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VOOR TAAL, LAND- EN VOLKENKUNDE
TRANSLATION SERIES 8
Dr. P. H. POTT
Original title :
YOGA EN YANTRA
J.
ISBN 978-94-017-5626-6
ISBN 978-94-017-5868-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-5868-0
Softcover reprint ofthe bardeover 1st edition 1946
PREFACE
It isarather long time since I wrote this study, and tobe confronted
with it once again certainly involves some feelings of disappointment
about the way in which, twenty years ago, I tried to formulate my
ideas and arguments. If I had to deal with the same topic now, I believe
I would write another book. For this reason, I have refrained from
making essential alterations in the original text, which has been so
carefully translated into English by Dr. Needham. It was given its
form at a certain moment, it should keep its same composition now,
however much I should prefer to change some parts of the text and
to add better and more convincing examples which I have at my
disposal now. Nevertheless, I venture to hope that this study may
contribute a little to the furtherance of the understanding of Indian
art in general, and of later Buddhist iconography in particular, and
that it may be of some help to him who sets hirnself to the task of
compiling a comprehensive Buddhist iconographical handbook, while
trying at the same time to get at its most fundamental sources. There
is a special satisfaction in this approach, for it discerns the essential
elements in the construction of this enormous pantheon, testifying to
spiritual activity of the human mind which is hardly to be equalled.
This may teach us to be humble, but at the same time to be thankful
for the possibility of learning to understand the rnanifestations of the
human intellect in cultures outside our own. It may help tobring about
that period in which - to quote the words of the famous orientalist
Sylvian Levi - "man by his better insight will have lost the right
of improper judgment".l May this study contribute a little to promote
the advent of such a period !
P. H. POTT
Leiden
September, 1965
Sylvain Levi, Les Etudes Orientales, leurs le,ons, leurs resultats. Paris 1937,
p. 93.
TRANSLATOR'S NOTE
The Dutch edition includes many quotations, sometimes of considerable length, from works in English, French, and German. Since these
are taken over as they stand in the languages of the sources, such
passages have not been exposed to the dangers of double translation
(e.g., from German into Dutch, and then by another hand from Dutch
into English) but have merely had to be translated immediately from
the French or the German.
I owe a particular recognition to Dr. J. C. Harle of the Department
of Eastern Art, Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford, for his
generosity in reading through the manuscript in draft. My gratitude is
also due to Dr. Pott and to the Editorial Committee of the Koninklijk
Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde for the patience and sympathy displayed to me during the long delays which the prior demands
of my profession imposed upon the completion of the translation.
R. N.
Merton College, Oxford
April, 1%5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
Preface . . . .
Translator;s note .
Table of contents .
List of figures in the text
List of plates
Introduction
Yoga .
CHAPTER I :
Yantra
n:
Symbols of Lamaist Ritual .
III:
The Sacred Cemeteries of Nepal .
IV:
v: Pantheons in Java and Bali .
Conclusions .
Bibliography
List of abbreviations .
Index. . . .
Plates I-XV
Tables I and II
VII
IX
XI
XI
XII
XIII
1
28
51
76
102
137
143
157
159
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
10
12
31
33
34
37
41
42
52
59
61
85
135
LIST OF PLATES
Photo: E. E. Schlieper.
XV. a. Key-stone from the ceiling of Ca.J).gi Ngrimbi with the navasanga emblems.
Photo : Archaeological Service, no. 11282.
b. Kekasang from Bali with the nava-sanga emblems.
From: Damste, 1926.
INTRODUCTION
By way of introduction I ought first to explain briefly what is the
task that I have set myself and by what means I have tried to accomplish it. The aim of this study is to find out to what extent a knowledge
of the concepts of yoga may prepare the way to a better understanding
of Indian archaeology. Patafijali, however, cannot serve us as a guide
in this undertaking; the yoga which must be taken as the basis for
the study is that which forms the core of the Tantras, the writings
which especially constitute the foundation of the extensive Indian
pantheons. This Tntrik form of yoga is distinguished from the classical
system, as De la Vallee Poussin observed many years ago,l by an extraordinarily refined and rigorously pursued elaboration of the original
ideas. But since these are matters of esoteric doctrine it is far from
simple to grasp this system, and it is art which often provides the
clear~st indications of the ideas in question.
In this connexion there has been a certain interaction in this study
between the end and the means; a proper understanding of Tntrik
yoga only became possible in the course of the investigation. A survey
of this system of ideas is given in the opening chapter, while in the
succeeding chapters the various sorts of yantras are discussed, i.e.,
all the means employed by yogis in their meditational exercises as aids
to the concentration of thought.
Perhaps it will be asked what is the use of this study. In discussing
the question of the value of ancient J avanese monuments for presentday and future civilization, Bosch has made the following observations :
"Hindu-Javanese art flourished in the same sphere of mysticism
as that in which European art of the middle ages was born. But to
penetrate this sphere and to chart the world of ideas in which Indian
symbolism originated is incomparably more difficult for us than when
we are faced with Western phenomena of the same nature-.
The art arises entirely out of mysticism, but - and here is the point
of difference from Western art - it is seldom given to us to witness
1
XIV
INTRODUCTION
XV
Almost half a century ago Krom expressed the wish that it would
not be long before a study of the Buddhist iconography of Java was
written.S This scholar has hirnself laid the foundations for such a study
in his various papers and in particttlar in his description of the Buddhist
bronzes in the Museum at Djakarta.4 A Buddhist iconography of Java,
however, is still awaited.
In order to compile such a work it would not be enough simply to
give a description of the various religious images and their legends.
It would be necessary to show the underlying connexions between the
various gods, to define their nature and function ; in short, to bring
life to the pantheon. Krom appreciated this very well, and regarded
his own studies in this area as merely preliminary.
I should like the present study also to be seen in the same light,
though perhaps in a rather different way. When trying to find an
approach to come to a better understanding of the multiple forms in
Buddhist iconography, the work clone by J. L. Moens, to whose
memory I dedicate this study, has been a source of inspiration in this
venture. I have tried to reach some understanding of the fundamental
ideas which must lie beyond the outward forms of the various deities
of later Buddhism, and in doing so to contribute something to the
study of Buddhist iconography in a way which provides the satisfaction
of feeling the pulsation of life in the fabulous construction to which
it testifies.
CHAPTER I
YOGA
A great deal of material has been collected by Schmidt (1908), but bis
translation of quotations is not always entirely trustworthy.
Roessel, 1928; Lindquist, 1932.
YOGA
Zimmer, 1926.
Oman, 1903; Vivekananda, 1937.
I follow mainly generat information from lectures given by Prof. Dr. ]. Gonda;
but cf. also: Woods, 1914; Speyer, 1910, pp. 243ff.
YOGA
B. The citta-sanrtskiiras:
VI. DhraJJa, fixing the thoughts without the assistance of the
senses, the operation of which has already been suspended. The thoughts
may not wander, so they are fixed by mental concentratioq on a single
point (the heart, navel, tip of the nose, etc.). The pur~a, the soul, is
thus brought to the first stage of Iiberation.
VII. Dhyna, meditation. This stage is reached when the spirit, by
means of homogeneous concentration, remains directed upon a single
point without being distracted by any other idea. When one is no Ionger
conscious of meditating, the last stage has been reached, namely that
of samdhi.
VIII. Samdhi. By this one arrives at an identification of subject
and object (sampatt~). Human consciousness has gone (Snya), and
one is no Ionger subject to relativity. It is a condition which can:not
be described in words, one of great bliss and transcending any conception of time and place. Two kinds of samdhi are nevertheless
distinguished, viz., that in which one is conscious of living, and that
in which one is not. In the latter case the germ of a new existence is
annihilated, and release is thereby completely accomplished.
The whole process is thus a series of steps directed towards the
isolation of the puru~a. He who has progressed through the smJt.yama
receives superhuman powers. For the yogin an important power is
that of vidy, the ability to distinguish which permits him to separate
appearance from reality and to gain insight into the difference between
spirit and matter, and by which avidy, ignorance, is abolished. With
this the pur~a is brought to the stage of kaivalya, being isolated. He
who has learnt to understand that the pur~a is eternal breaks free
of satttsra and attains life and Iiberation.
In the classical texts Hatha-yoga serves as an introduction to Rjayoga. In spirit and in practice, however, this yoga displays important
divergences. It is generally accepted that Hatha-yoga originated as an
independent form of yoga about 1200 A.D., in sivaitic circles in northeastern India and Nepal. There is every indication, however, that
this system was founded on very ancient conceptions. In this form of
yoga all rules of conduct were absolutely consistently observed; the
more the organs were reduced to inactivity the more surely was the
yogin brought closer to the supreme principle. For the attainment of
this goal a detailed course (sdhana, a "means to success") was devised,
YOGA
YOGA
but he can cause her to linger with siva for as Ion~ as he wishes once
she has been transported to the top.
Various properties of the human organism are connected with the
different cakras or padmas. It is generally accepted that Devi KUl):c;lalinl,
when she passes through the various cakras (~atcakrabheda) on her
joumey upwards, makes latent (laya) the functions ascribed to these
cakras. This is indeed called Laya-yoga. Some writers are of the opinion
that as the sakti ascends the body the parts that she leaves behind
become cold, so that ultimately the whole body is chilled, with the
exception of the crown of the head, where a glowing spot can be seen
which shows that the body is not dead. After this exercise is completed
Devl KUt;c;lalinl is brought down again, step by step, back to the
Mldhra, where she comes to rest agairl.
Let us turn our attention for a while to the different cakras and the
functions and properties connected with them. A comprehensive view
of these is given in Table I. The names of the cakras are given in the
first column of the table; the places in the body where they are thought
to be present are given in the second. The succeeding columns give
the numbers of petals and the letters assigned to them, together with
the tattva of the cakra, the colour, form, and bija, i.e., the mystical
character, thought to reflect the essence of the cakra, then the names
of the deities connected with the various cakras, the so-called granthis
or knots below the cakras (when Devl Rul).c;lalit passes through the
main ones the yogin hears a distinctive sound), and finally the remaining
tattvas and the parts of the macrocosm which correspond with those
of the microoosm and are associated with particular cakras. The table
is taken in the main from that in Avalon's Serpent Power, in which
this author, with the aid of certain texts, viz. the ~atcakranirpa1JU
and the Pdukpaiicaka, gives a detailed survey of everything connected
with the system of the ~atcakra and with the way in which Devi
Kul).4alini passes through it, and with the aid of which he lays the
foundation for our understanding of Laya-yoga.
In this publication 1o Avalon has included a nurober of plates which
he had prepared by experts and which give a picture of the form in
which the cakras are conceptualised during meditation. These plates,
of which a few have been reproduced here in black and white (Figs. 1,
3, 6), but which are in colour in Avalon's book, were prepared on the
10
The texts have been published in the series Tntrik Texts, vol. II, and have
also been translated and provided with an illuminating commentary by Avalon
in his Serpent Power.
10
Fig. 1.
YOGA
11
"At the base of the throat is the Visuddhi-cakra, with sixteen petals
of smoky purple hue. Its filaments are ruddy and the sixteen vowels,
which are red and have the bindu (anusvra) above them, are on the
petals. In its pericarp is the ethereal region (nabho-maf!4ala), circular
and white. Inside it is the candra-mm_ujala and above it is the hija
'H3J!l' This bija is white and garmented in white seated on an elephant
and is four-armed. In his four hands he holds the pSa and the ankusa
and makes vara-mudr and abhayamudr.ll In his lap is Sadsiva,
seated on a lion-seat which is placed on the back of a bull. He is in
hisform of Ardhanri.Svara and as such his body is the colour of snow,
and the other half the colour of gold. He has five faces and ten arms
a.nd in his hands he holds the sla, the tanka, the kha<;lga, the vajra,
dahana, the ngendra, the ghat;it, the ankusa, and makes abhaya-mudr.
He wears a tiger's skin; his whole body is smeared with the ashes and
he has a garland of snakes round his neck. The nectar of the downturned digit of the moon is on his forehead. With the pericarp, and
the lunar region and seated on bones, is the sakti ~kin'i, white in
colour, four-armed, five-faced, and three-eyed, clothed in yellow and
carrying in the hands a bow, an arrow, a noose, and a goad".
Certain other cakras will be discussed below.
Some time ago Garbe succeeded in laying his hands on a number
of illustrations made by a yogin in connexion with the Gher011JQ,asa7Jthit, a text that is concerned with Hatha-yoga. Among other things,
these drawings represent many sana and mudr.l2 Among the latter,
however, there occur a number of hand-positions which in name as
well as in the way they are depicted differ from the generally accepted
mudrs. At the end of the third chapter, namely, a number of so-called
dhral).-mudrs are named which, to judge by their appellations, are
connected with the five elements, viz., Prthividhral).mudr, mbasidhr~mudr, Agneyidhrat].mudr, Vyavidhral).mudr, and ksidhral).mudr; while the plates, remarkably enough, follow a similar
method, though the names do not entirely agree: bh-, pra.Si-, tejo-,
vayaviya- and nabhodhrat].-(mudr). These plates, however, are
particularly interesting in that they not only give a drawing of a particular mudr but at the same time provide a picture of a ma1].<;lala,
like the Avalon drawings, and moreover represent a particular deity.
