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Wireless Communications I
Lecture 1
Taking to the Air and Back to the Wire
Emission of Linear Antenna in Free Space
A short linear antenna of length L excited with an alternate current I =
I0 ej2f t , produces at a point at a distance r making an angle with the
antenna, the following electro-magnetic waves:
c
I0 L cos 1
+
ej2f (tr/c)
(0.1)
E =
20 c
r2
j2f r3
c
c2
I0 L sin j2f
ej2f (tr/c)
(0.2)
+
+
E=
40 c2
r
r2
j2f r3
I0 L sin j2f
c
H=
+ 2 ej2f (tr/c)
(0.3)
40 c2
r
r
where 0 is the permittivity of the medium (vacuum/air).
In the near field things are messy!
Far away (far-field), only E and H are significant, and simply to
E
r1
H
r1
(0.4)
(0.5)
dH
I0 Lf 2 sin
=
exp j2f (t r/c)
2
dt
r0 c
where = I0 Lf 2 sin /0 c2 .
(0.6)
Note: Many (or most!) text books are, strictly speaking, incorrect in
talking about propagation over the electric field E. While not an issue
on far field, in near field (e.g. body area networks) more care must be
taken.
2
2r2
(0.8)
P
E[V 2 ]
= 2
2
(0.9)
(0.10)
2
E[cos2 (2f (1 v/c)t 2f r/c)]
E[(r + vt)2 ]
2
r1
2r2
T 1/f
(0.11)
(Doppler shift)
(0.12)
(0.13)
2 = 2f r2 /c +
= 2f
r
+
c
(0.14)
(0.15)
r1
T 1/f
2
2
(0.16)
Note: Simplistic definitions of delay spread and coherence bandwidth can be made at this point:
(delay spread)
r
1
Bc ,
c
(coherence bandwidth)
r2
hs + hr
hr
2hs hr
rc
(0.17)
1 + x 1 + x/2.
x1
(0.18)
r1
T 1/f
where =
2
2r4
(0.19)
4f hs hr
.
c
h0
T
d1
2
d2
R
hs
hr
= 2
2
with
d1 + d2
=h
d d
r 1 2
2d1 d2
=
(d1 + d2 )
(0.20)
(0.21)
(0.22)
(0.23)
h(d1 ,d2 )
(0.24)
Homework 4: Show that for > 1, the Fresnel loss |F ()| is tightly
approximated by
|F ()|
1
2
(0.25)
where
Z
C() =
cos x2 dx;
Z
S() =
(0.26)
sin x2 dx
(0.27)
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
Loss: |F ()|
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
5
0
1
Coefficient:
Mandatory Reading
- Goldsmith [2]: Chapter 2
Advised Reading
- Tse&Viswanath [1]: Chapter 2 (Section 2.1)
Recommended
- MIT Course: Principles of Digital Communications [3],
- Lecture 21 by Prof. Gallager (MIT)
Lecture 2
Small Scale Effects
Two-path Fading: Free space, two paths, mobile
Let v1 and v2 denote scalar velocities projected on the lines between transmitter
and receiver, and between the specular image of the transmitter and the receiver,
respectively. Then
r10 = r1 + v1 t;
Er =
r20 = r2 + v2 t
(0.28)
(0.29)
1
i
T 1/f
2 2
E[cos (2f t(1 v1 /c))cos (2f t(1 v2 /c) + )] (0.30)
r2 r2
f , f (v1 v2 )/c Tc ,
1
f
(coherence time)
(
= <
)
X
i
1 =
; 2 =
r1 + v1 t
r2 + v2 t
1
v2 t + r2
2
v1 t + r1
1 =
; 2 =
c
2f
c
2f
1 = 0; 2 =
(0.31)
whereby
We neglect the antennas frequency selectivity
i (t, f ) i (t)
(0.33)
h(, t) exp(j2f )d
(0.34)
F 1
h(f, t) h(, t)
F
(0.35)
x(t) x(f )
F
10
(0.36)
is given by
Z
x(f )h(f, t) exp(j2f t)df
Er (t) =
(0.37)
Z
Er (t) =
x(f )
Z
Er (t) =
h(, t)
Er (t) =
(0.38)
X
i
i (t) exp j2f i (t)
h(, t)
i (t) i (t)
(0.39)
(0.40)
(0.41)
11
Note: Compare equation (0.41) with equation (0.32), and see that the
former is indeed the response to the input x(t) = exp(j2f t)!
