttosuggest,it
hasitsowncharacteristicpowerofsuggestingthat
soundormovement.Andtheothersoundsinthese
twowordsdoverymuchtomaketheirdifferent
meaningscleartotheimagination.LongagoDr.
SamuelJohnsonwastheskeptic,forhistime,asto
thepowerofsoundvaluesindescriptivepoetry,
notevenadmittingthatMilton'sfamousline
"
Wallowingunwieldy,enormousintheirgait
"
couldbesaidbyitssoundtorepresentthe
"
corporal
bulk
"
oftheleviathans;for,saidhe,
"
soundcan
resemblenothingbutsound/*Onthecontrary,
nothingismoreobviousandmoreimportantthan
thepowerofsoundtosuggestcolor,movement,and
mood;yetitisofcoursetruethatthesoundsof
Milton'slinedonotofthemselvesdescribethe
leviathan'sbulk;theymerelysuggestittothe
imagination

262

inapeculiarlyvividmanner.*Soeverywhere
theeffectofthesoundqualityisnotto
*InthesameconnectionDr.Johnsonbrought
togetherthree
Latinverseswheretheunusualappearanceofa
monosyllableatthe
endofthehexameterlinehadbeennotedbythe
criticsasof
suggestivelydescriptivevalue;
TONEQUALITY.21?
conveydefiniteideas,buttofititselftothose
involved
inthemeaningorthemoodofthepassage.
Suchphenomenaasthoseconsideredunderthe
twoheadsdiscussedintheforegoingpagesthe
arrangementofsoundswithreferenceto
Beautyor
similarity,andthechoiceofsoundsmelodyin
fortheirimaginativesuggestivenessorverse
SOTmdSi
appropriatenessarethemostconspicuousand
interesting,
aswellasthosemostconsciouslyused,in
theperfectingofverseform.Yetitwouldperhaps
besafetosaythatstillmoreimportantarethe
less
obviousandlessconsciouslyarrangedsequencesof
soundqualitywhichperpetuallygivecolortothe
soundsofgoodpoetry.Thetermmelodyiscommonly
usedoftheeffectproducedbythese
sequences,sincethepleasurederivedfromthe
soundsoftheverseisfelttobeanalogoustothat
derivedfromthemodulationsofatune.
"
Orchestration
"wouldperhapsbeamoreaccuratelyfigurative
expression.Thepoetchoosesthesoundsof
hiswordsasthecomposerarrangesfortheuseof

263

theorchestralinstrumentsofdifferentquality(or
"Vertiturintereacoelum,etruitoceanonox."
"
Sternitur,exanimisquetremensprocumbithumibos."
"Parturiuntmontes;nasceturridiculusmus."
Itwouldbeastrangeconformity,saidJohnson,
between"the
suddensuccessionofnighttoday,thefallofan
oxunderablow,
andthebirthofamousefromamountain"
(Rambler,No.94).Yet
itisperfectlyclearthatineachcasethereis
theelementofabrupt
actiontobedescribed,andthatthisis
imaginativelyvivifiedbythe
unexpectedemphaticmonosyllable.
2i8>WINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
thedifferentstopsoftheorgan),quiteapartfrom
melodyandrhythm.Onlyhere,aselsewhere,he
isnotfreeinhischoice,butmustatthesame
timechoosethesoundswhicharealreadyfittedto
expresshismeaningandtofallintothedominant
rhythm.Wordswillthereforerarelybechosen
primarilyfortheirtonequality,andthe
attainment
ofbeautyinthisdirectionwillbemoreoftenthe
result
ofgeniusorinspirationthanofdeliberation.
Fromthisstandpointreappears,then,thewonderful
complexityoftheartofthepoet.Forevenif
verse
bemadetoexpressadequatethoughtandgenuine
emotion,andinadditionbefittedtoaccurateand
pleasingrhythm,therestillremainstheelementof
beautyofsound,todistinguishtheproductofthe
mereprenticeworkmanfromthatofthemaster.
Interestingdiscussionsoftonequalityinverse
will

264

befoundinGuest'sEnglishRhythms,chap,ii;
Lanier's
ScienceofEnglishVerse,Partiii;Corson's
Primerof
EnglishVerse,chap,ii;EdmundGurney'sTertium
QuidandThePowerofSound;G.L.Raymond's
PoetryasaRepresentativeArtandRhythmand
Harmony
inPoetryandMusic;Stevenson'sessayon
"SomeTechnicalElementsofStyleinLiterature;"
GrantAllen'sPhysiological^Esthetics;A.H.
Tolman's
HamletandOtherEssays.SeealsoEnglish
Verse,pp.135147.ProfessorTolman'sessay,on
"TheSymbolicValueofEnglishSounds,"contains
aparticularlydefiniteaccountofthevarious
vowel
soundswithreferencetotheiremotional
suggestiveness,
basedonthistable:
TONEQUALITY.219
iasinlittleiasinIooasinwood
e
a'
e'
ai'
a
metu"dueow"cow
mata"whato"
gold
metea"fatheroo"
gloom
fairoi"boilaw"awe
mateu"but
"Thesoundsatthebeginningofthisscaleare
especially
fittedtoexpressuncontrollablejoyanddelight,
gayety,triviality,rapidmovement,brightness,

265

delicacy,andphysicallittleness;thesoundsat
the
endarepeculiarlyadaptedtoexpresshorror,
solemnity,
awe,deepgrief,slownessofmotion,darkness,
andextremeoroppressivegreatnessofsize....
The
vowelshavebeenarranged,onthewhole,in
accordance
withwhatiscallednatural,orinherentpitch.
...Thesoundsatthebeginningofthelisthave
anaturalhighpitch;theideasandfeelingswhich
findtheirmostfittingexpressionthroughthese
vowelsarethosewhichallelocutionistswould
express
bytheuseofahighpitch.Thesentiments
thatareassignedtothevowelsoflownatural
pitch
arebroughtoutbyalowpitchinexpressive
reading.
Whatismorenaturalthanthattheindividualvowel
soundsshallbefelttobe,accordingtotheir
natural
pitch,thebestsoundrepresentativesofthese
various
feelingsandideas?"(pp.152154.)
OfadifferentcharacteristhediscussionofMr.
CharlesE.Russell,inanarticleon"Swinburne
and
Music,"intheNorthAmericanReviewforNovember,
1907.Mr.Russellexaggerates,butsuggestively
exemplifies,theanalogybetweennotonlythe
rhythmical,
buttheharmonicelementsofmusicandthe
soundsofverse.
"Whatwecall
'
alliteration

266

'
is,
inthehandsofthemelodist,nothingmorenorless
thantheworkingoutoftheprincipleofharmonics
2204NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
containedintheprogressofthechord....Take
oneofthelinesthathavebeenadversely
criticised
forexcessivealliteration:
'Tothelow,lastedgeofthelong,loneland.'
'Low/'
long
'and*lone'arereallyrelatedminor
chordsbaseduponprinciplesfamiliartomost
students
ofmusic....Anotherpertinentillustrationof
chordvaluesthatwilloccurinstantlytoall
Swinburnians
isthelineinLausVeneris,
'Thewind'swetwingsandringersdripwithrain/
wherethebaseofthechordsmayberegardedasthe
soundofW;thechangingvowelssupplytheother
notes,andtheeffectsareidenticalwiththe
changed
chordsinadominantkeyinmusic,adeviceequally
reasonableinpoetry."
ComparethesimilarremarksofGuyau,quotedon
p.300below.
CHAPTERV.
ENGLISHMETRES.
THUSfarwehaveconsideredthoseaspectsof
theexternalformofpoetrywhicharefundamental
incharacter,especiallythewayinwhichthe
sounds
oftheEnglishlanguageadaptthemselvesto
rhythmical
form,andthereasonswhythisrhythmical
formisadaptedtotheimaginativeendsofpoetry.

267

Itremainstotakeupmoreindetailthedifferent
formsofmetrewhichEnglishpoetryactually
presents,
theelementsintowhichtheymaybeseparated,
themeansbywhichtheymaymostconveniently
bedescribed,andthevariationsfromtheir
typicalformswhichincreaseboththecomplexity
andthebeautyofourpoeticalrhythms.
Ithasalreadyappearedthatmetrediffersfrom
mererhythminthatitpersistswithsome
continuity
anddividesitselfintoregulargroupsof
thosetimeintervals,markedbystresses,
T
,
wo
?
mts
*
t
ofmetre,
ofwhichthebasicrhythmiscomposed.
Thesegroups,orlargerunitsofthemetre,
arecommonlycalledverses.Wehave,then,as
thetwoprincipalelementsofmetretherhythmical
unit,mostoftencalledafoot,andthelarger
221
222^INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
unitmadeupofanumberoffeetsogroupedasto
formaverse.
Boththeseunitsofrhythmicaltimeareofcourse
filledupbysyllables,andtheusageof
ourversehasresultedinfixingthe
normalnumberofsyllableswhichinanygiven
metregotocomposethem.Inasensethisis
onlyanincidentalfact,since,aswehaveseen,
rhythmdoesnotrequireafixednumberofsounds,
butonlythatthosesoundsshallmaintainfixed

268

relationsofstressandtime;andatanytimea
versemaybefoundactuallytovaryfromits
characteristic
numberofsyllabicparts.Butinmodern
Englishversethenumberhastendedtobecome
sofixedthatitformsaconvenientbasisfor
describing
andclassifyingbothversesandfeet.
Thuswecallsomemetresdissyllabic,because
theyarenormallydivisibleintofeetoftwo
syllables,
andotherstrisyllabic,becausetheyare
normallydivisibleintofeetofthreesyllables.
Inactualusage,then,theterm
"
foot
"
standsfor
theblendingoftwodifferententities,orfor
either
alone:thetimeintervalwhichistheunitofthe
rhythm,andthe,groupofsyllableswhichnormally
fillthattimeinterval.Certainnames,borrowed
originallyfromGreekandLatinprosody(inwhich
theymeansomethingquitedifferentfromwhatthey
meanforEnglishverse),areappliedtothefoot,
accordingtothenumberandtheorderofthe
stressedandunstressedsyllableswhichnormally
THEFOOTANDTHEYERSE.
composeit.Thusafootmadeupoi(or,more
accuratelyspeaking,filledupby)oneunstressed
syllableplusastressedsyllableiscalledan
iambus;
;
afootmadeupofastressedsyllableplusan
unstressed
syllableiscalledatrochee;afootmadeup

269

oftwounstressedsyllablesplusastressed
syllable
iscalledananapest;andafootmadeupofa
stressedsyllableplustwounstressedsyllables
is/,
calledadactyl.Examplesofthesefeetarefound
inthesuccessivewordsdefy,tender,cavalier,
silently.
Butitisrarely(outsideoftrochaicmetres)
thattheindividualfeetcorrespondwithindividual
words,themetricalunitsbeingmorelikelyto
conflict
withthegrammaticalandrhetoricaldivisions
ofthesentencethantoconformtothem.
Thiscircumstance,thatthegroupingofsyllables
fromtherhetoricalstandpointfailstocorrespond
withtheirgroupingfromthemetricalstandpoint,
hasledsomewriterstoquestiontheexistence,in
Englishverse,ofanythingwhichcanproperlybe
calledafoot.Suchagroupofsyllables,itis
said,
as
"
Brightest|
andbest
|
ofthesons
|
ofthemorning,"
naturallydividesitselfinthewayindicated;and
tomakethedivisioninthisway
Brightestand
|
bestofthesonsofthe
|morning
istowrestthemoutoftheirnaturalrelations.
This
224ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.

270

objectionwouldbefatalifthefootwere
considered
ascomposedprimarilyofthegroupsofsyllables
whichformthephrasesofordinaryspeech.But,
aswehaveseen,thefootisproperlytobe
regarded
asmadeupofsyllablesgroupedwitharbitrary
reference
tothetimeintervalsoftherhythm,andhas
nothingwhatevertodowiththeirordinary
rhetorical
relations.Neithermustthetermbeassumedto
implythatthesyllablesofallversesareactually
utteredintheexacttimewhichtheirarrangement
intofeetwouldimply,anymorethanoneassumes
thatallthequarternotes,orallthemeasures,of
a
givenpieceofmusicareactuallymadetofill
precisely
equalperiodsoftime.
Theobjectionjustcited,andtheillustration,are
fromMr.RobertBridges,who,intheAppendixto
Milton'sProsody,discussesthestressrelationsof
Englishversesasthebasisoftheirscansionand
analysis.
Assumingthateachprincipalstressisthenucleus
ofthemetricalunit,gatheringaboutitselfthe
lightersyllablesaccordingtotheirnatural
attraction
toitincommonspeechutterance,Mr.Bridges
laysdowntheserules:
I.Thestressgovernstherhythm.
II.Thestressesmustallbetruespeechstresses.
III.Astresshasmorecarryingpoweroverthe
syllablenexttoit,thanithasoverasyllable
removed
fromitbyaninterveningsyllable.
IV.Astresshasapeculiarlystrongattraction

271

foritsownprocliticsandenclitics.
V.Astresswillnotcarryaheavysyllablewhich
isremovedfromitbyanothersyllable;i.e.,a
heavy
THEFOOTANDTHEYERSE.22$
syllablemustbecontiguouswiththestressed
syllable
thatcarriesit.
VI.Astresswillnotcarrymorethanoneheavy
syllableortwolightsyllablesonthesamesideof
it.
VII.Insomemetreswhenfour,andinanymetre
whenmorethanfour,unstressedsyllablesoccur
together,
theywilloccupytheplaceofastress,which
maybesaidtobedistributedoverthem;anda
line
inwhichsuchacollectionofsyllablesoccurswill
lackoneofitsstresses.
Thissystem,itshouldbeobserved,Mr.Bridges
does
notapplyinthesameformtothemetreoffive
stress
iambics,whichhecalls
"
syllabic
"
ratherthan"
accentual
"
verse.Thewholeessayisasuggestiveone,
anddeservesstudy;yetitcertainlytendstogive
toolittleheedtotheessentiallytemporalbasis
of
rhythm,andtoconfusemetricalunitswiththose
grammatical
orrhetoricaldivisionsofspeechwithwhich
theycoincideonlyinpart.Asimilarexaggeration

272

oftheelementofstress,andanotherattemptto
find
arhetoricalratherthanagenuinelymetrical
system
ofverseanalysis,maybefoundinLiddell's
Introduction
totheStudyofPoetry.Similarinprinciple,
again,istheeffortofProfessorSkeat
(TransactionsoftheLondonPhilologicalSociety,
189798)tofindamethodofanalysisbasedon"
the
naturalmethodofgroupingthesyllablesaroundthe
accentedsyllableswithwhich,inactual
pronunciation,
theyareassociated."*Thesystemsofallthree
writersaresocompletelyatvariancewiththat
which
viewsmetrefundamentallyasthefittingofwords
and
*BoththisessayandthatofBridges,together
withcertainverse
dramasofthelatterintendedtoillustratethe
practicalpossibilities
ofhistheory,arecriticallyexaminedbyMayorin
chapterviiofthe
secondeditionofChaptersonEnglishMetre.
2264NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
phrasestoatypicalrhythmicalflow,the
perpetually
unvaryingnormtowhichtheycontinually
approximate,
thatnocompromiseorreconciliationbetweenthe
twostandpointsseemstobepossible.
Tosay,then,thatiambicverseandtrochaicverse
areregularlycomposedoffeetmadeupoftwo
syllables,onestressedandtheotherun
Signifioanceof.

273

variousnamesstressed,isamatterofconvenience,
and
offeet,
representsaparticulareffectwhich
thesedissyllabicmetres,asdevelopedbyusage,
have
ontheear,butisnotadescriptionoftheir
essential
rhythmicalcharacter.Thesamethingistrue
ofmusic;acompositioneachmeasureofwhichis
normallymadeupofthreequarternotesproducesa
differenteffectontheearfromonewhosemeasures
arenormallyfilledbytwoquarternotesorbytwo
eighthnotes,thoughitdoesnotfollowthatthe
actualtimelengthofthemeasuresisdifferent.
The
actualtimelengthoftherhythmicalunitisa
matter
whichtheindividualplayerofmusicandthe
individual
readerofpoetrydetermineeachforhimselfin
largemeasure.Inmusic,itisinstructiveto
notice,
thereisnodistinctioncorrespondingtothe
difference
betweeniambicandtrochaicmetres,ortothe
differencebetweenanapesticanddactylicmetres,
becauseinmusicthestressednoteisalways
normally
thefirstnoteinthemusicalmeasure.Inverse
wefinditconvenient,andrepresentativeof
different
metricaleffects,todistinguishbetweenthemetre
whichnormallybeginswithastressedsyllableand
THEFOOTANDTHEYERSE.22/
thatwhichnormallybeginswithanunstressed
syllable.Thisdifferenceinmetricaleffectwould

274

appeartobeduetotwocauses:(i)averse
seems
tobeginmoreabruptly,andtostartoffwitha
different
cadence,whenitstrikesatoncetheprincipally
stressedsyllableofawordorsentence,than
whenitstrikesthatsyllableonlyafterone
bearing
littleornostress;and(2)owingtothefactthat
dissyllabicEnglishwordsarefarmorecommonly
stressedonthefirstsyllablethanonthesecond,
verseoftheformertypewillpermitafarmore
constantconformitybetweentheseparatewords
andtherhythmicalunitsasintheline
"
Maiden,|
crownedwith
|glossy|
blackness
"
thanintheverseofthelattertype.Butthis
distinction
is,afterall,asuperficialone,dependingnoton
thenatureoftherhythmconcernedbutonwherewe
begintocountormeasureit.Suchverseas
"
Spiedablossompassingfair
"
hasthesamerhythmwhetherwethinkofitas
iambicversewiththefirstsyllablemissing,or
trochaicversewiththelastsyllablemissing.Such
a
verseas
"Wemetanhostandquelledit"
hasthesamerhythmwhetherwethinkofitas
iambicversewithanextrasyllableattheend,or
228^INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.

275

trochaicversewithanextrasyllableatthe
beginning.
Suchaverseas
"
BuryyoursteelinthebosomsofGath
"
hasthesamerhythmwhetherwethinkofitas
dactylic,withthelasttwosyllablesmissing,or
anapesticwiththefirsttwosyllablesmissing.
Wemayillustratethesamefactbycombiningabit
ofiambicmetrewithoneunquestionablytrochaic,
simplybyprovidingaconnectingsyllable,and
making
therhythmcontinuous:
"Tolive,andseeherlearn,andlearnbyher;
andso
tobethemanandleavetheartist."
Thefirstverseendsatthesemicolon;thesecond
beginswith"so"andistrochaic(fromBrowning's
OneWordMore);butwhenthetwoareputtogether
inthisway,thesecondverse,beginningwith
"
and,"
becomesiambicinstantlythoughofcoursewithout
changingitsrhythmicalnatureandthelast
syllable
comestoberegardedasanadditionalfeminine
ending.
Finally,thesameprincipleisrevealedbythefact
thatoneisveryoftenindoubtwhethertonamea
trisyllabicmetreanapesticordactylic;thereason
beingthatasEnglishdactylicverseisnearly
always
catalecticthatis,omitsthefinalunstressed
syllables
andanapesticverseisveryfreelytruncated
atthebeginningomittingoneorbothofthe
initial

276

unstressedsyllablesthereisnothingsavethe
predominating
tendencyofthepoemtoguideusasto
whatmaybecalleditsnormalmetre.
Thestatementthatthefundamentalrhythmsof
THEFOOTANDTHEVERSE.22
iambicandtrochaicverse(orofanapesticand
dactylic)
arenotnecessarilydifferentisnotuniversally
believed.
ThusProfessorSaintsbury(Hist,ofEng.
Prosody,i,9)expressesthebeliefthattherhythm
of
When|
theBrit
|
ishWar|
riorQueen
and
Whenthe
|
British
|
Warrior
|Queen
are
"
irreconcilablydifferent.Thebaserhythmsofthe
twoplansarediametricallyopposed,thepoetical
effect
isentirelyunlike,andIcanhardlyperceiveany
concordat
orcompromiseastoEnglishversebeingpossible
betweenthosewhoperceive,andthosewho
donotperceive,thisdifference."Thereisno
question,
ofcourse,thattheprevalenceofsuchaverse

277

asthatcited,beginningwithastressedsyllable,
produces
adifferent
"
poeticaleffect
"fromthemore
commontypeofversebeginningwithanunstressed
syllable.Buthowthedifferenceinnamingor
dividing
offeetcanchangetherhythmthisnoonehasyet
clearlyshown.Itispossiblethat,fromcauses
almost
toosubtletotrytoexplain,wetendtoread
trochaic
metreswithslightlydifferentlengthsoftime
interval
fromiambicmetres;*butthatthisdifferenceis
neither
*Thisconjecturewouldseemtobeborneoutbythe
researches
ofMessrs.A.S.HurstandJohnMcKay,reportedin
Universityof
TorontoStudiesfor1889("ExperimentsonTime
Relationsof
PoeticalMetres")accordingtowhichthedactyl
andtrocheewere
foundofshorterdurationthantheanapestand
iambus.Onthe
otherhandMessrs.N.TriplettandE.C.Sanford,
in"Studiesof
RhythmandMeter"appearingintheAmer.Journalof
Psychology,
vol.xii(1901),reportiambsastakinglesstime
thantrochees.The
differentresultsagainsuggestthatthematteris
oneofsubjective
interpretationmerely.
230ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.

278

necessarynoressentialitisbelievedhasbeen
demonstrated
bytheillustrationsgivenabove.Itmaybe
worthwhileinthesameconnectiontopointout
that
itisalsotruethatthereisnonecessary
differenceof
rhythmbetweentheiambicandanapesticmeasures,
as
isshownbytheeasewithwhichsomepoemsglide
fromoneintotheotherwithoutanyobviouschange
ofrhythmicalcharacter.Thatlargegroupofmetres
calledbySchipper
"
iambicanapestic,"inwhichone
cannotbecertainwhichistheprevailingtype,
depends
foritsrighttoexistonthisfact.Difference
inthelengthoftherhythmicalunitsisnever
absolutely
dependentonthenumberofsyllablestheycontain;
and
afootofthreesyllablesinsomepoemswill
undoubtedly
begivenlesstimethanafootoftwosyllables
inothers.Allofwhich,thoughimportant
totheseriousstudentofverse,doesnotinthe
least
affectthecommonandcorrectimpressionthatthe
fourgreattypesofmetreproducequitedifferent
effects
owingtothewayinwhichourwordsfitthemselves
tothedifferentarrangementofstresses.This
matterisdiscussedwithadmirableclearnessbyMr.
Omond,inAStudyofMetre.Inspeakingof
"
duple
rising

279

"and"
duplefalling
"
metre,asheprefersto
calliambicandtrochaic,hesays:
"Thesearereally
subdivisionsofthesamemetre.Ourpoets,ashas
beenalreadynoted,passbackwardsandforwards
fromoneformtotheotherattheirpleasure.
Critics
haveprofessedtofinddifferenteffectsinthetwo
types;butinviewofthisinterchangeabilitysuch
professions
mustbereceivedwithdistrust.Otherswould
fainannihilatethedistinctionbywritingboth
alike.
Asinmusictheaccentednotecomesfirstinabar,
so
inversetheysaythesyllableofmainaccentuation
shouldalwaysbegintheperiod.Initselfthis
latter
THEFOOTANDTHEYERSE.23I
ideaisharmless.Whereweplacethedivisionmark
matterslittle,solongasuniformityis
maintained.
Marksfordistinguishingperiods,likelines
showing
barsinmusic,aremereaidstotheeye....
There
isthereforenorealobjectiontoadoptingthis
method,
ifanyonegreatlydesiresit;butthereare
circumstances
whichmakeitlessnaturalandconvenientin
metrethaninmusic,asamoment'sconsideration
will
show."(pp.61,62.)
Forpracticalpurposes,thebeginningoftheverse

280

willbefoundtobetheplacewhereone,
Practical
maybestlookforthenormalmetre,methodsof
sinceitaffectstheearmorepromptly
l
thantheend,andislessfrequentlyaltered.*Thus
theline
"
Spiedablossompassingfair
"
isbestcalledtrochaicverse,especiallyifone
discovers
thatinthepoemfromwhichitistakenthe
largemajorityofversesbeginwiththestressed
syllable.Theomissionofthelightsyllableatthe
endisnotunusualorstriking.Theline
"Wemetanhostandquelledit
"
isbestcallediambicverse,becauseitrepresents
a
metreregularlybeginningwiththeunstressed
syllable;
andtheadditionofalightsyllableattheend
ofsuchverseisnotunusual.Wemayexpect,then,
*Lessfrequently,thatis,bywayofadditionor
subtraction,while
ontheotherhanditisthefavoriteplacefor
alterationsofstress,
suchasareavoidedattheendoftheverse.
2324NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
thatiambicandanapesticverseswilleasilytake
on
additionalsyllablesattheend;theywillless
easily
takethemonatthebeginning,andwillbestill
less
likelytoomitasyllableatthebeginning.Onthe

281

otherhand,trochaicanddactylicverseswill
easily
losealightsyllableattheendoftheverse,and
will
somewhatlesseasilytakeoneonatthebeginning.
Toomitthestressedsyllableattheendofiambic
or
anapesticverse,oratthebeginningoftrochaicor
dactylic,wouldofcoursechangethewhole
character
oftherhythm,whichdependsontheregular
recurrenceofstress.
Wefinditconvenient,then,torecognizethese
fourtypesofmetre,whichgroupthemselvesintwo
differentways.Iambicandtrochaic
metricaHypes,
versearealikeinbeingdissyllabic,anapestic
anddactylicarealikeinbeing
trisyllabic.Butiambicandanapesticarealikein
beingformedbywhatiscalled
"
rising
"
or
"
ascending
"
rhythm,unstressedsyllablesbeingfollowed
bystressed;andtrochaicanddactylicarealike
inbeingformedby
"
falling
"
or
"
descending
"
rhythm,stressedsyllablesbeingregularlyfollowed

282

byunstressed.Thetwotypesofrisingrhythmare
byfarthemostfamiliarinEnglishpoetry,for
reasonswhichwillbeconsideredsomewhatlater.
Itremainstoinquirewhetherothertypesoffeet
aretobefoundinourversebesidesthefour
already
considered.AllfamiliarEnglishmetresare
madeupofthesefour;butexceptionalarrangeTHE
FOOTANDTHEYERSE.233
mentsofstresseswithintheverseareconstantly
found,anditisconvenienttousecervarious
extain
othernamesindescribingthem,ceptionaifeet.
Thuswesometimesfindafootinwhichnotone,
butboth,syllablesarestressed.In
"ThecumbrouselementsEarth,Flood,Air,Fire
"
thisistrueofboththefourthandthefifthfoot.
Suchfeetareconvenientlycalledspondees.Onthe
otherhand,wesometimes(lessfrequently)finda
footinwhichneithersyllableisstressed;asthe
fourthofthisverse
"Whothoughtthepowerofmonarchytoomuch."
Suchfeetareconvenientlycalledpyrrhics.For
obviousreasons,nometrecouldbewhollycomposed
ofeitherspondeesorpyrrhics.Therestillremain
thosecompromisedrelationsofstresswhichwere
discussedintheprecedingchapter;weneed
namesforfeetwhichinvolvesecondarystressas
wellasfullstressandnostress,butnosuch
names
areinuse.Thegeneraltendencytoreduceour
metrestofullystressedandwhollyunstressed
syllables,
togetherwiththefactthatthesecondarily
stressedsyllableinmetreishardtodefineor
perfectly
agreeupon,haspreventedtheadoptionofany

283

terminologywhichrecognizestheexistenceoffeet
partlycomposedofunstressedsyllables.Withthis
exception,thesixfeetalreadyconsidered(iambus,
234A"INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
trochee,anapest,dactyl,spondee,pyrrhic)will
serve
forthedescriptionofallfamiliarmetrical
phenomena,
sofarastheydependonarrangementsof
stress.
Certainotherfeetarerecognizedbysomewriters
asoccurringinEnglishverse,andtherefore
deserve
mention.Theamphibrach,afootconsistingofa
stressedsyllablebetweentwounstressed,maybe
calledtheunitofrhythminsuchaverseas
"Andinto
|
themidnight|
wegalloped|
abreast."
Butadivisionintoanapests,withinitial
truncation
(Andin
|
tothemid
|nightwegal|lopedabreast),
isquiteassatisfactory,sincetorepeatwhathas
alreadybeensaidmorethanoncethephrase
divisions
havenothingtodowiththefeet.Thereismore
reasonforviewingtheamphibrachasanexceptional
substitutedfootinsuchaverseasthis,whichMr.
Omondwishestodivideasindicated:
Byday|
acloud,|bynight|
apillar\
offire.

284

Butsince
"
apil
"
isatolerableiambus,themoreconventional
methodofcallingthefifthfootananapestis
adequate.
Somewriters,again,recognizeafootofthree
unstressedsyllablescalledthetribrach,insuch
verses
asthese:
Fromtheir
|purein
|
ftuenceto
\pervade|
theroom.
Mista
|
kenmen|
andpa|
triotsin
\
theirhearts.
THEFOOTANDTHEI/ERSE.23$
Unquestionablythetermissometimesconvenient;
yet
thesuccessionoffourunstressedsyllablesis
usually
avoidedeitherbyslurringthefirsttwoorby
putting
aslightsecondarystressonthethird,inother
words,
treatingthefootasapyrrhicorananapest.
OccasionallythetermchoriambusisusedofEnglish
verses,afootmadeupoftwolightsyllables
betweentwostressedones.Itisimpossible,
however,

285

thatsuchacombinationshouldtaketheplaceof
asinglerhythmicalunit;whereoccurring,itwill
be
foundtotaketheplaceoftwofeetinthetimeof
theverse,andshouldthereforebedividedintotwo
feet,thenumberofstresses,asusual,indicating
the
numberoffeet.Inaninterestingpoemcalled
Choriambics,
Swinburnehasimitatedtheclassicalrhythm
madeupofthisfoot:
"
Love,whatailedtheetoleavelifethatwasmade
lovely,wethought,withlove?
"
ButtomakethisreallyrhythmicaltoEnglishears,
it
isnecessarytotreatitaseightstressdactylic
verse,
withanumberofmissinglightsyllables.
Finally,thereisatypeofverse,developed
especially
inquiterecentEnglishpoetry,whichseemsto
demand
therecognitionofastilldifferenttypeoffoot,
andfor
whichthename"
paeonic
"
hasbeenproposedby
certaincritics.Thepaeon(if,asusual,wechange
theelementsoftheclassicalterminologyfrom
quantitytostress)isafootmadeupofone
stressed
andthreeunstressedsyllables.Anexampleofthe
typeofmetrereferredtoisthisversefrom
Kipling's
SongoftheEnglish:

286

"Humbleye,mypeople,andbefearfulinyour
mirth;
"
236AHINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
orthis,fromasongbyJeanIngelow:
"
Inthemorning,Osoearly,mybeloved,my
beloved."
Thepaeonicfootmaycertainlybemadeapplicable
to
thistypeofmetre;yetitwillbeobservedthat
thereis
aregularalternationofsecondarystressesbetween
the
whollyunstressedsyllables,sothatthemeasure
mightbedescribedassevenstresstrochaic,with
every
alternatefootshowingonlyasecondarystress.
From
thesamestandpoint,thetermditrochee,or
trochaic
dipody,mightberegardedasmoreaccuratethanthe
termpaeon;boththesenamesbeingused,in
classical
prosody,todescribeapairoftrochaicfeetof
which
oneboreastrongerictusorstressthantheother.
Itisimportanttoemphasizethefactthatall
these
namesoffeetrefertoquitedifferentphenomenain
Englishmetresfromthosedescribedinclassical
terminology.
Inthelatter,aniambusmeansafootmade
upofashortsyllableplusalong,thematterof
stress
beingincidentalandnotdefined;intheformer,
it
meansafootmadeupofanunstressedsyllableplus

287

astress,thematteroflengthbeingincidentaland
not
defined.Thesamedistinctionofcourseappliesto
alltheotherterms.Forreasonsdiscussedin
chapter
iv,thetwoaspectsofthetermwilloftenbe
applicable
atonce;thustheworddestroyisaniambus
whether
thetermbeusedwithreferencetostressor
quantity,
andthewordslaughterisatrocheefromeither
standpoint.Itwasthisfrequentcoincidenceof
lengthandstress,ofshortnessandnostress,
thatoriginallyledtotheadoptionofthe
classical
termsintheEnglishsense,anadoptionwhich
hasundoubtedlydonemuchtoconfusetheminds
ofstudentsofprosody.IthasnowbeensogenerTHE
FOOTANDTHEYERSE.237
allymade,however,andtheterminologyhasbecome
sofamiliarinthecaseofthemostcommonmetrical
feet,thatwecanperhapsdonobetterthangoon
with
thefreeuseofstillotherterms,withthefrank
understanding
thatweturnthemovertomeaningspeculiar
toourownmetres.Theefforttousemusical
notation
forourverse,andtodispensewithitsscansionin
termsoffeet,isinpartduetothesenseof
incongruity
feltbymanyscholarsintheEnglishuseofthe
classical
terminology.Butthemusicalnotationrequires
us,asispointedoutelsewhere(seechapteriv),
tofix
thetimelengthsofoursyllableswithanaccuracy

288

whichwearehardlypreparedtoundertake;it
provides
nomeansofindicatinganyotherstressesthan
thoseregularlyassumedtooccuratthebeginning
of
themeasure;anditfailsquiteascompletelyas
the
classicalterminologytoprovideameansofmarking
thedistinctionbetweenfullandsecondary
stresses.
EnglishusageandEnglishdiscriminationdemand,on
thewhole,asystembasedonthecomparatively
regular
useofstressedandunstressedsyllablesinour
verse,
leavingthemorecomplexvariationofsyllabic
quantities
toimplicationandindividualinterpretation.
Asforthegraphicrepresentationofmetres,that
commonlyusedforclassicalprosodyhas,likeits
terms,
beenborrowedforEnglish,withacorresponding
changeofmeaningfromlongandshorttostressed
andunstressedforthesuperscribedmacronand
breve.
Forsecondaryorcompromisedstressesthe
combination
ofthetwomarks,whichintheclassicalnotation
denotesasyllableof
"common"
quantity,is
serviceable.Theverticallineofdivisionbetween
the
rhythmicalunitsorfeetiscommontobothsystems.
Acaretindicatesamissingsyllable;andanextra
syllableprefixedoraddedtotheversemaybe
sepa238
4NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.