11
12
12
Fig. 2.
YOGA
13
cosmic figure. Over and beyond the cakras already named, yet another
padma is adduced which appears to have no function in the ~atcakra
bheda but which seems nevertheless to have a definite function peculiar
to it in a special part of yoga, one that is indicated by its own name 13
but the true significance of which can only be guessed at with difficulty
on the basis of the texts alone. Its meaning can be approoched, however,
with the aid of evidence which can be derived further on in our
investigation. For the sake of surveyability we shall just have to pass
on at present.
Two distinct schools of thought are distinguished in the Tantras.
These are known as the "right-hand" and the "left-hand" paths. The
Tantras themselves, however, do not employ this terminology but use
the terms pravrtti and nivrtti. Once more, it is A valon who has
attempted to clarify the true meaning of this distinction and who has
tried to dispel so much misunderstanding.14 While the "right-hand
path" suppresses the operation of the sense organs and in this way
tries to liberate the "self" from all illusion, in the "left-hand path" the
senses are deliberately brought into contact with everything that tempts
them in order to experience the relativety of this temptation and to
rise above it and thus to become master of it. In discussing Laya-yoga
we have seen how the functions of the various sense organs, which
are associated with the different cakras, at the ascent of Devi Kut:<;lalini,
became dilssolved in prl).a - of which Devi Kut:<;lalini is the image and were made laya. In the left-hand path this process goes in the
reverse direction ; the full yoga-procedure is thus not completed with the
~atcakrabheda. "Yoga is a going up and down", says the Kathopani~ad.
It is practically self-evident that texts dealing with the "left-hand
path" are for the most part highly erotic, which is the explanation of
the fact that Western schotarship has turned away in indignation from
the study of these writings and has pronounced a scathing judgement
on them,15 a condemnation which has struck more or less forcefully
13
14
15
Thus the .Sivasa111hit (V, 169 ff.) speaks, for example, of rjdhirja-yoga
as distinct from rja-yoga.
In the introduction to the translation of the M ahnirv!Jatantra published by
Avalon under the title The Great Liberation (1913). The valuable introduction
was left out of the second edition since this had been published separately, in
an expanded form, under the title Shakti and Shkta (1917).
See, for example, the sharply disapproving judgement of a westernized Indian
such as Mitra, in his discussion of the Guhyasamja in his Sanskrit Buddhist
Literature of Nepal (1882).
14
Published texts include the Guhyasamja (ed. Bhattacharyya, 1931) and the
Kaulvalinir~ayab (ed. Avalon, 1929). A prospective edition of the Ca~lja
mahro~a~atantra was announced by De Ia Vallee Poussin, but has never to
my knowledge been published. Concerning the latter text, see Csoma de Krs,
1881, p. 298; De Ia Vallee Poussin, 1,894, pp. 134 ff. and 209; Avalon, Tntrik
Texts, vol. XIV, p. 17.
YOGA
15
18
19
16
21
Although the lists of the eight Bhairavas are almost entirely identical, the
same cannot be said of the lists of Mtrks given in various texts. In spite
of the fact that one and the same goddess may weil bear more than one name,
I am of the opinion that the series is not constant. There follow below a
nwnber of examples, the first three series from the Mah.nirv1;1atantra (V,
133; VI, 100; X, 124), the fourth from the Prapaiicasratantra (IX, 17), and
the last from the Tantrarjatantra (XV):
Ma.il.gal
Ma.il.gal
Brahmi
Brahmi
Brahmi
Vijay
Vijay
Vrhi
Vrhi
Vrhi
Bhadr
Bhadr
Kumri
Kaumri
Kaumri
Jayanti
Jayanti
CmUl].Q.
CmUQ.Q.
Cmu~Q.
Aparjit
Aparjit
Aparjit
Indr~i
Indr~i
Nandini
Nandini
Mahesvari
Mahe5vari
Mahesvari
Nrasitphi
Nrasilphi
Nrasitphi
C~Q.ik
Mahlak~mi
Vai~~avi
Kaumri
Nr~i
Vai!?~avi
Vai!?~avi
This is indicated also by certain names for this Iotus (cf. Goris, 1926, p. 62).
17
YOGA
kalpataru, and under this a throne serving as the seat of the I~tadevat.22
This last is sometimes more particularly named and is usually a form
of Devi. While the heart appears to be reserved for the protective
deity, according to some texts on the eight petals are placed eight
goddesses, these being considered as eight aspects of Devi, the eight
Mtrkas, and in addition eight masculine deities, the eight Bhairavas.
It is worth mentioning that in other texts also, texts which have no
direct connexion with yoga, incidental references are made to the Iotus
of the heart, and that in these references elements are brought into
prominence which are strongly reminiscent of the data which have
been adduced here. The following passage from a well-known story
from the Kathsaritsagara (75, vv. 173-174), which occurs in the
V etlapaiicavif!tsati, is an example:
"Here was I that night, driven by fate to the cemetery, and saw
a host of witches gathered together from all directions. And in
their midst one of the witches dedicated the king's son's ripped-open
heart Iotus to (siva-)Bhairava". 2s
Here we encounter the peculiarly demonie features of the worship
of the "left-hand path", which may be considered the pre-eminent
characteristic of this path, that it is associated by preference with
cemeteries, etc., as we shall see further below.24
The Tntrik version of the tale of V asi~tha, the son of Brahm, as
it is related to us in the Rudraymala,25 points in the same direction.
Vasi~tha practises severe asceticism in order to behold Prvati, i.e.
K.li. Since, however, She does not disclose herself to him, he complains
to her divine father, who replies: "My son, thou who art committed
to the path of yoga, desist! Worship Her with all your heart as she
appears to thee and thou makest gifts to Her. She is the highest sakti;
She brings deliverance from all dangers, She shines like ten thousand
suns. She is the Buddha himself, and protects all beings in all worlds".
When after many years of meditation the goddess still does not appear
w In Buddhist circles analogous ideas are known by analogous terms ( cf. De Ia
Vallee Poussin, 1898, p. 225; on the sve~tadevasyapiijana).
23 For the text I follow J. Ph. Vogel's translation in Dutch as close as
'M
25
possible; where this scholar renders the name Bhairava in translation I have
kept to the Sanskrit.
See the detailed discussion in eh. 4.
Cf. the Taratantra (Bhattacharyya, 1932, pp. 156 ff.; Bleichsteiner, 1937, p. 179;
Levi, 1905, vol. I, pp. 346ff.).
18
27
Following the text published by Levi, who compares his facts with evidence
from the Cincrasratantra ( Maha-Cina-kram&ra), Vasi~tha finds Tibet
profitless and has to travel to China, where he is instructed by Buddha in
the form of Bhairava ( !) in the Cincra, the "way of life of the Chinese",
i.e., in the practices of the "left-hand path", as appears further in the text
(Levi, 1905, vol. I, pp. 356, 382).
Avalon, 1919, p. 150; 1933, p. 463.
YOGA
19
20
Avalon, 1917, vol. II, pp. 393 ff. In addition to the texts cited here, information can also be extracted from the ritual of the Balinese pedanda, who to
this very day performs this rite, which has been studied by Kat Angelino
(1922, pp. 42 ff.).
YOGA
21
Devi is united with siva and through which union supreme bliss is
experienced ;
2. bringing Devi Ku~c:Jalini back to the Mldhra, and in connexion with this exercise leading the jivtman to this cakra in order
to bring about there a renewed ascent of Devi Ku~c:Jalini together with
the jivtman, followed by the pr~aprati~tha ceremony through which
jivtman and I~tadevat are brought out of the body and projected
into a yantra and finally wholly fused tagether in the centrat point
of this yantra, the bindu.
In ordinary speech the word yoga is generally taken to mean the
former part, which enjoys the most fame and is also by no means
unknown to theosophy. Thanks to the high degree of secrecy which
is particularly respected in connexion with everything that ha.s to do
with the latter part, this is almost completely unknown. This second
part is termed Anuttarayoga, excellent yoga. Both parts together are
known as M ahyoga, and the word yoga must be taken in this sense
when we wish to investigate its significance for Indian archaeology in
general and for iconography in particular.
For the sake of completeness, we ought here to mention also a number
of so-called "secret" cakras which play a part in the Anuttara-yoga.
These Iie between the jfi-cakra and the Sahasrrapadma, and are
called (from bottom to top): sryamat_t<fala, candramat_t<f,ala, and agnimaJ}<f,ala. The Kmiklamlini (V), for instance, has this to say about
these ma~c:Jalas: 31 "In its 32 pericarp is the Anta.r:tman.33 Above it
is the Guru. The m~<;lalas of Srya and Candra arealso here. Above
this is Mahvyu 33 and then the Brahmarandhra". These ma~c:Jalas
or "secret cakras" are called by other names as weil, but those given
here are the most characteristic, for they are symbolically represented
by pictures of the sun, moon, and flame, three symbols which repeatedly occur in art, especially in that of Tibet.
Finally, some texts mention yet another "secret" cakra, the Lalanor Kal-cakra, which lies beneath the jfi-cakra. This exhibits in all
31
:r.~
33
22
23
YOGA
Yoga
Srp.khya
Prakrti
Buddhi
7. Sahasrra-padma
6c. Agni-mal):4ala
Ahrupkra
Manas
6.
3.
2.
1.
Am- or
Nirvl).a-kal
6b. Candra-mal).<_lala
Indu-ma1).4ala or
Soma-cakra
6a. Srya-mal).qala
Arka-mal).<_iala or
Manas-cakra
jii-cakra
Sa. Kal- or
Lalan-cakra
ViJuddhi-cakra
Anhata-cakra
4a. nandak:andapadma
M atJipra-cakra
Svdhi$thna-cakra
M ldhra
form
1000-petalled Iotus
I single-petalled
Iotus
16-petalled Iotus
6-petalled Iotus
2-petalled Iotus
6-petalled
16-petalled
12-petalled
8-petalled
10-petalled
6-petalled
4-petalled
Iotus
Iotus
lotus
Iotus
Iotus
Iotus
Iotus
24
itself present the same image. And this, indeed, is what we see happen:
according to Avalon,37 the following human characteristics are associated with the sixteen petals- twice the nurober of the nandakandapadma - of the candramal)<;lala: krp (mercy), mrdut (gentleness),
dhairya (patience), vairgya (dispassion), dhrti (constancy), saJ'!1pad
(prosperity), hsya (cheerfulness), romfica (rapture), vinaya (humility),
dhyna (meditation), susthirat (restfulness), gmbhirya (gravity),
udyama (effort), ak~bhya (emotionlessness), audrya (magnanimity),
and ekgrat (concentration).
If the function, then, of the nandakandapadma was transferred to
the candramal)<;lala, did the nandakandapadma still retain any function
or was a new one ascribed to it? The latter is what seems in fact
to have taken place. This padma reflects, as it were, the core of the
whole Mahyoga process, and gives a sort of formula of it.
While the Sdhaka proceeds step by step on the path of Mahyoga,as
his usages and religious practices change. Nine different acras or ways
of life are thus distinguished, one following the other. One does not
merely pass from one to the next, but continually receives a certain
consecration (abhi~eka) from such a passage. Here too Avalon has
provided an insight into this material, and I can content myself with
referring to his works.39 In the table on the following page I give
a summary of his views.
In the first column are given the various ways of life, and in the
second the names of the successive consecrations which are effected
at the passage from one to another.
As the Sdhaka follows the V edcra, he practices daily the V edic
rite. During the following of the Va~l)avcra the stress is placed on
the bhakti-mrga, and life is characterized by religious submission and
blind belief with a great dependence on the Supreme Being. When he
arrives at the stage of saivcra, the Sdhaka assumes the maintenance
of dharma, and the jfina-mrga begins to play a role of importance.
Dhyna makes iJts entrance during the following of the D~incra.
These four cras together form the "right-hand path", which is in
factalso known by the name of the last-named cra. Opposed to these
four cras, which make up the pravrtti, stands the group that is
composed of the nivrtti, the "left-hand path", which similarly consists
37
38
39
25
YOGA
A.cra
Abhi~eka
(Vedcra)
Vai~?~avcra
Sktbhi~?eka
saivcra
Kramadik~bhi~eka
Vmcra
Srprjybhi~?eka
Siddhntcra
Mahstprjybhi~eka
Aghorcra
Yogadik~bhi~eka
Yogcra
Kaulcra
Mahp~dik~bhi~eka
Jivanmukta
of four cras. This path is known in its entirety as the Vmcra.
As the Sdhaka advances in spiritual development he changes cra
several times more, so that his way of life shall, as far as is feasible,
correspond with the stage of spiritual development that he has reached.
This is done not only in order to achieve a harmonious life, but also
from the conviction that it is possible to further the process of inner
growth through one's external behaviour. This sympathetic train of
thought is particularly clearly to be followed in the "left-hand path".
The demonie cast of thought Ieads in this way to a demonie and often
repellent mode of behaviour which to 3IIl outsider must seem strange
and senseless but which nonetheless has a deeper meaning for the
practitioner himself. By following the "left-hand path", the Sdhaka
progressively loosens hirnself from the bonds of sa.rpsra; he is no
Ionger attached to anything, he neither hates nor fears, he is ashamed
of nothing, and has become ethically indifferent. He loosens hirnself
from the bonds tying him to family, caste, and society. Finally he
26
Cf.