(0.42)
F 1
hb (f, t) hb (, t)
(0.43)
(0.44)
Z
Er,b (t) =
x(f )
Z
Er,b (t) =
h(, t)
Z
Z
Er,b (t) = h(, t)x(t ) exp(j2fc )d = hb (, t)x(t )d
(0.45)
(0.46)
hb (, t)
F
Er,b (t) =
X
i
X
i
i (t) i (t) exp(j2fc i (t))
i (t)x i (t) exp(j2fc i (t))
12
(0.47)
(0.48)
= i0 + i t
c
c
2f
fc
(0.49)
(0.50a)
i (t) exp(j2fc i0 ) x i (t) exp(j2fDi t) (0.50b)
i0 (t, i0 ) x i (t) exp(j2fDi t)
(0.50c)
such that
ri + vi t
(0.51)
1
4|fDi |
13
where the dependence of i with time ignored, while all the other physical parameters of interest such as Doppler shifts, propagation delay etc. are embedded
in the time-varying phase i (t)
i (t) , 2fc i0 + 2fDi t
(0.53)
(0.54)
(0.55)
(0.56)
which can be simplified to
AI ( ) =
1 X 2
E i E [cos(2fDi )]
2 i
(0.57)
(0.58)
fc vi
fc v
cos i
c
c
14
(0.59)
2i
= i
N
(0.60)
where , 2/N .
Substituting the approximations above we obtain
P X
2fc vi0
AI ( ) =
E cos
cos i
N i
c
P X
2fc vi0
=
cos
cos i
2 i
c
(0.61)
Z2
cos
2fc v
cos d = P J0 (2fD )
c
(0.62)
where we finally dropped the i and from the notation for simplicity,
and since those no longer have meaning in the continuous model above.
Note: It is trivial to show that AQ ( ) = AI ( ).
3
.
8fD
r
15
2
cos x 2 4 .
x
(0.63)
0.8
J0 (2fD )
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.4
0
0.5
1.5
fD
2.5
Figure 5: Normalized autocorrelation function of uniformly dense wireless channel (Clarkes) model.
The Fourier Transform of the Autocorrelation Function of a channel is referred to as the Power Spectral Density. For the narrowband
dense multi path model above (Clarkes):
1
P p
for |f | 6 fD
2fD 1 (f /fD )2
SI (f ) , F{AI ( )} =
(0.64)
0
otherwise
sin( )
rect(f ) = u (f + fD ) u (f fD )
r1
16
3.5
fD = 2
2.5
fD = 4
S(f )
1.5
fD = 8
0.5
0
9
Mandatory Reading
- Goldsmith [2]: Chapter 3
Additional Reading
- Rappaport [4]: Chapter 5
- Tse&Viswanath [1]: Chapter 2
Recommendend
- Principles of Digital Communications [3],
- Lecture 21 by Prof. Gallager (MIT)
- At: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2DbwtCePzWg
17
Lecture 3
Statistical Characteristics of Fading Channels (Cont.)
Let us return to the baseband channels time-domain response function
X
hb (, t) =
i (t) i (t) exp(j2fc i (t))
(0.65)
i
I
1
i1
q1
1
N
N 1
N
Delay
18
(0.66)
P
1
N
1
Delay
21
( ) P( )d
P( )d
(0.68)
A widely used PDP model (supported by empirical and analytical evidence) is the exponential profile
P( ) =
1
exp( /).
(0.69)
19
eT /
N!
N
T
.
nP
N
o
i < T .