289

ratedfromtheadjacentfootbyaverticalcurve.
The
followingverseswillindicatehowthissystem
adapts
itselftoseveralvarietiesofmetre:
Athing|
ofbeau
|tyis
|
ajoy|forev(er
Roses
|mheaps|
werethere,|
bothred
|
andwhite
Ofsome
|precip|
itousriv
|
uletto
|
thewave
Soulsof
|
Poets
|
deadand
|goneA
Iammon
|
archofall
|
Isurvey
AMyright|
therefsnone
|
todfspute

290

Thisisa
|spraythebird
\clungto/\
KentishSir
|ByngAA
|
stoodforhis
|KingAA
Tinkle
|
homeward
|throughthe
|twilight,|strayor
|stopA
orTinkle
|
homewardthroughthe
|twilight,strayor
|stop
A
Apol|
lofrom
|
hisshrine
ACan
|
nomore
|
divine
Themoun|
tainsheep|
aresweet(er
But)theval
|leysheep|
arefat(ter
Andas
|
Istooped,|

291

herown
|lipsri
|singthere
Andauld
|
Alang|
Asyne
If,however,itisdesiredtoreservethissystem
of
markingfordistinctionsofquantity,intheeffort
to
indicatelongsandshortsforthesyllablesof
English
verse,itmayeasilybecombinedwiththemarks
comTHE
FOOTANDTHEfERSE.239
monlyusedinotherconnectionstoindicatefull
and
secondarystress.Thus:
/rirff
Only|
ourmir
|
rbredeyes|metsi
|lently.
But,forreasonsalreadydiscussed,itisfarmore
difficulttomarkquantitiessoastorepresentany
real
consensusofopinionthantomarkstresses.Inthe
linejustquoted,forexample,therewouldbe
legitimate
differencesofopinionastothelengthofthe
secondsyllableof
"
silently
"andbothsyllablesof
"mirrored."
Some,evenofthosewhoadmittheexistenceofthe

292

equaltimeunitsofourmetres,prefertoavoid
marking
verseswithfootdivisions,becauseitimpliesa
mechanicalregularityintheactualintervals
within
whichpairsofsyllablesareuttered,whichisnot
warranted
bythefacts.ThusMr.Omondinstancesthe
line
Theone|remains,|theman|ychange|and
pass;
andsuggeststhatthesecondsyllableof
"
many
"
shouldperhapsbelookedatas
"ontheboundaryline
betweenthethirdandfourthperiods,nottobe
assigned
definitelytoeither."Theobjectionisin
theoryunquestionablysound.*Sincethefootmeans
*Asamatteroffact,ifthesoundsofversewere
tobedivided
intogroupsbasedonthetimeintervalsformingthe
exactunitsof
therhythm,weshouldprobablyhavetobegineach
footwitha
stressedvowel,anddividethus:
"The|onerem|
ainsthem|any
ch
|angeandp|ass."Thisatleastisindicatedby
theexperiments
ofM.Verrier(seethebibliographicalappendix),
whofound,
inmakingphonographicrecordsofrecitedverse,
thatequalintervals

293

wereindicatedifmeasuredfromstressedvowelto
stressedvowel,
butnototherwise.Theprevalentconfusionbetween
theconception
oftheunitofverseasconsistingofafixedtime
interval,andthe
240<*NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
primarilythetypicaltimeinterval,andsince
syllables
arenotactuallybroughtintoregularconformity
with
theseintervals,todivideordinaryfivestress
verseinto
fivefeetoftwosyllableseachistofailproperly
to
representitsrealcadences.Yetforpractical
purposes
thedivisionisveryuseful;enablingonetosay,
for
example,thatatrocheeinthefourthfootis
almost
neverfoundsaveafterapause,thatapyrrhicin
the
thirdfootislikelytobefollowedbyaspondeein
the
fourth,andsoadinfinitum.Noonewithanyproper
understandingofversewillbemisledbythe
supposition
thatinsuchcasesthefourthfootmustbe
pronounced
inexactlythetimegiventotheothers.
Thenamingandclassificationofmetresis
discussed
interestinglybyMr.J.B.MayorinhisChapters
onEnglishMetre(chaps,viiiandix).The
abundantillustrationsgivenmakeitpossiblefor
any
studentofthesubjecttodeterminecertainlyhow

294

farthesystemusedsatisfieshisear.For
indicating
differencesofstress,Mayorcommonlyusesthe
system
(previouslyadoptedbyA.J.Ellis)ofsubscribed
figures,2denotingfullstress(orunusually
heavy!
stress),ihalfstress(oraveragestress),ando
noj
stress.Thus:
,
FluctuaItedasflow
|
ersinstorm,|
somered
|somepale,iSOI0010011212
conceptionofitasconsistingofafixednumberof
syllables,liesj
deepinthenatureandhistoryofEnglishverse,
andperhapscan!
neverbeescaped.Theformerconceptionis
particularlyassociated!1
withourlyricalmeasures,whicharemostnearly
analogoustomusical!
rhythm;thelatterbelongstoourdecasyllabic
("heroic")verseI
whichcameintoEnglishundertheinfluenceof
foreign,syllable*
countingmetres,andhaspersistentlymaintaineda
fixedsyllabi*
structureatthesametimethatithassubmitted
itselftothe
rhythlj
micallawsinherentinthelanguage.Seethe
remarksofMil
Bridgesquotedinthenoteonpage272below.
METRICALVARIATIONS.241

295

Thismethod(forafurtherillustrationofwhich
see
EnglishVerse,p.4),whileentirelypracticableif
one
iscontenttomarkthreedegreesofstress,isopen
totheobjectionsthatitdoesnotsuggestthe
phenomena
totheeyesoquicklyandnaturallyasthe
methodofdashesandbreves,andthatitdoes
suggest
amathematicalexactnessofrelationbetween
stresseswhichoneisilldisposedtoaffirm.Still
anothermethod,favoredbysomecritics(e.g.
Corson
inhisPrimerofEnglishVerse},istousethe
symbol
xforastressedsyllableandaforanunstressed;
thus
describingfivestressiambicverseas^ax,four
stress
anapesticasqaax,andsoforth.Whilesometimes
convenient,
thissystemismorecompletelyarbitrarythan
anyoftheothers,andwhatismoreserious
provides
nomeansfordistinguishingbetweenprimary
andsecondarystress.Forstillanothersystem,the
curiousstudentmayseeLiddell'sIntroductionto
the
StudyofPoetry.
Wehavethenfourprevailingtypesofmetre,
basedonfourtypesoffootasdistinguishedbythe
arrangementofstressedandunstressed
Variationsfrom
syllables,andmaynameallcommonregular
metmetres
byindicatingthetypicalfootricalform

296

andthenumberoffeet;as,twostressiambic,
threestress
trochaic,andthelike.*Wehavealsoto
*Forobviousreasons,itislesssatisfactoryto
namemetresby
thenumberofsyllables,possiblevariationsin
thisbeingconstantly
assumed.Bymanycriticstheclassicalterms
trimeter,pentameter,
etc.,arepreferredto"
threestress,"
"
fivestress,"etc.:butthese
terms,asidefromthefactthattheydonotmake
thenatureofthe
metresoexplicitastheothers,areopentothe
objectionofbeing
ambiguous.Onecannotbesurewhether"iambic
trimeter
"means
averseofthreeiambsor(ascommonlyinclassical
prosody)oneof
sixiambsgroupedinpairs.
242AKINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
recognizethatthesubstitutionofanotherfoot
than
thattypicalofthemetreisafrequentoccurrence.
Alreadywehaveseentwocommontypesofthis
alterationoftheregularrhythm:wherethestress
inafootisdeficient(aswhenapyrrhicisused
in
placeofaniambus),andwherethestressis
excessive
(aswhenaspondeeisused).Itwillbe
noticedthatthesetwovariationsarevery
frequently
foundtogether,thegenerallevelofstressinthe

297

versebeingmaintained.Acharacteristicand
beautiful
exampleofspondeefollowedbypyrrhicisin
thisversefromTennyson'sGeraintandEnid:
"
O'erthefourriversthefirstrosesblew,"
where,however,afollowingspondeeintervenesto
preventthesuccessionofthreewhollyunstressed
syllables.
Quiteasfamiliarasexcessordeficiencyofstress
istheinversionofaniambusbythesubstitution
of
atrochee,especiallyatthebeginningoftheverse
andafterthemedialpause;asin
"
Gorgedwiththedearestmorseloftheearth
"
and
"
Longlinesofcliffbreakinghaveleftachasm."
Lessfrequent,butstillveryfamiliar,isthe
addition
ofanextralightsyllable;achangewhich,in
METRICALVARIATIONS.243
iambicverse,meansthesubstitutionofananapest.
Examplesare:
"Concernsoftheparticularhearthandhome,"
and
"Letmesee,letmesee,isnottheleafturn'd
down?"
Suchtrisyllabicsubstitutions,inwhichtheextra
syllableclearlybreakstheflowofthemetre,are
tobedistinguishedfromthosewhicharesoreadily
obscuredinpronunciation,byslurringorelision,
as
toleavethefootsubstantiallydissyllabic.Thus,
although
thewordradiancecontainsthreesyllables,and

298

disobediencefive,thelasttwoofthesesyllables
are
utteredpracticallyasone,whenthemetresuggests
suchcompression,anddonotaltertheiambic
cadence
ofsuchversesas
"
Girtwithomnipotence,withradiancecrowned,"
and
"Ofman'sfirstdisobedience,andthefruit."
Thesamethingistruewhenafinalvowelprecedes
anunstressedinitialvowelofthefollowingword,
as
"
manya,"
"
theawakened,"andthelike.Again,
wordsendinginunstressedonanden,likeprison
and
given,aretreatedeitherasmonosyllablesor
dissyllables,
asthemetremaysuggest;asmonosyllables
particularly,
whentheyprecedeaninitialvowel.All
these,itwillbeobserved,aresimplythenatural
licenses
ofrapidutterance,familiarinproseandavailed
ofbyverse.
244ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Inmodernverse,elision,properlyspeaking,is
rarely
used,thevowelsinquestionbeingslurred,that
is,
pronouncedlightly,ratherthancutoutaltogether.
In
earlierperiodssuchformsas
"
th'awakened"

299

are
thoughttoimplyacompleteelision,andsomewould
stillreadMilton'sverse,forexample,inthis
way.
Thematterisoneonwhichcriticsdifferwidely,
and
isinteresting,butchieflyfromanhistorical
standpoint
;henceitcannotbediscussedhere.Thestudent
willfindastatementofonesideinMasson's
edition
ofMilton,vol.ii,p.215,andoftheotherside
in
articlesbyWalterThomasintheModernLanguage
RevieivforJulyandOctober,1907.Massonsays:
"
When,intheoriginaleditionofParadiseLost,I
find
flamedspeltflam'dorHeavenspeltHeav'n,....I
taketheapostropheasanexpressdirectiontoomit
the
esoundandpronouncethewordsasmonosyllables;
but
Icannotaccepttheapostropheasanelisionmark
of
preciselythesamesignificanceinthelines
'Above
th'Aonianmount,whileitpursues/and'Thatled
th'
imbattelldSeraphimtowar,'forthesereasons:
(i)BecausethestrictutterancesthAonianand
thimbattelld
arecomicalitiesnow,whichIcannotconceive
evertohavebeenserious;(2)becausesuch
contracted
utterancesarequiteunnecessaryforthemetre,
inasmuch
asthelinesareperfectlygoodtotheear

300

evenifthewordtheisfully,butsoftly,uttered,
according
toprosecustom;and(3)becauseIfindthesame
elisionmarkusedintheoldtextsincaseswhere
itis
utterlyimpossiblethatthetotalsuppressionof
thee
canhavebeenmeant....Onthewhole,then,it
isbesttoassumethatstrictlymetricaleffects,
are
prettypermanent,thatwhatwasagreeabletothe
English
metricalsenseinformergenerationsisagreeable
now,andthat,eveninversesooldasChaucer's,
one
METRICALVARIATIONS.245
ofthetestsoftherightmetricalreadingofany
line
isthatitshallsatisfythepresentear."*Onthe
otherhand,itmaybeobservedthatthisquestion
is
notsomuchofmetrepureandsimple,asof
conventional
pronunciationunderparticularcircumstances.
Thomasespeciallyemphasizesthefactthatthe
fivestress
verse,beingintroducedintoEnglishunder
FrenchandItalianinfluences,wasregardedasa
strictlysyllablecountingmetre(seeMilton's
prefatory
notetoParadiseLost,inwhichhementions"
fit
quantityofsyllables
"
asoneoftheessentialsofthe
verse);hencethatanextrasyllablewastobe
avoided
atallhazards.ProfessorLewisagreeswiththis

301

position,butholdsthatsince
u
toourunsophisticated
earstheprocessisoftenoverviolent,"thatis,
of
readingtheversewithcompleteelisions,modern
readersarejustifiedinreadingitinthemodern
way.
(PrinciplesofEnglishVerse,p.33.)Onthis
subject
seefurtherMayor'sChaptersonEnglishMetre,
and(withspecialreferencetohypermetrical
syllables
in.Shakspere'sverse)Abbott'sShakespearian
Grammar.
Inanapesticversetheoppositephenomenonthe
substitutionofaniambusorspondeeisextremely
common.InthisversefromSwinburne'sDeath
ofWagner,
"Roseoutofthesilenceofthingsunknownofa
presence
aform,amight
"
*SoalsoMr.RobertBridges:
"Heintendedthat[theelided
vowels]shouldnotcountinthescansion:yet
thoughheprinted
4TVAlmighty,'etc.,itcannotbesupposedthathe
wishedittobe
sopronounced."(Milton'sProsody,p.50.)
2464NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
bothiambicandspondaicsubstitutionare
exemplified.
Thisexchangeoftrisyllabicwithdissyllabic
feetissoconstantinsomemetresthatonecan
hardlydobetterthancallthemiambicanapestic.*
Browning'sProspice,inwhichthereisfrequent
alternation

302

ofthissort,
"Whenthesnowsbegin,andtheblastsdenote,"
isacaseinpoint;soisShelley's
"Whenthelampisshattered
Thelightinthedustliesdead."
Thisfreetreatmentoftrisyllabicrhythm,in
respect
tothenumberofsyllables,is,however,a
dangerous
libertyinthehandsoftheinexperienced;andthe
substitutionsaresatisfyingtotheearonlywhen
theregulartimeintervalsarefairlywell
preserved,
eitherbytheobviouslengthofoneorboth
syllables
ofthedissyllabicfeet,orbythenatural
interposition
ofapausetofilltheplaceofthemissing
syllable.
(Comparetheremarksonsyllablelengthabove,
chapteriv,andontheEnglishhexameter,page
284below.)
Relatedtothesealterationsofindividualfeetare
moreprofoundalterationsinwhichthewholemetre
ofapoemseemstochange,ortovacil
Metrescharacteristically
latebetweenonetypeandanother.Perhaps
themostcommonsortofexample
isfoundinmetreswhichapparentlystrivetocon
*AsdoesSchipper,inEnglischeMetrik.
METRICALVARIATIONS.247
formtothedactylictype,butwhich(owingtothe
difficultyofmaintainingthistypewith
naturalness
inEnglishspeech)tendrepeatedlytowardthe
anapestic.
ThusTennyson'sRizpak,whichopenswith

303

astronglymarkeddactyliccadence(thethird
syllable,
tobesure,beingomittedinthefirsttwo
feet),
"
Wailing,wailing,wailing,thewindoverlandand
sea,"
presentlygivesusperfectlyanapesticlines,such
as:
"Buthelivedwithalotofwildmates,andthey
neverwouldlethimbegood."
Asimilarcontrastwillbefoundbetweencertain
versesinMaud:
"Maudinthelightofheryouthandhergrace;"
"
TillIwellcouldweepforatimesosordidand
Thereason,ofcourse,whysuchvariationsdonot
offendtheearisthatthedactylicversesare(as
generallyinEnglish)catalectic,stoppinglikethe
anapesticversesonthestressedsyllable,sothat
thechangeaffectsonlytheopeningmeasures.This
kindofflexibilityinthetrisyllabicformis
beautifully
exemplifiedinArnold'sForsakenMerman,
which,openingwithamarkeddactyliccadence,
"
Come,dearchildren,letusaway;
Downandawaybelow!
"
2484NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
almostinstantlyretardsthemovementbythe
substitution
ofspondeesandtrochees:
"Nowthegreatwindsshorewardblow,
"Nowthesalttidesseawardflow!
"
laterbreaksoutintothedactylicmetreagain,
"

304

Come,dearchildren,comeawaydown,"
andstilllateraltersthistoonecompletely
anapestic:
"Shesaid,
'
Imustgo,formykinsfolkpray
Inthelittlegraychurchontheshoretoday.'
"
Otherpoemsforminginterestingstudiesinmixed
metresareTennyson'sRevenge,Mrs.Browning's
CryoftheChildren,andmanyofthelyricsin
Maud.
Variationsofthissort,likeotherdeparturesof
art
formsfromtheirtypesandrules,arepermittedto
themasters,butarenottobeimitatedbythe
humbler
workman;weperceivetheirbeautyasofsomething
abovelaw,justifyingitselfwhentheyare
accomplished.Eveninthesecasesitremainstrue,
asMr.Omondhaspenetratinglyobserved,that
"
variationissuccessfulonlywhenitbringsinto
relief,notobscures,ourperceptionofunderlying
uniformity."(AStudyofMetre,p.75.)
Thesevariations,too,willcommonly,inthework
ofthebestwritersofverse,beusedwiththe
deliberate
purposeofemphasizingthepassagesin
whichtheyoccur,orofmakingtheircadencesmore
METRICALVARIATIONS.249
expressiveofthethought.ProfessorCorsonhas
putthematterinthisway:
"Thenor.J
.Estheticvalue
maltenoroftheverseispresumedtoofmetrical
representthenormaltenorofthefeeling
vanety'

305

whichproducesit.Anddeparturesfromthat
normaltenorrepresent,orshouldrepresent,
variations
inthenormaltenorofthefeeling....A
greatpoetispresumedtohavemetricalskill;and
whereripplesoccurinthestreamofhisverse,
they
willgenerallybefoundtojustifythemselvesas
organic;i.e.theyareapartoftheexpression."
(PrimerofEnglishVerse,pp.49,50.)
Illustrations
ofthisprinciplemaybefoundintheexamples
ofinvertedstressgivenonpage242,andofsuch
additional
changesintheregularmetreasappearin
thefollowingpassages:
'''Thewaterykingdomwhoseambitioushead
Spitsinthefaceofheaven."
(Shakspere:MerchantofVenice,II,vii.)
"Therewhirledherwhiterobelikeablossomed
branch
Rapttothehorriblefall:aglanceIgave,
Nomore;butwomanvestedasIwas
Plunged;andtheflooddrew;yetIcaughther;
then
Oaringonearm,andbearinginmyleft
Theweightofallthehopesofhalftheworld,
Strovetobuffettolandinvain."
(Tennyson:ThePrincess,iv.)
2504NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
"Astumpofoakhalfdead
Clutchedatthecrag,andstartedthro'midair
Bearinganeagle'snest:andthro'thetree
Rushedeverarainywind,andthroughthewind
Piercedeverachild'scry:andcragandtree
Scaling,SirLancelotfromtheperilousnest,
Thisrubynecklacethricearoundherneck,
Andallunscarredfrombeakortalon,brought

306

Amaidenbabe."
(Tennyson:TheLastTournament.)
"Thesweep
Ofsomeprecipitousrivulettothewave."
(Tennyson:EnochArden.)
"DoyouseethissquareoldyellowbookItoss
Ftheair,andcatchagain,andtwirlabout
Bythecrumpledvellumcovers;purecrudefact
Secretedfromman'slifewhenheartsbeathard,
Andbrains,highblooded,tickedtwocenturies
since?
"
(Browning:TheRingandtheBook.)
"Thatplant
Shallneverwaveitstangleslightlyandsoftly
Asaqueen'slanguidandimperialarm."
(Browning:Paracelsus.)
"Sohewithdifficultyandlabourhard
Movedon,withdifficultyandlabourhe."
(Milton:ParadiseLost,ii,1021.)
Ingeneral,then,thoughitmaynotbepossible
tofitadefiniteexplanationtoeachvariation
from
thenormalrhythm,andiscertainlyunwiseto
assume
thatsuchvariationsarealwaystheresultof
METRICALVARIATIONS.2$I
consciousdeliberationonthepartofthepoet,yet
it
issafetosaythatchangesfromthemetricaltype
aresuccessfulandpleasinginsofarastheygive
theimpressionofbeingtheresultofaflexible
adaptation
oftheformtothesubstanceofpoetry,and
areharshanddispleasingnotsomuchfromtheir
merelymetricalcharacterasfromtheextentto
whichtheygivetheimpressionofbeingduetothe

307

difficultyofcrowdingacertainnumberof
syllables
intoafixedmetricalform.Thesamethingistrue
ofthosemovementsfromonemetretoanother,
whichwehaveseenarecharacteristicofthewhole
extentofcertainnotablepoems.Iftheyappear
tobetheresultofcarelessnessindriftingfrom
one
formtoanother,owingtocertainnatural
tendencies
ofourspeech,thennomatterhowpleasing
theymaybeinotherrespectstheymustbethought
tofallshortoftheperfectiontowhichthe
poetical
formforeveraspires;butif,ontheotherhand,
theyareclearlytheresultofchangesofemotion
whichseizeuponbothphrasingandmetricalcadence
andalterthemfortheirownends,theyonly
exemplify
themarvelouscapacityofrhythmtogive
appropriate
bodilyformtothespiritofpoetry.
Forasuggestivestudyoftheadaptationof
metrical
formtointellectualandemotionalcontent,see
Liddell's
IntroductiontotheStudyofPoetry,chaps,vi
andxv.
Attemptstostatedefinitelythelimitstowhich
alterationsofatypicalrhythmmaybecarried
without
252ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
impairingitsessentialcharacter,sincetheymust
rest
onvaryingtastesandthevaryingpracticesofthe
poets,cannotproveverysatisfactory.Ingeneral,
anapesticmetresadmitofthegreatestfreedomin
varyingthenumberofsyllables,andiambicmetres

308

ofthegreatestamountoffreedominvaryingthe
arrangementsofstresses.Trochaicmetrestendto
bedecidedlystableinbothrespects,butarevery
commonly
catalectic(seebelow).Dactylicmetreshave
neverestablishedthemselvesinEnglish
sufficientlyto
developgenerallyacceptablerules,thoughin
practice
theyexhibitmuchofthefreedomofanapestic
metres.
EarlyEnglishverseshowedgreatvarietyinthe
numberofsyllables(seetheremarksonfourstress
verse,onpage267below);modernversetendsto
greatregularityinthenumberofsyllables
employed,
withtheexceptionofthefreeuseofcatalexisin
trochaic
measuresandoffeminineendinginiambic.
Lyricalmeasures,ingeneral,permitlessvariation
fromthetypicalmetrethanepic,andepicless
than
dramatic(seechapterii).Unrimedfivestress
iambic
verse(commonlycalledsimply"blankverse"),
especiallyasusedinthedrama,showsmore
flexibility
thananyotherfamiliarmetre,andisthebest
place
inwhichtostudythisquestion,especiallyfrom
the
standpointofvariationsofstresscadence.Mr.A.
J.
Ellisdiscussedthelimitationsofmetrical
substitution
inthismetre,inanessaypublishedin1869,and
reachedtheconclusionthatiniambicpentameter
"

309

theremustbeaprincipalstressonthelast
syllable
ofthesecondandfourthmeasures;orofthefirst
andfourth;orofthethirdandsomeother.Ifany
oneofthesethreeconditionsissatisfied,the
verse,
sofarasstressisconcerned,iscomplete."Mr.J.
B.
Mayorcriticisedthisview(ChaptersonEnglish
Metre,
METRICALVARIATIONS.253
chap,v),anddevelopedforhimselftheselawsof
limitation:Thelimitofsubstitution(iniambic
fivestress
verse)oftrochees,pyrrhics,andanapestsis
threefeetoutofthefive;ofspondeesfourout
of
five;ofdactylstwo(permissibleonlyinthefirst
andeitherthethirdorfourthfoot).Yethe
admitted
theproprietyofaniambicverseofSwinburne'sin
whichthefirstfourfeetareanapests:
"Thouartolderandcolderofspiritandblood
thanI."
Byimplication,Mayoralsoadmitstheproprietyof
aninversion(trochee)inthefifthfoot;this
however
isanextremelyboldlicense,andpractically
results
inawrenchedaccentatthecloseoftheverse.
(There
areafewdoubtfulexamplesinMilton,aboutthe
pronunciation
ofwhichcriticshavedisagreed;e.g.,
"Whichofuswhobeholdsthebrightsurface.")
Thisvariation(inversionofstress)isalways
preferred
inthefirstfootandimmediatelyafterthe

310

cesura.Itsoccurrenceinboththefirstandthe
second
footisbold,butfamiliarinMilton,as:
"
Universalreproachfarworsetobear;"
"Overfishoftheseaandfowloftheair;"
andeveninTennysonrarely:
"
Feltthelightofhereyesintohislife."*
Whilemanyrulesmightbeformulated,onthe
basisofusageamongthepoets,theycanamountto
*Suchversesshouldprobablybeanalyzedthus:
254ININTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
nothingmorethanastatementofwhatisactually
tolerated;
andthereader'searmustbethejudgeofwhat
ispleasing.Thesegenerallawsmayberegardedas
fundamental:(i)changesofcadenceareadmitted
freelyatthebeginningoftheverse,andsparingly
neartheend;and(2)thevariationsfromthe
regular
arrangementsofstressesmustnotbesonumerous,
or
ofsuchacharacter,astodestroytheprevailing
iambicmovementoftheverse.(Forthemostcommon
principlesgoverningalterationofcadencein
otherthaniambicmeasures,seetheremarksonthe
particularmetres,below.)Itisofcoursetobe
understood
thatmoreorlessmarkedquantitative
change(adjustmentofthelengthofsyllablesand
feet)isconstantlygoingon,intheeffortto
compensate
foralterationsfromthenormalmovementof
themetre,inaccordancewiththeprinciplesset
forth
inchapteriv.
Certainalterationsofthetypicalmetre,other

311

thanthoseresultingfromthesubstitutionofone
metricalfootforanother,havestillto
Truncationand
extensionofbenoticeditheyinvolvethe
truncation
orextensionoftheverseeitheratthe
beginningortheend.Initialtruncation,familiar
inEnglishpoetryofearlierperiods,isarareand
ratherboldlicenseinmodernverse,exceptforthe
omissionofthefirstlightsyllableinanapestic
metre
(thesubstitutionofaniambus).Atypicalexample
isfoundinthesecondoftheselinesfromMilton's
Nativity:
"
Apollofromhisshrine
Cannomoredivine."
METRICALVARIATIONS.
Finaltruncationissaidtomakeaverse
catalectic,
andisconfinedtotrochaicanddactylicmetres.An
exampleisfoundinthesecondoftheselines:
"Youshallcertainlycometothefountain
AtlengthtotheFountainofTears."
Indactylicversecatalexismayinvolvethefinal
lightsyllableonly,asin
"Thisisaspraythebirdclungto,"
orbothlightsyllables,asinthesecondofthese
verses:
"Takeheruptenderly,
Liftherwithcare.'*
Italways,properlyspeaking,involvesaninstant
ofsilencewhichisfeltbythereadertoformthe
completionoftherhythmicaltime.
Anadditionallightsyllableatthebeginningof
theverseiscalledanacrusis,andisequivalentto
the

312

singlenotewhichoftenbeginsapieceofmusic
before
theopeningofthefirstmeasure.Itismost
familiariniambicverse,whereitmaybedescribed
moreproperlyasasubstitutedanapest,buthasits
characteristiceffect(thatofanoteonthe
"
upbeat
")introchaicordactylicverse;asinthethird
oftheselinesfromShelley'sSkylark:
"Whatthouartweknownot;
Whatismostlikethee?
Fromrainbowcloudsthereflownot
Dropssobrighttosee;
"
2564NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
orthisfromHood'sBridgeofSighs:
"
Alasfortherarity."
Anadditionallightsyllableattheendofthe
verseisafamiliarvariationiniambicand
anapestic
metres,bothasacharacteristicofentirepoems
and
ofparticularverses.In
"
blankverse
"
(unrimed
iambicfivestress)usagehascommonlyrestricted
thisfeminineendingtodramaticpoetry;andin
the
drama(especiallyoftheearlyseventeenthcentury)
verseswillbefoundinwhichtzvolightsyllables
are
addedtotheregularmetre,formingtwelve
syllables
inall,butnotsixfeet.Theseterminationsare