41
YOGA
27
CHAPTER II
YANTRA
YANTRA
29
De Ia Vallee Poussin, 1898, pp. 211 ff., cf. pp. 68ff.; Avalon 1913, p. 332.
30
De Ia Vallee Poussin, 1898, p. 130; von Glasenapp, 1940, pp. 169 ff.
YANTRA
31
Fig. 3.
4
32
Inside the Bindu of the Dhar-bija is the Child Brahm, who is red
in colour and has four hands with which he holds the dat:1c.la (staff),
the kamal):<;lalu (gourd), the rudrkl?a-rosary, and makes the gesture
which dispels fear (abhaya-mudr). He has four faces. In the pericarp
there is a red Iotus on which is the presiding deity of the Cakra
(Cakrdhil?thtri), the sakti I;">kini. She is red and has four arms,
and in her hands are sla ( spear), khatvtiga ( skull-mounted staff),
kll.a4ga (sword), and ~aka (drinking-cup).
In the pericarp there is also the lightning-like triangle, inside which
are Kma-vyu and Kma-bija ('Klirr'), both of which are red. Abave
this is the Svayambh linga which is symavart:la, and above and round
this litiga is Kut:1<;lalini coiled three and a half times, and above this
last upstands, on the top of the litiga, Citkla (another form of
Kut:l<;lalini)." 6
In Figure 3 is the drawing reproduced by A valon, while Figure 4
gives a drawing of the same cakra, as this is prepared by the yogis
from infonnation in the GheraJJ4asatrthit.1 The latter drawing bears
the inscription bhdhra~mudr, whereas the text cited speaks of
prthivid/WraJJ-mudr (III, 68). A more important divergence is that
a square is specified by the text as the form of the m~~ala, whereas
the drawing shows two triangles pushed into each other (the "Seal of
Solomon"). This is apparently a mistake of the artist, since for the rest
the details all fit: both drawings give as bija the character 'Larr', and
both give a representation of Brahm. Although it is possible that we
have to do with an ordinary mistake, it seems to me possible to give
an explanation for it which makes it understandable how the mistake
came to be rnade.
For this purpose we should Iook at a yantra of which Zimmer has
given an illustration in his study s but of which he gives no empirical
discussion; it is reproduced here as Figure 5. It is the Bagalmukhidhra1Ja-yantra. I t is evident at first glance that there is a resemblance
in shape between the drawing of the Mldhra in Avalon and in this
figure. The bija is present here also as the character "Larr" inside
a square, while eight trisla, pointing towards the eight points of the
compass, surround this square. The so-called "feminine" triangle (the
equilateral triangle with its apex turned downwards) from Avalon's
Avalon, 1919, p. 37*; 1933, p. 354.
Edited by Schmidt (1908).
s Zimmer, 1926, PI. 35. Bagalmukhi is a name of Kli.
33
YANTRA
Fig. 4.
34
Fig. 5.
YANTRA
35
1~
36
YANTRA
37
triangle, is also clear, drawn with a white linga inside it. Above and
within the triangle there is a sign which we may recognize as the
character of the celebrated syllable Ol!t, called pral)ava, since this is
expressly mentioned in the text (verse 35) but which surprisingly enough
is missing from Avalon's summary.
Fig. 6.
Finally let us note another three symbols in the drawing which are
less easily to be found in the description, namely the symbols moon,
sun, and flame. But it is not difficult to assign places to these symbols.
In the first chapter we have stated that apart from the "normal" cakra
there are also a nurober of "secret" cakras. Three of them lie between
the jfi-cakra and the Sahasrra-padma, specifically, to denote them
by their usual names, the srya-mal)c;lala, the candra-mat:tc;lala, and the
agni-mal)c;lala.15 No detailed proof is required to show that the three
symbols are representatives of these three mal)c;lalas. In philosophical
examinations of the system of cakras, manas is related to the sryaffial)c;lala, which is then in fact called the manascakra, while the antartman or jiva may be considered to be identical with the aha.tpkra,
which appears to be closely connected with the candra-ffial)c;lala. Thus
the text seems to hint in this way at the presence of these symbols.
We should of course like to be better informed about these "secret"
15
38
cakras, but what the text conveys is most unclear, mostly because it
continually repeats itself, a vice that even more markedly characterizes
the commentaries appended to it.
W e have now examined fairly closely three representations of cakra
with their explanatory texts. I t would be superfluous, it seems to me,
to deal in extenso with the representations and descriptions of the
remaining cakras. I shall confine myself to a few observations.
Among the six cakras there are three to be noticed which are
distinguished from the others by certain features. These are the
granth4thnas or nodes which Devi Kul)~alini pierces with more difficulty than in the case of the other cakras. As she passes through them
the yogin hears an inner sound like the ringing of a bell. The illustrations
of them are distinguished by the fact that they display in the heart of
the lotus a linga placed in a "feminine" triangle, the symbol of the
yoni. These lirigas and their meaning are dealt with in detail, among
other things, in the Yogin'ihrdaya-Tantra (I).16 A total of four of them
are named: Svayambh-liriga in the Mldh.ra, Bl).a-linga in the
nahata-cakra, Itara-linga in the Ajfi-cakra, and Para-liriga in the
Sahasrra-padma. Certain colours and forms are ascribed to the first
three- namely yellow, red, and white; square, triangular, and roundwhile according to certain views a series of characters is associated
with these linga, respectively vowels, the consonants ka to ta, and
those from kha to sa. The Para-liilga, on the other hand, is a concentration of the three, a higher unity which is formless and colourless
and in which all the characters are united. Finally, the three lingas
are associated with the triad Rudra, Vi~l).U and Bralun, while the
remaining cakras are relegated to the granthi~th.nas.17
In my opinion it is clear that here we are dealing with a particular
method by which the entire system is ordered in a triadic fashion, so
that the series of the three lirigas - with a fourth subsuming them
all - is in fact an abbreviated reflection of the complete system of
~atcakra. In particular, the way in which the remaining cakras are
relegated to the granti~thnas, and the association of the liriga with
series of characters which together form the ngari alphabet, strike
me as being a strong indication of this.
This being the case, it will occur to us that this system is portrayed
in a particular kind of linga which is met with mainly in Further India
16
17
YANTRA
39
and in Java but also in other places. These liti.gas are divided vertically
into three parts of the same height; the lowest part is square in section,
the middle is octagonal, and the upper part is round. Bosch has devoted
leamed attention to this variety of litiga.lS This scholarseessuch objects
as condensed representations of the litigodbhavamrti of siva, in which
the three parts represent Brahm, siva and Vi~J;tU, so that in his view
this triad must be connected with this liti.ga. We may thus see such
an object as a yantra, which, as the most concise indication of the
system of cakras, was the most appropriate means for a yogin at a higher
state of development to employ as a point of departure for the formation
of the microcosmic world-view during meditation.
The image of the microcosm that the yogin forms is constructed by
analogy with ideas of the macrocosm.19 These latter ideas can thus
also play the parts of yantra. This is plain in certain forms. We
remarked above, in passing, that the monument of Trawas gave a
representation of the cosmos. There are a number of other objects,
however, in which the character of yantra is even more obvious. We
shall now consider some of these forms.
lt should be noted, to begin with, that these yantra can be sub-divided
by kinds. Thus there are yantras which are wholly constructed at the
very beginning as, and thus immediately portray, an image of the
cosmos, while there is another group which is continually built up
during meditation. In the former group the yogin constantly penetrates
in his thoughts deeper and deeper into the yantra; in the latter, he
makes up the image concomitantly with the progress of his thoughts,
until ultimately the image is completed.
Yantras can moreover be further distinguished according to the
dimension in which they are designed; there are some that are represented in two-dimensional drawings, but there are others which are
constructed three-dimensionally. Here follow a few examples.
One of the most attractive representations of the two-dimensionally
18
19
40
Rao, 1914, vol. I, pp. 330 ff. Therc is a good illustration in Kundangar (1929).
YANTRA
41
Fig. 7.
42
dha, in the following group of ten the letters na to bha, and in the
group of eight, which is located inside, the remaining letters of the
alphabet, viz., ma to ka.
If we follow in thought the letters of the alphabet, in their correct
order, then we describe an imaginary line which runs in a spiral fashion
from the outer edge of the figure to the centre, the bindu, in a direction
contrary to that of the sun.
Zimmer, in his repeatedly cited study, has already given an account
of the way in which such a yantra is set up and extended. The figure
is begun from the inside and constructed outwards, by ingeniously
lengthening the lines of the innermost triangles in a certain way.
Though Zimmer follows the textual information about the construction,
the way in which he has elucidated this process in figures is not correct.
In figure 8 the whole process of evolution is given in the way which
enables us to follow this highly intricate system completely, all intermediate steps being ind.icated by dotted lines :
Fig. 8.
YANTRA
43
The total figure then completely fills the circular centrat part of
the yantra; this centre i:s surrounded by two borders of eight and
sixteen petals respectively, and enclosed by a threefold circle. Then
the bhpara is drawn, and with this the figure is complete. In meditation
the process is the reverse of this; one begins at the outer edge and
penetrates deeper and deeper in towards the centre. One follows the
various characters which can be placed on the petals of the 16-petalled
Iotus and in the small triangles in order that the figure itself shall
be fully drawn.21
It is noteworthy that the letters on the petals of the six cakras display
the same feature, namely the series of characters following each other
in an anti-clockwise direction and forming tagether the complete alphabet: all the vowels stand on the petals of the Visuddhi-cakra, and the
remaining letters follow one after the other on the petals of the lower
cakras, so that the letters va to sa find their place on the petals of the
Mldhra. The last letters, ha and k~a, are to be found on the two
petals of the jfi-cakra. On the petals of the Sahasrra, finally, all
the letters are found in a twenty-fold recapitulation.
W e can thus see the Sricakra as a comprehensive image of the six
cakras; it is one concentrated yantra, therefore, that takes the place
of six separate ones and provides a picture of the entire process of
development in one figure in which the composite parts make the
different phases.
It is striking that not all the letters of the six cakras have a place
in the figure of the nine interlocking triangles, but that the letters on
the sixteen petals of the Visuddhi-cakra correspond completely with
the sixteen petals of the outer edge of the Iotus of the Sricakra. This
cakra, which thus occupies a rather exceptional position, is called,
remarkably enough, Asurndhakapadma, a fact which Ieads us to
wonder whether this name has anything of the character of an amulet,
providing protection against the influence of devils, which is par
excellence the attribute of this yantra, as Rao informs us.
The Sricakra is not known in Hindu circles alone, but equally in
Buddhist circles. The illustration provided by Rao comes from a Hindu
source, but a completely similar image is furnished by the Buddhist
sricakra which forms the subject of an interesting Tntrik-Buddhist
manuscript which is known only in a Tibetan version, namely the
Sricakras(]IIJtbhratantra.22 Although this text mentions series of letters
21
22
44
Levi makes various observations on this alphabet (1928). Cf. Beal, 1887, p. 206.
On Arapacana Mafijusri, see Foucher (1900, vol. II, p. 45) and Bhattacharyya
(1924, pp. 28ff.).
YANTRA
45
25
2ft
46
eight Mtrks, the sun and moon, etc. During all this, long mantras
are uttered, while Waddell expressly mentions that "during this ceremony it is specially insisted on that the performer must mentally
oonceive this offering."
Besides this three-dimensional yantra, which is at the same time
a macrocosmic image, there is also in Tibet a two-dimensional yantra
in the form of an amulet known by the name "assembly of all the
Lamas' Hearts". Waddell has provided us with a picture of this, too,
and a detailed description.27 It consists of a series of concentric circles,
filled in with magical formulas and surrounded by flames, in which
are the symbols of the Buddhist triad: the three jewels, a lotus-blossom,
a vajra and a Tibetan magical dagger (phur-bu). Within the circle liest
a ten-petalled lotus, and inside this an eight-petalled one. On the petals
of these lotuses there are mystical characters, while inside the eightpetalled Iotus there are in addition a nurober of circles of which the
first is once more filled with a mantra. Waddeli has given translations
of the various mantras. In addition to a nurober of mystical syllables,
they consist of allusions to certain triads which are of both philosophical
and iconographic interest. Thus there occur: kya, vc, citta; but also
Buddha, Dharma, Sangha, and finally, in the innermost circle, Guru,
Deva, J)kin'i. This last, placed within the eight-petalled lotus, is particularly noteworthy, and with a view to what will soon be discussed
below we would draw attention to the occurrence of a triad that sounds
so un-Buddhist in the centre of one of the most intriguing Lamaistic
yantras.
Finally, it ought to be mentioned that in Tibet there is a microcosmic
symbol which is the counterpart of the macrocosmic. In addition to
the affering of the world, the m~<;lala-offering, there is an offering,
made to the "terrible" deities, which is made of various parts of the
human body. This affering truly looks "terrible" enough! On the
sacrificial fire a sacrificial platter is placed, consisting of a human
cranium in which are placed the heart, hands and feet, the nose, tongue,
ears and eyes, of an "unbeliever" or demon.28 However terrifying
27
28
Waddell, 1895, pp. 402 ff. A Tibetan block, with which such a figure can
be stamped and numerous copies made, is to be found in the Rijksmuseum
voor Volkenkunde at Leiden (No. 1119/84).