(0.70)
nP
N +1
i
i > T
and P
n
Tm =
n+1
Pm
i=1 i
N
X
i=1
hi i
(0.71)
where we have neglected the temporal dependence of i with time, and included
the time-varying phase rotations caused by Doppler shifts into the complex
gains hi .
Recall that N is typically also a random variable!
20
(0.72)
Due to the fast rotation of the phases of hi , these random variates can
also be assumed to be zero mean.
Next, consider the frequency domain response function of the channel, given
by the Fourier transform of hb ( ), i.e.
Z
hb ( ) exp(j2f )d =
hb (f ) ,
N
X
hi exp(j2f i )
(0.74)
i=1
(0.75)
The responses to each of these sinusoidal signals in the frequency domain can be written in matrix form as
yk = wk h
(0.76)
(Envelope Response)
f = f1 f2
(0.77)
(0.78)
(0.79)
21
(0.80)
P
2
E[r12 ] = P
E[r1 ] =
(0.81)
(0.82)
2 2
E[r1 r2 ] = 2 F1 12 , 12 ; 1; 2
P (1 )
4
(0.83)
P
where P ,
Pi , 2 F1 (a, b; c; z) is the Gaussian hypergeometric function and 2 is the Fourier transform of the sample correlation function
of the Power Delay Profile, specifically
2
PN PN
Pn Pm exp(j2f (n m ))
P2
(0.84)
2 F1
12 , 12 ; 1; 2 1
4/ 1
(0.85)
22
1.3
1.25
2 F1 (1/2, 1/2; 1;
1.2
1.15
1.1
1.05
1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
2
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 10: Gaussian Hypergeometric Function 2 F1 12 , 12 ; 1; 2 and a linear
approximation (4/ 1)2 + 1.
(0.86)
From the above, we may replace the envelope spectral cross-correlation coefficient by the Fourier Transform of the PDP. Consider the Exponential
PDP of equation (0.69)
P(f ) =
|F {exp( / )} |
1
=p
.
1 + (2f )2
(0.87)
23
1
.
2
(0.88)
(0.90)
(0.91)
where in (0.90) we accommodate for the possibility (so far ignored) that the
path gains may be distinct on the different complex dimensions (polarization),
while in (0.91) we assume that the contributions of the sum of a large number
of sinusoidal functions with random phases and amplitudes amount to
the independent random processes x(t) and y(t).
The problem of determining the probability density functions
(PDFs) of the amplitude r , |z| and phase , z of random
processes with the structure shown above is often
referred to as the Random Phase Problem.
ZN =
X Yi
N X N N X
=
X N
N
i=1
(0.92)
t2
+ o(t2 ),
2
24
t0
(0.93)
It is then identified that the et /2 is the characteristic function of the standard Normal distribution, which concludes the proof.
(x, ) , f (x) + g(x) c
(0.95)
(0.96)
(0.97)
(0.98)
25
p(x) dx = 1.
(0.99)
Z
a
p(x) ln p(x) dx =
p ln p dx.
(0.100)
p ln p dx
(0.101)
a
b
subject to
p dx = 1
(0.102)
(p) =
p ln p dx +
a
p dx 1
(0.103)
(0.104)
(0.105)
(0.106)
1 Rigorously speaking these are only two of the three Kolmogorov axioms required of probability distributions. The third (countable additivity) is implied in the (assumed) integrability
of p(x).
26
1
,
ba
a 6 x 6 b (Uniform Distribution)
(0.107)
Z
p(x) ln p(x) dx
(0.108)
subject to
and
and
p(x) dx = 1
(0.109)
x p(x) dx =
(0.110)
(x )2 p(x) dx = 2
(0.111)
(0.112)
27
problem:
maximize
Z
p(x) ln p(x) dx
(0.113)
Z
subject to
and
p(x) dx = 1
(0.114)
x2 p(x) dx = 2
(0.115)
Z
Z
Z
(p) , p(x) ln p(x) dx+1 p(x) dx 1 2 x2 p(x) dx 2
(0.116)
And the derivative on p is
p
= ln p(x) 1 + 1 2 x2 = 0,
p(x) dx
such that
(0.117)
(0.118)
(1 1)
e(1 1)
2 x2
r
dx =
x2 e2 x dx =
e(1 1) = 1
2
r
e(1 1)
432
2 =
2 2
=
e(1 1) = 1
= 2
2
(0.119)
x2
1
e 22 .