313

calledtripleendings.Anexampleisthisverse
fromFletcher'sWildGooseChase:
"Andbeingfreebornmaids,wetakealib(erty."
Thetripleendingisalsooccasionallyfoundin
rimedverse,usuallywithagrotesqueorcomic
effect,
asinByron's
"InsmalleyedChina'scrockerywaremetropolis."
Itshouldbenoticedthattheterms
"
anacrusis
"
and"
feminineending
"
aresometimesamerematter
ofprinting,notofrealrhythm.Thusinthe
lines
"Whitewerethemoorlands,
Andfrozenbeforeher,"
METRICALVARIATIONS.
theword"
and/'lookedatfromthepointofview
ofthesingleverseinwhichitoccurs,isan
instance
ofanacrusis.Inreality,however,itisthelast
syllable
oftheseconddactyloftheprecedingline,and
shouldbewrittenformetricalpurposesinthis
way:
"Whitewerethemoorlands,and."
Thetrueanacrusisstealsforitselfamomentof
time
fromthenaturalpausebetweentwoverses.Afull
anapesticmetrewithfeminineendinggivessomewhat
theeffectofanacrusis,sinceathirdlight
syllable
mustbecrowdedinbetweenthestresses;asin

314

Scott'sCoronach(inTheLadyoftheLake):
"Heisgoneonthemountain,
Heislosttotheforest,
Likeasummerdriedfountain,
Whenourneedwasthesorest."
Itismorecommon,andmoreagreeable,toomit
thefirstsyllableoftheinitialanapest,whenthe
precedinglinehashadafeminineending,that
endingformingreallythebeginningofthe
succeeding
anapest.SoinO'Shaughnessy'sFountainof
Tears:
"Ifyougooverdesertandmountain,
Farintothecountryofsorrow,
Todayandtonightandtomorrow,
Andmaybeformonthsandforyears."
258^INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Thereremainsoneotherelementwhichmustbe
includedinacompletedescriptionofthe
individual
verse:thepause.Pausesinverseare
oftwokinds:thosewhichtakethetime
ofmissingsyllables,andcorrespondtorestsin
music;andthosewhichhaveasitweretosteal
theirtimefromthatoftheadjacentperiodsor
syllables,
andcorrespondtothephrasepausesinmusic.
Thefirstkindhasbeensufficientlydiscussedin
chapter
iv,andisofcourseexceptional.Thesecond
kindisofconstantoccurrence,andiscommonly,
calledthecesuralpauseormorebrieflythe
cesura.
Thecesurahastwoorigins,onerhythmicaland
theotherrhetorical.Fromtherhythmical
standpoint,
itisduetothefactthatasuc

315

Thecesura,rrc*L\cessionoffiveormore
unitsofrhythm
naturallydividesitselftotheearintotwo
smaller
groups,whicharethemselvesrhythmicalunitshalf
waybetweenthefootandtheverse,andwhich
wemaycallrhythmicalcadencesorphrases.Most
naturally,afivestressversewillfallintotwo
parts
withthedivisionaftereitherthesecondorthird
foot;as
THECESURA.259
Butitmaydivide(lessnaturally)inthemiddleof
thethirdfoot,afterthefifthsyllable.(Sucha
cesura,afteranunstressedsyllable,iscalled
feminine;
thatfollowingastressedsyllable,masculine.)
Thesecadencesmaybefurtherillustratedbysuch
asimplesyllabicdivisionasthis:
Tetumtetumtetum,tetumtetum
or
Tetumtetum,tetumtetumtetum,
oryetagain
Tetumtetumte,turntetumtetum.
Anyofthesecesurasmaybecalledmedial,andthe
purelyrhythmicaltendencyofeveryverseistoward
amedialcesura.Butthewriterofversemayvary
this,byarrangingtherhetoricalphrasingsothat
the
cesuramustcomenearthebeginningornearthe
endingoftheline.*Inverseofsixfeet,the
tend
*Forexamplesofthis,seethepassagesfrom
Tennysonquoted
above,pages249,250.Thefollowingverses,
showingcesurasvarying
fromthemiddleofthefirsttothemiddleofthe
fifthfoot,areall

316

fromTennyson'sIdyllsoftheA7^savethelast,
whichisfromMilton's
ParadiseLost.
Sound^asifsomefaircitywereonevoice.
Speakout;whatisitthouhastheard^orseen?
Madeanswer:
'Ihadliefertwentyyears.'
Thenfellthickrai^plumedrooptandmantleclung.
Todoubtherfairnessweretowantaneye.
Wereaddedmouthsthatgap'd^^ndeyesthatask'd.
Mostjoyandmostaffiance)forIknow.
Andevertremulous
aspentreesjjielay.
Andbushwithfrizzledhairimplicit:last.
26o^^INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
encyisverystronglytowardastrictlymedial
cesura,
afterthethirdfoot.Averseofsevenfeetdivides
naturallyintofoursandthrees;andversesof
eight
feetbreaksoinsistentlyintotwogroupsoffour
each
thattheyarehardlyrecognizableasaseparate
metrei
Therhetoricaloriginofthecesuraconsistsmerely
inthenaturalphrasingofsentences,whichare
separated
byslightpausessuchasmayormaynot^
bemarkedbypunctuation.Inversetheserhetorical
pausesdeterminethemetricalcesura,sincethe
senseoftheversemustnotbedisturbedbypauses
formetricalpurposesonly.Wherethepausesare
stronglymarkedbygrammaticalorrhetoricalgaps,
therhythmicalcesuraismadetoappearmore
strongly;ontheotherhand,itmayappearasa
slight
andalmostimperceptiblecuttingoftheverse,and
maydisappearaltogetherinverseswherethesense

317

isperfectlycontinuous.Inillustrationcompare
the
gradationofpausesinthefollowingverses:
Butnowfarewell.Iamgoingalongway.
Thrustinbetween;butAracrodehimdown.
Andthebluesky,andinthemindofman.
Toweepalossthatturnstheirlightstoshade.
Totheoldsolitarynothingness.
Inillustration,further,ofthedifferencebetween
verseinwhichthecesuraismedialandfairly
constant
andthatinwhichitfrequentlyvaries,contrast
thetwofollowingpassages.
THECESURA.26l
"
'Tisoursthedignitytheygivetograce,
Thefirstinvalor,asthefirstinplace:
Thatwhenwithwond'ringeyesourmartialbands
Beholdourdeedstranscendingourcommands,
Such,theymaycry,deservethesovereignstate,
Whomthosethatenvydarenotimitate!...
Thelifewhichotherspay,letusbestow,
Andgivetofamewhatwetonatureowe;
Bravetho'wefall,andhonor'difwelive,
Orletusglorygain,orglorygive!
"
(Pope:Iliad,Bookxii.)
"Thehugehighpresence,redasearth'sfirst
race,
Rearedlikeareedthemightupofhismace,
Andsmote:butlightlyTristramswerved,anddrove
Rightinonhim,whosevoidstrokeonlyclove
Air,andfellwide,thunderingathwart:andhe
Sentforthastormiercrythanwindorsea
Whenmidnighttakesthetempestforherlord;
Andalltheglen'sthroatseemedashell'sthat
roared;

318

Buthighlikeheaven'slightoverhellshone
Tristram's
sword,
Falling,andbrightasstormshowsGod'sbare
brand
Flashed,asitshoresheeroffthehugeright
hand."
(Swinburne:TristramofLyonesse,viii.)
Thereisafinaltypeofpause,differentinsome
respectsfromeitherofthosejustdiscussed:
namely,
thatwhichoccursattheendofthe
T1M,fTheendpause,
verse.Itislikethecesurainforming
thecloseofarhythmicalcadence,andisusually
alsolikethecesurainhavingnoplaceinthe
strictlyrhythmicaltime.Yetincertainmetresthe
2624NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
pauseattheendoftheverseisincreasedtofill
thetimeofasyllablemissingfromthefullnumber
expected.*Thusintrochaiccatalecticmetres,like
"
SoulsofPoetsdeadandgone,
WhatElysiumhaveyeknown,"
thereaderreallyperceivesthemomentofthe
missing
syllable,andmaybeassumedtomakeaslightly
longerpausethanwhenthemetreiscomplete,asin
thenextcouplet:
"
Happyfieldormossycavern,
ChoicerthantheMermaidTavern."
Endpauses,however,arecommonlyquiteapart
fromtherhythmicaltimeproper,andareimposed
upontherhythmsoregularlythat(likethelast
stressintheverse)theyarefrequentlyamatter
ofmentalperceptionratherthanofactual
expression.

319

Nowtherhetoricalphrasingmaycoincidewith
thisversephrasing(inotherwords,arhetorical
pausemayoccurattheplaceoftheendpauseof
theverse),asinthecaseofthecesura;butnot
*Acuriousextensionofthisdoctrineofthefinal
pauseasfilling
thetimeofsilentrhythmicalmeasures,isfoundin
thetheoryofthe
lateCoventryPatmore(seehis"
PrefatoryStudyonEnglishMetrical
Law,"publishedwithAmeliaandotherpoems,1878).
According
tothis,theonlystandardorcompleteEnglish
metresaremadeup
ofeight,twelve,orsixteensyllables;all
others,properlyspeaking,
arecatalectic,witharegularanddefinitely
measurablepauseatthe
endofeachverse.
THEENDPAUSE.263
necessarily.Whenthepoetdesires,hemayoverride
theplaceofthefinalpausebycontinuous
phrasing,
ashemayoverridethenaturalplaceofthe
cesura;andthemetricaldivisionofoneversefrom
thenextwillremainunimpaired.Suchafailureof
therhetoricalphrasingtoconformtotheverse
division
isoftencalledbytheFrenchtermenjambement,
orasthetermissometimesparaphrased
overflow;whilesuchversesarecalled
"
runon,"
asopposedtothe
"
endstopped
"
verseswhich

320

concludewithadistinctrhetoricalpause.The
contrast
betweenverseformscharacterizedbythesetwo
typesoflineiswellexemplifiedbythetwo
passages
citedaboveinillustrationofthemedialand
variable
cesura.
Itshouldbenotedthatrunonlinesdonotusually
concludewithastronglyprocliticwordthatis,
awordwhichiscloselyconnectedwiththe
following
word,likeaprepositionbeforeanoun,orevenan
adjectivebeforethenounwithwhichitbelongs.In
suchapassageasthisfromtheWintersTale
"
Thischildwasprisonertothewomb,andis
BylawandprocessofgreatNaturethence
Freedandenfranchis'd,notapartyto
Theangeroftheking,norguiltyof,
Ifanybe,thetrespassofthequeen,"
*
thevariousdegreesofenjambementarewell
illustrated.
Theconclusionofthefirstverseiscalleda
"
light
*
II,ii,5963.
264ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
ending,"thoseofthethirdandfourthverses
"weak
endings;
"andtheirquestionablemetricalcharacter
consistsnotsomuchinthefactthattheycannot
bestronglystressedasthatitisimpossibleto
pause

321

afterthemwithoutviolatingtherhetoricofthe
lines.
Thisdoesnot,however,strictlyapplytothe
ending
"
guiltyof,"sincethefollowingparenthetical
clause
("ifanybe")makesnaturalaslightrhetorical
pause
beforeit.Suchlightandweakendingsare
especially
characteristicoftheverseofthelateplays
ofShakspere.Thegeneralavoidanceofthemin
Englishpoetry(aswellasofversedivisionswhich
separateadjectivesfromtheirnouns,andthelike)
meansthatthetendencytomaketheversepause
coincidewithatleastaslightrhetoricalpauseis
still
verystrong.*Itshouldbenotedthat,evenwhen
thereislittleornorhetoricalpauseindicated,a
good
readermayeasilymakeaslightmetricalpauseat
theendoftheverse,withoutdroppingthepitchof
thevoiceandthusinjuringtherhetorical
expression.
Nomatterhowfreebetheuseofrunonlines,
poetryisnotwellreadwhenalistenercannot
distinguish
itfromprose.
Wehavenowtoconsiderbrieflythemostimportant
typesofmetre,apartfromtheelementsofthe
individualverse.Andfirsttheiambic
Iambicmetres.1111*11
metres,whichoverwhelminglypredominate
inEnglishpoetry.Tworeasonsarecom
*Fornumerousviolationsofthisprinciple,see
Byron'sCain.A
characteristicverseis

322

"Ofseemingstrength,butofinexplicable
Shape."
IAMBICMETRES.265
monlysuggestedforthispreference:(i)thefact
thatEnglishsentencesandclausesalwaystendto
beginwithanunstressedparticle,thusmakingit
unnaturaltoopenametricalphrasewithatrochee
ordactyl;and(2)thefactthatEnglish
dissyllabic
wordsalargeproportionofthoseincommon
usearemorecommonlystressedonthefirst
syllablethanonthesecond,sothatiniambic
verse
thelineofdivisionusuallyfallsbetweenthe
rhythmical
units,whereasintrochaicverseitmorefrequently
coincideswiththedivisionbetweenwords
(seepage227above);andtheformerarrangement
ismorepleasingtotheear.Neitherofthese
reasonswouldexplainthepreferenceforiambic
toanapesticmetres,andthisdoesnotseemtobe
apreferencenaturaltothe
language.
Intheearliest
Englishversetrisyllabic/metreschieflyirregular
werefamiliar;andcarelessorpopular
verse,evenwhenattemptingtheiambicform,always
fallseasilyintotrisyllabicfeet.Itappears
thattherestrictionofthegreatbodyofour
literary
versetodissyllabicfeet,andhencetoiambic
metres,
hasbeenduetotheinfluenceofLatin,French,and
Italianverse,andtotheconsequentestablishment
ofastandardofcorrectnesscharacterizedbythe
continuedalternationofstressandnostress.
Itmightseemthatthenumberofdissyllabicwords

323

stressedonthefirstsyllableisquitebalancedby
the
numberofcombinationslike
"
myown,"
"
the
266<*NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
tree,"andthelike,whichtakethestressinthe
reverse
order.Similarly,ProfessorLewisarguestothe
effectthattheobjectiontotrochaicversecannot
be
duetoanythinglikethesecondreasonsuggested
above,onthegroundthatiambicverseisnot
disagreeable
whenithappenstobemadeuplargelyof
dissyllablesaccentedonthesecondsyllable.But
the
examplewhichheconstructsinsupportofthis
statement
would,forsomereaders,hardlybearitout.
Mr.Lewis'sconclusionisthat
"ourlowestimateof
trochaicmetres
"
isnottobeascribedtoanypeculiarity
ofthelanguage,
"
buttoaninnatedislikeforthe
trochaicrhythmitself."(PrinciplesofEnglish
Verse,
p.104.)
Iambicverseisfamiliarinalllengthsfromtwo
feettoseven(forspecimens,seeEnglishVerse,
pp.2644),butismostcommonin
kmbifverse
metresoffour,five,andsixstresses.*

324

Eachofthesedeservessomeseparate
consideration.Thefourstressrimingcouplet,the
mostimportantformmadeupoffourfootiambics,
isfoundinabundantusefromthepoetryofChaucer
tothatofScott,althoughmodernpoetshave
usually
preferredlongerversesforcontinuousnarrative
poetry.Itisadirect,fairlyrapidmetre,well
adaptedtosimplenarrative,whereelaborationof
thoughtorfeelingandvarietyofcadencearenot
demanded;butitsbrevityunfitsitforvariety
either
inalterationofstresscadencesorintheuseof
the
*Onthelimitsofverselength,seetwo
interestinglettersofMr.
Omond'sinTheAcademyforMarch28andApril25,
1908.
IAMBICMETRES.26/
cesura;henceitisliabletomonotony.Itisnever
usedwithoutrime.
Scottdefendshisuseofoctosyllabicversefor
narrative
poetryinhisIntroductiontoTheLayofthe
LastMinstrel,sayingthatit
"
appearssonaturalto
ourlanguagethattheverybestofourpoetshave
not
beenabletoprotractitintotheverseproperly
called
Heroic,withouttheuseofepithetswhichare,to
say
theleast,unnecessary.Thusithasoftenbeen
remarked
that,intheopeningcoupletsofPope'stranslation
oftheIliad,therearetwosyllables"forming
asuperfluouswordineachline,asmaybeobserved

325

byattendingtosuchwordsasareprintedin
italics.
'Achilles'wrath,toGreecethedirefulspring
Ofwoesunnumbered,heavenlygoddess,sing;
ThatwrathwhichsenttoPluto'sgloomyreign
Thesoulsofmightychiefsinbattleslain,
Whosebones,unburiedonthedesertshore,
Devouringdogsandhungryvulturestore.'
>!
IntheEnglishpoetryofearlyperiodsthereis
anabundanceoffourstressversewhichoneknows
notwhethertocalliambicoranapestic;infactit
isneither,butcanbedescribedonlyinthisway,
as
beingmadeupoffourstressedsyllables,placedat
approximatelyequaltimeintervals,andofan
indefinite
numberofunstressedsyllablesusually
varyingfromthreetoeightindeterminatelyplaced.
ProfessorSaintsbury,thoughinanotherconnection,
furnishesuswithagooddescriptionoftheeffect
of
this(sometimescalled"tumbling")verse,as"a
kindofdrunkard,staggeringfromtreetotreeor
othersupport,andcaringonlytogetholdofthe
nextwithoutcalculating...thenumberand
meas268
^INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
ureofthestepswhichtakehimtoit."(Hist,of
Eng.
Prosody,vol.i,p.383.)Withthestructural
element
ofalliteration,thisverseisfoundinAngloSaxon
poetryandinthesocalled
"
longline
"
ofPiers

326

Plowmanandotherfourteenthcenturypoems.Later
(asinSpenser'sShepherd'sCalendar)itappears
asrimed"
tumblingverse;
"
againintheballads,the
mysteryplays,andearlysixteenthcenturycomedies
;
andinpopularordoggerelverse,downtoourown
time,thisfourstress,nonsyllablecountingverse
may
stillbefound.Schipperquotesacharacteristic
example
fromaballadofThackeray's:
"ThisMarywasporeandinmiseryonce,
AndshecametoMrs.Roneyit'smorethantwelve
monce.
Sheadn'tgotnobed,nornodinnernornotea,
AndkindMrs.RoneygaveMaryallthree."
(OnthissubjectseeEnglishVerse,pp.151159.)
Coleridgewasreallyimitatingthistraditional
freedom
ofourverseinChristabel,thoughhecalledit,
curiouslyenough,
"
anewprinciple
"
tocount"
in
eachlinetheaccents,notthesyllables."
Fivestressversepredominatesiniambicmetreas
overwhelminglyasdoesiambicovertheothertypes
ofmetricalrhythm.Variousreasons
haVCbeensu"gestedfortnefacttnat
ithasthusproveditselfourfavorite
andmostserviceablemeasure.Tosomeitseems
torepresentthenaturallengthofanEnglish
clause

327

orsentence,orthenaturaldistancebetween
breaths
inreading.Othershaveemphasizedthefactthat
itslength(ascomparedwiththeverseoffour
IAMBICMETRES.269
stresses)permitsgreatervarietyofcadence,both
inalterationsofstressandintheplacingofthe
cesura;whiletheoddnumberofitsfeettendsto
divideitintoagreeablyunequalcadences.Again,
sincethismetrepermitsavariablenumberoffull
stresses(ratherfavoringfourthanfive,inactual
usage)andaconsequentvariablenumberoflight
syllables,yetapproximatestoaregular
alternation
ofstressandnostress,itcombinestosomedegree
theprincipalqualitiesofnativeEnglishverse
(which
wasoriginallybasedonfourstressesanda
variable
numberoflightsyllables)withthoseofthemore
exactsyllablecountingverseofLatin,Frenchand
Italian.Inallthesesuggestionsthereare
doubtless
elementsoftruth.Whateverthereason,from
thetimeofChaucer(whointroduceditintoEnglish
poetry)tothepresent,therehasbeenscarcelya
poetofthefirstimportancewhodidnotmakethis
metrehischiefformofexpression;andwereall
theEnglishversewritteninothermetrestobe
destroyed,
thelossespeciallyifweexceptsongsand
similarlyricswouldbecomparativelyslight.
Inusagethefivestressiambicmetreappearsin
twogreatforms;asrimed,incouplets,andin
continuous
unrimedor
"
blank

328

"
verse.In
general,therimedformischaracterized
Heroi3uplet>
bygreaterregularitythantheunrimedinnumber
ofsyllables,changesofstress,andconstancyof
bothmedialpauseandendpause;and,partlyat
leastforthisreason,ithasproveditselfbetter
fitted
2;o4NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
toexpressprecise,epigrammatic,and
characteristically
intellectualideasthantheother.ThusMr.
Woodberrycallsit"thebestmetricalformwhich
intelligence,asdistinctfrompoeticalfeeling,
canemploy."
(MakersofLiterature,p.104.)Tothis
rimedandfairlyregulartypethename"
heroic
couplet
"
iscommonlygiven;thequotationfrom
Pope'sIliad,onpage261above,isatypical
illustration
ofitscharacter.
Alooseruseoftheformappearsinthecoupletsof
Keats,Shelley,andBrowning.Keatsespecially,in
theEndymion,usessomanyrunonlinesthatthe
singleversealmostceasestobetheunitofthe
measure,
andtherimeisthrownintotheobscurebackground.
Thefollowingpassage(Bookii,317ff.)isan
extremeinstance,nottobesureofrunonendings,
butofadeliberateavoidanceofcoincidence
between
therhetoricalconnectionofversesandtheir
pairing
intocouplets.

329

"Withinmybreasttherelivesachokingflame
Oletmecool'tthezephyrboughsamong!
Ahomewardfeverparchesupmytongue
Oletmeslakeitattherunningsprings!
Uponmyearanoisynothingrings
Oletmeoncemorehearthelinnet'snote!
Beforemineeyesthickfilmsandshadowsfloat
Oletme'nointthemwiththeheaven'slight!
Dostthounowlavethyfeetandankleswhite?
"
etc.
Ontheotherhand,forabundantrunonendingssee
theopeningpassageofBooki
;alsosuchpassagesof
Shelley'sEpipsychidion,Browning'sSordello,etc.,
as
IAMBICMETRES.271
arequotedinEnglishVerse,pp.208213.Professor
Lewis,incommentingonthisfreeorromantic
fivestress
couplet,observes:
"
Ifyouwantthelinestructure
tobeperpetuallythreatenedwithsubmergence
bytheflowoftherhythm,whyshouldyou
hoistaflagontheendofeveryline?Therimein
suchversewouldbereallysomethingofan
annoyance;
foreitheritwouldeffectuallydistractyour
attention
fromthehigherattractionsoftherhythm,orelse
it
woulditselfceasetobenoticedexceptasan
irregular
intruder.Oneortheotheroftheseeffectsthe
reader
willprobablydiscoverinKeats'sEndymion."
(Principles

330

ofEng.Verse,p.67.)Hegoesontopointout
thatKeatshimselfwasdissatisfiedwiththe
workmanship
ofEndymion,andlater,inLamia,wrotecouplets
which,thoughbynomeanssoregularasthoseof
Popeandhisschool,aretrulyoftheheroictype
in
theirstructure.Itshouldperhapsbenotedthata
peculiarlicenseoftheheroiccouplet,especially
as
practisedbyDryden,istheoccasionaluseofa
third
line(forminga
"
triplet")continuingtherimeofa
couplet,andverycommonlycontainingsixfeet
instead
offive.Anexamplemaybefoundinthepassage
fromSwinburnequotedonpage261.
Intheunrimedformthisfivestressiambicmetre
isequallyfamiliar,and,whiletheoreticallyof
the
samerhythmicalcharacterasthecoup
1iBlankversei
let,isinusagecharacterizedbyquite
differentqualities,inadditiontoitsomissionof
rime.Mostconspicuousoftheseisitslargeruse
ofvaryingcadences,inoppositiontowhatwehave
seentobecharacteristicofthecouplet;cadences
duebothtochangesofstressandtotheposition
272AHINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
ofthecesura.*Theuseofalargenumberof
runonlines,intheblankverseofmostofthe
greatpoetswhohavedevelopedtheform,makes
*Inrespecttotheregularnumberofsyllables,
althoughblank
verseherealsoshowsmorefreedomthanthecouplet
metre,itis,by

331

traditionandusage,surprisinglyregular.Seethe
remarksonpage
240above,whereitispointedoutthatthisisdue
totheforeign
influenceswhich,forthreecenturiesatleast
(fromChaucertoMilton),
largelygovernedthistypeofmetre.Bridges
emphasizesthis
featureofthe"heroic
"
versesostronglyastoputitinaclassby
itself,callingitsyllabicverse,whileother
(particularlylyrical)metres
arecalledaccentual."WhenreadingMilton'sor
Chaucer'stensyllable
versealoud,theoccurrenceofalinewhichis
deficientinone
ofthetensyllables(andsuchlinesoccurin
Chaucer)isextremely
awkwardbothforhearerandreader,especiallyif
thelatterisnot
preparedforit.Itcannotescapeobservation:and
ifalineoccurs
inwhichtherearemorethantensyllables,the'
trisyllabicfoot'
is
readilyperceived;sothatofeveryline,asitis
read,thehearercan
sayatonceofhowmanysyllablesitwascomposed,
whetherofnine,
ten,eleven,ortwelve.Buthewillnotobservea
varietyinthenumber
ofstressesinthesameway;whetherthelinehave
itsfull
normalcomplementoffive,oronlyfour(asisvery
frequent),oronly
three,noawkwardnessorinterruptionofrhythm
willbeperceived;

332

norwillthehearerbeabletosayreadilyatthe
closeofanylinehow
manytruestressesitcontained.Thisissyllabic
verse.Ofstressed
verseexactlythecontraryistrue...Hearerand
readeralikeare
indifferentastothenumberofsyllableswhichgo
tomaketheline;
nor,aseachlineisread,cantheysayhowmany
syllableshavegone
tomakeit.Butifastressbeomitted,they
perceivetherhythmtobe
unsatisfactory."(Milfoil'sProsody,pp.in,112.)
Theseobservations
arediscriminatingandabsolutelytrue,andshould
becarefully
notedbythestudent.Nevertheless,thedifference
isoneofnonessential
details,whichhavebeenwroughtoutbythe
accidentsof
usage,foreigninfluence,andtradition.Strictly
speaking,therhvthm
ofan"heroic"verseisnotimpairedbyvarying
thenumberofits
syllables;anditisonlybecause,fromitsnature
andusage,weare
betterabletomarkthetimeintervalsinthis
metrewithoutactually
utteringthefullnumberofstresses,thatweallow
astresstobe
droppedheremorewillinglythaninothertypesof
verse.
IAMBICMETRES.273
thesingleverselessclearlytheunitofthemetre
thaniscommoninanyothermetricalform,and
combineswiththevariablecesuratoformlong,
flexiblecadences,extendingfromoneverseinto
another,

333

forwhichthename"
metricalparagraphs
"
hasbeensuggested.Typicalexamplesarethese
fromMiltonandTennyson:
"
Lowlyreverent
Towardseitherthronetheybow,andtotheground
Withsolemnadorationdowntheycast
Theircrowns,inwovewithamaranthandgold,
Immortalamaranth,aflowerwhichonce
InParadise,fastbytheTreeofLife,
Begantobloom,but,soonforman'soffence
ToHeavenremovedwherefirstitgrew,theregrows
Andflowersaloft,shadingtheFountofLife,
AndwheretheRiverofBlissthroughmidstof
Heaven
Rollso'erElysianflowersheramberstream."
(ParadiseLost,iii,349~359)
"Ascomesapillarofelectriccloud,
Flayingtheroofsandsuckingupthedrains,
Andshadowingdownthechampaigntillitstrikes
Onawood,andtakes,andbreaks,andcracks,and
splits,
AndtwiststhegrainwithsucharoarthatEarth
Reels,andtheherdsmencry;foreverything
Gavewaybeforehim:onlyFlorian,he
Thatlovedmecloserthanhisownrighteye,
Thrustinbetween;butAracrodehimdown."
(ThePrincess,v.)
Thesemetricalparagraphsmaybesaidtofill
somewhattheplaceofcoupletorstanzainthe
2744NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
otherwisecontinuousflowofthemetre.Finally,
theplaceofrimeistakeninsomemeasurebyan
especiallymarkeduseoftonecolororverbal
melody,
whichhasbeendevelopedinblankverserather

334

morethaninanyothermetre.Suchasonorously
expressivegroupofversesasthesefromKeats,
forexample,wouldscarcelybelookedforinany
rimedorlyricalmeasure:
"
Coeus,andGyges,andBriareus,
Typhon,andDolor,andPorphyrion,
Withmanymore,thebrawniestinassault,
Werepentinregionsoflaboriousbreath;
Dungeon'dinopaqueelement,tokeep
Theirclenchedteethstillclench'd,andalltheir
limbs
Lock'duplikeveinsofmetal,cramptandscrew'd;
Withoutamotion,saveoftheirbighearts
Heavinginpain,andhorriblyconvuls'd
Withsanguinefeverousboilinggurgeofpulse."
(Hyperion,ii.)
Itisinitsfitnessforcontinuousnarrative
poetry,
whetherinepicordramaticform,thatblankverse
hasproveditsspecialvalue.Theabsenceofrime
andstanzagivesitacontinuitysuchascould
nototherwisebemaintained,whileitsflexible
cadencespreservethiscontinuityfrommonotony;
andatthesametimetheabsenceoftheseobviously
decorativeelementsfitsitforthemoreserious\
anddignifiedtypesofpoetry.Inthedrama
especiallyitlendsitselfwithsingular
flexibility]
totherepresentationofdirectlyutteredhuman
speech,seemingbyitsvariedcadencesandits
IAMBICMETRES.27$
wantofrimetocomeclosertorealitythananyof
thelyricalmetres,andyetmaintainingasustained
'rhythmadequatetocarrythemostloftyand
intense
emotionalexpression.Superficiallythereare
nomarkeddifferencesbetweentheformsofthis

335

metrefoundinepicandindramaticpoetry,save
the
1
factthatusagereservesthefeminineendingfor
the
latter.Butthecarefulreadermayobservesubtle
differencesinthecadencesofthetwoforms,such
as
Symondssuggestswhenhesaysthatdramatic
blankverseshowsasimpleandprogressive
structure,
epicblankverseacomplexandstationary.
"Theone,ifwemayplayuponafancy,resembles
music,andtheotherarchitecture."(BlankVerse,
P.ss.)
Onthequalitiesofthismetrethestudentshould
iconsultJ.A.Symonds'sstudycalledBlankVerse,
thechapteron"
Milton'sBlankVerse"
inCorson's
PrimerofEnglishVerse,andchapteriiiofLewis's
PrinciplesofEnglishVerse.Corsonquotesanini
terestingpassagefromanaccountbyColeridgeof
someremarksofWordsworthinaconversationwith
Klopstock:
"Myfriendgavehisdefinitionandnotion
ofharmoniousverse,thatitconsisted(theEnglish
iambicblankverseaboveall)intheapt
arrangement
ofpausesandcadences,andthesweepofwhole
paragraphs,
withmanyawindingbout
Oflinkedsweetnesslongdrawnout,
andnotintheevenflow,muchlessinthe
prominence
orantitheticvigorofsinglelines."(Fromthe
third
ofthe

336

"
SatyraneLetters.")Symondspaysthis
2764NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
tributetothemetre:
"
Englishblankverseisperhaps
morevariousandplasticthananyothernational
metre....PlatomentionsaGreekmusical
instrument
calledpanharmonium,whichwasadaptedto
expressthedifferentmodesandsystemsof
melodious
utterance.Thisnamemightbeappliedtoourblank
verse;thereisnoharmonyofsound,nodignityof
movement,noswiftness,nosubtletyoflanguid
sweetness,nobrevity,noforceofemphasis,beyond
itsscope."(pp.16,17.)
Sixstressiambicmetreisafamiliar,butnota
favoriteform.Naturallydividingitselfbythe
medialcesuraintotwoequalparts,it
tobtve
3
.
S00nPalls"PntheearthrOUghthe
resultingmonotony;andontheother
handtheverseisrathertoolongtoadmitofmuch
variationintheplacingofthecesurawithout
losing
itsessentialcharacter.Almosttheonlyimportant
Englishpoemswritteninthismetreare
DraytonsPolyolbionandBrowning'sFifineatthe
Fair.Butasavariationfromthefivestress
iambicmetre,bothintheheroiccoupletandin
stanzaforms,thealexandrine(assixstress
iambicverseiscommonlycalled)doesimportant
service.Particularlytobenotedisthepart
itplaysintheformingofthesocalledSpenserian
stanza(forwhichseechaptervi).Asused

337

inthatconnection,thecesuraisnotinfrequently
foundelsewherethanatthemiddlepointofthe
verse,asintheline:
"
VilePoverty;andlastly,DeathwithInfamy."
ANAPESTICMETRES.277
Sevenstressiambicverseisrareinmodern
poetry,forreasonsnodoubtsimilartothosewhich
havepreventedthealexandrinefromestablishing
itselfasanagreeablemeasure.
Inthismetre,tobesure,thecesura
isnotinthemiddle;themonotonyofthecadences,
therefore,isnotsoabsoluteasinthe
alexandrine.
Butontheotherhand,owingtothegreaterlength
oftheverse,thecesuraisheldevenmore
insistently
thaninthealexandrineatitsonenaturalpoint,
betweenthefourthandthefifthfoot.The
resulting
effectisbestobservedinthesingleimportant
Englishpoeminthis
"
septenary
"
metre,Chapman's
translationofHomer.Generallythemetre
hastendedsoconstantlytobreakattheendofthe
fourthfootthatitismostoftenfoundinthe
disguised
formofastanzamadeupoffourstresses
alternatingwiththree:*
"Heprayethbest,wholovethbest
Allthingsbothgreatandsmall;
ForthedearGodwholovethus
Hemadeandlovethall."
Anapesticversestandsnexttoiambicintheextent
andimportanceofitsuseinEnglishpoetry.