Such skull-bowls are not unknown as ritual attributes. They are usually
placed on a triangular copper pedestal, decorated in openwork with flamemotifs, which must indicate the sacrificial fire, while the skull is closed
with a usually very well-made Iid with a vajra-shaped handle. Illustrations
are to be found in N ederlandsch-lndie Oud en Nieuw, vol. XV, p. 133;
YANTRA
47
such an offering may be, the initiate knows that it is the symbol of
the microcosm, represented by the sense-organs and "organs of action"
of man. Although such offerings occur mostly in illustrations of demonie
deities,29 they are not absent from purely mystical texts, from which
it may be seen that they must have had an esoteric significance. The
offering is pictured, for example, in a copy of a Sanskrit text from
Nepal known as VajrasattvaO This text, which is practically entirely
devoted to mystical hand-positions, gives all of a sudden, without comment, an illustration of this offering in connexion with a description
of the ritual worship of the candrama1Jljala.
On the basis of material collected from Tibet, we can now form
a more exact idea of a ritual ceremony which was performed in Buddhist
circles in India itself, the Sve~tadevasya pjana, and which has been
described in detail by La Vallee Poussin on the basis of the texts. It is
the worship of one's own protective deity:
"The believer forms a mental image of I~tadevat, such as has been
previously described for him by the guru, placed on a Iotus which rests
on a throne, the whole being installed in the mystical sumeru ; at its
sides there are Vairocana, on the moon (to the east), and the four
other Buddhas, on the sun (to the west); all of these wear the civara
and are provided with the u~r:ti~a; they are supported and produced
by the dhrar:tis and are variously coloured; they adopt ritual attitudes;
at the four corners, on the moons placed in the mar:tqalas of the four
elements, there are the four Y oginis.
They are performing pj to the divinities. This pj consists of
the offering of the entire world of the senses, that is to say, the god
receives sounds represented by a flute, smells symbolized by sandal,
tastes in the form of milk, the rpas and the spar5aniyas represented
by a lamp and a piece of clothing. If the officiant cannot proeure the
objects that he needs for this rite, it is of little importance: but the
29
30
48
pj must always be performed with the heart and the mind (mnasi);
nothing exists but the citta !" 31
It will be necessary to say later more about this worship of the
l~tadevat in Lamaistic circles ; with regard to the various ways in
which a cosmological conception is formed by this worship, we may
observe that place is made in this image for certain deities. Such a
cosmological conception may also be given its form by a systematical
arrangement of deities in a pantheon. In his Kunstform und Yoga,
Zimmer has concerned hirnself more particularly with the religious
image as a yantra, the emphasis being on the figure of Vi~l).U and his
various incarnations, whereas the figure of siva remains more in the
background. This is not entirely accidental. Vi~l).U in fact is especially
associated with the bhakti-mrga and is confined to the "right-hand
path", whereas siva-Rudra repeatedly displays a demonie nature and
is primarily associated with the practices of the "left-hand path". The
same may be said of Kli:-Durg.
In the Purl).ic Iiterature siva is usually called the eight-fold,32 an
image in which each of his aspects receives its own name, while it is
expressly said that the aspects must work together so that cosmic
order
- both microcosmic and macrocosmic - shall continue to be
f
maintained. It is typical, also, that these eight aspects show a tendency,
just as does siva himself, to the demoniacal, a tendency which eventuates in the figure of siva-Bhairava with his eight terrible benehmen.
This group also plays an important part in Tntrik Buddhism and
will be discussed further below.
Durg is worshipped by preference in the form of a nine-fold group,
the N ava Durg : a centrally placed figure surrounded by eight aspects.
These aspects together make up, as it were, the main figure, which
is itself equipped with nine pairs of arms, a typical product-figure of
an 8-9 group. In addition to the group of the Nava Durg, there are
also lists of more or less demonie goddesses which are all composed
of eight or nine, while in the Purl).as the even older group of the
seven Mtrks is increased to a group of eight goddesses which entirely
surpass the older in importance. Together with the group of sivaBhairava, this group of eight goddesses plays an important part in
Tntrik Buddhism. W e shall come across them again.
Sometimes such groups grow still further into groups of 11 or 12.
31
112
49
YANTRA
Rao,
1~14,
so
From this explanation, which at the same time gives a very good
picture of the mode of argument in this kind of text, we see that
a divine aspect of siva Devi is repeatedly associated with a particular
tattva in a fashion entirely corresponding with that which we have
seen in the case of the cakrdhi~thtr'i and their masculine counterparts
in the !?atcakra system. The similarity between the two groups is
striking. But the groups of deities, alas, do not permit such a correspondence to be further established in an iconographic respect, for the
Jye!?thdevi group consists of two-armed forms while the various
cakrdhi~thtris possess for the tnost part one or more pairs of "supernatural" arms. Moreover, the Jye~th-group is given real names, while
the other has names whose first letters make up the name :J;)kini.
The name Manonmani is alone known from the texts that deal with
the ~atcakra system, in which she occupies one of the highest places
by the side of Sadsiva,34 while her appearance indicates that she is
extremely closely connected with Kli : "Manonmani is to be either of
blue or black complexion, should have a large face and should carry
the kapla and the kha9ga. She is also said to bestow wealth on her
votaries and to terrify their enemies." 35 We shall meet her again
in Tibet.
Jye~thdevi is also an interesting figure in herself. Although she is
of terrible aspect, she bestows gifts on her worshippers and destroys
their enemies. She is two-armed, and bears as attributes the kapla
and the bJ?.a; she has the crow - in India too a bird of death - on
her banner, and accompanies Yama in his aspect, armed with club and
noose, as a bull.36 It is noteworthy that these two figures should have
been adopted so completely by Lamaism with exactly the same characteristics. Here they form a fixed group and an unbreakable whole,
known by the name C'os-rgyal-phyi-sgrub, i.e., "the great two-fold
lord", by far the most important form of Yama in the Lamaistic
pantheon. We shall encounJter it again in lthe sacred cemeteries, which
we are about to examine. The demoniacal character of the goddess is
immediately apparent from her additional name Alak~rni, and is further
made clear by the legends which Rao has reported from the texts in
his oft-quoted standard work.
34
35
36
37
CHAPTER 111
The infonnation that we can obtain from Tibet, China, and Nepal
is of great importance for our investigation. In these countries we find
more than once the key opening the way for further research. Symbols
which we seek in vain in India and elsewhere are found here in a form
which often bears witness to their original meaning. It is often the case
that Tibet and Nepal in particular provide a solution to archaeological
problems of the first importance. One has only to think of the system
of Dhyni-Buddhas which is of such great importance in Mahyana
and which must be understood if we are to fathom the greatest creations
ofthisform of Buddhism, such as, for example, Barabu<;iur.
In this chapter we shall examine a number of ritual objects of the
Lamaistic cult which are used in Tibet and Nepal to this very day.
Such objects are by no means unknown to the \Vest. Many of them
have found their way into our museums. Only very seldom do such
objects of "Tibetan" art come directly from Tibet; usually they reach
the hands of collectors through China. Whenever mention is made of
China in this chapter, it should be understood that it is Lamaistic China
that is meant, the China that is the source of such objects, which we
shall refer to in general as Tibetan and which in origin are Tibetan,
taking this denomination in the cultural and not in the political sense.
One object that strikes us at once on a Lamaistic altar is a miniature
stpa. We may well wonder what function such an object could have
in such a place. Should it be seen as merely a reliquary, which is what
it has often been taken to be ? On the face of the matter, this is an
obvious answer. Real stpas are monuments of stone, erected above
repositories in which material relics of the Buddha are buried. King
Asoka is said to have acquired great merit by the erection of 84.000
such structures. These were also put up in places which had played
an important part in the life of the Buddha. In Tibet one finds a great
number of mch' od-rtens, small stpas of plastered brickwork which
52
serve as repositories for the ashes of Lamaistic holy men and abbots.l
The form of these mch' od-rtens is somewhat different from that of the
usual Indian stpa. In generat the foot consists of a larger number of
square terraces, while the pinnacle is crowned with three symbols, viz.
sun, moon, and flame. The same is the case with the miniature stpas
which ornament the altar. These latter are often very beautiful obj ects,
ood according to Waddeli they sometimes con.tain relics.2 This does
not seem a necessary feature, however, or, as Mus says, "the repository
crowns the symbolism, it does not create it !" 3
That such a stpa is to be seen as a symbol
kha appears clearly from the speculations which have
ka
centred on the form of the object. According to
a Chinese-Budd~st text recorded by Remusat,
ra
stpas are not built over the graves of holy men
and priests; these are marked with stones representing in their specific form the five elements
va
and thus simultaneously the human body that is
made up of them.4 Even these stones are called
a
stpas. Figure 9 gives an impression of the way
in which a particular aspect of the stpa is cut
Fig. 9.
out in such stones. The earth, right at the bottom, is represented by an oblong or square; water, directly above
this, by a circle, fire by a triangle, light by a half-moon, and air by
a small circle crowned by a flame. The various figures are further
indicated by different letters in the ngari alphabet: kha for air,
ka for light, ra for fire, va for water, and a for the earth. Waddeli
observes that the caityas themselves are explained by the Lamas as
to be understood in an entirely similar fashion as consisting of the
five elemen!ts into which the body deoomposes after death.5
Such interpretations show that the stpa, and particularly the miniature stpa on the altar, should not be seen in the first place as a
funerary monument or a reliquary, but as a means to the configuration
of the cosmic order, whether in the microcosmic or the macrocosmic
A number of fine photographs of such monuments are to be found in Laufer's
translation of the Milaraspa (1922, Pis. 8-12).
2 Waddell, 1895, pp. 262ff.
3 Mus, 1935, p. 211.
" Foe-Koue-Ki, trans. Remusat, 1836, pp. 91 ff.; quoted in pa.rt, with a better
illustration, in Fergusson, 1873, p. 115.
11 Waddell, 1895, p. 263.
1
53
54
sun-shade ; matsya, the two fish ; sankha, the conch-shell ; padma, the
Iotus; kumbha, the pitcher filled with nectar ; srivatsa, the lucky
diagram; cakra, the wheel; and dhvaja, the banner of victory. These
symbols are said to be present on the foot-stool of a Buddha. There
are many pictures of foot-prints in which are the eight lucky signs.
Levi mentions that "the Nepalese represent in profusion the feet of
the Buddha carved in stone or painted in colour, recognizable by the
eight bringers of good luck (Q4famaitgala) with which they are decorated." 11 Oldfield reproduces a number of such foot-prints, but
without saying where they hail from.12 One of the illustrations represents in all probability the pair of foot-steps of Bodh Gay, the Buddhapd, which Cunningham described and reproduced in his first report.13
These also are provided with the eight lucky signs. The most noteworthy
thing about this pair of foot-prints, however, is the way in which they
are represented. They are chiselled, namely, on the flat side of a halfsphere. On the hemispherical side there is an inscription giving 1230
saka as the year of erection. This combination of foot-prints and
half-sphere reminds one of the Pasir Pafijang inscription on the isle
of Karimun-besar. This consists of three lines of very large ngari
letters, the characteristics of which indicate that they were inscribed
in the ninth or tenth century, and which Brandes reads as follows:
"Mahynika golay~trita sri gautamasripdl).", i.e., in Kern's translation, "the glorious feet of the Buddha, contemplated by the Mahynikas as golayantra", meaning that the Buddha is identified with the
golayantra.14 The explanation of the word golayantra presents difficulties. Brandes translates it by "armillary", whereas Kern says that
strictly speaking this ought not to be its meaning. I propose to leave
the word untranslated, and to regard a golayantra as an object of
meditation, as a yantra therefore, deriving its name from its spherical
shape. A comparison with the Buddha-pd at Bodh Gay urges itself
here. Unfortunately, however, it is not known whether the Pasir
Pafijang inscription is accompanied by an illustration of the object of
the information, and if so, in what form.15
lll Levi, 1905-8, vol. II, p. 18.
12 Oldfield, 1880, pl. fac. pp. 32, 269.
13 Reports of the Archaeological Survey of India, vol. I, 1871, pp. 9 ff., PI. VII.
L4 Brandes, in N otulen van de Algemeene en Directievergaderingen van het
Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en W etenschappen, 1887, pp. 148 ff.;
ibid., 1888, p. 155; Kern, 1913-29, vol. VII, pp. 136 ff.
15 Cf. Kleiweg de Zwaan, 1928, pp. 313 ff. Even the earliest inscriptions in Java
refer to and depict such footprints (cf. Vogel, 1925, pp. 15-35).