2
(0.120)
28
With the conviction that x(t) and y(t) can be assumed to be Gaussian random functions, let us attempt to derive corresponding Fading distributions.
In so-doing, pay close attention to the impact of different choices that
and exercise on the resulting fading models!
x2
1
e 22
2
y p(y) =
y
1
e 22
2
(0.121)
p(x, y) =
(x +y
1
2 2
e
2 2
(0.122)
29
(0.123)
(0.125)
r 2
r
2 2 dr d
e
2 2
p(r, ) =
(0.124)
(0.126)
r 2
r
e 22
2
2
(0.127)
Marginalizing
Z2
p(r) =
r 2
r
r r22
2 2 d =
e
e 2 , r > 0
2 2
2
Z
p() =
r 2
1
r
2 2 dr =
e
, 0 6 6 2
2
2
2
(0.129)
30
0.7
0.6
=1
0.5
p(r; )
0.4
=2
0.3
=3
0.2
0.1
0
0
5
r
10
x = ln u1 sin(2u2 )
(0.130a)
(0.130b)
y = ln u2 cos(2u1 )
where ui are i.i.d. standard uniform random variates.
Continuous-time Rayleigh variates can be generated via the so-called Jakes
Method
#
"N
X
1
jn
R(t, k) = 2 2
(0.131)
e
cos (2fn t + n,k ) + cos 2fD t
2
n=1
where fD is the Doppler spread and the remaining parameters are
n
N +1
n + 2(k1)
N +1
n =
n,k =
31
(0.132)
(0.133)
x p(x) =
(x)
1
e 22
2
y p(y) =
y
1
e 22
2
(0.134)
p(x, y) =
(x +y ) ( 2x)
1
2 2
e 22 e
2
2
P {r, } =
) 1 r cos
r (r +
e 22
e 2 dr d
2
2
2
p(r, ) =
) 1 r cos
r (r +
e 22
e 2
2
32
(0.136)
(0.137)
Marginalizing
Z2
p(r) =
r (r + ) 1
p(r, )d = 2 e 22
Z2
e
r cos
2
,
r>0
0
2
r
)
r (r +
2 2
e
I
0
2
2
(Rice PDF)
(0.138)
K cos())),
(0.139)
Z
p() =
p(r, )dr,
0 6 6 2
2
1+2 Kcos()e4K cos ()
4K
2e
(1+erf(2
where K , 2 /2 2 (i.e., ratio between the power of direct component and the power of indirect component)
is referred
to as the Rice
5 7
Factor, and the the phase shift = 4 , 3
4 , 4 , 4 .
Notice that if we define = 2 + 2 2 (total channel power), the
following variation of the Rice PDF can be written
!
r
2
K(1 + K)
2(1 + K)r K (1+K)r
p(r) =
e
I0 2r
(0.140)
33
0.7
0.6
= 0; = 1
0.5
p(r; , )
= 1; = 1
0.4
0.3
= 1; = 2
= 2; = 2
0.2
0.1
0
0
5
r
10
x p(x; b, ) = p
1
(1 + b) 2
1
x2
(1+b) 2
(0.141a)
y2
(1b) 2
(0.141b)
y p(y; b, ) = p
e
(1 b) 2
where 0 6 b 6 1.
The variances of the I and Q components are
2
(1 + b)
2
2
(1 b)
y2 =
2
x2 =
such that 2 = x2 + y2 .
34
(0.142)
(0.143)
p(r; b, ) =
e
I0
2 (1 b2 )
2 1 b2
1 b2
p(; b) =
2(1 b cos(2))
(Hoyt PDF)
(0.144)
(0.145)
1b cos(2) 2
r
e 2 (1b2 )
2
2
1b
(0.146)
(0.147)
where 1 6 q 6 1.