338

Ashasalreadyappeared,theearliestAnapestic
periodsofEnglishverseshowedaconmetres
stanttendencytowardtheuseoftrisyllabicfeet,
and
wehavealsoseenthatanapesticrhythmeasily
*The"commonmetre"
ofthehymnbooks.
2^8A**INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
intrudesintothatwhichsetsouttobeiambic.
Sincethetendencyofthereaderisalmostalways
to
bringagivennumberofanapesticfeetintothe
same
timeasthesamenumberofiambicfeet,thereisa
naturalhurryingoverofthelightsyllables,anda
consequentrapidityinthecharacteristicmovement
ofthistypeofmetre.Forthisreasonitis
usually
preferredeitherforthemesofalightcharacter,
orforthosewhichcallforamoreflowing,
galloping,
orliltingcadencethanthesteadieralternating
beatsoftheiambicform.Characteristic
/examplesareByron'sDestructionofSennacherib
("TheAssyriancamedownlikethewolfonthe
fold,"),Shelley'sCloud,Moore'ssongbeginning
"
Believeme,ifallthoseendearingyoungcharms,"
andO'Shaughnessy'sFountainofTears.*Ana
*Cf.theselinesinparticular:
"Anditflowsanditflows,(withamotion
Sogentleandlo^/jmgandlis|!less,
Andmurmursatune
jsoresistless
Tohim/whohathsuffered,andhears."
ComparealsoSwinburne'sremarkonthesevenstress
anapestic
verseofAristophanes:

339

"
thisresonantandtriumphantmetre,which
goesringingatfullgallopasofhorseswho
'danceas'tweretothemusic
Theirownhoofsmake.'"
{StudiesinSong,p.68.)
Swinburne'stranslationruns:
"Comeonthen,yedwellersbynatureindarkness,
andliketothe
leaves'generations,
Thatarelittleofmight,thataremouldedofmire,
unenduringand
shadowlikenations,"etc.
ANAPESTICMETRES.279
pesticmetresarefoundinalllengthsfrom
twostress
toeight;but,owingtotheincreasednumber
ofsyllablestothefoot,versesofthreeorfour
stressesadaptthemselvesbesttothenatural
phrasing
ofpoetry(beingmostnearlyequivalenttothe
fivestressiambic,intheircapacityforcarrying
thought),andaremorecommonthanthelonger
measures.Anotherreasonforthispreferencefor
theshorteranapesticmeasuresisthefactthat
theytoleratevariationofcadence(withthe
exception
ofthesubstitutediambus)lessthanthe
iambic;
*sothatalonganapesticlineislikely
toattractundueattentiontoitsformeitherfrom
adispleasingefforttosecurevarietyinadapting
itselfflexiblytothesentenceitcarries,or,on
the
otherhand,fromthealmostbreathlesscontinuity
ofitsregularflow.Oftheformertypearethe
longanapesticlinesofBrowning'sSaul(suchas

340

"Hewhodidmost,shallbearmost;thestrongest
shall
standthemostweak");
ofthelattertypethestilllongeranapesticlines
of
Swinburneinnumerousmetresofsix,sevenand
eightstresses.(SeeexamplesinEnglishVerse,
pp.43,48.)
*Thisisbecauseof(i)thenecessityof
maintainingtheprincipal
stresses,whentheyoccurononlyonesyllablein
three,and(2)the
similarnecessityofmaintainingtheshortnessof
theunstressed
syllables,inorderthattheymaynotdragthe
verseandkeepthe
stressestoofarapart.
2804NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Onthedisadvantages,despitetheirtechnical
brilliancy,ofthelongeranapesticmetres,
Professor
LewiscommentsinterestinglyinPrinciplesof
English
Verse,pp.116118."Noonecanfullyappreciate
atthesametimeboththerhythmandthesenseof
Saul;weeitherrelishtheversewithonlyavague
senseofthemeaning,orelsebecomeabsorbedin
the
meaningwithonlyavaguesenseoftheverse.A
similareffectisproducedbymuchofSwinburne's
poetry;forthoughSwinburneisthegreatestliving
masteroftheseformsofverse,hehasachievedhis
masterylargelybysacrificingclearnessand
precision
ofstyletosensuouscharmofsound.Itissafeto
predictthatanyonewhoreadstheopeninglinesof
Hesperiaforthefirsttimewillfindthem
rhythmically

341

charming,butwillhavelittlemoreunderstanding
of
themthanofthebeautifulnonsenseversesofLear
or
LewisCarroll."
Trochaicmetres,forreasonsalreadydiscussed,
haveneverestablishedthemselveslargelyin
English
verse;andwehavealsoseenthatthey
Trochaicmetres,,
.,arecommonlymadecatalectic,soas
toendonthestressedsyllable,liketheiambic
metres.Inotherwords,mostEnglishpoemsin
trochaicformcouldaswellbecallediambicwith
initialtruncation.(Thisisparticularlyobvious
in
Milton'sL}
'Allegroand//Penseroso,wherethe
rhythmchangesfreelybackandforthbetween
versesofsevenandeightsyllables,andoneknows
notwhethertocallthetypeiambic,withfrequent
initialtruncation,ortrochaic,withfrequent
anacrusis.)
Exceptforthisvariablecharacterofthe
TROCHAICMETRES.281
finalfootofthemetre,trochaicverseiscommonly
themostregularofallthetypes,admittingfew
variationssavetheweakeningofanoccasionalfull
stresstoasecondarystress.Wherenostresscan
easilybefound,asinthesecondfootof
"
Sailedintothefierysunset,"
thereisaneffectasofawaveringorweakened
metricalstructure.Inlongerverses,
"
varietyin
uniformity
"

342

issometimessecuredbythealternation
offullstressandhalfstress,inthe
"
paeonic
"manner,
asinBrowning's
"Onthesolitarypastureswhereoursheep."
Trochaicfeetaremostusedinfourstressverse,
which,whencompleteoracatalectic,givesthe
metre
ofHiawatha,and,withoutthefinalsyllable,the
metreofagoodpartofMilton'sL'Allegroanda
numberoftheminorpoemsofKeats(Fancy,Robin
Hood,MermaidTavern,etc.).*Oflongtrochaic
versesthemostnotableinstancesareTennyson's
LocksleyHall,Browning'sLaSaisiaz,andPoe's
Raven,allofeightstresses,andTennyson'sTo
Virgil,whichreachestheveryunusuallength
*Inpraiseofthissevensyllablemetre,seesome
remarksof
Lambinhisessayon"ThePoetryofGeorge
Wither.""What
longermeasure,"heexclaims,
"cangobeyondthemajestyof
this!
"
282ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
ofninestresses(mostofthelinesbreakinginto
foursandfives):
"ThouthatseestUniversalNaturemovedby
Universal
Mind."
Fivestresstrochaicsarerare:aconspicuous
exception
isBrowning'sOneWordMore,madestill
moreremarkablebytheomissionofrime.
Thefourthofthetypesofmetre,thedactylic,

343

isleastusedandonemustsupposeleast
practicable
inEnglishverse;thenumerous
attemptsatitwhichbreakintoanapestic
rhythmareastrikingillustrationofthe
preferenceofourlanguageorourearsforthe
"
rising
"
typesofmetre.Yetitmaybefound
(commonly,liketrochaicverse,withfinal
truncation
orcatalexis)inlengthsvaryingfromtwostress
tosixstress,insuchwellknownpoemsas
Hood'sBridgeofSighs,Browning'sCavalier
Tunes,and(withastrongadmixtureofanapestic
cadences)Tennyson'sNorthernFarmer.Infivestress
andsevenstressversesitispracticallyunused;
analmostuniqueexampleofitsappearance
ineightstressformmaybefoundinLongfellow's
GoldenLegend(iv).Buttheimportanceofthe
typedependschieflyuponitsuseinversesofsix
feet,inpoemsdesignedtoimitatetherhythmof
thedactylichexameterinGreekandLatin.Of
thesepoemstheleadingexamplesareLongfellow's
Evangeline,dough'sBothieofTobernaVuolich,
DACTYLICMETRES.283
andKingsley'sAndromeda(fornumerousother
experiments,seereferencesinEnglishVerse,pp.
340356).
Theclassicalhexameterisametreconsistingof
sixfeet,ofwhichthelastiseitheraspondeeor
a
trochee,andtheotherfiveareeither
dactylsorspondees,withdactylspreJ^^gf^
Bh
dominating(aspondeeinthefifthfoot
beingunusual).Theattemptstoimitatethismetre

344

inEnglishmaybedividedintotwoclasses:those
inwhichtheefforthasbeenmadetopreservethe
regularquantitativeprinciplesgoverningthe
syllables
andfeetofclassicalprosody,withmoreorless
conformityatthesametimetoEnglish
stressrhythm,
andthoseinwhichtheefforthasbeen
simplytodevelopananalogousmetremadeup
chieflyofdactylsinthetransferred(accentual)
senseoftheterm.Theresulthasbeenagreat
varietyofmetricaleffects,andagreatvariety
ofcriticalopinionsregardingthem.Withthe
questionwhetheritiseitherpossibleordesirable
toreproduceinEnglishpoetrythereal
rhythmofGreekorLatinhexameter,wehavenothing
todo.Itissufficientforourpurposestonote
thatthosewhohavebeenchieflyconcernedto
imitate
purelyquantitativeverseinEnglishhavecommonly
paidtoolittleattentiontotheprinciplesof
Englishverseinrespecttoregularityinthe
number
ofsyllablesandthearrangementsoftheir
stresses;whilethosewhohaveneglectedthe
element
284INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
ofquantityaltogetherhavetendedtoproducea
kindoftumblingmeasureinwhichsixstresses
appear,
butoftenwithoutsufficientlyequaltimeintervals
betweenthem.Theprivilegeofusingeither
dissyllabicortrisyllabicfeetisaverydangerous
one,unlessthewriterhasasufficientlygoodear
to
observethevaluesofthetimeunitsoftherhythm.
Insuchaverseasthis,forexample,
"

345

Birdsof
|passage|
sailedthroughthe
|
leaden
|air,
fromthe
|icebound,"
thefirsttwoandthefourthfeetareneither
dactyls
norspondees,andprovidenoequivalenceoflength
forthemissingthirdsyllablesupposedtobe
typical
ofthemetre.InEvangeline,fromwhichthe
verseistaken,manyotherswillbefoundofthe
samecharacter;andstillothers,inabundance,
whose
openingfootfailstostrikeatonceastrong
stress
inthemannerproperlycharacteristicofthemetre,
as
"Onthe
|morrowto
|
meetinthe
|church,where
his
|Majesty's|mandate,"
whichbyitselfwouldbereadasafivestress
anapestic
versewithfeminineending.Kingsley'sAndromeda,
ontheotherhand,representsaconstant
attempttomaintainthetimeequivalenceof
dissyllabic
substitutesforthedactyl,inotherwords,
DACTYLICMETRES.285
showsmanygenuinelylongsyllablesinsuchfeet,
asinthelines

346

"Whirledinthewhitelinkeddancewiththe
goldcrowned
HoursandtheGraces,
Handwithinhand,whileclearpipedPhoebe,queen
ofthewoodlands."
Clearly,likethelonganapesticforms,themetre
has
acertaincharmofitsown,andaflexibilitywhich
incarefulhandsmayyieldvaryingandbeautiful
cadences.Forthereasonsjustpointedout,
however,
itslicensesmakeitdangerouslyeasyandloose
inthehandsoftheunskilful;andthatitisnot
representativeofnaturalEnglishrhythmicaltaste
seemstobeindicatedbythefactthat,
notwithstanding
numerousexperimentsintheform,nopoem
ofthefirstimportancehasyetbeenwrittento
justify
itsserioususe.
DiscussionsoftheEnglishdactylichexameter,in
additiontotheaccountgiveninEnglishVerse,
will
befoundinMatthewArnold'slecturesOn
Translating
Homer,Southey'sPrefacetoTheVisionofJudgment,
JamesSpedding'sReviewsandDiscussions,John
StuartBlackie'sHoraeHellenicae,RobertBridges's
Milton'sProsody,Mayor'sChaptersonEnglish
Metre,andOmond'sStudyofMetre(Appendix).
InSwinburne'sStudiesinSong,commentingonhis
imitationoftheclassicalanapesticheptameterin
a
translationofachorusfromTheBirdsof
Aristophanes,
thepoetobservesthattherhythmoftheoriginal
is
"

347

almostexactlyreproducibleinalanguageto
286AHINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
whichallvariationsandcombinationsofanapestic,
iambic,ortrochaicmetreareasnaturaland
pliableas
alldactylicandspondaicformsofverseare
unnatural
andabhorrent."(p.68.)Ontheotherhand,
MatthewArnold'shopefullookingfor
"
continued
attemptsatperfectingandemployingthisrhythm
"
findssupportintherecentremarksofMr.Omond:
"Agreatpoetiswanted,whowilltreatthismetre
as
MiltontreatedthatofParadiseLost,discovering
its
harmonies,revealingitspotentialities.Prophecy
is
futile,butmanysignspointtoadevelopmenton
the
linesindicated.Tripletimemetreincreasesin
favour;
linesofsixperiodsareexceedinglycommon.It
looks
asifthismightbecomeasusualalengthintriple
verse,asthefiveperiodlineinduple.That,
however,
isguesswork....Ofonething,however,wemay
besure.Ifthisoranyothermeasureisdeveloped,
it
willbealongthelineswhichitshareswithmore
familiarforms.LawswhichgovernallEnglish
measureswillapplytothisalso."
In1900therewasprivatelypublishedapamphlet
byMr.PrentissCummingsofBoston,discussingthe

348

hexameterverseofHomer,Vergil,andEnglish
poets,
andproposinganewtheory,ofwhichtheprincipal
featureistherulethatthismetreshould(and
always
does,whensuccessful)dividetheverseintohalves
whichbalanceperfectlyintheplacingofthemain
rhetoricalstressesorplacesofemphasis.Thusif
principallystressedsyllablesoccurinthesecond
and
thirdfeet,othersshouldoccurinthefifthand
sixth;
ifinthefirstandthird,othersinthefourthand
sixth.
Thepointisillustratedbyacomparisonbetween
two
translationsofawellknownGreekdistich,the
first
ofwhichviolatesMr.Cummings'srule,thesecond
of
whichobservesit:
DACTYLICMETRES.287
"Eventhepotterisjealousofpotter,and
craftsman
ofcraftsman:
Eventhebeggartobeggarisgrudging,andpoetto
poet."
"Eventhepotterofpotterisjealous,and
craftsman
ofcraftsman;
Eventhebeggarto.beggarisgrudging,andpoetto
poet."
Amodifiedformofthedactylichexameteris
foundinafewpoemswhoserhythmisinpart
imitative
ofthesocalled
"
elegiac

349

"
verseofclassical
prosody.Inthisformhexametersoftheusualtype
wereusedinalternationwithothersinwhichthe
lightsyllableswereomittedinthethirdandsixth
feet(doublycatalectic,onemightcallthem).*
This
alternationiseasilyreproducedinEnglish,the
third
andsixthfeetoftheshorterlinesbeingfilledby
single,stronglystressedsyllables,followedbya
pause.Anadmirableexampleistobefoundin
Mr.WilliamWatson'sHymntotheSea,
"Loverwhosevehementkissesonlipsirresponsive
are
squandered,
LoverthatwooestinvainEarth'simperturbable
heart."
*Thetechnicalnamefortheshorterlineis
"
pentameter;
"but
itisameaninglessterm,duetoaprimitive
mistakenscansionofthe
metreasmadeupoftwodactyls,aspondee,andtwo
anapests.In
realitythesixfeetoftheverseareasobviousas
inthefullhexameter.
288^NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Certainothermetresofclassicalpoetryhavebeen
imitatedinEnglish,informswhichitisdifficult
andnotatallnecessarytodescribe
OtherpsendojntheusualtermsofEnglishverse.
classicalmetres.
Thebestspecimensofthesemaybe
foundintheworksofTennyson,whichinclude
imitationsofthedifferentalcaicmetres(seein
chapter

350

vi,onthealcaicstanza),ofthePhalsecian
hendecasyllabic
metre(composedofaspondee,adactyl,
andthreetrochees,asin
"
Look,Icometothetest,atinypoem"),
and,inBoadicea,oftheextraordinary
"
galliambic
"
metreofCatullus:
"
Yelledandshriekedbetweenherdaughterso'era
wildconfederacy."
ThislastmetrehasalsobeenimitatedbyGeorge
MeredithinapoemcalledPhaethon.Otherclassical
imitationswillbenoticedinconnectionwith
stanzas,inthenextchapter,andaredescribedin
EnglishVerse,pp.331340.OnSwinburne's
Choriambics,
seepage235above.Ingeneral,recentEnglish
poetryischaracterizedbygreatfreedomand
ingenuityintheinventionandvariationof
metrical
forms,andthereisnoreasontodoubtthatthe
present
centurymayshowasremarkableadevelopment
inthisdirectionasthelast.Butwhateverthenew
formsofmetre,andwhethertheybeimitatedfrom
DACTYLICMETRES.289
thoseofotherlanguagesordeviseddenovoforour
own,theymustconformtothemetricallawswhich
wehavebeenstudying,speakingtherhythmical
language
oftheEnglishrace,ortheywillremainmere
curiositiesnotrealinterpretersofourfeelings
andthoughts.
CHAPTERVI.

351

RIMEANDSTANZAFORMS.
THUSfar,inconsideringtheexternalformofi
poetry,wehaveconfinedourselvestothesinglej
verseandthephenomenawhichitpresents.It
remains
toexaminetherelationofversestoonean;
otherastheyarefoundgroupedinlargerunitsofi
verseform.
Thechiefmeansoflinkingversestogetherinj
theselargerunitsisRime.InmodernEnglish
usage,versesaresaidtorimewhenthere!
Natureand
functionsofissimilarity(commonlytothepoint
oil
nme>
identity)betweenthesoundsofthe
vowelsbearingthelastprincipalstressandall!
(whethervowelorconsonantsounds)thatfollow
them.Suchansweringorechoingsounds,which!
mayoccurbychanceatanypoint,andwhichi
maybedeliberatelyusedforgivingacertain
melodia
colortothepoeticform(seeonassonanceandthel
like,inchapterivabove),becomepeculiarly
conspicl
uouswhentheyoccurattheemphaticcloseoi:
neighboringverses,andserveveryreadilyto
linl;
suchversestogetherfortheear.Thefunctions
olj
290
RIME.29I
rimemaythereforebesummarizedasthree:(I)
the
givingofpleasurebythecorrespondenceofsimilar
sounds;(2)theemphasizingoftheconcluding
cadenceoftheverse;and(3)thelinkingof
separate

352

versesintolargermetricalunits.
Whensinglesyllablesonlyareinvolvedinrime,
therimeiscalledmasculine;whenbothastressed
andanunstressedsyllableareinvolved,
asin"nation"and"creation,"the**?
rimeiscalledfeminineordouble;
whenastressedsyllableandtwounstressed
syllables
areinvolved,asin
"
fortunate
"
and"importunate,"
itiscalledtriple.Obviouslytherimes
introchaicanddactylicmetresareregularly
feminine;
inthemorefamiliariambicandanapestic
forms,andintrochaicanddactyliccatalectic,
feminine
rimesareexceptional,andgivecharacteristic
varietyandemphasistotheverse.Thismaybe
appreciated
bycomparingtheeffectofsuchasonnetas
thetwentiethofShakspere's(beginning
"Awoman's
facewithNature'sownhandpainted"),
whoserimesarealtogetherfeminine,withthemore
familiarcadencesofthosebasedonmasculinerime.
Again,thecharmofsuchastanzaasthisfrom
Swinburneiscertainlydueinparttothecadences
ofthefemininerimes:
"Sohathitbeen,sobeit,
Forwhoshallliveandfleeit?
Butlookthatnomanseeit
Orhearitunaware;
2924NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Lestallwholoveandchoosehim
SeeLove,andsorefusehim;

353

Forallwhofindhimlosehim;
Butallhavefoundhimfair."
(BeforeDawn.)
IntheverseofChaucer,itshouldbenoticed,and
ofotherearlypoetswhowrotewhilefinale,both
writtenandpronounced,wasstillcharacteristicof
mostinflectedEnglishwords,femininerimeisfar
morecommonthaninlaterverse;butthecadenceof
suchterminationswaslighterthanthatofordinary
femininerimes,andcloselyreproducedeffects
whicharenowfamiliaronlyinItalianandFrench
verse.
Thevarietyandemphasisoffemininerimeare
j
stillfurtherincreasedinthecaseoftriplerime,
whichissoconspicuousastoattract
Triplerimoi.
attentiontoitselfortothewordsin
,
whichitoccurs.Likearemarkablybrilliantbit
ofcolorinagownorapicture,itislikelyto
give
eitherpleasureoroffense,toproduceaneffect
eitherofspecialbeautyorofgrotesqueness.Thej
mostfamiliarexamplesoftriplerimeinEnglishj
poetryaredesignedtosetoffhumorous,satiric,
or
arabesqueexpression;asinByron'sfamouscouplet,
"Butoh!yelordsofladiesintellectual,
Informustruly,havetheynothenpeckedyouall?
1
RIME.293
andBrowning's
"Hisforeheadchapletedgreenwithwreathyhop,
SunburnedalloverlikeanyEthiop."
Ontheotherhand,therearemanyfamiliarexamples
ofitsusefortheemphasisofwhollyserious
emotional

354

expression,themostnotable,perhaps,being
Hood'sBridgeofSighs(seeinEnglishVerse,p.
130).OtherinterestingexamplesareLanier's
BalladofTreesandtheMaster,withthecurious
threefoldtriplerime
"ButtheolivestheywerenotblindtoHim,
ThelittlegrayleaveswerekindtoHim,
ThethorntreehadamindtoHim,"
andKipling'sTheMiracles:
"
Isentamessagetomydear
Athousandleaguesandmoretoher
Thedumbsealevelsthrilledtohear,
AndLostAtlantisboretoher."
Anothermethodbywhichtheemphasisandcoloring
ofrimearemagnifiedisbytheuseofinternal
rimeinconnectionwiththeusualendr^
ij.M.,,,Internalrime,
rime.Thisordinarilymeansthatthe
finalsyllableoftheverserimeswiththatjust
preceding
themedialcesura,eitherinadditionto,or
(morecommonly)asasubstitutefor,itsrimewith
294AHINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
thelastsyllableofanotherverse.ThusinThe
AncientMariner:
"Thefairbreezeblew,thewhitefoamflew,
Thefurrowstreamedofffree;
Wewerethefirstthateverburst
Intothatsilentsea."
Iftheversebeofconsiderablelength,internal
rime
willtendtobreakitintotwoshorterverses,and
whenasissometimesthecasethesyllableat
thecesurarimeswiththesyllableatthecesuraof
thesucceedingverse(theendsyllablesalsoriming
asusual),theresultwillbesomethingverylike
the

355

"commonmetre
"
quatrain,rimingalternately.*
Yetthereisamarkeddifferencebetweejiagiven
numberofsyllablesviewedasformingasingle
verse,withinternalrime,andthesamesyllables
viewedasformingtwoshorterverses.Noone
wouldwritethestanzajustquotedfromThe
AncientMarinerinsixversesinsteadoffour;and
thefamiliarsonginThePrincesswouldbebadly
changedifprintedinthisfashion:
"Thesplendorfalls
Oncastlewalls,
Andsnowysummitsoldinstory;
*SoinPoe'sLenore:
"Come,lettheburialritebereadthefuneral
songbesung;
Ananthemforthequeenliestdeadthateverdiedso
young."
RIME.
Thelonglightshakes
Acrossthelakes,
Andthewildcataractleapsinglory."
What,then,isthedifferencebetweenthisstanza
andthatwrittenbyTennyson?Chieflythatthe
words"
falls
"and"
shakes
"
arenotintendedby
thepoettosoundasclearlyas
"
walls
"and
"
lakes;
"muchlessaretheyintendedtoemphasize

356

theconclusionofastrongcadence,likethewords
"
story
"and"
glory."Thisheindicatesbywriting:
"Thesplendorfallsoncastlewalls."
Suchinternalrimes,then,soundmorefaintlyto
theearthanendrimes,likeaseparateandsubtle
melodyheardunderneaththerimeschemeof
thestanza.Theirfaintnessandsubtletyarestill
furtherincreasedwhentheyrimeonlywithother
internalrimes,asinPoe'sLenore
("Letthebelltoll!asaintlysoulfloatsonthe
Stygian
river")
andSwinburne'sArmada:
"
England,queenofthewaveswhosegreeninviolate
girdleenringstheeround,
Motherfairasthemorning,whereisnowtheplace
ofthyfoemenfound?
Stilltheseathatsalutesusfreeproclaimsthem
stricken,acclaimstheecrowned."*
*Comparealsotheremarkableinternalrimes
throughoutShelley's
Cloud.
296A**INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Arimeisweakenednotonlywhenitoccursat
anyotherplacethanthatbearingtheclosing
Halfstressedrhythmicalstressoftheverse,but
when
rime,eventhoughinthispositionitfalls
onasyllablewhichcanreceiveonlyasecondary
stress;andmuchvarietyandbeautyaresecured
(particularlyinpoetryofthelateVictorian
period)
bytheuseofthesehalfstressedrimes.They
soften

357

thejingleoftheansweringsounds,likethedamper
pedalonapiano,andsubtlyvarytheconcluding
cadenceoftheverse.Characteristicexamplesare
suchrimesas
"
free
"and"
liberty,"
"
caress
"and
"
childishness,"
"
souls
"
and"
aureoles,"
"
things
"
and"
vanishings."
*Theyareparticularly.likely
tobefoundinthesonnet,notonlybecause,with
theheavydemandswhichthatformmakesuponone
ortworimesounds,suchweakerrimesprove
convenient
tothewriterandagreeabletothereader,but
alsobecausetheyseemwellsuitedtothesubdued
andreflectivemannercharacteristicofthesonnet.
Yetanotherweakenedtypeofrimeisimperfect
rime,inwhicheitherthevowelortheconsonant
imperfect
soundsintherimingsyllablesarenot
rimeidentical.Thisisratheralicenseallowed
thewriterofversethanavariationdeliberately
chosenbyhim,andsinceitcommonlysug

358

*Rimemayevenoccuronsyllableswhichare
scarcelycapableof
takingevenasecondaryaccent;thusRossetti
rimes"
wingfeathers
"with"hers"
inWillowwoodand"
lovelily
"with"me"
in
LoveLily.This,however,isamannerism,and
inevitablyresultsin
eitherthewrenchingofwordaccentorthecomplete
obscurationof
therime.
RIME.297
gestsimperfectionthefailuretoattaincompletely
thatwhichisaimedat,imperfectrimeisandmust
beviewedwithsomesuspicion.Yetitisabundantly
foundintheverseofthebestpoets;and
thepeculiardifficultieswhichbesetthewriterof
verseinanuninflectedlanguage,wherethereare
fewsimilargrammaticalterminationstomake
rimeeasy,furnishsomejustificationforadmitting
it.Somewouldevenclaimthatimperfect
rimeformsapleasingrelieftothemonotonyor
jingleofotherwiseperfectlyrimedverse.The
studentshouldnotethatwhatappeartobe
imperfect
rimesintheverseofearlierperiods(aslate
certainlyastheeighteenthcentury)areoftendue
to
achangeinthepronunciationofoneofthewords
inquestion;andincasesofthissortwherepairs
ofwordsoriginallyrimed,modernusage,familiar
withtheimperfectrimenowresultingfromtheir
frequentcollocation,seemstoaccept
conventionally

359

theircontinuedappearanceinverse.Insuchcases,
too,thewordsareusuallyspelledalike,owingto
theiroriginallysimilarpronunciation;andthese
"
rimestotheeye
"
are,quiteillogically,tolerated
morereadilythanthosewhereneitherspellingnor
pronunciationsupportstheiruseinpairs.Words
like"love"and"prove,""broad"and"load,"
"
earth
"
and"
hearth,"
"
one
"
and"
alone,"areexamples
inpoint.Otherimperfectrimescommonly
toleratedare
"
ever
"
and
"
river,"
"heaven"and
"
given,"or
"
heaven
"
and"
even,"instances
298^INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
whichseemtobeduetothelackofanyadequate

360

numberofperfectrimesforcertainwords
exceedingly
commoninpoetry.Ingeneral,imperfect
rimebetweentheconsonantsfollowingthestressed
vowelisfarrarerthanrimesinwhichthevowels
arenotidentical;yetWordsworthventuredtorime
"
robin
"
with
"
sobbing,"andinTennyson'sLady
ofShalott
"
river
"
rimeswith
"
mirror."Incouplets,
wheretheansweringrimeisparticularlyprompt
andemphatic,imperfectrimeislesstolerablethan
inmanystanzaforms;yet,ontheotherhand,long
sustainedpoemsusuallyadmitsuchvariationsmore
readilythanbrieflyrics,forwhichweexpecta
moreperfectfinish.
Finally,itshouldbenotedthatmodernEnglish
usage(unlikethatofearlierperiods,andunlike
that
identical
^Frenchpoetry)requiresordinarily
rime.thattheconsonantsimmediatelypreceding
therimingvowelshallbeunlike;inother
words,thatthesyllablesinvolvedintherime
shall
notbewhollyidentical.Numerousexceptionswill,
however,befound,incaseswherethesyllables
form
differentwordswithdistinctmeanings,especially