55
Leaving for the moment the question of what the footprints are, let
us Iook at their characteristic features. Burnouf has devoted considerable
attention to this topic in his edition of the SaddharmapuJJ4arika.l6 In
this he presents a Iist of sixty-eight lucky signs which distinguish the
sole of the foot of a Buddha, according to a report of the Dharmapradipik, from which he shows that Baldaeus must already have known
this list.17 It is composed of a large number of objects which could
not possibly all be accommodated on so small a surface as the sole
of a foot. There are also specific marks in this Iist which it would be
difficult to portray in such a small compass. Thus on the sole of the
foot place is to be found for the world-mountain with seven other large
mountains, the seven "mother-rivers", and so on. This Ieads one to
suspect that in this Iist a summary of the elements for a cosmic configuration is given as well. In a similar summing up of the construction
of the great mat:t~ala-offering of Tibet, the saptaratna also appear; as
will presently appear, the 04(amaitgala also had a place in the cosmic
figuration.
In his edition of the sambhalai-lam-yig, Grnwedel quotes a passage
from a dKar-chag, a Tibetan guide-book, to the lost sites of Buddha's
birth and death which reads as follows: 18 "The icy mountains completely surrounding the receptacle form an eight-spoked heavenly
wheel, a Iotus on earth with eight petals; on the summit of the Byaniian-bun-bal-po rises the umbrella (chattra)", and so on. Then, one
after the other, are named the eight mountains which form a circle
like eight petals around the torus or receptacle. Each of the eight is
supplied with one of the symbols from the a~tamangala group. Thus
here too the a~tamatigala or eight auspicious signs of a Tathgata
find a place in a cosmogony.
Grnwedel quotes the passage as introduction to a passage from the
text which he translates and in which similarly there is mention of
a chain of eight mountains (fol. 44a), these being represented as the
dwelling-places of the eight "great" Bodhisattvas: "on the mountains
stand their statues with their attributes, Maitreya and the rest". What
these attributes may be is not specified ; probably it is thought that
the indicaltions given are enough. A comparison of the passage with
16
17
18
Burnouf, 1852, Appendix VIII, iv: De l'emprunte du pied de C,::kya, pp. 622-47.
Burnouf was acquainted with the German translation of Baldaeus' work. It
appears on p. 154 of the original Naauwkeurige beschrijvinge van Malabar en
Choromandel (Amsterdam, 1672). Further on footprints in Buddhism see the
article "Bussokuseki" in Hbgirin, 1930.
Grnwedel, 1918, p. 85; Waddell, 1896, p. 276.
56
that from the dKar-chag makes it likely, however, that here also the
are referred to, which would also mean the establishment
of a connexion between this series of treasures and the a~tamahbodhi
sattvas. Moens has already suggested this connexion on the basis of
other considerations.19
The ~tamatigala, finally, not only play a part as distinguishing
features on the sole of the Buddha's foot, but also appear in another
connexion in the Buddha's life-story.
When the Buddha, exhausted by long fasts, was preparing hirnself
to begin his meditation under the bodhi-tree, where supreme insight
was to be imparted to him, a woman offered him a golden dish with
milk, which he accepted.20 On the surface of the milk the Buddha saw
the eight lucky signs which are together called the a~tamatigala. If the
eight high bodhisattvas are associated with this series of valuables in
the sense that they are represented by these symbols, then the group
of the a~tamahbodhisattvas are directly connected with the acquisition
of bodhi by the Buddha. The eight great bodhisattvas do indeed appear
in representations of this event in the life of Buddha, but only seldom.
Plate III presents a portrayal in stone from the Deslouis collection
(from a photograph in the collection of the Kern Institute). The Buddha
is in vajraparyatika with bhumisparsamudr, seated under the bodhitree, and is flanked by two rows of four bodhisattvas, two of whom
however are lacking due to the damaged condition of the relief.21 This
remarkable piece, as well as the various examples in Tibetan paintings,
gives indirect support to Moens' suggestion.
When the Buddha had gained supreme insight, he threw away the
golden dish, which was caught by the king of the ngas. N ow it is
rather curious to observe that replicas of such a dish seem to exist.
Filchner, during his expedition to Tibet and China, was able to secure
an old example which was used for ritual purposes and is here illustrated
in Plate IV.22 The dish is of copper inlaid with enamel, a great part
of which, sadly, has been chipped off. On the outside - not shown
here - the ~tamatigala are portrayed, twined about with lotus tendrils
and centred on the character 01!f, which is placed on a bull. On the
inside of the dish is the mystical sign of the rNam-bcu-dbati-ldan,
a~tamatigala
lll
20
21
22
57
58
On the term Sa'!Jpannakrama, in opposition to Utpannakrama, two designations of paths of spiritual development, see Schiefner's edition of Trantha,
1869, pp. 324 ff.
59
60
61
blue
black
green
red
white
yellow
Fig. 11.
tation it is possible to discover the sign on the dish which formed the
starting point for this discussion.
The same dish also bea.rs the a~tamatigala, the attributes of a
Tathgata. A complement to this series of valuables is fonned by the
group of saptaratna, also known as cakraratna or simply as ratnni.
This group comprises the following symbols : cakra, wheel ; cintma?Ji,
jewel; stri, wife; mantrin, minister; hastin, elephant; a.Sva, horse; and
k~atriya or senpati, general. It is a group of emblems belonging to
a cakravartin, a world-ruler, and it is precisely the possession of these
jewels that confers on the sovereign the position of cakravartin.30 As
such, these jewels also play a part in the story of the life of Buddha,
and in a few instances they occur in portrayals of his birth.31
Immediately after his birth, prince Siddhrtha is shown to the
Brahmans. They foreteil a great future for him ; he will either become
a cakravartin, if he finds pleasure in worldly life, or a tathiigata, if
instea.d he tums his back on worldly pleasures and dedicat:es hirnself
to a spiritual life. When he reaches the turning-point of his life, at the
moment when he joumeys out from Kapilavastu, he hears how Mra,
the tempter, promises to make him cakravartin if only he will abandon
hisplan to rejeot all worldly things and renounce his religious calling.
Finally, before he dies he makes known his wish to be laid to rest
30
31
62
34
311
36
63
38
39
40
64
The cha.racter of yantra which belongs to the kumbha appears especially clearly in a nurober of yantras of the Jains. I do not know whether
Grnwedel has been able to carry out his intention to deal with these,
and other Iiterature on this subject as a whole is entirely lacking.
I shall merely draw attention here to a single example.
Coomaraswamy, in his article The Conqueror's Life in Jaina
Painting,4t has reproduced an illustration of an exceptionally fine
yantra. It shows a pr1J.akala.Sa, a full, pot-bellied, jar. Although this
can be regarded as a yantra in itself, the drawing is furthermore conceived two-dimensionally, in that on the picture is represented an
eight-petalled Iotus within which is a circle with 33 chara.cters arranged
in such a way as to compose a highly stylized bija hri1.n. It may be
regarded as a complement to the Sricakra. A similar yantra is discussed
and illustrated in an article by Hirananda Sastri. 42 The figure is very
much the same, except that instead of 33 chara.cters there are 48.
Sastri reports that the yantra is called ~~imatJ<Jalayantra.
The Sricakrasatp.bhiiratantra also gives detailed directions for the
employment of the kumbha and on the way in which it ought to be
decorated. In it we read : "the necks of the kumbhas are adorned with
knots and bows of celestial silk and surmounted by wish-granting trees
laden with flowers and fruits." 43 The idea conveyed is as though
wishing-trees, kalpa.tarus, grew out of the kumbha.
In the same way the groups of treasures make their appearance from
out of the kumbhas,44 while the whole pantheon as well emerges from
the kumbha by dint of further meditation over it, as is described in
the same text. In this connexion there is an interesting point, in that
next to this pantheon which emerges from the kumbha there is pla.ced
a smaller group of deities arranged about the demonie divinity Heruka
and forming the Mahsukhacakra. In direct connexion with the cakra,
which appears to have the form of an eight-petalled Iotus, are named
the eight sa.cred cemeteries.45 Although we shall deal with the eight
smaSnas in the next chapter, we may already observe here that this
41
42
43
44
45
Journal of the lndia" Society of Oriental Art, vol. 111, 1935, p. 134, Pl.
XXXVI.
Sastri, 1938, pp. 425 ff.
Tntrik Texts, vol. VII, p. 35.
Pott, 1943, p. 219. I have already indicated in this place that such a represen-
65
Mahsukh<l:cakra is extremely closely related to the group of a!,'tam.ailgala, the group of eight treasures which are portrayed on the dish
discussed earlier in this chapter.
If we look more closely into the matter, we see that the fact that
there is another yantra formed of a certain limited group of deities, in
addition to the kumbha as yantra for the construction of a whole
pantheon, is not a singular phenomenon. A clear demonstration of this
is provided by the sGrub-byed rite which is similarly described in the
Sricakrasaf!tbiU.iratantra and in which a kumbha and a dish are used: 46
"The two holy water jars (which should be in perfect accordance
with the prescribed forms) should be fumigated and sanctified. One
is in the inner circle of the altar, and the other on the outer and lower
platform of the altar for use during the rite. The inner pot is called
rNam-rGyal Bumpa (the Vijaya-jar). The outer one is called the Lasthams-cad-pahi Bumpa, the holy water jar for all purposes (sarvakrama). The Vijaya-jar is to be thought of as containing the entire
mal)Qa.la of Devats and the Las-boom (the Karma-pot) to contain
only the deities of the Mahsukhacakra. Both are imagined to contain
the vowels and the consonants. The Vijaya-jar (rNam-rGyal) contains
the 62 Devats. Then having poured water into the conch vessel
imagine that all the Devats are merged therein. This is the rite
pertaining to the holy water jars. Then imagine oneself to be absorbed
into the outer H eruka. Think that you perform those functions which
the Guru has to perform. The assistant' s functions are to be performed
by a two-handed H eruka P.roduced from the heart", etc.
Schlagirrtweit is able to provide further particulars about the same
rite: 47
"The rite Dubjed (sGrub-byed), the name of which means 'to make
ready' (viz. the vessels ?), is intended to concentrate thoughts. Those
who are about to devote themselves to profound meditation place before
them the vase-like vessel called rNam-rGyal bmpa, 'the entirely
victorious vessel', and a flat vessel called Lai bmpa, 'the vessel of
the works'. These two vessels are not infrequently traced upon the
cushions upon which the Lamas sit during the public religious services.
The N am-gyal bmpa typifies abstraction of the mind from surrounding
objeots; the Lai bmpa., perfection in abstract meditation. The vessels
are filled with water perfumed with saffron, and strips of the five
46
47
66
48
The naming of the points of the compass is not actually based on a dualistic
system such as is expressed in our own compass-card. In Tibet the compass
points are described in a rightwise circle; one speaks there of east-south and
west-north instead of south-east and north-west.
Cf. p. 78 below.
67
51
52
113
They are discussed in detail in the Tibetan Book of the Dead, the BardoThosgrol. Cf. Wentz, 1927, pp. 142ff.; Gordon, 1939, pp. 98 ff. In the Museum
voor Aziatische Kunst at Amsterdam there is a thanka with representations
from this book in which these goddesses occupy an important place.
In addition to the images from Comilla and Biaro Bahal II referred to by
Bosch (1930, pp. 140 ff.), the following may be listed: the two-armed image
from Ratnagiri, illustrated in Banerji (1931, vol. II, p. 416); a two-armed
bronze, at present at Baroda and published by Bhattacharyya (1928, p. 727,
P. IV); and finally a four-armed form at Teli ka pao, Bhutpur State, and
at present in the Muttra Museum (Kern Institute photograph, Mathur,
XXI/6).
Bosch, 1930, pp. 140 ff.
Trantha, 1914, p. 48.
68
Mi
69
In the last part of the ceremony the initiand reaches the stage at
which he is identified with Hevajra and worships hirnself in this form.
This must have made severe demands on his powers of imagination.
Hevajra belongs, indeed, among the most complex deities of the
Lamaistic pantheon. Minor discrepancies occur in the descriptions of
this god; in the H evajrasekaprakriy he is moreover put on a par
with Heruka, a divine figure who, as we have seen, 1s as demonie
as he is complex.
Commonly, Hevajra has seven or eight heads and eight pairs of
arms. He is always represented in the yab-yum posture with his sakti
Vajravrhi. In his eight left hands he holds drinking-cups made of
skulls in which gods are seated, z;iz., Varu~a, Vyu, Agni, Candra,
Srya, Y ama, Vasundhar, and as the eighth a god whose name
Grnwedel gives only in Tibetan : Sa'i-lha-ser-po. In the eight right
hands Hevajra similarly holds skull-cups, in which there are as many
animal figures, apparently as vhanas, viz., an elephant, a horse, an
ass, a bull, a camel, a man, a deer, and a cat.58
The figure of Hevajra is in fact an exceptionally fine example of
what I have previously called a product-figttre, i.e., a figure produced
by the union of the properties of (eight) original figures. An immediate
indication of this composition is provided by the sixteen arms and
eight heads. He is surrounded, moreover, by eight goddesses, viz.,
Gauri, Cauri, Vettali, Ghasmari, Pukkasi, Savari, C~Qli, and :t;)ombi,
an eight-fold group which can be regarded as a group of aspects of his
Sakti Vajravrhi and which appears in practically the same order in
the retinue of Heruka.