Homework 13: Prove equation (0.146).
Hint: Compare equations (0.144) and (0.146). What is the relationship
between b and q?.
35
0.7
b = 0.8; = 0.5
0.6
0.5
p(r; b, )
b = 0.6; = 1
0.4
b = 0.2; = 2
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3
r
3.5
4.5
5.5
Figure 15: Examples of the phase distributions of Rician and Hoyt fading.
36
(m)
m1
2m (m/2)2 | sin(2)|
(Nakagami PDF)
z=
(ux x + juy y ),
2m
(0.148)
where ux and uy are independent and uniformly distributed random numbers belonging to the set {1, 1}, while x and y are i.i.d. Gamma
37
(0.149)
v
v
s
ubmc
udme
u
u
X
X
t
x2i (t) + juy (t|T )t
yi2 (t) ,
z(t|T ) =
ux (t|T )
dme + bmc
i=1
i=1
(0.150)
where de and bc denote the ceil and floor operators, and the processes
x2i (t) and yi2 (t) are as prescribed in the Jakes method.
For arbitrary real m, the best approximate method so far is [6]
(
zL with probability
z=
(0.151)
zU with probability 1
where mL , b2mc/2, mU , mL + 0.5 and
zL pz (z; mL , )
(0.152)
zU pz (z; mU , )
(0.153)
=2
mL
(mU m)
m
38
(0.154)
1.5
m = 0.2; = 0.5
1.25
m = 1.5; = 0.5
p(r; m, )
m = 0.5; = 1
0.75
m = 1; = 2
0.5
0.25
0
0
0.5
1.5
2
r
2.5
3.5
39
1.5
Imag(z)
0.5
0.5
1.5
2
2
1.5
0.5
0
Real(z)
0.5
1.5
(0.155)
pT (x; , ) ,
1
e cos(x) , x S , [, ]
2I0 ()
X
Ik ()
1
+2
cos(k(x ))
2
I ()
k=1 0
1
0.9
= 5; = /4
0.8
0.7
= 3; = 0
p(; , )
0.6
0.5
0.4
= 1; = /2
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
41
0.8
Mandatory Reading
- Goldsmith [2]: Chapter 3 (Sections 3.2 and 3.3)
Additional Reading
- Rappaport [4]: Chapter 5 (Sections 5.4 to end)
- Tse&Viswanath [1]: Chapter 2 (Section 2.3 to end)
- Proakis [8]: Chapter 2 (Section 2.1.4)
Recommendend
- Website: Lagrange Multiplier Method
. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_multiplier
- Article: Q. T. Zhang and S. H. Song, Exact expression for the
coherence bandwidth of Rayleigh fading channels, IEEE Trans.
Commun., vol. 55, no. 7, pp. 1296 1299, 2007.
- Article: G. T. F. de Abreu, On the moment-determinance and
random mixture of Nakagami-m variates, IEEE Transactions on
Communications, vol. 58, no. 9, pp. 2561 - 2575, Sep. 2010.
- Article: G. T. F. de Abreu, On the generation of Tikhonov
variates, IEEE Transactions on Communications, vol. 56, no. 7, pp.
1157 - 1168, Jul. 2008.
42
References
[1] D. Tse and P. Viswanath, Fundamentals of Wireless Communications.
Cambridge University Press, 2008.
[2] A. Goldsmith, Wireless Communications.
2005.
[5] Q. T. Zhang and S. H. Song, Exact expression for the coherence bandwidth
of rayleigh fading channels, IEEE Trans. Commun., vol. 55, no. 7, pp. 1296
1299, 2007.
[6] G. T. F. de Abreu, On the moment-determinance and random mixture of
Nakagami-m variates, IEEE Trans. Commun., vol. 58, no. 9, pp. 2561
2575, Sep. 2010.
[7] , On the generation of Tikhonov variates, IEEE Trans. Communications, vol. 56, no. 7, pp. 11571168, Jul. 2008.
[8] J. G. Proakis, Digital Communications, Fourth Edition.
Mc-Graw-Hill, 2000.
43