361

iftheyareseparatedbyinterveninglines.Thus
Shelley,intheAdonais,rimes
"
wilderness
"
with
"
loveliness.
"
inonestanzaandwith
"
nakedness
"
inanother.*
*Thissortofrimeiscalledrimerichebythe
French,andin
Frenchpoetryispreferredastheonlycomplete
expressionofthe
rimingart.
RIME.299
Noadequatestudyofthephenomenaofrimein
Englishversehasyetbeenwritten.Interesting
brief
discussionswillbefoundinCorson'sPrimerof
EnglishVerse(chap,ii),andLewis'sPrinciplesof
EnglishVerse(chap.vi).Thebestaccountofthe
irregularandimperfectrimesusedbyEnglishpoets
istobefoundintwoarticlesbyProfessorA.G.
Newcomer,inTheNationforJan.26andFeb.2,
1899.IntheContemporaryReviewforNov.1894,
WilliamLarminiewritesinadvocacyofthe
recognition
ofmereassonance,orvowelrime,asalegitimate
variationfromtheuseoffullendrime,pleading
that
attentiontothelatteristhinningoutthe
substanceof
modernpoetry,throughuniqueemphasisuponthe

362

demandsofform.Ontheotherhand,themost
appreciative
accountsofrimewillbefoundinFrench
criticism,acircumstanceduetothe
proportionately
largepartwhichrimeplaysinFrenchpoetry.See,
forexample,Dorchain'sL'ArtdesVersandGuyau's
ProblemesdeI'EsthetiqueContemporaine.From
Dorchain
thispassageisofspecialinterest:"Doyou
knowwhyrimeisanaidtothepoet?Holdfastthis
answer:itisbecauseitisadiscipline,and
everydiscipline
isatonceasourceofstrengthandoffreedom.
Whenhaveyoufeltyourstepstobemostfreeand
strong?Wasitwhenyouwereramblingidlyamong
thetreesortherocks,withoutanyotherlawthan
yourcaprice?No,itwaswhenyouwereonceonthe
highroadchosenforyourmarch,whenaflourishof
trumpetsthatsoundedinyourear,oramerrysong
thatwasrisingtoyourlips,hadsuddenlyasby
magiclightened,strengthened,andliberatedyour
pacebymakingitrhythmical."(p.177.)Guyau
analyzes
rimemorespecifically:
"
Itiswellknownthat
inlanguageeachvowelhasaparticulartimbre,
which
300ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
isnothingmorethanthechordformedbyits
fundamental
noteandtheelementalsoundscalledharmonics
[orovertones].Alllanguageisthereforea
succession
ofchords,butinprosetheysucceedoneanother
irregularly,inversetheyrecurinequalnumbers
and

363

atequalintervals....Rimecompletesthe
harmony
bythechordsonwhichtherhythmicalcadence
rests;
...thisregularecho,byitself,isnotlacking
incharm.Butfurther,sincethevowelshaveeach
itsowntimbre,therimedvowelswillhave
something
ofthevariedtimbreofinstruments;some,like
longa,*
resemblethedoublebass;others,likei,havethe
acuteness
oftheclarinetortheflute;eachversecanbe
recognizedbythequalityofitsfinalsyllable;
some,so
tospeak,areaccompanied'byoneinstrument,
othersby
another,andweexperienceapleasure,aswe
perceive
thedifferentqualitiesinthestanza,similarto
thatof
themusicianashedistinguishesthedifferent
instruments
intheorchestratakinguponeafteranothera
melodicphrase."(pp.193,194.)
Turningnowtotheapplicationofrimetothe
organizationofEnglishverseforms,wefindit
first
ofallasaccessorytocontinuousnarra
Rimeforming..
coupletandtiveverse.Mostcommonlythisuse
apterza
rima,
pearsjnthfiformjngoftnedecasyllabic
coupletandlessnotablytheoctosyllabiccouplet;
boththeseformshavebeensufficientlyconsidered
in
chapterv.Athirdtypeofrimedcontinuousverse,

364

borrowedfromtheItalianandrareinEnglish,is
thesocalledterzarima,inwhichtherimesrun
*ItisofcoursetheFrenchvowelsoundswhichare
tobeunderstood
here.
THESTANZA.301
aba,bcb,cdc,andsoon;inotherwords,theverse
isdividedintogroupsofthree,ofwhicheachis
linkedbytherimeofitsfirstandthirdlinesto
the
secondlineoftheprecedinggroup.Thechief
examples
inEnglishofthisformareintranslations
ofDante,imitatingthemetreoftheoriginal,such
asCayley's.Otherspecimensmaybefoundin
Milton'sparaphraseoftheSecondPsalm,Shelley's
unfinishedTriumphofLife,Morris'sDefenceof
Guenevere,andBrowning'sTheStatueandthe
Bust.Inallsavethelast,themetreisfive
stress
iambic;Browningusestheterzarimauniquelywith
fourstressiambicanapesticverse.
Inthenextplace,rimeisfoundorganizingverse
intostanza(orstrophe)forms,thelargest
commonly
recognizableunitsofversestrucr
.111Thestanza,
ture.Thestanzaisbasednotsomuch
onrhythmicalelementsasontherhetoricalor
musical
groupingofanumberofversesoflikerhythmical
character:thatis,anumberofverseswhichmay
beregardedasformingashortparagraphinthe
thoughtstructureofthepoem,orwhichonthe
otherhandconformtoasinglemelodycompletely
uttered.Insucceedingstanzasnewrhetoricalunits
takeonthesameform,and(inthecaseofsong)
adaptthemselvestothesamemelody.Normally,

365

then,allthestanzasofapoemareidenticalin
the
number,thelength,themetre,andtherimescheme
ofthecorrespondingverses.Inshortstanzasa
highlyunifiedrhythmicalmovementmayberepre302
4NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
sented,whichfallsintoafewobviouslyrelated
cadences
;as,forexample,thatofthe
"common
metre"
stanza:
"
Tetum,tetum,tetum,tetum,
Tetum,tetum,tetum,
Tetum,tetum,tetum,tetum,
Tetum,tetum,tetum."
Inlongerstanzasthecadencesandversegroupsare
developedwithmuchelaboration,andareoftentimes
soextendedorintricatethattheearcanonly
withdifficultygraspthemassingleunitsofverse
form.
RimeisforEnglishversethegreatorganizing
elementofthestanza.Theoretically,stanzasmay
existwithoutrime;andthereareafew
StanzanotableEnglishpoemsinwhichrimeless
stanzasorstrophesarefound,
Collins'sOdetoEvening,forexample,and
Tennyson's
Tears,IdleTears.Butthesearesoexceptional
thatonemaysay,ingeneral,thatEnglish
stanzasarebasedonrime.Theirformis
determined,
andtheirvariationsaremadepossible,by
thefourelementssuggestedintheprevious
paragraph:
themetreemployed(iambic,anapestic,etc.),
thenumberofversesinthestanza,thelengthof

366

theverses(whichmaybeallofequallength,or
bevariedbytheuseofcatalexis,feminineending,
andtheadditionandsubtractionofentirefeet),
andthearrangementofrimes.
THESTANZA.303
Itwillbefoundthatthepleasurablenessand
effectiveness
oftheresultantformalsodependlargely
uponfourconsiderations.First,the
rhythmicalcadenceresultingfromthe
g^^effects
groupingofversesofparticularlengths.
Thus,inthestanzainstancedintheprevious
paragraph,
theresponseofthethreestressverseto
thefourstressthatopensthestanzaisa
universally
obviousandpleasingcadence.Theresponse
ofathreestressversetooneoffivestresses,
while
notsoobviousorcommon,isequallypleasing:
"Buttrailingcloudsofglorydowecome
FromGod,whoisourhome."
AfamiliarstanzadevisedbySwinburnefindsits
peculiarcharminthechangefromthreestress
anapesticversetoaconcludingverseofonlytwo
stresses:
"
Letthewindtakethegreenandthegrayleaf
Castforthwithoutfruituponair;
Takeroseleafandvineleafandbayleaf
Blownloosefromthehair."
(DedicationtoPoemsandBallads.)
Thealternateuseofmasculineandfeminineendings
(asinthespecimenjustquoted),orin
trochaicverseofcatalecticandacatalecticlines,
withoutchangeinthenumberofstresses,produces
similareffects.Secondly,thepleasurablenessofa

367

Stanzaformwilldependuponthesimplicityor
complexity
oftherimescheme.Whentherimesounds
304ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
answereachotherpromptly,orwithregular
alternation,
theresultingeffectismuchsimpler,andis
likelytobemorepopular,thaninformswherethe
answeringsoundisdelayed,oroccursatsucha
distanceastomakethehearerlistenforitwith
consciouseffort.Englishusage,farmore(for
example)thanFrenchandItalian,hascommonly
preferredthesimplerrimeschemes,andavoided
thosemakingheavydemandsuponthehearer's
senseofform.Thirdly,andmoregenerally,the
effectivenessofastanzaformdependsuponits
relationtotheprincipleofunityinvariety.The
veryexistenceoftheformimpliesboththese
elements
:asingleharmoniccombinationofverses,
whichcanbegraspedbythesensuousintelligence,
andavarietyinthecharacterandarrangementof
thesoundsonwhichthecombinationisbased.In
thesimplerandmoreprimitivetypesofstanza,the
elementofunityisemphasizedandthatofvariety
neglected;inmanyartificialstanzas,theopposite
istrue;inthemoresuccessfulartisticstanzas,
notably
(forexample)the
"
Spenserian,"bothelements
maybesaidtobeequallyrecognized.
Finally,theeffectofthestanzawilldependon
the
extenttowhichitsmetricalstructurecorresponds
or
conflictswithitsrhetoricalstructure.Thusin
the

368

tersarima(which,althoughnotstrictlyastanza
form,admirablyillustratesthepointinquestion),
theItalianpoetscommonlymakeeachtercet
representarhetoricalunit,withafairly
important
THESTANZA.305
pauseattheend;whilemostoftheEnglishpoets
whohavemadeuseoftheformhaverunoverthe
sensefromtercettotercetinsuchawayasto
produceanentirelydifferenteffect.Thesame
thing
isnotablyexemplified,attheotherextremeof
elaboration,
inthesonnet.
Ingeneralonemustsupposethathere,as
elsewhere,
themostsuccessfulformswillbethosewhich
aremosttrulyexpressiveofthepoeticgtanzasag
materialofwhichtheyarethemedium;poetically
andthebestpoetswillcommonlybeexPre8sivefound
tomaketheirstanzas,liketheirrhythms,
servetheinnerpurposesoftheirart.Itiseasy
enough,withthealmostinfinitevarietyof
possible
combinationsofmetresandrimes,todevise
original
typesofstanzaorstrophe;butastanzaform
which
ismerelyintricate,impressingthereaderasnew
andingenious,butwithoutapervadingunityinits
variety,andwithoutanyclearlyapparentreason
for
itsexistenceinconnectionwiththepoeminwhich
itstands,thisisaworkofjuggleryratherthan
ofart.Ontheotherhand,asamediumof
expression,
particularlyinlyricalverse,adelicatelydevised
stanzaoftenservesbeautifullytoemphasize

369

therhetoricalstructureofthepoemandto
modulate
thepoet'semotion,afterthemannerofamelody
whichsurprisesbyitsfreshnessyetseemsnatural
themomentithasbeenheard.*
*AmongEnglishlyricalpoetsperhapsnoneexhibits
somuch
ingenuityandversatilityinthedevisingofstanza
forms,andgives
3064NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Turningnowtotheparticularstanzaformswhich
appearinEnglishpoetry,weshallfindit
impossible
toclassifythembyanyaccuratescheme,
Classification
sjnce^variouselementsonwhich
ofstanzas.
theirformdependspresentcrosssystems
ofanalysis.Ifweshouldgroupthemaccording
tothenumberandlengthofverses,the
rimeschemewouldbreakthroughthesegroupings;
soalsoifweapproachedthemfromanotherside.
Yetingeneralwemaypassfromtheshorterand
simplerstanzastothoselongerandmoreelaborate,
bynomeansattemptingtostudyallpossibletypes
orevenallthoseinactualuse.
Theshortestpossiblestanzaisoneoftwoverses,
rimingaa;
*andthisisactuallyfound,useddistinctively
fromthecontinuouscouplets
ofheroicverse.ExamplesareBrowning's
TheBoyandtheAngel,infourstressverse,
andTennyson'sLocksleyHall,ineightstress.
evidenceofsomuchconcernforadaptingthemto
thecontentand
emotionofthepoemsconcerned,asGeorgeHerbert.
Seethe

370

remarksofProfessorGeorgeH.PalmeronHerbert's
stanzas,in
theIntroductiontohiseditionofHerbert'sWorks.
*Thismethodofdescriptivenotationexplains
itself,theverses
rimingtogetherbeingindicatedbythesameletter.
Ifitisdesired
atthesametimetoindicatethelengthofthe
verses,asuperscribed
figureshowingthenumberofstressesorfeetis
commonlyused;
thusaquatrainin"commonmetre"(fourstressand
threestress
lines,rimingalternately)isrepresentedbythe
formula0*3a*3
.
THESTANZA.307
Tercets,orstanzasofthreeverses,commonly
rimingaaa,aresomewhatmorefamiliar.This
stanzaisfoundinHerrick'slinesTo
Julia("WhenasinsilksmyJulia
'
goes"),Longfellow'sMaidenhood,dough'sSic
Itur,andTennyson'sTheTwoVoices,allin
fourstress
verse.Kipling'sMulholland'sContractshows
thesameforminverseofsevenstresses.
Thequatrain,orstanzaoffourverses,isbyfar
themostfamiliarthroughoutEnglishpoetry,and
illustratesinitsvariousformsmostof
theprinciplesofvariationapplicableto
stanzasofthebriefersort.Theoretically,the
quatrain
mightappearinanyoftheserimeschemes:
aaaa,aaab,aaba,abaa,aabb,abab,abba,abbb,
aabc,
abac,abbe,abca,abcb,abcc.Thefirstoftheseis
anexceedinglysimpleform,inwhich

371

unityisattainedattheexpenseof
variety;itisfoundoccasionally,butveryrarely.
Attheotherextremearesuchformsasabcaand
abcc,inwhichvarietyissecuredattheexpenseof
unity;theclosingverseofsuchastanzawould
rime,
tobesure,withoneoftheprecedingverses,yet
in
eachcaseapairofverses(beinthefirst,abin
the
second)wouldbeleftwithoutanylinkingelement.
Stanzasofthistypearenotused.Theformabcb
wouldseematfirstthoughttobeopento
thesameobjection,yettheearissatisfied
fairlywellbythealternatebrime,andpasses
overtheomissionofrimesintheotherverses
308A^INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
withoutseriouscomplaint.Thisquatrainis
distinguished
onlysubtlyfromalongcouplet,and
itmayeasilybewrittenso:
"Yeflowerybankso'bonnieBoon,howcanyebloom
saefair!
Howcanyechant,yelittlebirds,andIsaefu'o'
care!"
Itisafamiliartypeofquatraininshortverses,
particularlyofalternatefourandthreestress,
asin
theexamplejustquoted;familiarespeciallyin
songs,ballads,andotherpopulartypesofpoetry.
Literarypoetrytendstoavoiditbecauseofthe
senseofimperfectfinishresultingfromthetwo
rimelessverses.Thecorrespondingquatrainwith
completealternativerime,abab,maybecalled
thestandardquatrainforminEnglish
poetry.Itisequallyfamiliarinthe
formmadeupofalternatefourandthreestress

372

verses(asinWordsworth'sLucyGray),in
fourstress
versesthroughout(asinCowper'sShrubbery),
andinfivestressthroughout(asinGray's
ElegyinaCountryChurchyard).Thelastofthese
typesissometimescalledtheheroicquatrain.
Returningtoourpossibleforms,thesecondon
thelist,aaab,whileapracticablestanza,isnot
a
truequatrain,sinceitinevitablydivides
itselfintoatercetandacodaorrefrain.
Usedinthiswayitisfamiliar,asinCowper'sMy
THESTANZA.309
Mary.Thesamethingwouldbetrueoftheopposite
type,abbb,whichispracticallyunknown.
Theformaabbisasimplecombination
oftwocouplets,intowhichversewill
fallnaturallyenough;itappearsinsomeimportant
poems,suchasShelley'sSensitivePlant(allin
fourstress
verses)andMarvell'sOdeonCromwell'sReturn
(withacombinationoffourandthreestress).
Thefactthatitisbynomeansafavoritestanza
maybesufficientlyexplainedbyitscomparative
lack
ofunity:thereisnothingtolinktogetherthe
first
andsecondparts.
Thetypeabbaistheresultofadeliberateeffort
tomodifythemorefamiliarababquatrain,forthe
sakeofsecuringadifferenteffectinthe
expressivenessofthestanza.Inthelatter
thefamiliartype,thenaturalalternation
oftherimesresultsinasomewhatobviousjingle,
which,althoughitisbynomeansdestructiveof
seriousness,islikelytoimpairtheeffectiveness
ofalongcontinuedseriouspoem.Byholdingthe
arimesfurtherapart,sothatthesecondanswers

373

thefirstasonemightsaymoresoftly,a
remarkable
changeisproduced,whichespeciallygoes
toformastanzabetterfittedforthecontinuous
flowofalongpoem.Thegreatexampleofits
useinthiswayisTennyson'sInMemoriam.Here,
andgenerally,itisusedwithfourstressverses;
butthereareoccasionalexamplesofthesame
3io4NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
stanzawithfivestressverse(forexample,
Milton's
paraphraseoftheSixthPsalm).Thesamerime
schemeisoccasionallyusedwithsomevariation
ofverselength;asinFrederickTennyson'sDream
ofAutumn,wherethreefivestressversesare
followed
byoneofthreestresses,andinMrs.Browning's
ADeadRose,wherethereverseschemeis
used,theshorterverseopeningthestanza.
Thequatrainoftheaabatypeisanother
deliberately
artisticvariationfromthemorefamiliartype;
avariationwhich,althoughitisopen
totheobjectionthatoneverseisleft
withoutanyrimelinkwiththeothersofthe
stanza,
neverthelesspossessesapeculiarunityfromthe
hauntinginsistenceoftheonearime.Theear
expectsasecondbsoundattheconclusionofthe
stanza,butinsteadisbroughtbacktotherime
withwhichitopened,witharesultingtonecolor
whichoftensuggestsFitzgerald'slines:
"Butevermore
CamebackbythatsamedoorwhereinIwent."
Itisinthistranslation,byFitzgerald,ofthe
RubaiyatofOmarKhayyam,thatthestanzaismost
familiar.Anothernotableexample(alsoin
fivestress

374

verse)isSwinburne'sLausVeneris.Adifferent
stanza,infourstressverses,yetofthesame
rimescheme,wasusedbyTennysoninthelinesTo
Maurice:
THESTANZA.
"Forgrovesofpineoneitherhand,
Tobreaktheblastofwinter,stand;
Andfurtheron,thehoaryChannel
Tumblesabillowonchalkandsand."
Thesimilarrimescheme,abaa,isnotinuseasa
stanzaform,doubtlessbecausetheearinsistsmore
strenuouslyonrimeatthecloseofthesecondand
fourthversesofthequatrainthanatthecloseof
the
firstandthird;henceinthiscasethesecondb
rime
wouldbemorestronglyexpected,andtherepeated
rimetendmoretobevexatious,thanintheaaba
arrangement.Forasimilarreason,theremaining
formsinourlistofpossiblequatrains,aabc,
abac,
andabbe,arewhollyunknowninactualusage;the
absenceofanyrimefortheconcludingcadenceof
thestanzawouldleaveitwithadisagreeable
effect
ofaccidentalformlessness.
Stanzasoffiveversesaremostnaturallyformed
bytheextensionofoneofthequatraintypes.
Thus,
addingtotheaabbformathirdb
rime,wehavethesingularlyhaunting
tonalschemeofRossetti'sstanzainRoseMary:
"
MaryminethatartMary'srose,
Comeintomefromthegardenclose.
Thesunsinksfastwiththerisingdew,
Andwemarkednothowthefaintmoongrew;
Butthehiddenstarsarecallingyou."

375

312ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Expandingtheabcbformbytheinsertionofanother
crime,wehavethestanzaofWordsworth's
PeterBell(abccb);or,withanothera
abcab,'
rime>thefrmabcab(USedinChris"
tinaRossetti'sSummerisEnded.,the
lasttwolinesafootshorterthantheothers).
Expanding
theababstanzasimilarly,wehaveeither
abaab(asinRossetti'sSunsetWings),abaab
ababbababb(asinWaller'sGo,lovelyRose),
ababa,Qr^efamiijarababa(asinBrowning's
TwointheCampagna).Apeculiartypeofthe
ababbstanzaisthatinwhichthefifthverseisa
long
codatothequatrain;thusinShelley'sSkylarka
sixstressiambicverseisaddedtoaquatrainof
threestresstrochaicverses,andinSwinburne's
Herthaalongcodaofsixanapestsisaddedtoa
quatrainoftwostressversesofthesame
character.
Theabbaquatrain,expanded,maygive
abbbatheformabbaa(foundinFrederick
Tennyson'sGloryofNature),abbba
(inChristinaRossetti'sTheBourne),orabbab
(usedbyMr.Wm.B.YeatsinRoseoftheWorld,
withthelastverseshorterthantheothers).
Stanzasofsixversesareeithertripartitein
structure,dividingintothreepairsofverses,or
bipartite,dividingbetweenthethirdandfourthor
betweenthefourthandfifthverses.Simplestof
theformertype,butrarelyused,isthe
ababab,combinationofthreecouplets,aabbcc,
foundinBrowning'sConfessional.
Morefamiliaristhecontinuedalternaterime
THESTANZA.
scheme,dbabab,foundinByron'sSheWalksin

376

Beauty.Similartothis,butwithoutthearimes,
is
theformabcbdb,usedinRossetti's
BlessedDamoseLOfthetwoparttype
a
j>
ct>db
Jfababcc.
thesimplestformisthatmadeupofa
quatrainwithaddedcouplet,ababcc,usedinthe
DirgeinCymbeline,Wordsworth's/Wandered
LonelyasaCloud,andArnold'sMorality;or,with
adifferentquatrainasbasis,theform
abbacc,usedbyMr.RobertBridgesin
jjjj
ThoudidstDelightmyEyes.Or,
again,thecoupletmayprecedethequatrain,asin
theaabcbcstanzasofO'Shaughnessy'sGreater
Memory.Another,andimportant,varietyofthe
bipartitesixlinestanzaisthatformed
byaddingtoeachoftwocoupletsa
Jt
a^g
me
coda,or
"
tailrime,"usuallyofshorter
metricallengththanthecoupletverses.This
givesthefamiliarschemeaabccb,commonly
calledthe"tailrime"stanzaorrime^couee;a
characteristicexampleisthebridalsongfromThe
TwoNobleKinsmen,byShakspereandFletcher.
Whatmaybecalledaninversionofthisformoccurs
whenthecodaversesarelongerthantheothers,
instead
ofshorter;suchisthestanzaofBrowning's
RabbiBenEzra.InThomasBuchananRead's
Driftingthesamelongcodaversesappear,but

377

rimingwiththecoupletstowhichtheyare
attached.
Anotherinterestingvariationisastanzabasedon
onlytworimes,withshortcodaversesformingthe
*NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
fourthandsixth,insteadofthethirdandsixth,
of
thestanza;theresultingform,aaabab,isfamiliar
inmanyofthepoemsofBurns:
"
Wee,sleekit,cow'rin',tim'rousbeastie,
whatapanic'sinthybreastie!
Thouneednastartawasaehasty,
Wi'bickeringbrattle!
1wadbelaithtorinan'chasethee
Wi'murd'ringpattle!
"
Morecomplexthananyofthesesixlinestanzas
aretheformsabbaab,usedbyBrowninginChilde
RolandtotheDarkTowerCame,andabccba,used
byRossettiinTheMirror.
Stanzasofsevenlinesareessentiallyintricatein
structure,andcomparativelyrare.Themost
important
typeistheold
"
rimeroyal
"
stanza,ababbcc,
foundinagoodpartofChaucer's
Eimeroyal,poetry,andinShakspere'sRapeof
Lucrece;itisalmostinvariablyused
withfivestressverse.Theoreticallythisstanza
maybelookedatasanexpansionoftheababcc
type,morehighlyunifiedbytheadditionalverse.
Thisadditionalverse(thefifth)isconnected
withtheprecedingquatrainbyitsrime;but
rhetoricallyitismorelikelytobeconnectedwith

378

thefollowingcouplet;henceitservesinasubtle
waytobindthefirstpartofthestanzaandthe
conclusion
closelytogether.AsusedbyChauceritis
oneofthemostpleasingofEnglishstanzas,but
modernEnglishpoetshaveratherstrangelyavoided
THESTANZA.315
it;amongthefewlaterexamplesarecertainof
the
talesinMorris'sEarthlyParadise.Avariantof
therimeroyaltypeisfoundintheformababacc,
usedalsobyMorrisinIcelandFirstSeen.Other
sevenlinestanzasareformedbyexpanding
thefamiliarsixlinestanzaothersevenhue
stanzas,
ofaquatrainplusacouplet;thuswe
findtheformababccainBrowning'sGuardian
Angel,andababccbinThomson'sCityofDreadful
Night.Addingarimetotheaabbccstanza,we
havetheaabbccaofRossetti'sSoothsay.More
intricate
aretheformsabcabca,usedbySwinburnein
AnAppeal,andaabcbcc,usedbyO'Shaughnessyin
St.JohnBaptist.InLove'sNocturnRossettiuses
asevenlinestanzacharacterizedbythepresence
of
onlytworimesounds:ababbab,withthesixth
verse
shorterthantheothers.Finally,thereare
occasional
examplesofthetailrimestanzawithan
addedlongerverseineitherthefirstorsecond
group,rimingaaabaaboraabaaab.
Stanzasofeightversesareexceedinglynumerous
andvaried.Simplestofallisthecontinuous
alternate
rime,abababab,rarelyusedbecause
oftheobviousfactthattheottavarima,

379

unityoftheschemeismaintained
attheexpenseofvariety.Ontheotherhand,
thealternaterimedstanzaofsixverses,with
acoupletadded,formsthefamiliarottavarima
form,abababcc,inwhichtheprincipaldivisionof
thestanzaliesbetweenthesixthandseventh
verses;
316^tfINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
itistheconcludingcoupletwhichgivestheform
its
characteristiceffect.NotableexamplesareKeats'
s
IsabellaandByron'sDonJuan;inthelatterpoem
thisstanzawasbrilliantlyadaptedtothepurposes
of
satireandburlesque.Ofequalorgreater
importance
isthegroupofeightlinestanzasformedby
thecombinationoftwoquatrains.Ifthequatrains
areleftwithseparaterimeschemes,theunityof
thestanzaisbasedonrhetorical
line^tauzas",ratherthanmetricalstructure;types
ofthischaracterarethestanzasriming
abcbdefe(foundinShelley'sIndianSerenade),
ababcdcd(usedinhisOnewordistoooften
profaned),ababccdd(usedbyWordsworthinThe
SolitaryReaperandwithaconcludingverse
longerthantheotherstheOdetoDuty),ababcddc
(usedbyOwenMeredithintheIndianLoveSong),
andabbacdcd(usedbyWilliamWatsonintheOde
inMay).Ontheotherhand,thetwoquatrainsmay
besolinkedbyrimeastoincreasethestanzaic
unity.
Ofthischaracterarethestanzasrimingababbcbc
(usedbyByroninFarewell,ifeverFondest
Prayer),abcbdbeb(usedbyChristinaRossettiin
MotherCountry),aabcddbc(usedbyMr.Watson
inColumbus),ababcccb(usedbySwinburneinThe

380

GardenofProserpine),andabbcddad(usedby
O'ShaughnessyinTheFountainofTears)*
*IntheremarkablepoemcalledASongofPalms
O'Shaughnessy
madeuseofnolessthanfourotherdistincteight
linestanzas,inall
ofwhichthesecondquatrainislinkedtothefirst
bythebrime:
aabbcccb,abaaccbb^aababcbc^andaabbccbc.
THESTANZA.317
Amongeightlinestanzaswehavealsothat'ofthe
tailrimetype,rimingaaabcccb;itappearsin
Drayton's
famousAgincourtode,andinWordsworth's
Daisy.Manyothereightlinestanzasareformed
bythecombinationsofversesofvariouslength;a
notableexampleistheHymninMilton'sNativity
Ode,rimingaabccbdd,withversesofthree,four,
fiveandsixstresses.Finally,wemaynotean
interesting
stanzaofeightversesinwhichtherime
schemeisinpartdependentoninternalrimes:
that
ofMr.Kipling'sTrueRomance.Theformmaybe
representedbytheschemeablbV/e:
"
Thyfaceisfarfromthisourwar,
Ourcallandcountercry,
IshallnotfindTheequickandkind,
NorknowTheetillIdie:
Enoughformeindreamstosee
AndtouchThygarment'shem:
ThyfeethavetrodsoneartoGod
Imaynotfollowthem."
ThenormalEnglishstanzathusappearstobe
mostnaturallyformedoffour,six,oreight
verses;
andwhenwepassbeyondthispoint

381

tolongerforms,weenterthefieldF116sPenser
..
ianstanza.
whereindividualartistictastehasingeniously
developedandelaboratedthesimplerand
brieferstanzasforparticularpurposes.Apartial
exceptiontothisisfoundintheninelinestanza
inventedbySpenser,nowalwayscalled
"
Spenserian,"
which,althoughapparentlydevisedby
ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
purelyindividualartforaparticularwork,has
neverthelessbeensofreelyandsobeautifullyused
bylaterpoetsastohavebecomeoneofthe
standard
strophicformsofEnglishpoetry.Thisstanza,
rimingababbcbcc,isbestregardedasanexpansion
oftheeightlinestanzaoftheababbcbctype;the
firsteightversesbeingalwaysinfivestress
metre,
theadditionalverseinsixstress.Thusthe
concluding
verseislinkedbytherimetothepreceding
verses,yetstandsbyitself,withitsindividual
lingeringcadence,asakindofconclusionand
recapitulation
oftheentirestanza.TheSpenserian
stanzahasalwaysbeenusedmostcharacteristically
forelaboratedandsustainedpoeticalnarrationand
description,inpoemswhereattentionisdirected
notmerelytothethemeofthewholebuttothe
beautyofdetailintheseveralparts;or,asone
critichasphrasedit,poemscharacterizedbya
"
lingering,
loving,particularizingmood."Outsideof

382

Spenser,importantexamplesofitsusearein
Keats's
EveofSt.Agnes,Byron'sChildeHarold,Shelley's
Adonais,andTennyson'sLotosEaters.
Longerandmoreelaboratestanzascannotbe
discussedherewithanythoroughness.Where
Tenlinesuccessful,theywillbefoundtodepend
stanzas,Ontheprinciplesalreadyexemplified.
Interestinginstancesofformsoftenversesare
foundinthestanzaofChatterton'sJElla,riming
ababbcbcdd,withaconcludingalexandrineinthe
manneroftheSpenserianstanza;thestanzaof
THESTANZA.
319
Gray'sOdeonEtonCollege,rimingababccdeed;
thestanzaofKeats'sOdetoaNightingale,riming
ababcdecde,withtheeighthverseshorterthanthe
others;thestanzaofArnold'sScholarGypsyand
Thyrsis,rimingabcbcadeed,withthesixthverse
shorterthantheothers;andvarietiesofthe
tailrime
schemeinthestanzasofRossetti'sBurdenof
Nineveh,rimingaaaabccccb,andMr.Watson's
Autumn,rimingabbabcddcd.Certainotherlong
andelaboratestrophicformswillbeconsideredin
connectionwiththeode.
Agroupofstanzashasbeenreserved,for
convenience,
toaseparateparagraph;namely,those
whosestructureisbasednotmerelyon_,.
fKefram
thegroupingandlinkingofcoordinatestanzas,
verses,butontheuseofarefrain.Thesetake
usbacktotheearlyconnectionbetweenverse
andsong,andareamongthemostpurelylyrical
stanzaforms.*Thesimplesttypeofrefrainstanza
issuchanoneasthis,fromaprimitivesong
lyric:

383

"
Blow,northernwind,
Sendthoumysweeting!
Blow,northernwind,
Blow!blow!blow!
"
Heretherefraininsomemeasuretakestheplaceof
rime;soalso,thoughwiththeadditionaluseof
rimeincertainversesofthestanza,insuch
refrain
formsasBurns'sBirksofAberfeldy(whosescheme
*Fromthehistoricalstandpoint,thetailrime
stanzasprobably
belonginthisgroup.
3204NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
isaaaR)andthemoreelaboratetypeseeninhis
DuncanGray(aRaRbbbR).Similartypesare
usedalsoinmorepurelyliterarypoems,wherethe
insistentrecurrenceofasimplethemenevertheless
resemblesthemethodofthesonglyric;examples
areCowper'sMyMary(aaaR),Tennyson's
Oriana(aRaRaaRaR),Kingsley'sThreeFishers
(ababccR),andtheconcludingchorustoMorris's
LoveisEnough(ababbR).Again,asingleword
repeatedattheendofoneormoreversesmayact
asasortofextensionoftherefrainofthe
stanza;
asinCarey'sSallyinourAlley,wheretheword
"
Sally
"
isrepeatedattheendofthesixthverse
ofeachstanza,rimingwiththefullrefrainwhich
formstheseventhandeighthverses.InBurns's
JohnAnderson,theunrimedword"
John
"
isan

384

approximationtothefullrefrain,
"
JohnAnderson,
myjo."Inboththesecasestherefrainitself
rimes
withotherversesinthestanza,andsovery
commonly
inmodernpoetry.Anexample,furtherremoved
fromthesongorballadtypethananyofthe
others,isShelley'slyric:
"OWorld!OLife!OTime!
OnwhoselaststepsIclimb,
TremblingatthatwhereIhadstoodbefore;
Whenwillreturnthegloryofyourprime?
Nomoreoh,nevermore!
"*
*Oftheserefrainstanzas,asdevelopedby
artificialelaboration,
suchFrenchformsastherondeauandballade
furnishnotable
examples.Theyarereservedforseparate
consideration(seebelow,
PP333337).
THESTANZA.321
Ontheotherhand,somemodernwritershave
imitated
theunriming,parenthetical,andpartially
irrelevantrefrainsoftheoldballadtype;a
notable
exampleisRossetti'sSisterHelen.
Thestanzaformsthusfarconsideredhavedepended
fortheircharacteristiceffectschieflyupon
variationofrimescheme,andsecondarily
onvariationinlengthofverses;mostfar^eg
Unza
ofthembeinginiambicmetres.In
recentperiodsmuchvarietyhasbeenfurther
secured

385

bycombiningwiththestrictlystanzaicelements
alterationsofmetricalcharacter,particularly
inthetrochaicandanapesticforms.Addingthese
variationstothepossibilitiesofrime
arrangement,
theopportunitiesforfreshexperimentation,
agreeable
inanageofromanticindividualityandlove
ofnovelty,becomelimitless.Newandinteresting
stanzas,likethatofSwinburne'sgreatChorusin
Atalanta("Whenthehoundsofspringareon
winter'straces"),andKipling'sLastChantey,
will
befoundtobepleasinginlargepartbecauseof
the
combinationofrhythmicalwithmorestrictly
stanzaicelements.Inviewofthegreatnumberand
interestoftheseexperimentsinnewtypes,itwill
perhapssurprisethestudentofthesubjecttosee
howmuchofthebestwork,eveninrecentpoetry,
isstilldoneincomparativelysimpleforms.
Despite
repeatedperiodsofexperimentation,underforeign
influencesandotherwise,Englishtastehasre322
/*#INTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
mainedfairlyfaithfultothesimplertypesof
verse
structure.
Aparticularclassofstanzas,requiringbrief
mention,isthatrepresentingtheeffortto
introduce
classicalmeasuresintoEnglishverse.
Inapreviouschapterwehaveseen
howthisappearsintheuseofcertain
metres.Itisespeciallythelyricalstanzas
familiar
inthepoetryofHoracethathavebeenimitatedin
likemanner,andmostoftheexperimentsinthis

386

grouparefoundinworksofearlypoets,notably
SirPhilipSidneyandThomasCampion.Onlyone
ofthesestanzatypeshasinanywayestablished
itselfinEnglishpoetry:thesocalled
"
sapphic
"
stanza,madeupofthreeversesofelevensyllables
followedbyoneoffivesyllables.Swinburne's
Sapphicsareanadmirableexample:
"Ahthesinging,ahthedelight,thepassion!
AlltheLoveswept,listening;sickwithanguish,
StoodthecrownednineMusesaboutApollo;
Fearwasuponthem."
Ofperhapsmoreimportance,yetuniqueinmodern
Englishpoetry,arethe"alcaic
"
stanzasofTennyson
onMilton:
"Omightymouth'dinventorofharmonies,
Oskill'dtosingoftimeoreternity,
GodgiftedorganvoiceofEngland,
Milton,anametoresoundforages."
*
*ThepartiallyrimedstanzaofTennyson'squoted
above,p.311,
isthoughttobecomposedinimitationofthissame
alcaictype.
THESTANZA.323
Otherinterestingexperimentsofthesamesortmay
befoundinMr.RobinsonEllis'stranslationof
Catullusinthemetricalformsoftheoriginal.
Such
imitatorsofclassicalmeasuresusuallydiscardthe
elementofrime,asnotbeingusedinGreekand
Romanpoetry;andsomeofthemtryalsoto
reproduce
thestrictlyquantitativemeasuresofthose

387

languages.
Thereisnoadequatetreatmentofthestanzain
Englishverse,outsidethelearnedmaterial
accumulated
bySchipperinhisEnglischeMetrik.Themost
suggestivestudyofthefunctionofstanzaformsin
adaptingtheexpressiontothethemeandpoetic
mood,
willbefoundinCorson'sPrimerofEnglishVerse,
chaptersvix.ProfessorCorsonanalyzesthestanza
ofTennyson'sInMemoriam(seepage309above),and
emphasizesthedifferencebetweenthisandthemore
familiarababstanza.
"
Bytherhymeschemeofthe
quatrain,theterminalrhymeemphasisisreduced,
the
secondandthirdversesbeingthemostclosely
braced
bytherhyme.Thestanzaisthusadmirablyadapted
to
thatsweetcontinuityofflow,freefromabrupt
checks,
demandedbythespiritualizedsorrowwhichbearsit
along.Alternaterhymewouldhavewroughtanentire
changeinthetoneofthepoem."(pp.70,71.)
Ontheotherhand,hediscussesthestanzaofThe
PalaceofArt,anababquatrainofwhichthefirst
andthirdversesareinfivestressmetre,the
second
infourstress,andthefourthinthreestress.
"
In
thestanzabeforeusthepoethassecuredanextra
enforcementofthefinalversebymakingitshorter
bytwofeetthanthefirstandthird,andshorter
by
324ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.

388

onefootthanthesecond.Itsexceptionallength
alone
enforcesit;andbeingshorter,therhymeemphasis
is
increased,becausetherhymingwordsarebrought
closertogether....Thesubtleadaptationofthe
stanzatoapictorialpurposemustbedistinctly
feltby
everysusceptiblereader."(pp.80,81.)Whileof
the
aaatercetsofTheTwoVoicesProfessorCorson
observes
:
"WhatthepoetintheInMemoriamaimed
toavoid,inTheTwoVoicesheaimedtosecure,
namely,acloseemphasizedstanza.Thepoem
consists,
ingreatpart,ofasuccessionofshort,
epigrammatic
arguments,proandcon,towhichthestanzais
welladapted....Theterminalrhymeemphasis,to
whichtheshortnessoftheversesalsocontributes,
is
accordinglystrong,andimpartsaverydistinct
individuality
toeachandeverystanza."(p.78.)Inthechapter
on"TheSpenserianStanza,"ProfessorCorson
quotesthesuggestiveremarksofLowell,inhis
EssayonSpenser,ontheeffectofthealexandrine
at
thecloseofthestanza:
"
Inthealexandrine,the
melodyofonestanzaseemsforeverlongingand
feeling
forwardafterthatwhichistofollow.Thereis
noebbandflowinhismetremorethanonthe
shores

389

oftheAdriatic,butwavefollowswavewithequable
gainingsandrecessions,theoneslidingbackin
fluent
musictobemingledwithandcarriedforwardbythe
next.Inallthisthereissoothingness,indeed,
butnot
slumberousmonotony;forSpenserwasnomere
metrist,
butagreatcomposer.Bythevarietyofhis
pausesnowatthecloseofthefirstorsecond
foot,
nowofthethird,andagainofthefourthhegives
spiritandenergytoameasurewhosetendencyis
certainly
tobecomelanguorous."InProfessorLewis's
PrinciplesofEnglishVersethereisabriefbut
helpful
discussionofthestanza,pp.7784.This
observation
THESONNET.325
isworthyofspecialnote:
"
Inallstanzaformsthe
rimeplaysitspartinoneortheotherofthese
two
ways,andofteninboth:thatis,itdisplaysthe
stanzaic
structure,oritobscuresit,oritpartlydisplays
andpartlyobscuresit.Ingeneral,simpledisplay
ismorepopular;forinstanzasthesingsong
effect
isratheragreeablethanotherwise."(p.81.)In
the
sameconnectionoccursaninterestingcomparison
ofthequatrainformsaabb,dbab,andabba.
Wenowturntotheconsiderationofcertain
typesofversestructureanalogoustothestanza,
butmoreelaborateandcomplete;and

390

r,1011111it.Thesonnet,[/
firsttheSonnet,whichisahighlyelaborated
stanzaforminginitselfthebodyofanentire
andperfectlyunifiedpoem.OfItalianoriginone
ofitstwoprincipaltypesexhibitsthatcomplexity
ofrimestructurewhichwehaveseentobemore
characteristicofthetasteoftheLatinthanof
theEnglishrace;theotherrepresentsthe
modification
oftheforminthedirectionofgreatersimplicity.
InthepoetryoftheageofShakspere,both
formsarefoundequallyimportant,withatendency
towardapreferenceforthesecondorEnglishtype.
InmodernpoetrythefirstorItaliantypelargely
prevails,yetwithgreatvariationofform.In
general,
whereverused,thesonnetisaformmarked
byconsciousliteraryart,notservingforthe
morepopularpurposesofpoetry,and,whilebroadly
lyricalincharacter,itisusuallymoreclosely
related
tothereflectivethantothesongtypeoflyric.*
*Seetheremarksonthesonnetinchapterii,p.
70above.
3264NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
ThestrictorItaliansonnetformconsistsof
fourteenversesinfivestressiambicmetre,
separated
intotwodistinctrimegroupsbetween
Thestrict
theeighthandtheninthverses.The
Italiantype.
firsteightverses,calledtheoctave,rime
abbaabba;thelastsix,calledthesestet,are
variously
arrangedwitheithertwoorthreeadditionalrimes,
themostfamiliarschemesbeingcdecde,cdcdcd,
cdedce,andcddcee.Englishpoets,ingeneral,have

391

exercisedconsiderablefreedomintheirtreatment
of
therimeschemeofthesonnet;Wordsworth,for
example,frequentlyintroducedathirdrimeinto
the
octave,intheformabbaacca.Thetendencyof
recent
poetryistowardgreaterregularityinthis
particular.
Inthestrictertypeofsonnetthereisamarked
rhetoricalpauseattheendoftheoctave,the
division
representingatwofoldexpression
Samttr,
ofthesin^lethoughtwhichformsthe
unifyingbasisoftheform.Some,indeed,
woulddemandthattheentirestructural
schemeoftheformcorrespondtothatofthe
content.
ThusMr.Tomlinson,inhisworkonThe
Sonnet,observesthatthe
"
oneidea,mood,sentiment,
orproposition
"whichitexpresses,
"must
beintroduced...inthefirstquatrain,and
sofarexplainedinthesecondthatthismay
endinafullpoint;whiletheofficeofthefirst
tercet
istopreparetheleadingideaofthequatrainsfor
theconclusion,whichconclusionistobeperfectly
THESONNET.327
carriedoutinthesecondtercet."FewEnglish
poets,however,havecarriedoutthisconceptionof
theformcarefully,andmanyevenneglectthepause
betweenoctaveandsestet.Someofthefinest
sonnets

392

inthelanguage,likeMilton'sOnhisBlindness,
andWordsworth'sThezvorldistoomuchwithus,
whilebipartiteinrhetoricalstructure,yetdivide
notbetweenoctaveandsestetbutinthemiddleof
averse.Inothercases,asinalargeproportion
of
Mrs.Browning'ssonnets,thereisnotwofold
structure,
andonlysuchunityasanyshortpoemmight
show.Yet,apartfrommattersofpurelypoetical
merit,thosesonnetsmaywellberegardedasmost
successfulwhoseformbodiesforththereal
character
oftheircontent.Fromthisstandpoint,theItalian
typeisespeciallywellfittedfortheexpression
ofa
thoughtpresentedfirstinnarrativeform,thenin
moreabstractcomment(asArnold'sEastLondon);
or,intheformofasimilebetweentwoobjects
orsituations(asLongfellow'sfirstsonnetonthe
DivinaCommedia);or,fromthestandpointoftwo
differentmoods(asRossetti'sLovesight);or,
exemplified
intwocoordinateconcreteexpressions(as
inKeats'sGrasshopperandCricket).Thelast
namedsonnetiswellworthyofdetailedstudyfor
itsperfectadaptationofformtoinnerstructure.
Thethemeisstatedattheopeningofbothoctave
andsestet,anddevelopedseparatelyintwo
particular
applications:
328^NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
''Thepoetryofearthisneverdead:
Whenallthebirdsarefaintwiththehotsun,
Andhideincoolingtrees,avoicewillrun
Fromhedgetohedgeaboutthenewmownmead:
ThatistheGrasshopper's;hetakesthelead
Insummerluxury;hehasneverdone

393

Withhisdelights,for,whentiredoutwithfun,
Herestsateasebeneathsomepleasantweed.
Thepoetryofearthisceasingnever:
Onalonewinterevening,whenthefrost
Haswroughtasilence,fromthestovethereshrills
TheCricket'ssong,inwarmthincreasingever,
Andseemstooneindrowsinesshalflost
TheGrasshopper'samongsomegrassyhills."
Theothertypeofsonnet,calledsometimesthe
English,sometimestheSurreyortheShakspere
form(fromtheearliestandthemost
TheEnglishdistinguishedofEnglishpoetswhoused
it),isofthesamelengthastheItalian
type,but,insteadofdividingintooctaveand
sestet,
fallsintothreequatrainsandacouplet;theusual
rimeschemebeingababcdcdefefgg.Theresulting
effectisdifferentintworespects:first,the
rime
arrangementismoreobvious,andmorepopular
intone,beingmorereadilyfollowedbytheear;
second,thestructureismoredirectlyprogressive,
therimeschemebeingdevelopedclimacticallyand
closingwiththeepigrammatic,summarizingcouplet.
Boththesecharacteristicsarewellillustrated
inthefamiliar73rdsonnetofShakspere:
THESONNET.329
<lThattimeofyearthoumay'stinmebehold
Whenyellowleaves,ornone,orfew,dohang
Uponthoseboughswhichshakeagainstthecold,
Bareruinedchoirs,wherelatethesweetbirds
sang;
Inmethousee'stthetwilightofsuchday^
Asaftersunsetfadethinthewest,
Whichbyandbyblacknightdothtakeaway,,
Death'ssecondself,thatsealsupallinrest;
Inmethousee'sttheglowingofsuchfire
Thatontheashesofhisyouthdothlie,.

394

Asthedeathbedwhereonitmustexpire,
Consumedwiththatwhichitwasnourishedby:
Thisthouperceiv'st,whichmakesthylovemore
strong,
Tolovethatwellwhichthoumustleaveerelong."
Structurallyconsidered,thisisobviouslya
totally
differentmodeofexpressionfromthatrepresented
inthesonnetsoftheothertype.Whilemoretruly
Englishinfeelingthantheother,ithaslessthat
isreallycharacteristic,andmaintainsits
separate
existenceasaformofartlessinsistently;ithas
thereforebeencomparativelylittleusedinmodern
poetry.
ThesonnetsofSpenser,calledtheAmoretti,show
avariationfromtheEnglishtypewhichSpenser
evidentlydevisedwithaviewtolinking
thethreequatrainsmorecloselybytheThe
Spenserrime;
theschemeisababbcbccdcdee.
Thisformhasrarelybeenusedbyother
poets.
330<*NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Thesuccessandpleasurablenessofthesonnet
formseemtobedependentupontwoelements:
thecomplexityoftherimescheme(this
Sourcesof
applyingonlytotheItaliantype),and
thefixedlengthofthewholepoem.
Theformer,aswehaveseen,isopposedtothe
taste
andtraditionsofEnglishpoetry;anditisperhaps
forthisreasonthatthesonnetalwaysremains,as
wassaidattheoutset,aconsciouslyelaborated
form,appealingchieflytothereaderofcultivated
tasteandthoughtfultemper.Notwithstandingthat
mostofthegreatEnglishpoetsofmoderntimes

395

havewrittensonnets,perhapsonlyRossetti(who
wasofItalianstock)foundintheformallycorrect
sonnetthenaturalexpressionofhislyrical
impulse,
theformparexcellenceforutteringhimselfto
hisfellows.Ontheotherhand,theintenseunity
oftheform,limitedasitistofourteenverses,
while
itpresentsgravedifficultiesinthewayofpoetic
workmanship,yetshowsadignityofmannerand
aneffectofcompletenessandfinishwhichevenif
notspontaneousarepleasingtotheartisticsense.
Itispreciselythecontrastwhichitpresentswith
thelimitlesslibertyofromanticart,asexhibited
in
abundantvarietyofmetrical,stanzaic,and
rhetorical
structure,whichgivestherestraintofthesonnet
its
chiefcharm.*
*Seetheremarkstothesameeffect,andthe
referencetoWordsworth's
sonnetonthesonnet,inchapterii,p.71above.
THESONNET.
33!
Discussionsofthesonnetwillbefoundinthe
workofTomlinson'salreadycited,TheSonnet,its
Origin,Structure,andPlaceinPoetry;inLeigh
Hunt'sessayintroductorytoTheBookofthe
Sonnet;
intheintroductionstosonnetanthologiesedited
by
WilliamSharp,SamuelWaddington,andHallCaine
(seebibliographicalappendix);inCorson'sPrimer
ofEnglishVerse,chap,x;andinCourthope's
History
ofEnglishPoetry,vol.ii.
Thetendencyofcriticism,characteristically,has

396

beentofayorjheltaliantypeofsonnet,andto
discountenance
thefreerformsofit,whichneglectthe
regularrimeschemeandbipartatedivision.Onthe
fundamentalcharacterofthestructureLeighHunt
observed,inconnectionwithitssupposedmusical
origin:
"Asonnetis,infact,oroughttobe,apiece
ofmusicaswellasofpoetry;andaseverylover
of
musicissensibleofthedivisionevenofthe
smallest
airintotwoparts,thesecondofwhichisthe
consequent
ornecessarydemandofthefirst,andasthese
partsconsistofphrasesandcadences,whichhave
similarsequencesanddemandsoftheirown,sothe
compositioncalledasonnet,beingalongairor
melody,becomesnaturallydividedintotwo
different
strains,eachofwhichissubdividedinlike
manner;
andasquatrainsconstitutetheonestrain,and
terzettes
theother,wearetosupposethiskindofmusical
demandthereasonwhythelimitationtofourteen
lines
became,notarulewithoutareason,butan
harmonious
necessity."Regardingthefullobservanceofthe
structuralpossibilitiesoftheform,asoutlined
by
Tomlinson,ProfessorCorsonsays:
"Thisextremeof
organicelaborationisnotfoundinmanyEnglish
sonnets.
ItevidentlydoesnotsuittheEnglishgenius.

397

Thereis,itmustbeadmitted,acertainartistic
satis332
ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
factioninsuchstrictnessofworkmanship;but
this
strictnessismorethancompensatedfor,inthe
greatest
Englishsonnets,bythehighqualityofthethought
andfeeling,inthetwomaindivisions,takenas
wholes."Withreferencetothosesonnetsinwhich
therhetoricalstructureconflictswiththe
metrical,
ProfessorLewisasks:
"Whyisnotthisreallybetter
thanRossetti'skind?Whydoesitnotgiveusa
higherpleasure,bysuggestingaconflictbetween
the
thoughtandthesonnetform?...Ithinkwecan
perceiveabeautyintheveryfreedomofthe
Wordsworthian
movementwhichRossetti'ssonnetslack.
NeverthelessIpreferRossetti'sstrictness,and
regard
Rossettiasourgreatestmasterofthesonnetform.
Myearcannotgraspoctavesandsestetsasreadily
as
itcangraspcouplets,anditthereforeisbetter
pleased
whentheirintegrityispreservedandemphasized;
and
octavesandsestets,ascomparedwithcouplets,
offer
somuchmorefreedomwrithintheirownlimitsthat
I
feelnoneedofvariationinthelimits
themselves."
Towhichonemightadd:whyadoptsoelaboratea

398

schemeasthatofthesonnet,ifthereisnothing
inits
structuretowhichthethoughtistobefitted?One
mayenjoyagroupofmarblesplacedwithoutformal
arrangementaswellasasimilargroupsetin
niches
ofappropriatesize;yetifnichesandmarblesare
both
present,perfectsatisfactiontendstodemandthat
they
appeartobemadeforeachother.
Inthenextplacewehavetonoticecertain
stanzaiclyricalformswhichinstrictnessofform
Frenchlyrare
clsetyrelatedtothesonnet,but
icalforms,whichareused,forthemostpart,
intheexpressionofwhollydifferentthemesand
FRENCHLYRICALFORMS.333
moods.ImitationsofFrenchforms,theyare
foundchieflyinthepoetryofChaucer'stimeand
thatwrittenwithconsciousrevivaloftheold
courtlymannerinthelateVictorianage.Their
intricacyisusuallysoconspicuousthatagood
part
oftheirpleasurablenessarisesfromthereader's
senseofdifficultyovercomebyskill;andforthe
samereasontheyarescarcelyusedwithlyrical
spontaneity,butratherfortheexpressionof
themes
naturallyfittedtotheaffectationofantiquated
style
andcourtlyformalityofstructure.Socalledvers
desociete(seechapterii)isparticularlylikely
to
befoundintheseforms.Twodifferentmoodsmay
bedistinguishedascharacteristicofthem:one
purelyplayful,yetredolentofgoodbreeding,the
otherseriously,perhapsevenpathetically,devoted

399

toreminiscenceorreverie.Finally,sincenearly
alltheseFrenchformsarebasedontherepetition
of
oneormorerefrainverses,theyarecharacterized
byanintenseunitywhichamountstoapleasing
monotony.
TheTrioletisthebriefestandleastdignifiedof
thegroup,*apoemofeightverseswithtworime
sounds,thefirstandsecondverses
....,,Thetriolet,
recurringastheseventhandeighth,
andthefirstalsorecurringasthefourth.The
schemeisABaAabAB.fAsanotablysuccessful
*ThetrioletisreallyashortformoftheRondeau
(seebelow),
tThecapitalsindicatetherepeatedorrefrain
lines.
334^NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
exampleonemaytakethistrioletofAustin
Dobson's:
"Rosekissedmetoday;
Willshekissmetomorrow?
Letitbeasitmay,
Rosekissedmetoday.
Butthepleasuregivesway
Toasavorofsorrow;
Rosekissedmetoday,
Willshekissmetomorrow?
"
Inthisexampleisillustratedthatdelicatechange
in
theaccentandmeaningoftherefrainwhich,inall
theseforms,givesanaddedcharmtothestructural
effect.
TheRondeauandRondelarecloselyrelated
types,thetwowordsbeingdifferentformsofthe
sameoriginal,nowusedforconvenience
withdistinctmeanings.Therondel

400

commonlycontainsfourteenverses,two
ofwhichserveasrefrain;variousrimeschemes
are
inuse,themostfamiliarbeingABbaabABabbaAB.
SometimesthelastBlineisomitted.Therondeau
formcommonlyconsistsofthirteenfullverses,
with
anadditionalshorterverseusedasanunrimed
refrain,
takenfromtheopeningofthefirstverse,and
repeatedaftertheeighthandthethirteenth
verses.
ThefavoriterimeschemeisaabbaaabRaabbaR.Of
thesecondtypethefollowingisanexamplebythe
lateW.E.Henley:
FRENCHLYRICALFORMS.335
"Whatistocomeweknownot.Butweknow
Thatwhathasbeenwasgoodwasgoodtoshow,
Bettertohide,andbestofalltobear.
Wearethemastersofthedaysthatwere:
Wehavelived,wehaveloved,wehavesuffered
evenso.
Shallwenottaketheebbwhohadtheflow?
Lifewasourfriend.Now,ifitbeourfoe
Dear,thoughitbreakandspoilus!needwecare
Whatistocome?
Letthegreatwindstheirworstandwildestblow,
Orthegoldweatherroundusmellowslow:
Wehavefulfilledourselves,andwecandare
Andwecanconquer,thoughwemaynotshare
Intherichquietoftheafterglow
Whatistocome."
TheVillanelleisaformofnineteenverses,
divided
intofivegroupsofthreeandafinalgroup
offour,allbasedontworimes.The
r1,11,1Thevillanelle,
firstandthirdversesareusedasthe

401

refrain,thefirstreappearingaslinesix,line
twelve
andlineeighteen,whilethethirdreappearsin
theninth,thefifteenth,andthenineteenthplace.
Therimeschemeofallthetercetsisaba,ofthe
conclusionabaa.Thisformisfavoredforpastoral
oridyllicthemes,orinMr.AustinDobson's
phrase,forsubjects
"
fullofsweetnessandsimplicity."
Hisownvillanellebeginning
"WhenI
sawyoulast,Rose,"isoneofthemostcharmingin
thelanguage;otherspecimensofinterestare
Henley's
"Adaintything'stheVillanelle,"andMr.
Gosse's
"Wouldstthounotbecontenttodie."
336AHINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
TheBallade,onthewholethemostusedandthe
leastartificialofalltheseforms,commonly
appears
asapoeminthreestanzasof
eithereightortenverses,followed
byanenvoyinfourorfive.*Therimesoundsof
allthestanzasarethesame,buttherimewords
distinct.Therefrainformsthelastverseofeach
stanza,includingtheenvoy.Thefavorite
rimescheme
isababbcbC,withtheenvoybcbC.Oneof
thefinestofEnglishballadesisChaucer'son
Truth
(calledalso
"
Baladedebonconseyl");ofthisall
thestanzas,includingtheenvoy,areinthe
sevenverse
"

402

rimeroyal
"
form.Modernballadesofdistinction
areRossetti'stranslationofVillon'sBallade
ofDeadLadies(whichcontains,however,more
rimesoundsthanarepermittedinthestricter
form),
Swinburne'sBalladofFrancoisVillon(intenline
stanzas),andsomeofthoseincludedinMr.Andrew
Lang'sBalladesofBlueChina.Thereisalsoan
extendedformoftheballade,calledtheChant
Royal,withfivestanzasofelevenverses,riming
ababccddedE,andenvoyddedE.OfthisformMr.
GleesonWhiteobserves:
"Thechantroyalinthe
oldformisusuallydevotedtotheunfoldingofan
allegoryinitsfivestanzas,theenvoysupplying
the
key;butthisisnotalwaysobservedinmodernex
*Theenvoywasformerlyaddressedtothe"Prince
"
inwhose
servicethecourtlypoetwaswriting,andthe
modernballadeoften
imitatesthisconventionaladdress.Occasionally
theenvoyis
omitted.
FRENCHLYRICALFORMS.337
amples.Whateverbethesubject,however,itmust
alwaysmarchinstatelyrhythmwithsplendid
imagery,
usingallthepoeticadornmentsofsonorous,
highlywroughtlinesandrichembroideryofwords,
toclotheathemeinitselfaloftyone.Unlessthe
wholepoemisconstructedwithintensecare,the
monotonyofitssixtyone
*linesrhymedonfive
soundsisunbearable."(IntroductiontoBallades

403

andRondeaus,p.liv.)Anadmirableexampleis
Mr.Gosse'sPraiseofDionysus.
TheSestina,mostdifficultofalltheseartificial
forms,isapoeminsixstanzasofsixverses,with
anenvoyorconclusionofthreeverses.
r^.f..1tThesestina,
Thereisnorefrain,andusuallyno
rime,buttheendwordsinallthestanzasare
thesame,whileintheconcludingtercetthesame
sixwordsareusedfortheseventhtime,threeof
theminthemiddleoftheverses,theotherthree
at
theend.Theorderoftheendwordsineachstanza
changesaccordingtoanintricatescheme:thusif
theendwordsofthefirststanzaberepresentedby
ABCDEF,theorderinthesecondstanzawillbe
FAEBDC,inthethirdCFDABE,inthefourth
ECBFAD,inthefifthDEACFB,inthesixth
BDFECA.Rarelytheendwordsrimebytwosor
threes.Interestingexamplesofthisformarea
SestinabyMr.Gosse,inwhichherelatesthe
traditional
originofthetypeastheinventionofthe
*Sic;apparentlyforsixty.
I
338*NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
troubadourArnautDaniel,andKipling'sSestinaof
theTrampRoyal.
ThePantoum(whichbelongstothisgroup,although
itisultimatelyofMalaysianratherthan
Europeanorigin)isaformofanindeterminate
numberofstanzasoffour
verses,rimingalternately.Thesecondandfourth
versesofeachstanzaarerepeatedasthefirstand
thirdofthesucceedingstanza,whilethesecond
andfourthofthelaststanzaarerepetitionsof
the

404

firstandthirdofthefirststanza.Thuseachline
is
usedtwice,andtheendofthepoemreturnstothe
beginning.Forobviousreasons,thisformisused
chieflytodescribeanydullroundofrepetition.
PerhapsthebestofEnglishpantoumsisthe
Monologue
d'outreTonibe,publishedinthecollection
calledLoveinIdleness(1883).
ThebestaccountoftheseartificialFrenchforms
willbefoundinMr.GleesonWhite'sIntroduction
to
theanthologycalledBalladesandRondeaus.Other
discussionsoftheirhistoryandqualitiesoccurin
Mr.
AustinDobson's"NoteonSomeForeignFormsof
Verse,"intheanthologycalledLatterDayLyrics,
andinMr.AndrewLang'sBalladsandLyricsofOld
France.OfMr.Dobson'sremarksthefollowingare
ofspecialinterest:
"
Itmaybeconcededthatthemajority
oftheformsnowinquestionarenotatpresent
suitedfor....thetreatmentofgraveor
elevated
themes.Whatismodestlyadvancedforthem....is
thattheymayaddanewcharmofbuoyancy,alyric
freshness,toamatoryandfamiliarversealready
too
THEODE.339
muchcondemnedtofadedmeasuresandoutworn
cadences.Further,...thattheyareadmirable
vehiclesfortheexpressionoftriflesorjeux
d'esprit.
Theyhavealsoahumblerandobscureruse.If,to
quotetheoncehackneyed,butnowtoomuch
forgotten
maximofPope

405

1Thosemoveeasiestthathavelearnedtodance/
whatbetterdiscipline,amongothers,could
possiblybe
devisedfor'thoseabouttoversify
'thanacourseof
Rondeaux,Triolets,andBallades?"(LatterDay
Lyrics,p.334.)Mr.GleesonWhite,inpointingout
theneedforstrictobservanceoftherulesof
these
forms,observes:
"Nooneiscompelledtousethese
complexforms,butifchosen,theirlawsmustbe
obeyedtotheletterifsuccessistobeobtained.
The
chiefpleasuretheyyieldconsistsintheapparent
spontaneity,whichistheresultofgenius,if
genius
beindeedtheartoftakinginfinitepains;or,if
that
definitionisrejected,theymustyetexhibitthe
art
whichconcealsart,whetherbyintensecarein
every
minutedetail,orahappyfacultyforwearingthese
fetters."(BalladesandRondeaus,p.li.)
FinallywehavetoconsidertheOde,themost
extensiveofthemetricalformscharacterizedby
stanzaicelements,andattheopposite
extremefromthesonnet,theballade,
andthelike,inrespecttolimitsoflengthand
fixity
ofform.Inthefirstplaceitmustbenotedthat
thetermOdeisusedwithspecialreferencetothe
contentandstyleofpoetryaswellastoits
metrical
form;onthisaspectoftheode,seechapterii.
Lookedatfromthestandpointofexternalform,the
3404NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.