We have already seen, in the second chapter, that what was sought
in devotional exercises was primarily the awakening of an inner image
by means of an external action corresponding to it. When Khubilai
underwent the Hevajra-consecration, whereby ultimately he became
like this god, he would have tried, during and after the ceremony, to
58
See PI. VI and the description in Grnwedel (1900, p. 105, P. 86). Minor
variations occur in the representation of Hevaj ra. The heads, for example, may
be variously composed. The eight-headed figure is apparently the most popular
in Further India, the seven-headed in Tibet. Cf. Getty, 1928, p. 143. Illustrations of Hevajra images from Cambodia are to be found in the Bulletin de
l'Ecole Fran,aise d'Extreme-Orient, vol. XXII, 1922, p. 383, PI. XXVI, and
vol. XXV, 1925, p. 592, PI. LXVI. The latter has twenty arms. It may also
be noted, finally, that in addition to eight-headed and seven-headed forms there
is also one with nine heads. A good example of such is the image discovered
in Paharpur, illustrated in the Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey
of lndia, 1932-33, PI. LVcd.
70
Fuhrmann, 1922, Pl. 98; Milaraspa, PI. 14; Zimmer, 1926, p. iv.
71
tn
The horse, camel, and cat are lacking while the bull ( cow ?) appears twice.
ma!J4alaJ11 kin tad ity eva111 prakrty kathyate 'dhun
cittasthakarmma-stra-rajai)pta-kramodita111
(Cf. Finot, 1934, pp. 13 ff.).
72
63
64
73
he does not merely give the divisions but also reproduces figures
from the pantheon.
Set rules are followed at the erection of a ma.J).<;lala ; and this is the
case also when one is destroyed. In order that a ma.J).<;iala shall be able
to fulfill its function properly, the place and time of its preparation
must be accurately determined. During the ceremonies which accompany
the preparation a priest dedicates hirnself as "King of the doctrine",
who drives off demons; then he invites the deities to take up their
places in the ma~<;lala ; he identifies hirnself with them during the
meditation, and at the conclusion of the rite he causes them to retum
to their celestial paradise. A good example of such a ceremony is
provided by Lessing's description of the erection of the ma.J).<;iala which
is carried out every year in honour of Bha4ajyaguru, the Buddha of
medicine, in the Taishan temple in the eastem mountains of China: 65
"Seven days of arduous labour are required for the construction
of this "aid to meditation", and for another seven days solemn services
are read and sacrifices are made. The Tibetan liturgies which are read
cause the Buddha-god, by means of their inspiring words and sacred
formulas, to descend with this retinue upon the person of the priest,
who now hirnself becomes a deity. They are then conveyed by the
priest, who thus views the deity, into the holy water, which is thereby
consecrated. (The water is aspersed over the ma~<;Iala and the god
enters into it). The lma places the head-dress of a Bodhisattva and the
five-part Buddha-crown on his head, dresses hirnself in a cloak and
apron, receives a drop of holy water on the tongue and forehead, and
becomes released from all sins and obstacles on the path to Buddha-hood.
He ascends above the earthly sphere, all that is human falls away from
him, he becomes hirnself a Buddha, free from all human failings, ready
and able to release all beings and hirnself from the cycle of rebirth and
its eightfold pangs. The ceremony lasts for seven days; on the eighth
day a lma kneels down before the m~<;lala and beseeches the god
to depart from it. To the renewed murmuring of prayers the ma~<;Iala
is then destroyed according to set rules." 65
The same scholar has also given a description of the same rite on
a larger scale, as performed according to the Klacakra ritual by the
4111
Lessing, 1933, quoted from Kosmos, 1933, pp. 83 ff. by Stutterheim in Djdwd,
vol. XIII, 1933, pp. 233 ff. I have tried to amplify the quotation, which is
not entirely correctly given by Stutterheim. I have not been able to consult
the original article.
74
67
68
00
75
pa.ntheons. Some of these rules, which have bet'n multiplied by blockprinting at the demand of high functionaries of the Lamaistic church,
have been discovered and published. 70 Such paintings, in which usually
all the deities represented are provided with their names, obviously
form extremely important material for the study of Buddhist iconography. On some thatikas these names do not occur in the painting
itself but are placed on the reverse side of the cloth.
Finally, there is yet another kind of mal)Q.ala which in plan and in
meaning diverges from the other painted representations. Only a few
examples are known, which is not surprising considering their very
esoteric significance. They represent three deities, sitting in a cemetery
in the midst of a great number of sacrificial offerings, ritual objects,
musical instruments, etc. The setting of such pieces has the object of
itensifying the demonie character of the representation. I know of only
three examples of these, which have already been discussed in detail
in another place.71 We should now, however, consider these pieces in
a wider context.
Pander, 1890; Clark, 1937. Such a piece, with 100 deities, illustrated in Van
Meurs (1919, PI. 10), has been examined and described by myself, resulting
in the conclusion that this pantheon forms exactly one third of the pantheon
of the Chang Chia Hutuktu Lalitavajra, without even the slightest difference.
The second painting is in the possession of Prof. E. Herzfeld at Buenos Aires,
as I found out recently.
n Pott, 1943, pp. 215 ff.
70
CIL'\PTER IV
77
3
4
Trantha, 1869.
Trantha, 1869, p. 13.
Pozdnejev, 1926, pp. 397 ff.; quoted in part by Bleichsteiner (1937, pp. 164 ff.).
78
which the practitioner of this meditation sees his own body disintegrate
during a process accompanied by a succession of terrifying visions.
The well-known crya Kukurarja, i.e., "Dog-king", also named
Kutarja, one of the most famous Y ogcryas, was also initiated into
the secrets of the cemetery. This holy man, who probably lived in the
end of the seventh century 5 and is known from many manuscripts
bearing his name, is believed to have preached the law by day in the
form of a dog, while at night he went to a cemetery with his pupils,
both men and women, in order to perform the gal).acakra ceremony.
The famous magician Padmasambhava, founder of the "Red Church",
also received his initiation in a cemetery. He practised meditation in
eight such places and thereby made hirnself the possessor of supernatural powers. 6
The actions which are ascribed to the crya Gambhiravajra seem
to be of the same nature. He caused eight deserving mendicant monks
to practise meditation in a cemetery, through which he was able to
charm eight vetlas, spirits of corpses, into appearing, so that all of
his pupils, through the aid of these vetlas, were able to become great
siddhis. W e are dealing here, then, with the attempt to attain vetlasiddhi, which Trantha has elsewhere described in detail; Alexandra
David-Neel has observed, even in recent times, a fairly similar version
in Tibet, which she has described in vivid terms. In order to give
an idea of how such a ceremony is thought to proceed, I quote her
exposition together with supplementary information taken from Trantha's work. The rite is known in Tibet as the ro-lang.
"The priest who celebrates the rite is left alone in a dark place with
a corpse. He tries to breathe life into the body, and lies on top of it,
mouth to mouth. He clasps the body firmly in his arms and continually
repeats the same magical formula, at the same time excluding all other
thoughts. After a time, the body begins to stir. It tries to get up and
flee. The priest holds it fast. Then there is a terrible wrestling-match.
The body stands up, twists itself this way and that, dragging the man
with it. The latter has to keep his lips pressed against the mouth of
the dead person and continue to repeat to hirnself unremittingly the
ma.gical formulas. Eventually the tongue of the corpse begins to move.
The critical moment has arrived. The priest seizes the tongue with
his teeth and bites it off. Then the body falls lifeless. A single moment
5
6
79
8
9
10
80
and it was never at any time or anywhere the case that the rite was
practised in the vihra itself." 11
Apart from the fact that, as appears from this passage, the rites
connected with such an initiation ceremony were horrible in the eyes
of outsiders, there is also another remarkable feature to be noted, viz.,
the mention of not one but eight cemeteries.
This is a nurober that we frequently come across in connexion with
sma.Sanas.
81
82
strip in the painting, those whieh represent the eight sacred eemeteries
and their denizens. These are all named in the aeeompanying inseriptions. It appears from this list that eaeh eemetery serves as dwellingplace for a group of three deities, of whieh one is eonsidered to form
an aspect of siva-Mahkla, and one an aspect of his consort Kli-Devi,
while the third figure displays eertain demonie features. Let us first
of all draw up a catalogue of the eemeteries and their inhabitants
aecording to the legends of the painting : 23
1. CatJf!ogra-sma.Sna, inhabited by Asitnga Bhairava, Brahmyal).i,
and Kacehapapda ;
2. Gahvara-sma.fna, in which dwell Krodha Bhairava, Kaumri, and
Savarapda;
3. lvl1Jtkula-sma.fna, where Ruru-Bhairava reigns with Indryal).i
and Virpk~apda ;
4. Kalanka-sma.fna, where lives Kapla Bhairava with Vrhi and
Krkalsapda;
5. Ghorndhaka-smasn a, where Unmatta Bhairava wields the sceptre
in eompany with Vai~I).avi and Carpatipda;
6. Lak~mivar'!Ja-sma.Sna, inhabited by SaJ!1hra Bhairava, Cmul).~,
and Varttl).a-nga ; 24
7. Kilakila-sma.Sna, where sukra Bhairava resides with Mahesvari
and Ngaripda ;
8. ANttahsa-sma.Sna, in which we find Bhi~al).a Bhairava, Mahlak~mi, and Kukkuripda.
24
83
27
84
I t is striking that the Kplikas link the various aspects of the god
Bhairava with just such a series of gods : Asittiga with V~~u, Ruru
with Brahm, Cru;t4a with Srya, Krodha with Rudra, Unmatta with
lndra, Kapla with Candra, Bhi~aJ].a with Yama, and S3.t!Ihra with
the Supreme Principle.2s
The Vrha Pur~a observes that there are eight Mtrks, and
counts Yoge5vari as one of them. The same text further mentions that
these eight Mtrks personify the eight morally bad qualities. Thus
Yogesvari stands for the quality of kma, desire; Mahe5vari stands
for krodha, anger ; V ai~t:~avi for lobha, greed; Brahmt:~i for mada,
pride; Kaumri for moha, illusion; Vrhi for asy, envy ; ln~i
for mtsarya, malice; Cmut:J.~ for paiSunya, slander. The story of
siva's battle with Andhaksura is the symbolic reflection of the struggle
of spiritual wisdom against the darkness of ignorance. So long as the
eight bad qualities are not brought entirely under control it is impossible to slay Andhaksura.29
W e have already quoted in the first chapter a passage from the
Mahnirvt].atantra (IV, 133) in which the eight-petalled lotus is discussed and in which it is said that on the eight petals there must be placed
the eight Nyiks of the Pithas with the eight Bhairavas: Asittiga,
Cru;tc.la, Kapla, Bhi~ru;m, Unmatta, Ruru, and Sarp.hra.
Who the eight Nyiks are appears from a practically identical
passage from the same text (VI, 100) : " .... and on the lotus of the
eight Mtrks, who are the eight Nyiks .... " (here follow the
names).SO
From this it clearly appears that the eight smasna.s provide a symbolic representation of the nandakandapadma, the lotus of the heart,
which in the Purt:~as is already the seat of the ego, the "individual
self". As such, this lotus comprises both the good and the evil human
qualities. In the conception with which we have to do here, the lotus
of the heart is similarly the field of earthly desires from which one
must be liberated in order to break the bond with the phenomenal
28
29
30
85
Fig. 12.
world and thereby create the possibility of umon with the source of
all things.
Proof of the equivalence of the eight-petalled lotus nandakandapadma and the series of eight sacred cemeteries is to be found in the
form and the description of the smasna-Kli yantra. At first sight
this yantra, shown in Figure 12, has nothing of the eight cemeteries
about it. It consist of an eight-petalled lotus and a number of so-called
"feminine" triangles, surrounded by a bhpura.31 There is nothing
to be surprised at in this, however, when it is seen in connexion with
what we have written above. The commentary says that there are two
sorts of sma.Snas, viz., the cemetery with the funeral pyre, and the
Yonirpa Mahkli Smasna. The latter name undoubtedly alludes to
the sma.fna- or Dak~i1Ja-Kli form of this yantra.s2
31
82
86
M
311
87
being set up in the middle and the remaining eight in positions corresponding to the eight points of the compass. They are all seated figures
having a Iotus as their seat. Instead of actual figures we may introduce
in their respective places their tattvk~aras in the yantra. The image
in the middle has eighteen hands, etc. This goddess who is capable of
granting all powers has in eight of her left hands : the tuft of hair of
the asura, khetaka, ghal).t, mirror, dhanus, dhvaja, 4amaru, psa, the
remaining hand the tarjani-mudr. The right hands carry the sakti,
tatika, sla, vajra, satikha, atikusa, dal).<;la, bl).a, and cakra. The central
Durg is in the li4hsana posture riding on a lion." In addition to
this eighteen-armed Durg, however, there exist also four-, eight-, ten-,
and twelve-armed forms. It is apparent that much variation is possible
in this respect.37
The group of nine Durgs, however, is scarcely Buddhist, and it is
therefore more or Iess surprising to meet with it in Buddhist areas
of Nepal. But a Nava Durg group is nevertheless known there. Levi
has published something about it in his standard work : 38
"Durg is often worshipped under the name of Nava Durg, 'Nine
Durgs', as a sort of collective being in whom nine personalities are
combined. Nepal has adopted the name but has slipperl in under this
loan-word a Iocal combination of nine 'Notre Dames' which differs
from the usual list. They are: Vajre5vari, Kote5vari, Jhatikesvari,
Bhuvane5vari, Matigalesvari, Vatsale5vari, Rjesvari, Jayavgisvari,
and Guhyesvari. The first after Guhyesvari is Vatsalesvari, (or
Vacchle5vari). Guhye5vari, Our Lady of the Secret, is the ancient
patroness of Nepal. Mafijusri discovered her and worshipped her
hidden in the root of the Iotus which supported Svayambh, manifested
however in the clear spring which sprang from the earth."