406

odeisalyricaltypewhichpreservestracesofits
musicalorigin,beingdividedintostanzasormore
properlystrophesofvaryinglengthandmetrical
character,which(theoreticallyatleast)mightbe
sungtodifferentformsofmelody.Twodifferent
typesareatoncetobedistinguished:the
regular,
inwhichcertainstrophicformsarechosenand
rigorouslyfollowed,andtheirregular,inwhich
strophicformationchangesfrompointtopoint,
obeyingnolawsavethesuggestivenessofthetheme
andtheemotionofthepoet.
Theregularorstrict
"
Pindaric
"
odeismodeled
afterGreekforms,and,likethem,isusually
divided
intothreetypesofstanza,thestrophe,
Hndflrioteantistrophe,andepode,whichmaybe
repeated
indeterminately.Thestropheand
antistropheareproperlyofthesamemetricalform,
theepodeofadifferentform;wheneachrecurs,
the
sameschemeisrepeated,butwithnewrimesanda
furtherdevelopmentofthought.*Allthesestanzaic
formsarecommonlyofthemoreelaboratesort,
containingfromsevenoreighttotwentyorthirty
verses,withgreatvarietyinmetricallengthand
arrangementofrime.Thisvarietyandfreedom
maybethoughtpeculiarlyappropriateforthe
expression
ofanexaltedemotionaltheme;whileon
*Theepodeisusuallyinmoreregularcontinuous
metrethanthe

407

stropheandantistrophe.Itisvariouslyplaced;
sometimes(asin
Collins'sOdetoLiberty)betweenstropheand
antistrophe;sometimes
asingleepodeisusedastheconclusiontothe
ode.
THEODE.34!
theotherhandtheregularprogressionandbalance
oftheseveralstrophes,viewedaswholes,seemto
restrainthepoeticalutteranceundertheguidance
of
adominatingintellectualcontrol.Theleading
examples
ofEnglishodesofthischaracterareCollins's
OdetoLiberty,Gray'sProgressofPoesy,and
Shelley'sOdetoNaples.*Thefirstofthese
consists
ofasinglestropheandantistrophe,oftwentyfive
verseseach(varyingfromfourtosixstresses),
and
twoepodesinfourstresscouplets;thesecond,of
threegroupsofstrophe,antistrophe,andepode,
the
strophesandantistrophescontainingtwelveverses,
theepodesseventeen,allinvaryingmetrical
schemes;thethird,offourepodesandsixstrophes
andantistrophes,theformervaryingfromtwentytwo
totwentynineverses,thelatteralternating
between
fourteenandeleven.Inmorerecentpoetry
suchregularodesareveryrare.Theintricacyof
theirstructureissoconsiderablethatitcannot
be
perceivedbytheear,oritsperfectionbereadily
understood,
unlesstheimaginationisabletoconceive
theodeasutteredwithcorrespondingmovementsof
musicandchoraldancing,asintheancientmanner.

408

Whenregularityofformisattainedontoolargea
scaletobeapprehendedbythesenses,itishardly
distinguishablefromirregularity.
*
Coleridge'sOdetotheDepartingYearassumesthe
regularPindaric
form,andisdividedinto"
strophes,"
"
antistrophes,"and
"
epodes,"buttheyfollownoregularscheme.
342AXINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Betweentheregularandtheirregularodeisa
groupofodesbasedonasingletypeofelaborate
strophe,whichmayvaryslightlyinthe
JtroMet"e,
courseofthePoem>butnotsufficiently
toresultincontrastedtypes.Examples
areSpenser'stwogreatmarriageodes,the
Prothdlamion
andEpithalamion:intheformerallthe
strophesareofeighteenverses,withthe
fundamental
rimeschemeabbaabcbcbddedeeff,thefifth,
tenth,fifteenthandsixteenthversesbeing
shortened
tothreestresses,andwithsomevariationofthe
rimeschemeincertainstrophes;inthelatterthe
strophesvaryfromseventeentonineteenverses,
and
arebasedonasimilarelaboraterimeschemewhich
variesslightlyindifferentpartsofthepoem.
Collins'sodeonTheSuperstitionsoftheHighlands
isinasimilarstanzaofseventeenverses,riming
abbacdcdefefghghh;Coleridge'sOdetoFrancein
asimilarstanzaoftwentyoneverses,riming
abbacdcdeefgfghihjjij.

409

Theirregularode(formerlyoftencalled
"Pindaric,"
becauseofamistakenimpressionthatthe
odesofPindarwerewithoutfixed
strophicformororder)iswrittenin
strophessimilartothosejustconsidered,
buteachstandsquitebyitselfinrespectto
length
andrimescheme.Thisformthereforepreserves
andenlargestheopportunityforadaptingthe
metrical
formflexiblytotheebbandflowofemotional
utterance,butlosestherestraintwhichimposesa
THEODE.343
kindoflogicalorderuponthemovementofthe
poem.Theresultislimitlessopportunityinthe
handsofaskilfulcraftsman,butdangerouslicense
inthehandsofonewhosesenseofformisinneed
ofguidance.Cowley,thefounderoftheirregular
ode,amusinglydescribeditscharacterinoneof
his
ownexperimentsintheform:
"'Tisanunrulyandahardmouth'dhorse,...
Nowprancesstately,andanonflieso'ertheplace;
Disdainstheservilelawofanysettledpace;
Consciousandproudofhisownnaturalforce,
'Twillnounskilfultouchendure,
Butflingswriterandreadertoothatsitsnot
sure."
(OdeonTheResurrection.)
Notwithstandingthisdangerousfreedom,some
ofthemostsplendidlyricsofmodernEnglish
poetry
haveassumedtheformoftheirregularode.Their
successappearstobeduetoadefiniteprogression
of
thoughtwhichmaintainstheunityand
consecutiveness

410

ofthepoem,whiletheshiftingstrophicstructure
andmetricalvarietypermittheformto
representthetensionandrelaxationofthepoet's
emotion.*ImportantexamplesareDryden'sode
onMistressKilligrew,intenirregularstrophes
varyinginlengthfromthirteentothirtynine
verses;
Wordsworth'sodeonIntimationsofImmortality,
inelevenstrophesvaryingfromeighttothirty
nine
verses;Tennyson'sodeonTheDeathofWelling
*
See,onthissubject,chapterii,p.67above.
344ANINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
ton,inninemovements(thelongerofwhichcan
hardlybecalledstrophes)varyingfromfiveto
seventyverses,andLowell'sCommemorationOde,
intwelvemovementsvaryingfromfourteentosixty
verses.*IntheWellingtonodetheprogressfrom
parttopartisbased,tosomedegree,uponthe
represented
movementoftime,thepoet'scommentfollowing
theburialoftheDukefromthestartingof
thefuneralpageantuntil
"Theblackearthyawns,themortaldisappears."
Intheotherinstancestheprogressischiefly
spiritual
;yetintheImmortalityodethereisalsoa
suggestion
ofmovementintime,thepoemtakingits
riseinamemoryofchildhoodexperiences,passing
throughthereflectionsinspiredbyaMaydayin
matureryears,throughvariouschangesofemotion,
totheconcludingpauseamong
"
Thoughtsthatdooftenlietoodeepfortears."
OfthisgreatodeProfessorCorsonobserves:
"Theseveralmetresarefelt...tobeorganic

411

inseparablefromwhateachisemployedto
express....Wordsworthneverwroteany
poemofwhichitcanbemoretrulysaid,
'Ofthe
soulthebodyformdothtake.'
'
(PrimerofEn
*Notunworthytobesetbesidetheseistherecent
odebyMr.
W.V.Moody,calledAnOdeinTimeofHesitation.
THEODE.345
glishVerse,pp.32,34.)Ontheotherhand,
TheodoreWatts,whileadmittingthatitis"the
finestirregularodeinthelanguage,"findsthat
"
the
lengthofthelinesandthearrangementofthe
rimes
arenotalwaysinevitable;theyare,exceptonrare
occasions,governedneitherbystanzaicnorby
emotional
law."(ArticleonPoetryinEncyc.Brit.}
Thedifferencehastodowithapointofintangible
aestheticjudgment.Whicheverviewbetaken
astotheexpressivenessofthedetailsofthe
metricalstructure,theImmortalityodeisoneof
thenoblestexamplesofthewayinwhichtheode
formdevelopsprogressivelyasingletheme,andat
thesametimemarks,intheseriesofstrophic
variations,
theebbandflowoftheemotionsgathering
aboutthatthemeasitiselaboratedinthepoet's
consciousness.
Ofadifferenttypearecertainchorallyrics
sometimes
usedinthedrama,directlyimitativeofthe
choralodeswhichplayedsoimportanta
partintheGreektragedy.Themost

412

importantexamplesarethechoral
odesinMilton'sSamsonAgonistes,dividedinto
"
choruses
"and"
semichoruses,"inwhichthe
varyingverselengths(sometimesusedwithout
rime,asintheGreek)aremodeledafterthe
flexible
musicalrhythmsofthechorusesofyEschylusand
Sophocles.Similarexamplesarecertainportionsof
Browning'sAgamemnonandArnold'sEmpedocles
onEtna.
3464NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
Relatedtotheirregularodeinmetricalquality
arealargenumberofpoems,chieflyofrather
recent
date,whichmayberegardedasthere
BelatedirregularjtQfnefforttOdevelop
metrical
verseforms,
formscapableofadaptingthemselves
moreflexiblytothemovementofthoughtand
feeling
thanthestandardformswithfixedstanzaic
structure.Examplesofsuchirregularstrophic
formationwillbefound,withrimedverse,in
Southey's
CurseofKehama,Arnold'sDoverBeachand
TheBuriedLife,Tennyson'sRevenge,Browning's
HerveKiel,Swinburne'sThalassius,andmanyof
thepoemsofCoventryPatmore(TheUnknown
Eros,and,amongshorterpoems,AmeliaandThe
Toys);withunrimedverse,inSouthey'sThalaba,
Shelley'sQueenMob,Arnold'sTheFutureand
Philomela,andmanyofthepoemsofthelate
W.E.Henley.Astothemoredaringofthese
experiments

413

criticalopinionisstronglydivided.In
general,twothingsseemfairlycertain:first,
that
suchirregularmeasuresarelikelytobemore
pleasing
withrimethanwithoutit;second,thatthese
formscanberegardedaslegitimateonlyinsofar
as
theyseemreallytorepresentthecontentandthe
emotionalmovementofthepoem,andnottobeby
anypossibilitytheresultofaccidentorimperfect
fashioning.Evenwhenadmittedlypleasing,such
formlesspoemsarelikelytoapproachthepoint
wherethegreatfunctionofarttogiveunityand
ordertothechaoticdataoflifeseemstohave
lost
THEODE.347
itspower.Itisfromthisstandpointthat
Professor
Lewiscriticisessomeoftheromanticallylawless
verseofMr.Henley:
"Thereisnopleasurein
thesuccessivegratificationanddisappointmentof
the
reader'sexpectation,forthereaderisnot
encouraged
toformanyexpectationswhatever;there
isnoconflictbetweentherhythmandthemetrical
scheme,forthereisnometricalscheme....
Thefactisthatwithinthelimitsofafixedform
thereisamplescopeforfreedom,andtoreject
formaltogethergenerallysuggestsartistic
decadence
ratherthanstrength."(PrinciplesofEnglish
Verse,p.100.)
Discussionsofthevariousodeformswillbefound
intheintroductionstoMr.Gosse'sEnglishOdes
and

414

WilliamSharp'sGreatOdes,inProfessorBronson's
introductiontotheAthenaeumPresseditionof
Collins,
andCoventryPatmore'sPrefacetoTheUnknown
Eros.ThechoralodesofMiltonareanalyzed
byBridgesinMilton'sProsody,andarecommented
onbySwinburneinhisEssaysandStudies.
"
Itis
hardtorealizeandhopelesstoreproducethe
musical
forceofclassicmetressoreconditeandexquisite
as
thechoralpartsofaGreekplay.EvenMiltoncould
not;thoughwithhisgodlikeinstinctandhis
godlike
mightofhandhemadeakindofstrangeand
enormous
harmonybyintermixtureofassonanceand
rhymewithirregularblankverse."(p.162.)
Bronson,
commentingontheartificialcharacterofthe
strict
PindaricodeinEnglish,observes:
"Thereasonisobvious.
TheGreekodeswereaccompaniedbymusic
anddancing,thesingersmovingtoonesideduring
the
3484NINTRODUCTIONTOPOETRY.
strophe,retracingtheirstepsduringthe
antistrophe
(whichwasforthatreasonmetricallyidentical
with
thestrophe),andstandingstillduringtheepode.
Theearwasthushelpedbytheeye,andthe
divisions
oftheodeweredistinctandsignificant.Butinan
EnglishPindarictheelaboratecorrespondencesand

415

differencesbetweenstrophe,antistrophe,andepode
arelostuponmostreaders,andeventhecritical
readerderivesfromthemapleasureintellectual
rather
thansensuous."(IntroductiontoCollins,p.Ixxv.
Inthesamesectionthemetricalformsoftheodes
of
Collinsareelaboratelyanalyzed.)
Finally,withreferencetothetendencytoward
irregular
metricalforms,onemaynotesomeinteresting
remarksofMr.Courthope,inhislectures
onLifeinPoetry,onthesubjectof
"
eccentric
"
or
"
private
"
artformsasconnectedwiththewantofa
trulyuniversalorrepresentativecharacterin
poetic
expression.Suchtendencies,inhisview,aredue
to
theexaggerationofindividualism,andaneglectof
the
morethannationalcharacterwhichpoetrynormally
has,asconformingtothetraditionsofa
particular
race,language,andliterature.AddressingWalt
Whitman,inreplytohislinesopening
"
OneselfIsing,asimple,separateperson,"
Mr.Courthopesays:
"
Ifyouhadanythingofuniversal
interesttosayaboutyourself,youcouldsayit

416

inawaynaturaltooneofthemetres,ormetrical
movements,
establishedintheEnglishlanguage.Whatyou
callmetrebearspreciselythesamerelationto
these
universallawsofexpression,astheMormonChurch
andthereligionofJosephSmithandBrighamYoung
beartothedoctrinesofCatholicChristendom."To
THEODE.349
thesameeffectaretheobservationsofDorchainin
his
L'ArtdesVers(chap,xvi),onthesocalled
"
vers
libres
"
ofcertainFrenchwriters.
"
Iftheendofall
artis,inthewordsofacertainphilosopher,to
produce
*anaestheticemotionofasocialcharacter/we
have
seenthesewriterscomenearaccomplishingthe
paradoximpliedinthewords'antisocialart.'
"
APPENDIX.
Thefollowingisalistofthecriticalworksto
whichreferenceis
madeintheforegoingchapters.
Abbott,E.A.:AShakespearianGrammar.(Second
edition.)
London,1870.
Addison,J.:EssayonPoeticJustice,inThe
Spectator,No.40;
April16,1711.InChalmers'sBritishEssayists,
vol.v.

417

Alden,R.M.:EnglishVerse;Specimens
ilhistratingitsPrinciples
andHistory.N.Y.,1903.
Alexander,H.B.:PoetryandtheIndividual.N.Y.
andL.,1906.
Allen,Grant:PhysiologicalEsthetics.N.Y.,
1877.
Aristotle:Poetics.(SeeButcher.)
Arnold,Matthew:EssayonTheStudyofPoetry,in
EssaysinCriticism,
SecondSeries.L.andN.Y.,1888.
EssayonWordsworth,ibid.
OnTranslatingHomer.London,1861.
Austin,Alfred:TheHiimanTragedy.London,1889.
Bacon,Francis:OftheProjicienceandAdvancement
ofLearning.
1605.InBacon'sWorks,editedbySpedding,Ellis,
andHeath,
vol.iii.London,18891892.
Beers,H.A.:RomanticismintheNineteenth
Century.N.Y.,1901.
Benard,C.:LaPoctiqueparW.F.Hegel.Paris,
1855.
Blackie,J.S.:HoraeHellenicae.London,1874.
Bolton,T.L.:Rhythm,intheAmericanJournalof
Psychology,vol.
vi,p.145.
Bossu,R.le:TraitedtiPolmeEpique.Paris,
1675.(Englishtranslation
publishedinLondon,1695an(^I7I9)
Bradley,A.C.:ShakespeareanTragedy.L.andN.
Y.,1904.
Bridges,R.:Milton'sProsody.Oxford,1901.
351
352APPENDIX.
Bright,J.\V.:GrammaticalIctusinEnglish
Verse,intheFurnivall
Miscellany.London,1901.

418

ProperNamesinOldEnglishVerse,inthe
Publicationsofthe
ModernLanguageAssociation,vol.xiv,p.347.
Bronson,W.C.:PoemsofCollins(AthenaeumPress
Series).Boston,
1898.
Brown,G.D.:SyllabificationandAccentinthe
ParadiseLost.Baltimore,
1901.
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358APPENDIX.
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byN.C.

428

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Worsfold,W.B.:ThePrinciplesofCriticism.N.
Y.andL.,1902.
INDEX.
Abbott,E.A.,onShakspere's
verse,245.
Accent,itsnatureinEnglish,
165n.;alteredtofitmetre,167
1735degreesof,166,167;etymological
andrhetoricaldistinguished,
165,166;lawsof,
inEnglishverse,171173;relation
oftoquantity,178180,
187190.
Addison,J.,Cato,84n.;onthe
imagination,94;onpoetic
justice,89.
Akenside,M.,Pleasuresofthe
Imagination,22.
Alcaicverse,288,322.
Aldrich,T.B.,Thalia,73.
Alexander,H.B.,onepicpoetry,
48n.;ontheimagination,104;
ontragedy,90.
Alexandrineverse,276.
Allegory,147,148.
Allen,G.,onpoeticalstyle,139n.;
ontonequality,218.
Alliteration,209.
Alliterativelongline,268.
Amphibrach,234.
Anacrusis,255257.
Anapest,223.
Anapesticmetres,277280;freedom
andvarietyof,252;relation
oftodactylic,228;relation
oftoiambic,230.
Ariosto,OrlandoFurioso,107.

429

Aristotle,onepicpoetry,45;on
metre,17;onpoeticimitation,
9,n,12;onpoetrycompared
withhistory,n6;ontragedy,
79,80,87n.;ontheunities,85.
Aristophanes,anapesticverseof,
278n.
Arnold,M.,BuriedLife,346;
DoverBeach,346;EastLondon,
327;EmpedoclesonEtna,
345;ForsakenMerman,54,96,
247,248;Future,346;Morality,
313;Philomela,346;Rugby
Chapel,66,129,130;Scholar
Gypsy,319;SohrabandRustum,
48,53;Thyrsis,69,319;
TristramandIseult,52;on
dactylichexameter,286;on
thenatureofpoetry,2.
Art,basisofinimitationand
creation,4,9;universalquality
of,12;relationoftobeauty,
112,115.
Arts,plastic,comparedwith
poetry,58.
Assonance,210.
Austin,A.,onthenatureof
poetry,3.
Bacon,F.,onthenatureof
poetry,9,n,19,116.
Ballad,50,51.
Ballade,336.
BattleofOtterburn,51.
BeaumontandFletcher,Knight
oftheBurningPestle,92;Philaster,
91.
Beauty,placeofinpoetry,112
117;relationoftostyle,141;

430

relationoftorhythm,193
195;relationoftosoundsof
verse,217;relationoftotruth,
117;relationoftougliness,
114,115.
Beers,H.A.,ontheBowlescontroversy,
127.
Belden,H.M.,onDonne'sverse,
174,175
359
360INDEX.
Benard,C.,LaPoetiquepar
Hegel)seeHegel.
Beowulf^43.
Blackie,J.S.,ondactylichexameter,
285.
Blankverse,271276;useofin
narrativepoetry,274;inthe
drama,76;flexibilityof,252;
syllabicregularityof,240n.,
245,272n.
Blow,northernwind,319.
Bolton,T.L.,onthenatureof
rhythm,I57n.
Bossu,R.le,onepicpoetry,45.
Bowles,S.,onthesubjectmatter
ofpoetry,127.
Bradley,A.C.,ontragedy,70,90.
Bridges,R.,Ihoudidstdelightmy
eyes,313;ondactylichexameter,
285;onMilton'sverse,
245n.,347;onstressasthe
basisofmetre,224;onsyllabic
verse,272n.
Bright,J.W.,onsecondaryaccent,
173,174.
Bronson,W.C.,onthePindaric
ode,347.

431

Brown,G.D.,onsecondaryaccent,
174.
Browning,E.B.,CryoftheChildren,
248;DeadRose,310;Sonnets,
327.
Browning,R.B.:AbtVogler,35,
66;Agamemnon,345;Andrea
delSarto,35;Boyandthe
Angel,306;CalibanuponSetcbos,
114,214;CavalierTunes,
63,282;ChildeRolandtothe
DarkTowerCame,314;Confessional,
35,312;Dramatic
Lyrics,34;EvelynHope,13;
FifineattheFair,37,119,276;
FraLippoLippi,35;Guardian
Angel,315;Heretic'sTragedy,
214;HerveKiel,54,346;
JamesLee'sWife,36;La
Saisiaz,281;Lcn>eAmongthe
Ruins,281;OneWordMore,
282;Paracelsiis,250;Pippa
Passes,81
;Prospice,65,246;
RabbiBenEzra,37,144,313;
RingandtheBook,36,120,
124,250;Saul,279,280;Sordello,
49,270;Statueandthe
Bust,301;TwointheCampagna,
35,312;decasyllabic
coupletof,270;dramasof,82;
tonequalityinverseof,214;
triplerimesof,293;ontruth
asrelatedtoart,119,120.
Brunetiere,F.,onthelyric,65n.
Burlesquedrama,92.
Burns,R.,AuldLangSyne,185;
BirksofAberfeldy,319;Bonnie

432

Doon,308;Cotter'sSaturday
Night,55;DuncanGray,
320\JohnAnderson,320;Tarn
O'Shanter,54;ToaLouse,40;
ToaMouse,314;ToMaryin
Heaven,57;songsof,63;subject
matterofpoetrywidened
by,126.
Butcher,S.H.,onAristotle's
theoryofpoetry,n,12,17;
onprimitiveGreekpoetry,30;
ontragickatharsis,88n.
Butler,S.,Hudibras,50.
Byron,Lord,Cain,264n.;Childe
Harold,55,318;Destructionof
Sennacherib*278;DonJuan,
52,316;Farewell,ifeverfondest
prayer,316;IslesofGreece,
64;Manfred,81;SheWalks
inBeauty,313;Stanzasto
Augusta,57;dramasof,82;
romancesof,52;satiricpoetry
of,40;onthesubjectmatter
ofpoetry,127;tripleendings
andrimesof,256,292.
Caine,H.,onthesonnet,331.
Calverley,C.S.,versdesodetc
of,73
Campion,T.,pseudoclassical
verseof,322.
Carew,T,versdesocitteof,73.
Carey,H.,SallyinourAlley,
320.
Carlyle,T.,onthenatureof
poetry,3.
INDEX.
361
Carpenter,F.I.,onlyricpoetry,

433

59
Catalexis,255,262.
Cayley,C.U.,DivinaCommedia,
301.
Cesura,258261;inalexandrine
verse,276;inseptenaryverse,
277.
Chantroyal,336.
Chapman,G.,Iliad,277.
Chatterton,T.,^Zlla,318.
Chaucer,G.,BalladeofTruth,
336;Canterbury7a/es,52,55;
TroilusandCressida,52;decasyllabic
verseof,269;femminine
rimesof,292;imagination
of,107;rimeroyalstanza
of,314;hisuseoftheterm
tragedy,86n.
Chopin,F.,temporubatoof,188.
Choriambus,235.
Chronicleplays,82.
Cid,43
Clark,J.,onepicpoetry,45.
Classicaldrama,8285.
Closetdrama,81.
Clough,A.H.,BothieofToberna
Vuolich,52n.,282;SicItur,
37
Coleridge,S.T.,AncientMariner,
51,126,152,153,294;
Christabel,107,182,268;Ode
toFrance,342;OdetotheDeparting
Year,341n.;Satyrane
Letters,275;ShakspereLectures,
85;imaginationof,107;
onthefunctionofmetre,136,
203;onimaginationandfancy,
lOSIII;ontheLyricalBallads,

434

126;onthenatureof
poetry,I,18n.;ontheterm
poetry,15n.;onpoeticdiction,
134136.
Collins,J.C.,ontragedy,90.
Collins,\V.,OdetoEvening,65,
146,302;OdetoLiberty,67,
340n.,341;OdeonthePassions,
147;Superstitionsofthe
Highlands,342.
Combarieu,J.,ontherelationof
musicandpoetry,8;onthe
relationofrhythmandemotion,
196n.
Comedy,85,86.
Commonmetrequatrain,277,
306n.
Communalpoetry,28,50.
Concretenessinpoeticalstyle,
138142.
Consonants,placeofintonequality,
209212.
Corneille,P.,Discourses,85;Le
Corson,H.,onblankverse,275;
onmetricalvariation,249;on
rime,299;onthesonnet,331;
onTennyson'sstanzas,323,
324;ontonequality,218;on
Wordsworth'sIntimationsof
Immortality,344;hissystem
ofstressnotation,241.
Courthope,W.J.,onthefunction
ofmetre,199;onirregular
verse,348;onthenature
ofpoetry,3;onthesonnet,
33r
Cowley,A.,odesof,343;vers
desocieteof,73.

435

Cowper,W.,MyMary,308,
320;Oforacloserwalkwith
God,64;Shrubbery,308;Task,
37;didacticpoetryof,39.
Creativeimagination,9,10,95
97
Cummings,P.,ondactylichexameter,
286.
Dabney,J.P.,onmusicalnotation
forverse,igr.
Dactyl,223.
Dactylicmetres,282287.
Daniel,S.,CivilWars,49.
Dante,DivinaCommedia,48n.,
86n.,107;terzarimaof,301.
Decasyllabiccouplet,269271.
Decasyllabicverse,reasonfor
itsvogueinEnglish,268,269.
Descriptivepoetry,33,34,54,55.
Dekker,T.,OSweetContent,63.
Dennis,J.,onpoeticjustice,89.
362
INDEX.
Dickens,C.,rhythmicalproseof,
162,163.
Dictionofpoetry,128154.
Didacticpoetry,3739.
Dipody,trochaic,236.
Dirge,69.
Ditrochee,236.
Dobson,A.,Rosekissedmetoday,
334;When/sawyoufast,
Rose,335;versdesocitteof,
73;onartificialFrenchstanza
forms,338;onversdesociety,72.
Donne,J.,elegiesof,68;metre
of,174,175.
Dorchain,A.,onirregularverse,

436

349;onrime,299.
Dowden,EMonthetextof
Wordsworth'spoems,151,
i52n.
Dramaticpoetry,7492;itsprincipal
kinds,8092;useof
blankversein,76,274,275;
declineof,78.
Dramaticlyric,35.
Dramaticromance,91.
Drayton,M.,Agincourt,35,317;
Mortimeriad,49;Polyolbion,
276.
Dryden,J.,AbsalomandAchitophel,
148;Alexander'sFeast,
68;AllforLove,83;Conquest
ofGranada,82;EssayofDramatic
Poesy,85;Hindandthe
Panther,148;OdeonMistress
Killigrew,343;ReligioLaid,
22,39;PrefacetoVirgil,45;
SongforSt.Cecilia'sDay,99;
decasyllabiccoupletof,271;
odesof,67;metricalromances
of,52;satiresof,40.
Elegiachexameter,287.
Elegy,68,69.
Eliot,G.,OmayIjointhechoir
invisible,66.
Elision,243245.
Ellerton,J.,Welcome,Happy
Morning,63.
Ellis,A.J.,onmetricalvariation,
252;hissystemofstressnotation,
240.
Ellis,R.,hisimitationsofclassical
metres,323.
Emerson,R.W.,onthefunction

437

ofmetre,195,198;onthe
natureofpoetry,2;onthe
relationofpoetryandtruth,
119;onthesubjectmatterof
poetry,123.
Emotion,relationoftopoetry,
18;relationoftopoeticalstyle,
150153;relationoftorhythm,
i95~<97
Endpause,261264.
Enjambtment,263.
Epicpoetry,4155;thenational
epicthetypeofparexcellence,
4248;relatedtypes,4955
declineof,47,48.
Epicsimile,144.
Erskine,J.,onthelyric,61,65n.
Euripides,Alcestis,86n.
Everett,C.C.,ontheimagination,
104.
EveryMan,148.
Expositorypoetry,39.
Faber,F.W..religiouslyrics
of,64.
Fable,54.
Fancy,relationoftotheimagination,
I02II2.
Femininecesura,259.
Feminineending,256,257.
Femininerime,291.
Fielding,H.,TomThumbthe
Great,92.
Figuresinpoeticalstyle,142
149.
Fitzgerald,E.,Rubaiyat,310.
Fivestressverse,rimed,268271;
unrimed,271276.
Fletcher,J.,FaithfulShepherdess,

438

41,81;WildGooseChase,
256;(withShakspere)Two
ATobleKinsmen,313;(with
Beaumont,seeBeaumontand
Fletcher).
Foot,significanceoftheterm
forEnglishverse,222224,
239n.;theprincipalkinds,223j
INDEX.
terminologyofasrelatedto
classicalprosody,236.
Fourstressverse,syllabic,266;
irregular,267.
Frenchlyricalforms,332339.
Freytag,G.,onthedrama,80.
Galliambicmetre,288.
Gaste,A.,ontheCidcontroversy,
85.
Gay,J.,fablesof,54.
Gayley,C.M.,ontheepic,42;
onthenatureofpoetry,4;
onrhetoricalfigures,149;
(withScott,F.N.)ondefinitions
ofpoetry,4.
Goethe,J.W.von,onprosein
tragedy,201.
Goldsmith,O.,DesertedVillage,
Goodell,T.D.,onquantityin
English,189.
Gosse,E.,PraiseofDionysus,
337;Sestina,337;Wouldst
thounotbecontenttodie,335;
ontheode,67,347.
Gray,T.,ElegyinaCountry
Churchyard,68,146,199,308;
HymntoAdversity,146;Ode
onEtonCollege,319;Progress
ofPoesy,68,341.'

439

Guest,E.,ontonequality,218.
Gummere,F.B.,ontheballad,
30;onfiguresandtropes,
142n;onthefunctionofmetre,
17,205;onlyricalpoetry,
56,59;onprimitivepoetry,
29.3
Gurney,E.,onthefunctionof
metre,203;ontonequality,
215,218.
Guyau,M.,onthemetricalalteration
ofsyllables,188n.;on
therelationofrhythmand
emotion,196n.;onrime,299,
300.
Halfstressedrime,296.
Hazlitt,W.,onthefunctionof
metre,198;onthenatureof
poetry,2;onpoetryandprose
distinguished,24.
Heber,R.,TheSonofGodgoes
forthtowar,64.
Hegel,G.W.F.,ontheclassification
ofpoetry,32;onthe
drama,80;ontheepic,42,46;
onthelyric,60;onmetre,17;
onpoetryas'relatedtoother
arts,7;ontruthandideality
inpoetry,120,121.
Henley,W.E.,Adaintything's
theVillanelle,335;Whatisto
come,335;verseof,15,346,
347
Herbert,G.,stanzasof,306n.
Heroiccouplet,269,271.
Heroicplay,82.
Heroicquatrain,308.
Herrick,R.,ToJulia,307;vers

440

desocieteof,73.
Hexameter,dactylic,282287.
Historyplays,82.
Holmes,O.W.,DorothyQ.,73;
LastLeaf,73.
Homer,Iliad,43;Odyssey,43.
Homericsimile,144.
Hood,T.,BridgeofSighs,65,
256,282,293.
Horace,stanzasof,imitated,322.
Hoveringaccent,170,175.
How,W.W.,ForalltheSaints,
64.
Hunt,L.,AbouBenAdhem,
54;onthefunctionofmetre,
194;onimaginationandfancy,
106,107;onthenatureof
poetry,2;onthesonnet,331;
onthesubjectmatterofpoetry,
123.
Hurst,A.S,,onthetimerelations
ofvariousmetres,229n.
Hymn,63,64.
Iambus,223.
Iambicmetres,264277;why
preferredinEnglishpoetry,
265.
lambicanapesticmetre,246.
Identicalrime,298.
364INDEX.
Idyl,54n.
Imagination,relationoftopoetry,
1921,93112;asaform
ofmemory,9395;creative,
9597;interpretative,97102;
relationoftofancy,102112.
Imitationasabasisofpoetry,
912.

441

Imperfectrime,296298.
Ingelow,J.,hithemorning,Oso
early,236.
Internalrime,293295.
Inversionoffeet,242.
Irregularmetres,246251,267,
346348.
Italiansonnetform,326.
Johnson,S.,onthegeneralor
universalinpoetry,122;on
poeticjustice,89;ontonequality,
216;ontheunities,
85
Jonson,B.,Drinktomeonly
withthineeyes,63;masquesof,
8r.
Kalevala,43.
Kames,Lord,ontheunities,85.
Katharsis,Aristotle'stheoryof,
87n.
Keats,J.,Autumn,66,147;Endymion,
270,271;EveofSt.
Agnes,54,318;Fancy,281;
GrasshopperandCricket,327,
328;Hyperion,274;Isabella,
316;LaBelleDamesans
Merci,51;Lamia,271;Alermaid
Tavern,281;Odeona
GrecianUrn,58,66,100,117;
OdetoaNightingale,66,319;
OdetoPsyche,141;Robin
Hood,281;decasyllabiccouplet
of,270,271;asthepoet
ofphysicalsensations,94,95.
Kennings,149.
Ker,W.P,onepicpoetry,45.
KingHorn,49.
Kingsley,C.,Andromeda,283

442

285;ThreeFishers,320.
Kipling,R.,DannyDeever,35;
LastChantey,185,321;MeAndrew's
Hymn,125;Miracles,
293;Mulholland'sContract,
307;SestinaoftheTramp
Royal,338;SongoftheEnglish,
235;TrueRomance,317;
thepoetryof,13.
Knight,W.,ontherelationof
beautytopoetry,120.
Lamartine,A.de,Recueillements
Poetiques,204n.
Lamb,C.,OldFamiliarFaces,
64;onsevensyllableverse,
281n.
Landor,W.S.,Agamemnonand
Iphigeneia,48;Gebir,48;on
Milton'ssonnets,71.
Lang,A.,onartificialFrench
stanzaforms,338;Balladesof
BlueChina,336.
Lanier,S.,BalladofTreesand
theMaster,293;onpauses,
186;onverserhythmasrelated
tomusicalrhythm,189,
191;onthenatureofrhythm,
158;ontonequality,218.
Larminie,W.,onassonanceand
rime,299;onquantityinEnglish,
189.
Lay,49.
Layamon,Brut,49.
Lessing,G.E.,onthedrama,85.
Lewis,C.M.,onanapesticverse,
280;onblankverse,275;on
irregularmetres,347;onMilton's
verse,245;onprose

443

rhythm,161;onrime,299;on
theromanticcouplet,271;on
thesonnet,332;onstanza
forms,325;ontonequality,
215;ontrochaicrhythm,266.
Liddell,M.H.,onmetricalvariation,
251;onthenatureof
Englishverse,173,189,225;
onthenatureofpoetry,4;on
thenotationofverse,241;on
quantityinEnglish,189.
Lightending,263.
LockerLampson,F.,Tomy
INDEX.365
Grandmother,73;onversde
societe,73.
Longfellow,H.W.,Evangeline,
52,282,284;GoldenLegend,
282;Hiawatha,281;Maidenhood,
307;Sonnetsonthe
DivinaCommedia,327.
Lounsbury,T.R.,ontheunities,
84.
LoveinIdleness,338.
Lowell,J.R.,Commemoration
Ode,68,344;ontheSpenserian
stanza,324.
Lyricpoetry,5573;thetrueor
songtype,6264:relatedtypes,
6473>metricalcharacteristics
of,58,59,252.
Lyricalballad,34,35.
Lytton,Lord(OwenMeredith),
IndianLoveSong,316;Lucile,
52n.
McKay,J.,onthetimerelations
ofvariousmetres,229n.
Macaulay,T.B.,Horatius,129,

444

130;onthenatureofpoetry,2.
Mahabharata,4
"arlo1
199.
Marsh,A.R.,ontheepic,45.
Marvell,A.,OdeonCromwelTs
Return,309.
Masculinecesura,259.
Masculinerime,291.
Masque,81.
Masson,D.,onAristotle'sand
Bacon'stheoriesofpoetry,11
;
onconcretenessasapoetical
quality,139;onthefunction
ofmetre,204;onMilton's
verse,244;onthenatureof
poetry,3;onpoetryasdistinguished
fromprose,26.
Mayor,J.B.,ontheclassification
ofmetres,240;ondactylic
hexameter,285;onmetrical
variation,252,253;onMilton's
verse,245;ontheoriesof
Englishrhythm,225n.
Medialcesura,259261.
'.43
Marlowe,C..,,DDoctorFaustus,
Melton,W.F.,onsecondary
accent,174.
Meredith,G.,Phaethon,288.
Metaphor,144,145.
Metonymy,I49n.
Metre,distinguishedtrom
rhythm,162164;essentialto
poetry,15;functionsof,193
206;irregularormixed,246
248,346349;principaltypes

445

of,andhownamed,231,232;
variationsof,241257.
Metricalparagraph,273.
Metricalromance,5153.
Mill,J.S.,onpoetryasdistinguished
fromeloquence,u,24.
Miller,R.D.,onsecondaryaccent,
174.
Milton,J.,Comus,81;//Penseroso,
280;L1
Allegro,280,
281;Lycidas,41,69;Odeon
theMorningofChrisfsNativity,
254,317;OnhisBlindness,
57,327;ParadiseLost,
44,47,107,144,183,250,273;
ParaphraseoftheSecond
Psalm,301;Paraphraseofthe
SixthPsalm,310;Samson
Agonistes,345;choralodesof,
34S347elisionintheverse
of,244,245;invertedfeetin
theverseof,253;sonnetsof,
70,71;tonequalityinthe
verseof,214,216;ontragedy,
87n.
Mockepic,50.
Monodrama,36.
Monologued^outreTombe,338.
Moody,W.V.,Menagerie,35;
OdeinTtmeofHesitation,
344n.
Moore,T.,Believeme,ifall
thoseendearingyoungcharms,
278.
Moralities,148.
Morris,W.,DefenceofGuenevtre,
301;EarthlyParadise,

446

315;IcelandFirstSeen,315;
LoveisEnough,320;metrical
romancesof,52.
366INDEX.
Moulton,R.G.,ontragedy,90.
Music,comparedwithpoetry,5,
30;relationofitsrhythmto
thatofverse,157159;notation
ofasusedforverse,191
193.237
Nash,T.,Spring,theSweet
Spring,63.
Neale,J.M.,Jerusalemthe
Golden,63.
Neutralstyle,129,130,136n.
Newcomer,A.G.,onrime,299.
Newman,J.H.,Lead,Kindly
Light,64.
Niebelungenlied,43.
Notation,systemsofmetrical,
191193,237241;forstanza
forms,306n.
Octosyllabiccouplet,266,267.
Ode,6668,339345;choral
tyP6'345Jirregulartype,342;
strictPindarictype,340.
Omond,T.S.,onaccentand
stress,165n.;ontheamphibrach,
234;ondactylichexameter,
286;onthedivisionof
metricalfeet,239;ondropped
syllables,186;onmetrical
variation,248;onquantityin
English,189;ontherelation
ofiambicandtrochaic
metres,230;ontherelation
ofmusicalrhythmandthat
ofverse,192,193;ontherelation

447

ofquantityandaccent,
179;onverselength,266n.
Onomatopoeia,213216.
O'Shaughnessy,A.,Fountainof
Tears,257,278,316;Greater
Memory,313;St.Johnthe
Baptist,315;SongofPalms,
3i6n.
Ottavarima,315
Paeon,235.
Paeonicmetre,281.
Palgrave,F.T.,onlyricpoetry,
60.
Palmer,G.H.,.onHerbert's
stanzas,306n.
Pantoum,338.
Pastoralelegy,69.
Pastoralpoetry,40,41.
Patmore,C.,Amelia,346;Toys,
346;UnknownEros,346;on
catalexis,262n.;onodes,347.
Pauses,cesural,258;fillingrhythmical
intervals,183187.
Personification,145147.
Phoneticsyzygy,211.
Phalaecianmetre,288.
PiersPlowman,148,268.
Pindaricode,340.
Pitch,relationoftothesounds
ofverse,164n.,165n.,173,207.
Poe,E.A.,Lenore,294n..295;
Kaven,281;onthenatureof
poetry,3;onquantityinEnglish,
178,189.
Poeticjustice,8991.
Poeticlicense,153,154.
Poetry,defined,14;anemotional
art,18;animaginative

448

art,1921;arepresentative
art,10;arhythmicalart,15
17,30;originsof,4,9,2630;
relationoftomusic,5,30;
relationoftotheplasticarts,
58;relationoftoprose,23
26;styleof,128154;subject
matterof,122128;typesof,
3141;universalelementof,
1215,I2II22>
Polly,putthekettleon,185.
Pope,A.,Dunciad,40;Essay
onCriticism,22;Essayon
Man,199;Iliad,261,267;
RapeoftheLock,50,107;
didacticpoetryof,39;fancy
of,107;satiricpoetryof,40.
Praed,W.M.,versdesocieteof,
73
Prior,M.,ABetterAnswer,73.
Proctor,A.A.,religiouslyrics
of,64.
Prose,distinguishedfrompoetry,
2326;styleofasrelatedtothat
ofpoetry,128138;rhythmof,
INDEX.
160164;useofintragedy,
200202.
Pseudoclassicalmetres,288.
Pseudoclassicalstanzas,322.
Purgation,Aristotle'stheoryof,
87n.
Pyrrhic,233.
Quantity,inEnglishverse,175
193;lawsofsummarized,186,
187;relationoftoaccent,178
180,187190;indactylichexameter,
283285.

449

Quatrains,307311.
Raleigh,W.,onWordsworth's
theoryofpoeticdiction,137,
138.
Raymond,G.L.,ontonequality,
218.
Read,T.B.,Drifting,313.
Reconcilingdrama,91.
Reflectivepoetry,36,37.
Refrainstanzas,319321.
Reynolds,J.,ontheuniversalin
art,121,122.
Rhythm,defined,155158;relation
oftoEnglishspeech,159
193;relationoftothenature
ofpoetry,193206;relation
oftobeauty,193195;relation
oftoemotion,195197;relation
oftotheimagination,199;
asameansofidealization,
198202.
Ribot,T.A.,ontheimagination,
104.
Rime,290300;functionsof,
291;feminine,291,292;halfstressed,
296;identical,298;
internal,293295;triple,291
293;relationoftothestanza,
302.
Rimecouee,313.
Rimeriche,298n.
Rhneroyalstanza,314.
Robertson,J.M.,onquantityin
English,189.
Romance(prose\relationofto
poetry,23,200n.
Romanticdrama,8285.
Rondeauandrondel,334,335.

450

Rossetti,C.,Bourne,312;Mother
Country,316;Summeris
Ended,312.
Rossetti,D.G.,BalladeofDead
Ladies,336;BlessedDamosel,
313;BurdenofNineveh,319;
LoveLily,296n.;Lovesight,
327;Love'sNocturn,315;l\ose
Mary,311;SisterHelen,51,
321;Soothsay,315;S^^nset
Wings,312;Willoivwood,168
172,296n.;sonnetsof,330,
332.
Runonlines,263,264;inblank
verse,272,273.
Ruskin,J.,ontheimagination,
in;onthenatureofpoetry,
3ISn
Russell,C.E.ontonequality,
219,220.
Rymer,T.,ontheunities,85.
Saintsbury,G.,ondistinguishing
iambicandtrochaicrhythm,
229;ontherelationofaccent
andquantity,190.
Sanford,E.C.,onthetimerelations
ofvariousmetres,229n.
Santayana,G.,ontheimagination,
104;ontheidealelement
inpoetry,120.
Sapphicstanza,322.
Satiricpoetry,40.
Schelling,F.E.,onlyricpoetry,
59,60;onversdesociete,72.
Schelling,F.W.J.,onart,no.
Schipper,J.,oniambicanapestic
metres,246n.;onirregular
fourstressverse,268;onthe

451

stanza,323.
Schlegel,A.W.,onthedrama,
79
Science,relationoftopoetry,
18,124.
Scott,F.N.,onthefunctionof
metre,205,206;onpoetryas
distinguishedfromprose,25;
ontherhythmofprose,164n.;
368INDEX.
(withGayley,C.M.)ondefinitions
ofpoetry,4.
Scott,W.,LadyoftheLake,52,
257;LayoftheLastMinstrel,
49n.;Marmion,52;Proud
Maisie,63;balladpoetryof,
29,51;ontheoctosyllabic
couplet,267;onromantic
poetry,53n.
Secondaryaccent,167,172175;
bearingtherime,296.
Septenarymetre,277.
Sestina,337.
Shakspere,W.,Artonyand
Cleopatra,83;Comeuntothese
yellowsands,62;Cymbeline,
91,313;Hamlet,8890,201;
Hark,hark,thelark,63;
HenryV,82;JuliusCasar,
90;KingJohn,186;King
Lear,90,107,202;Macbeth,
90,107;MeasureforMeasure,
186;MerchantofVenice,249;
MidsummerNighfsDream,
20,97,103,107,214;Omistress
mine,62;Othello,84,90,202;
RapeofLucrece,314;Richard
II,143;RomeoandJuliet,90,

452

107;Sonnets,57,58,70,291,
329;Tempest,84,103,107;
TrotIusandCressida,211;
WhoisSylvia,62;Winter's
Tale,91,263;ontheimagination,
20,97;proseinthe
dramasof,201,202;verseof
thelatedramasof,264.
Shakspereansonnet,328.
Sharp,W.,ontheode,347;on
thesonnet,331.
Shavvcross,).,onColeridge's
theoryoftheimagination,109nr.
Shelley,P.B.,Adonais,69,143,
298,318;Cloud,146,278,
295n.;Epipsychidion,270;
IndianSerenade,63,316;Ode
toNaples,68,341;Onewordis
toooftenprofaned,316;O
World,OLife,OTime,320;
PrometheusUnoound,81,82;
QueenMab,346;Sensitive
Plant,214,309;ToaSkylark,
65,98,143,199,255,312;Triumph
ofLije,301;Whenthe
lampisshattered,246;deca
syllabiccoupletsof,270;on
metre,16,17;onthenature
ofpoetry,2,15n.,22,116,119;
subjectiveelementinthe
poetryof,57n.
Sidney,P.,Mytrueloz>ehath
myheart,63;classicalmeasures
imitatedby,322;on
metre,16,17;sonnetsof,70.
Simile,142144.
SirGawainandtheG,een
Knight,52.

453

Sixstressverse,iambic,276;
dactylic,283.
Skeat,W.W.,onthenatureof
Englishrhythm,173,225.
Slurring,243245.
Song,6264;typesoflyricas
determinedbytheirrelationto,
6466.
SongofRoland,43.
Sonnet,70,71,325332;English
typeof,328;Italiantypeof,
326.
Soundsofverse,relationofto
theimagination,212216,219.
Southey,R.,CurseofKehama,
48,346;Roderick,48;Thalaba,
346;ondactylichexameter,
285.
Spedding,J.,ondactylichexameter,
285.
Spenser,E.,Eclogueonthe
deathofSidney,69;Epithalamion,
67,342;FaerieQueene,
47,107,114,148;Prothalamion,
342;Shepherd'sCalender,
41,268;sonnetsof,70,
329.
Spenserianstanza,276,304,317,
3l8>324.
Spondee,233.
Stanza,301325;formedby
rime,302;principlesgoverning
thestructureof,303305;
typesof,306325.
Stedman,E.C.,onthefuncINDEX.
369
tionofmetre,203;onthenature
ofpoetry,3.

454

Stevenson,R.L,.,ontonequality,
211.
Stone,S.J.,Thechurch'sone
foundation,64.
Stress,seeAccent.
Style,poetical,113,128154.
Substitutionofmetricalfeet,242.
Suckling,J.,BalladuponaWedding,
143.
Sully,J.,ontheimagination,
104.
Sumerisicumenin,56.
Surrey,Earlof,sonnetsof,328.
Swinburne,A.C.,Appeal,315;
Armada,295;Atalantain
Calydon,321:BalladofFran
(oisVillon,336;BeforeDawn,
291;Choriambics,235;Death
ofWagner,245;Dedicationof
PcemsandBallads,303;Garden
ofProserpine,316;Hertha,
312;Hesperla,280;Inthe
Water,180;LausVeneris,
220,310;Leper,172n.;Sapphics,
322;Thalassius,346;
TristramofLyonesse,52,261;
verseof,175,180,279,280;
onEnglishdactylicverse,285;
onGreekanapesticverse,
278n.;onMilton'schoral
odes,347.
Syllabicverse,240n.,245,272n.
Syllables,droppedfromtheverse
scheme,185,186;lengthofin
English,175183.
Symonds,J.A.,onblankverse,
275,276.
Synecdoche,149n.

455

Tailrimestanza,313,319n.
Tasso,T.,/^r.rtf/^wDelivered,43
Tennyson,A.,AlcaicsonMilton,
322;Boadicea,288;Break,
break,break,185;Chargeof
theLightBrigade,35;Coming
ofArthur,213;Crossingthe
Bar,145;Dora,41,53,124;
EnochArden,211213,25
GeraintandEnid,242IGrandmother,
35;HigherPantheism,
66;IdyllsoftheKing,53,54n.,
118,259n.;InMemoriam,37,
57,140,309,323;Ladyof
Shalott,298;LastTournament,
250;LocksleyHall,281,306;
LotosEaters,318;Lucretius,
37;Maud,36,37,247,248;
Afoveeastward,happyearth,
124;NorthernFarmer,282;
CEnone,152;Oriana,320;
PalaceofArt,323;Princess,
64,249,273,294;Promiseof
May,124n.;l\evenge,54,
248,346;Rizpah,35,247;
St.SimeonStylites,37;Sweet
andLow,63;Tears,IdleTears,
64,302;Tithonus,35;ToMaurice,
310,311,322n.;To
Virgil,281;'IwoVoices,307,
324;Ulysses,35;Visionof
Sin,96;WellingtonOde,68,
343,344;imitationsofclassical
metresby,288;preference
offorlongstressedsyllables,
179;tonequalityintheverse
of,211213;variablecesurain
theverseof,259n.

456

Tennyson,C.,SteamThreshing
Machine,125n.
Tennyson,F.,DreamofAutumn,
310;GloryofNature,312.
Tercet,307.
Terzarima,300,301,304,305.
Thackeray,Ballads,268.
Thomas,W.,onMilton'sverse,
244.
Thomson,J.,CastleofIndolence,
214;Seasons,34,55.
Thomson,J.,CityofDreadful
Night,315.
Thomson,W.,ontherelationof
musicalrhythmtothatof
verse,189,191.
Thorndike,A.H.,ontragedy,
90;ontragicomedy,92.
Tolman,A.H.,ontonequality,
218,219.
Tomlinson,W.,onthesonnet,
326,33i370
INDEX.
Tonequality,207220;inblank
verse,274.
Tragedy,8691;themesof,124;
relationoftoverseform,200
202.
Tragicomedy,91,92.
Tribrach,234.
Triolet,333,334.
Tripleending,256.
Triplerime,291293.
Triplet,271.
Triplett,N.,onthetimerelations
ofvariousmetres,229n.
Trisyllabicmetre,irregularityof,
245,246.

457

Trochaicmetres,280282;how
distinguishedfromiambic,
226231;whyavoidedinEnglish
verse,265,266.
Trochee,223.
Tropes,142149.
Truncationofverses,254,255.
Truth,relationoftopoetry,19,
115121.
Tumblingverse,267.
Ugliness,relationoftobeauty
inart,114,115.
Unities,dramatic,8385.
Unity,aqualityofepicpoetry,
45;oflyricpoetry,58;of
dramaticpoetry,76.
Unityinvariety,aprincipleof
rhythmicalform,194;aprinciple
ofstanzaform,304.
Universal(the)asanelementof
art,1215,121,122.
Vergil,JEneid,43.
Verrier,P.,onthedivisionof
metricalfeet,239n.
Versdesociety7173,333.
Villanelle,335.
Villon,F.,BalladeofDead
Ladies,336.
Volkelt,J.,ontragedy,79,90.
Vowels,lengthofinEnglish,
176;qualityofasusedin
verse,210,219.
Waddington,S.,onthesonnet
Waller,E.,Go,LovelyRose,312;
versdesocieteof,73.
Watson,W.,Autumn,319;
Columbus,316;Hymntothe
Sea,287;OdeinMay,316.

458

Watts,T.,onconcretenessasa
poeticalquality,139:onthe
epic,46;onthefunctionof
metre,203;onthemetrical
elementinpoetry,17;onthe
natureofpoetry,3,22;onthe
relationofpoetrytoother
arts,8;onWordsworth'sIntimations
ofImmortality,345.
Weakending,264.
Wells,C.,onversdesociete,72n.,
73n.
Werner,R.M.,onlyricalpoetry,
59
Wesley,C.,Jesus,Loverofmy
Soul,64.
White,G.,onartificialFrench
stanzaforms,336,339.
Whittier,J.G,religiouslyrics
of,64.
Woodberry,G.E.,ontheheroic
couplet,270.
Woodbridge,E.,onthedrama,
79
Wordsworth,W.,Beggars,35;
BlindHighlandBoy,151;
Daisy,317;Excursion,37,
131;HighlandGirl,65;Idiot
Bov,14;IntimationsofImmortality,
68,101,199,343
345;/"wanderedlonelyasa,
cloud(Daffodils],64,313;Last
oftheFlock,35,135;Lucy
Gray,35,57n.,308;Lyrical
Ballads,34,126;Michael,
41n.,53,124,128,130;Odeto
Dnty,146,316;PeterBell,
131,312;Prelude,21;Sailor's

459

Mother,35;Shewasaphantom
ofdelight,129;SimonLee,
131;SolitaryReaper,316;The
worldistoomuchwithus,327;
Thorn,131,135,151;Tintern
INDEX.371
Abbey,37;TwoAprilMorn
ings,35;WestminsterBridge,
33;sonnetsof,70,326;on
blankverse,275;hisclassification
ofpoetry,31;onthe
functionofmetre,194,197;
ontheimagination,21,104
106;onthelyric,65n.;onthe
natureofpoetry,2,14;onthe
relationofpoetryandknowledge,
119;onthesonnet,71;
onthesubjectmatterofpoetry,
128;histheoryofpoetic
diction,132138.
Whitman,W.,verseof,15,348.
Worsfold,W.B.,ontragic
katharsis,88n.
Wrenchedaccent,172n.,296n.
Yeats,W.13.,RoseoftheWorld,
312.
Young,E.,didacticpoetryof,
39
ALDEN'SARTOFDEBATE
ByRAYMONDM.ALDEN,PH.D.
AssistantProfessor"inLelandStanfordJunior
University
XV+279PP.I2H10.$1.12
Apracticalmanualofargumentationanddebating,
sufficiently
systematictobeserviceableasatextbook.Legal
argumentis

460

takenasameansofapproachtothetreatmentof
suchmattersas
burdenofproofandevidence;andthe
classificationofmethodsof
proofisbased,notonthetraditionalformsof
rhetoricandlogic,
butontheexigenciesofactualdebate.
F.If.Scott,ProfessorintheUniversityof
Michigan:Itisafreshand
interestingtreatmentofthesubject,packedwith
ideasexpressedinamost
delightfulandtakingway.Ihavegreatlyenjoyed
readingit,andhave
recommendeditheartilytomystudents.
Get.B.Churchill,ProfessorinAmherstCollege,
Mass..Ithinkitis
farthebestboukwehaveonthissubjectfor
collegeorgeneraluse.Itis
methodical,careful,andfull.Whilecomprehensive,
itiseasilygrasped.
A.L.Bouton,ProfessorinNeivYorkUniversity:
Itisfresh,scholarly,
entertaining,andmorethoroughlypracticalthan
anythingelseonthatspecific
subjectpublished.
EdwinM.Hopkins,ProfessorintheUniversity
ofKansas:\thinkit
meetsfullyandexactlyapressingneedinall
universitiesandwillprovemost
usefulandpopular.Itiscomplete,practical,and,
fromeverypointofview,
justthethingneeded.
TheOutlook:Aremarkabletextbook.Theauthor
neverlosessight
ofthefactthatdebatingisanarttobelearned
throughpracticeandnota
sciencetobetaughtbyskilfullyframed
generalizations.Realizingthatthe

461

practiceoflawhastrainedbetterdebatersthan
thestudyoflogic,hemakes
effectiveuseoflegalargumentsinexemplifying
theartofputtingthings.
Theauthor'sstylemakesthebookagreeable
reading,andhispreeminent,
commonsensegivestoeverychapterpractical
value.
HenryHoltandCompany
34WEST330ST(x,'05)NBWYORK
Alden'sSPECIMENSOFENGLISHVERSE.
ByRAYMONDM.ALDEN,AssistantProfessorinLeland
StanfordUniversity.
xiv+459pp.i6mo.$1.25.
Thisbookiswelladaptedtotheneedsofthe
beginnerbecauseittreatsof
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materialconsistsofillustrativepassages,
arrangedforeachpointinchronological
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commentsbyvarious
critics.
C.T.Winchester,ProfessorinWesleyanUniversity^
Middletown,Ct.:
Ithinkitcertainlythemostusefulmanualupon
thesubjectthatIhave
recentlyseen.Theexamplesarecopiousand
admirablyselected,andthe
principlesdrawnfromthemclearlystated.
Dr.HenryVanDyke,ProfessorinPrinceton
University:Itseemstome
anexcellentbook,muchneededandthoroughlywell
made.Iventureto
predictforitlargeusefulness.

462

BlissPerry,EditoroftheATLANTICMONTHLY:Itis
askilfullyplanned
andadmirablycompacthandbook.Iknowofno
treatiseonversification
whichissowelladaptedforpracticaluseinthe
classroom.
Lewis'sTHEPRINCIPLESOFENGLISHVERSE.
ByCHARLTONM.LEWIS,ProfessorinYaleUniversity.
143pp.x6mo.
$1.25.
Tosuchpersonsasenjoypoetry,butthinkthey
mightenjoyitmoreifthey
founditsmetricalstructurelessbewildering,this
littlebookoffersmaterial
assistance.Thestatementofprincipleswillalso
beofinteresttoscholars
andprofessionalmetrists.
Outlook:Itoughttobeinthehandsofloversof
poetrywhoarenot
entirelyfamiliarwiththetechnicalformsofthe
differentkindsofversewhich
givethempleasure....Inthiscompactandeasily
readvolume,inuntechnical
language,thevariouskindsofmeteraredescribed
withsufficientfulness
andillustrationtogivetheintelligentloverof
poetryalltheinformationhe
needsandtofurnishalsoanexcellenttextbook.
Hart'sSTANDARDENGLISHSPEECH.
TheDevelopmentofStandardEnglishSpeechin
Outline.ByJ.M.
HART,ProfessorinCornellUniversity,x+pzpp.
i6mo.$1.00.
AnattempttoshowhowtheEnglishmanorAmerican
oftodayhascome
byhispronunciation.Thetreatmentistechnical
andpresupposessome
knowledgeofOldEnglish.

463

Alden'sSPECIMENSOFENGLISHVERSE.
ByRAYMONDM.ALDEN,AssistantProfessorinLeland
StanfordUniversity.
xiv+459PPi6mo.$1.25.
Thisbookiswelladaptedtotheneedsofthe
beginnerbecauseittreatsof
therhetoricaleffectivenessofgivenformsfor
givenpurposesandbecauseit
furnishes,inconvenientarrangement,anunusual
quantityofmaterial.This
materialconsistsofillustrativepassages,
arrangedforeachpointinchronological
order,and,inaddition,alargenumberofbrief
commentsbyvarious
critics.
C.T.Winchester,ProfessorinWesleyanUniversity^
Middletotun,Ct.:
Ithinkitcertainlythemostusefulmanualupon
thesubjectthatIhave
recentlyseen.Theexamplesarecopiousand
admirablyselected,andthe
principlesdrawnfromthemclearlystated.
Dr.HenryVanDyke,ProfessorinPrinceton
University:Itseemstome
anexcellentbook,muchneededandthoroughlywell
made.Iventureto
predictforitlargeusefulness.
BlissPerry,EditoroftheATLANTICMONTHLY:Itis
askilfullyplanned
andadmirablycompacthandbook.Iknowofno
treatiseonversification
whichissowelladaptedforpracticaluseinthe
classroom.
Lewis'sTHEPRINCIPLESOFENGLISHVERSE.
ByCHARLTONM.LEWIS,ProfessorinYaleUniversity.
143pp.i6mo.
$1.25.

464

Tosuchpersonsasenjoypoetry,butthinkthey
mightenjoyitmoreifthey
founditsmetricalstructurelessbewildering,this
littlebookoffersmaterial
assistance.Thestatementofprincipleswillalso
beofinteresttoscholars
andprofessionalmetrists.
Outlook:Itoughttobeinthehandsofloversof
poetrywhoarenot
entirelyfamiliarwiththetechnicalformsofthe
differentkindsofversewhich
givethempleasure....Inthiscompactandeasily
readvolume,inuntechnical
language,thevariouskindsofmeteraredescribed
withsufficientfulness
andillustrationtogivetheintelligentloverof
poetryalltheinformationhe
needsandtofurnishalsoanexcellenttextbook.
Hart'sSTANDARDENGLISHSPEECH.
TheDevelopmentofStandardEnglishSpeechin
Outline.ByJ.M.
HART,ProfessorinCornellUniversity,x+gzpp.
i6mo.$1.00.
AnattempttoshowhowtheEnglishmanorAmerican
oftodayhascome
byhispronunciation.Thetreatmentistechnical
andpresupposessome
knowledgeofOldEnglish.

PLEASEDONOTREMOVE
CARDSORSLIPSFROMTHISPOCKET
UNIVERSITYOFTORONTOLIBRARY
Alden,RaymondMacDonald

465

1042Anintroductiontopoetry
M3
cop.2

466