Levi describes the goddess Guhye5vari, on the basis of the Svayambh PurtJa, as follows: "She has the colour of saffron, has nine faces,
three eyes to each face, and eighteen arms ; her first two arms bear
the bindu and the ptra; the second pair, drum and club; the third,
sword and shield ; the fourth, arrow and quiver ; the fifth, discus and
mace; the sixth, the hook .... ; the seventh, thunderbolt and knot; the
eighth, trident and pestle; and the ninth pair make the gesture of
favour and safety. She wears a diadem glittering with all sorts of gems
and made of gold; she wears jewelled ear ornaments. Her tunic is of
3'7
38
88
41
89
two figures in each of these groups of three; they are in each case
aspects of siva-Bhairava and his consort Kli. But who is the "Dritte
im Bunde", the third party?
The legend of Lha-mo seems to provide us with a clue. Let me
repeat from what I quoted about this goddess in my study of the
mat:~4alas referred to : 42
"Her name Lha-mo signifies only 'Devi', 'goddess', for she is the
the supreme goddess. Her full and most common name is in Tibetan :
'Dod-'khams-dbang-phyug-dmag-zor-ma, meaning 'the Goddess of arms
in the world of sensual pleasure'.
Her story teils us that she was the wife of Yama, the ruler of the
hells, before his conversion to Buddhism, and that by him she had
a son. As she was unable to convert either her husband or her son to
Buddhism, and had been told in a prophecy that the latter was destined
to grow up as an enemy to the sacred doctrine, she killed her son,
stripped off his skin, devoured his heart, and vanished. When Y ama
heard what had happened he flew into a passion and sent a magic
arrow after her. The arrow hit her mount in its left hindquarter. By
reciting a dhrat:~i - a magic spell - Lha-mo changed the wound
into an eye and so she succeeded in reaching safety out of the reach
of Yama's vengeance. Ever since, Lha-mo has remained a fervent
protectress of the sacred doctrine. As such she possesses a nurober
of attributes given her by various gods. Hevajra, for instance, gave
her a pair of dice which determine the fate of human beings; from
Brahm she received a sunshade, from Vi~ryu the sun and the moon,
the former she wears on her breast as an ornament, the latter in her
headdress; Vajrapt:J.i presented her with a cudgel, and so on.
According to another version of this tale, her husband was the king
of the Rk~asas, who at that time had incarnated hirnself in the king
of Ceylon.
She is generally represented riding her mount across the Raktargya-mts'o, the 'red sea of blood', in which the arms, legs, skulls, and
bones of the enemies she has devoured are floating about. As attributes
she carrit:s in her raised right hand the decorated trident and in her
left the blood-filled nal-thod, the skull of a child conceived in incest.
From her eyes fla:shes of lightning dart upwards, setting her eyebrows
on fire. In her ears she wears heavy earrings, one decorated with a
42
90
lion's head, the other with a snake. Sometimes she wears a tiger's
skin with a black cloak and a human skin.
It is clear that her legend is only meant as an elucidation for those
who for some reason or other are not sufficiently advanced in the
esoteric doctrine to understand the true nature of the goddess. Her
appearance, name, character, and her legend show us the principal
features of Kali, the bloodthirsty wife of siva Mahkla."
As we have said, this legend gives merely an "explanation" for the
occurrence of Devi and Y ama on one and the same ritualistic image,
and for the appearance of the goddess. However interesting the
elements of the legend may be, it has to he admitted that they cannot
possibly throw any light on the deeper significance of the triad.
Mahkla and Kli are indissolubly bound to each other, and next
to them, practically detached, stands the third figure. Exactly the same
situation is found in the eight sacred cemeteries of Nepal. In order
to determine the nature of the third figure we shall have to Iook more
closely at its various aspects.
At first sight there is not much to be learned from the names borne
by the several members of this group. On closer exarnination, however,
they appear to be the names of a number of great Tntrik teachers,
or at least the majority of them do. The honorific suffix -pda, which
is thought to have been formed by analogy from the Tibetan -pa, is
a first indication in this direction.
Kacchapa is the name of a dernon who in more than one legend
plays the part of a protective deity of Nepal ; 43 it is also the name, however, of a Tntrik teacher mentioned in the dPag-bSam-llon-bZang.44
The savaras form an ancient and very dispersed tribe in various
regions of India, and are at present known under the name of Sabar,
Saur, or Suir (Savaras). They are a conglomeration of peoples who
ranked, with the Pulindas, ndhras, Pul)qras and other peoples, with
the dasyus, nicakula and mleccha.45 savarapda is a Tntrik teacher
who probably lived around the rniddle of the seventh century and is
thought to be the author of many Tntrik manuscripts.46
Similarly Carpati is the name of a demon, while Carpatipda was
43
44
46
46
91
49
50
92
113
93
55
56
For the sake of brevity I shall henceforth refer to the rnaJ:!Qalas in question
as .Smasna-mai.J<;lalas, a designation which I have not met with anywhere
but which seems to me to be quite clear and apt.
Pott, 1943, p. 235.
Trantha, 1869, p. 99.
94
J.
95
and it will suffice here to give a short summary of that study tagether
with some notes with reference to what has been discussed above.
In the first place I should point to the conceptions held by the
Aisvarikas, among others, concerning the sacred syllable 01?' This is
thought of as split into the three letters a, tt, and 1'!' with each of
which is associated one of the component parts of the Buddhist
triratna, viz., Buddha, Dharma, and Satigha. Hodgson has already
provided interesting evidence about this :
"The Aisvarikas, e.g., represent Buddha as a male figure, the
symbol of creative power; Dharma is a female figure as the symbol
of the power of producing, whereas Sangha their son and third in the
trias represents the actively creative and producing power and the
actual ruler, produced by the union of the essence of Buddha and
Dharma. Although Sangha is a member of the trias according to every
school of thought, still he is considered tobe a minor member of it."58
In the study referred to I have advanced the hypothesis that the
sarne triad may be recognized in these smasna-mat:I<;lalas also. Speculations such as the above aim at adducing another triad, viz., that of
masculine and feminine principles and the product of their union.
This corresponds with conceptions concerning the haTfZsa, which is
thought to originate from the union of the elements hat!t- and sa,
mystical symbols in saivite circles for siva and sakti.
In my study of these ffiat:l<;ialas I have already pointed to one detail
from the legend concerning the figures residing in the smaSnam~<;lala, in connexion with the relationship described above; here
I should like to indicate certain others.
It may be remarked that in Indian mythology Yama is not only
lord of the dead but also the first man, in other words : the prototype
of mankind. Now it is interesting that the form which Yama assumes
in these smaSna-m~<;lalas, Chos-rgyal-phyi-sgrub, "the great two-fold
king", i.e., Yama as a two-armed deity with a bull's head, armed with
staff and noose, clasps his sister Y ami - named expressly as his
sister, not sakti - who bears the trident and the skull drinking-bowl as
her attributes. Yama thu~ forms as it were a complement on a lower
level to the mighty group of Mahkla and Kli.
Certain other deities who can occupy the place of Yama have similar
characteristics; at the same time, in the legends they are practically
always sons of siva and Devi (Prvati or Kli).
58
96
00
61
97
62
98
pantheon. This is the case, for example, with his Mongolian confrere
Daicin Tengri, who can occupy his place. A few illustrations of him
are known ; at least, I think he can be identified, by comparison with
Bleichsteiner's Plate 36a, on two pieces. Both are illustrated and
briefly discussed in my study of smasna-tnal).~alas, the better being
found in Plate X of that work.65 Both display a warrior armed from
head to toe, wearing a loose rohe over his armour, seated on a horse
and bearing in his right hand a sword and in his left a spear with
a pennon. He is surrounded by a group of eight completely identical
followers. The latter are the chief argument for the interpretation that
this is a god of war and not simply a warrior such as the king Srongbtsan-sgam-po, which has been suggested. It is noteworthy, moreover,
that the Japanese Buddhist god of war is called Hachiman, i.e., "the
eight banners", a name which may find its explanation in a representation such as this of the Mongolian Buddhist god of war.66
I have shown in my study referred to above that this Mongolian
god of war dwells in a smaSna. Begtse hirnself also lives in such
a place, as may be discovered from an invocation to this deity which
has been translated by Pozdnejev.67
Now that we have examined separately the figures composing the
Drag-gsed group, we should Iook at the group as a whole. W e are in
a position to state that the group does not form a unity such as we
have found in the case of other groups. The appearance of a single
goddess in this group is a first indication in this direction, and her
presence is also a guide towards understanding that this is a case of the
contamination of a homogeneaus group of eight Bhairavas and a similar
group of three, consisting of the deities of the sma5na-mal).~ala. Since
Mahkla already appeared in the original group - even if in only
one of his aspects - the two other deities of this group of eight must
have been replaced by Kl'i and Y ama.
Here we encounter a phenomenon which does not stand alone and
which can present itself in various ways, namely the fact that a group
of three, one of the members of which is at the same time the central
65
66
67
Pott, 1943, pp. 238 ff., Pis. 17, 18. It is also possible that the deity illustrated
may be not Daicin Tengri, but Raudra-Kpgta-Vaisrava.IJa; cf. C!ark, 1937,
vol. II, p. 304, no. 319; an illustration of Begtse is to be found in the same
work, p. 308, no. 336.
De Visser, 1929, pp. 30-32.
Quoted in Bleichsteiner, 1937, p. 194.
99
figure of a group of eight, has occupied a place within the group of eight.
Entirely similar to the phenomenon such as we observe in the
composition of the Drag-gsed group is what may be remarked in
connex.ion with the series of eight deities which Hevajra holds in the
same number of skull drinking-bowls in his eight left hands. A single
goddess similarly appears here also, viz., Vasudhra. In addition to
Varut:ta, Vyu, Agni, Candra, Srya, and Yama, there appears as eighth
in the series a god known by the name Sa'i-lha-serpo, a name for which
Grnwedel is unable to find a Sanskrit equivalent. If I am not mistaken,
this is the yellow Vstudeva or Vstupati, which is the more striking
in connexion with what I have already said about the function of the
third deity of the smasna-mal).Q.alas. It is my view, that is, that he also
may be seen as a Vstupati.68
If we list the conclusions that we have been able to derive from this
examination, we may make the following points :
1. The eight-petalled Iotus nandakandapadma is the seat of the
haf!!sa or fivtman, the ego or the individual soul ;
2. From this it follows that with each of the eight petals one of the
human qualities must be associated. This distribution is usually effected
in such a way as to form a dual division into good and evil qualities
which are antipodal to each other;
3. The eight-pet:alled lotus is directly related to the system of eight
Lokaplas (guardians of the cardinal points) and to other well-known
groups of eight such as that of the Bhairavas. They are the eight
aspects, distributed by cardinal points, of one centrally positioned figure
which is seated in the heart of the lotus ;
4. This principal figure, however, forms part of a no less important
group of three deities, with the consequence that there may come about
a contamination of both groups, which can take place in various ways:
(a) By the group of three being incorporated into that of eight. In
this case three figures of the group of eight have to give up their
places, but, seeing that one of the group of three corresponds to each
of the figures in the group of eight, this amounts in practice to the
replacement of two figures in the group of eight by two essentially
68
Grnwedel, 1900, p. 105, III. 86. Serpo means "yellow"; lha is "deity", deva;
and sa means not only "ground" but also 'place, location". Under sa'i
lha, the Dictionaire Thibetain-Latin-Fran,ais ( 1899) gives "genius tutelari3
loci", of which Vstudeva is the Sanskrit equivalent.
100
the figures forming part equally of one and of the other group.
What we have now to do is to see what position each of these groups
occupies and what their fundamental relationship must be. For this
purpose we shall turn our eyes to Java.
But before we do so, I should like to turn once more to the examination of a certain passage from the Tibetan mystical text sambhalaiLam-yig which not only gives a good idea of the complexity of the
problern but also acquires some interest in the light of the foregoing.
It is interesting, too, in that it is connected with the famous Indian
king Asok:a, the 'Constantine of Buddhism'. The passage in question
is translated by Grnwedel as follows :
"At the sametime the promise was made to him (viz., Asoka) that
in all rebirths he would be a foliower of Devi, armed with weapons
of war. The king, therefore, while he was still an adherent of the
perverted religious view of these predecessors, became a great worshipper of Um and of the Mtrks, so that finally he was led to the
consideration whether the Tantras of Devi might not reveal to him
how to conquer the Yak~as." 70 A passage from Trantha is more
or less parallel to this: "Asoka believed what he was told by those
Cf. Cakravarti, 1930.
-.o Grnwedel, 1918, p. 36.
69
101
CHAPTER V
103
Schomerus, 1912.
Cf. Bosch, 1933, pp. 8 ff.; Krom, 1924.
1()4.
by the time that it was expressed in the stone monuments which have
come down to us, the Buddhist system of Iiberation found itself in
full growth when it received its artistic expression.
This makes even more interesting the evidence that can be found
in Buddhist structures and the Buddhist Iiterature of Java, though it
makes it more difficult to form it into a unit of conception. It is with
Buddhist conceptions and artistic products that we shall especially
concem ourselves in this chapter.
In his translation of the N garakrtgama, Kern observed that
Buddhism, so far as it could be known from this work, could be called
far from orthodox, but he was unable to provide an exact explanation
of why this was the case. This did not become possible until the
publication of hitherto unknown manuscripts, mostly Tntrik. Later
researchers were able to free themselves from the idea that attempted
to classify each form of religion known by a distinct name to one which,
on the ba.sis of manuscripts which were regarded as extremely sacred,
was taken to be its classical form. Thus Moens was able to understand
and describe, in a pioneering study, the true nature of Buddhism in
Java and Sumatra during the time of the kings Krtanagara and
dityavarman.s
It goes without saying that the evidence in the ritual texts is of
great importance. Kats has performed a major service with the publication of a translation of the Sang Hyang Kamahyanikan, and although
this translation is not without defects, Kats nevertheless deserves our
full appreciation for the pioneering work which he has a.ccomplished
in this edition. His textual commentary retains much of its value.4
Is it possible, however, for us to apply the evidence furnished by
this source to the Buddhist art of central Java? Goris has thought
it possible to find certain indications of a high antiquity for this text,5
and Stutterheim ha:s made grateful use of these in his attempt to arrive
at an explanation of Barabu9ur.6 But was he right to do so? Undoubtedly the text contains elements which are also to be seen in
a construction such as Barabuqur, but this may still be no reason
to conclude directly upon an identity of meaning.7
Moens, 1924, pp. 521-601.
Kats, 1911 ; Wulff, 1935.
lli Goris, 1926, pp. 151 ff.
e Stutterheim, 1928.
7 Wulff (1935, p. 5) remarks, moreover, that in bis interpretation Stutterheim
gives a different and not always more felicitous translation of the text than
does Kats.
3
105
Krom has devoted hirnself expressly to this problem. In his archaeological description of Barabuqur he devotes the following views to the
distinction between the various Buddhist systems and the texts from
which these are known: s
"Unless all the signs are deceptive, it can be stated with certainty that
the Mahyna of east-Java, at the height of the Majapahit kingdom,
is none other than the Tantrism of the Sang Hyang Kamahynikan."
The characteristic difference between Mahyna and Mantrayna,
also called Vajrayna or Tantrayna, is that the former urges every
believer to take the Bodhisattva-vow, to the end that eventually, in the
far future and by way of a difficult path, he may attain Buddha-hood;
whereas the latter believes that the attainment of this ideal is promised
in this present life, by means of continual yoga together with worship
of the Buddha and unqualified obedience to the guru.
Tntrik practices are found more or less clearly from the very
beginning of Mahyna; this is not surprising, since in one form or
another they had long been in existence before and outside Buddhism.
This applies of course particularly to yoga. The yogin, whether he b('
Buddhist or not, strives after the attainment of supreme insight, however he may conceive this. And one concomitant of this supreme insight
is supernatural power, so that every yogin thus strives to subdue the
natural and the human in order to acquire power over the supernatural
and the superhuman, even though in fact he may get no further than
the unnatural and the inhuman.9 Fundamentally, therefore, Tntrik
practices form an essential part of all yoga. In fact, Tantrism ultimately
does no more than to make this part the major one; in Mantrayna
the practice of yoga is no Ionger an aid, but itself becomes the prime
mover of the bodhi. Correspondingly, the bodhi changes in character
and the attainment of Buddha-hood becomes similar to the ideal of
non-Buddhist theosophy, viz., the union of the yogisvara's self with
the All-Spirit. If schematization were not reprehensible in all Indian
religious and philosophical systems, we could formulate the matter
as follows: there is no difference of principle between the practice of
yoga in Mahyna and Tantrayna, but only a difference of degree;
the aim can in both cases be represented as "the attainment of Buddhahood", but whereas the yoga of the Mahynist serves as an aid to the
acquirement of such supreme wisdom such that sometime he shall be
8
9
106
107
It has long been known that the a${ngikamarga was modelled on the example
of the a$[ngayoga. Cf. Heiler, 1918; Schayer, 1921, p. 241 and the Iiterature
cited there.
On the close connexion between Yoga and Buddhism in general, see chiefly
the studies by De 1a Vallee Poussin, (1898, chs. III and IV), further developed in Une derniere note sztr le Nirvll~;~a, in Etudes Linossier, vol. II,
pp. 346 ff.; and De Ia Vallee Poussin, 1937, pp. 223 ff., with a detai1ed
bibliography.
108
Cf. p. 56 above.
109
110
When there is question of one triad, really of the triad, the Siddhantis
usually think of that which comprises the three sorts of forms of
manifestation, viz., ni~kala Paramasiva, sakala-ni~kala Sad.Siva, and
sakala Mahe5vara, the triad which is worshipped on the isle of Bali
under the slightly different names of Paramasiva, Sadsiva, and Bhatra
siva, or eise as Paramasiva, Bhairava and Bhatra Guru.17
Since, moreover, Sadsiva splits again into five gods of which he
hirnself is the foremost, and Mahe5vara is surrounded by a group of
eight gods (the Vidye5varas),18 the fertile brain of the Siddhantin
can ex:tract many groups of three, five, and eight from these forms
of manifestation which according to the demands of the circumstances
can be combined into one group."
"When we consider more closely the Mantra-Buddhistic system of
revelation, such as this is known from various sources, induding Javanese, the similarity to the Siddhantic system appears striking indeed.19
We read in the Sang Hyang Kamahynikan that Bhatra Buddha,
All-Highest, and Bharli Prajfipramit, his sakti, represent advaya
(i.e., the Supreme Yoga) and advaya-jfina (i.e., the purest jfina)
(fol. 42"). As duality-in-unity they form Bhatra Divarupa, the allencompassing, glorious Being, without beginnit_Jg or end, the light of
the world, the dharmakya. It is taught in addition that: Bhatra
Ratnatraya and the five Tathagatas are the embodiment of Bhatra
Buddha (fol. 52"), or that Bhatra Buddha manifests hirnself (fol. 44)
in the triad of Buddha, Lokesvara, and Bajrapl)i and the fivefold
Tathagatas Vairocana, Ak~obhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitbha, and
Amoghasiddhi (fol. 53 d ) .... 20
The Japanese Mantrayna, i.e., the Mantra Buddhism introduced
into Japan by Kb Daishi in the beginning of the ninth century,
comprises teachings which agree entirely with the above in connexion
with the dual phenomenal body.21 One part of this is formed of the
17
18
19
20
2"1
111
Moens has also expressed the view that the vajra- and garbha-dhtu
deities belong in the sphere of sat!lbhogakya. This seems less probable
to me. Certainly the Vajradhtu belongs there, but the Garbhadhtu,
consisting of deities of differing "dimensions", should not, I think,
be confined to one of the kyas, but it should be represented by one
of its members in all three k:yas. In my opinion, the Sang Hyang
Kamahynikan quite singularly exposes the Mantra Buddhist system
by the observation that Bhatra Buddha incarnates hirnself in Bhatra
Ratnatraya and the five Tathgatas. Here we have both dhtus named
together, one of them being particularized by the name Ratnatraya.
This triratna consists of Buddha, Lokesvara, and Vajrapl)i, and thus,
according to Shingon Buddhism, it consists of beings from all three
classes. My own opinion is that from this the only conclusion to be
drawn is that Garbhadhtu consists of the three chief figures of the
kyas: Buddha as head of the dharmakya, betonging to the Tathgataclass, Loke5vara (Padmapt:ti) as head and centrat figureof ninnl)akya
2'..!
23
24
112
26
ll 7
E.g., Padmanarte.SVara-Lokelvara; cf. Foucher, 1900, vol. II, p. 37; Bhattacharyya, 1924, pp. 41 ff.
Mus, 1928, pp. 153-278; cf. Schermann, 1932; Bhattacharyya, 1924, p. 7;
Waddell, 1895, p. 352.
Grnwedel, 1900, p. 98.
113
Finally, we should like to draw attention to a remarkable phenomenon which is exhibited here, namely that the three deities who together
form the Garbhadhtu also appear in the group of the al?tamahbodhisattvas, even though in a rather different form.
Thus Padmapt)i (Avalokite5vara), as well as Vajrapt)i, belongs
to the group of the eight supreme bodhisattvas, while according to
certa.in doctrines Samantabhadra is the di-Buddha.28 In addition
to Buddha, Padmapt)i, and Vajrapt)i, who are also known in their
functions in the Garbhadhtu as Vajradhara, Loke5vara and Vajrasattva, we also find such figures as Samantabhadra, Avalokitesvara
and Vajrapt)i in the eightfold group of bodhisattvas. This is really
the same phenomenon as we have seen in the system of sacred
cemeteries of N epal.29 There too we found two groups, one of eight
and the other of three, the one linked to the other by the figure which
they had in common.
It may furtherbe remarked that the name Garbhadhtu makes sense
in the light of the views advanced here. The group consist of deities
who occupy the central place in each of the kyas, i.e., they are placed
in the womb of each. On the other hand, though the use of this term
does not necessarily come into conflict with the construction proposed
by Moens, it certa.inly does not give it any support either.
We may therefore conclude that the pantheon of Mantra Buddhism
follows the pattem of the pantheon of saivasiddhnta down to minor
details, which is not to be wondered at seeing that both are systems
of liberation based on mah-yoga.
At the same time, it is apparent from the foregoing that a comparison of individual figures from the two pantheons can only be
fruitful if each of the figures is seen in connexion with the place
which it occupies in its own system. A comparison purely and simply
on the basis of certain characteristics nevertheless remains attractive,
but it is highly dangerous because it leaves too m).lch room for
subjective judgement to be accepted unquestioningly.
\V e may now make the point that the two pantheons correspond
not only in their original plan but also in the course of their further
development. JUSt as the Sakti-principle Operated in the Saivasiddhnta,
so we find this feature in the system of Mantra Buddhism also.
Both systems teach that the supreme deity split itself, for the sake
28
29
114
Coedes,
31
32
1908, pp. 213 ff. See also the inscriptions from Phnom Bnty Nn
(Kern, 1913-29, vol. III, 291ff.) and from Vat Srei Santhor (Senart, in
Aymonier, 1900-04, vol. I, pp. 261-70). On the appearance of both groups in
Further Indian sculpture, see Coedes (1937, pp. 37 ff.).
Cf. p. 95 above.
Cf. pp. 95 f. above, and Gadgil, 1944, pp. 53 ff.
115
116
Over the yea.rs, attempts have not been lacl<ing to give an explanation
of Barabu<J.ur. These attempts may be divided into two large groups,
viz., those which try to give an explanation of the structure on
architectural grounds, and those which try to work out the meaning
of the structure on the basis of textual infonnation.
The former group begin from the assumption that the intention was
to build either a stpa or an enormous cat).<}.i, but that in the course
of the construction the plan had to be changed, for technical reasons,
which led to its present form.34 However ingenious such attempts
may be, they can never be confidently accepted by the archaeologist
since they are unprovable.
The second group of attempts can boast of more success in this
respect. The hypothesis of Stutterheim in particular, based on an
attempt at explanation made a hundred years before by H. N. Sieburgh,
who had far fewer aids at his disposal, and according to which three
spheres seem to be distinguishable in the structure, has contributed
much to a better understanding.S5 Paul Mus took this study as the
point of departure for his penetrating enquiry, which, although it has
brought more minute facts to light, has not been able to lead to
conclusive results. 36
In contrast to the architectural hypotheses, the philological ones
begin with the building as it stands and thus work on a more real
basis. Once this principle is abandoned we are back in the region of
unprovable hypotheses such as the solution which Poerbatjaraka thought
to have provided to the Barabu<J.ur problem.37 On the basis of a story
in the Divyvadna, he expressed the opinion that Barabu<J.ur was
erected a:s the focus of a complex. In the directions of the main axes,
and at three kilometres from the structure, four c~Qis are supposed
to have been projected after the fashion of Cat:t<J.i Mel).Q.ut. Van Erp
has rightly consigned this hypothesis to the realm of conjecture.38 To
judge by what Stutterheim writes in his famous work, he has not
discarded this hypothesis. 39
Of more importance is what Stutterheim has said about BarabuQ.ur
34
35
36
37
38
39
Hoenig, 1924; Parmentier, 1928. vol. li, pp. 264-272; Willekes Macdonald,
1932, pp. 655-691.
De Bruyn, 1937, pp. 78 ff.; Stutterheim, 1928, pp. 28 ff.
Mus, 1935.
Poerbatjaraka, 1925, pp. 536 ff.
Van Erp, 1931, p. 18.
Stutterheim, 1928, p. 5.
117
118
I can see no objections here against the idea that the buildings form
a triad, since it remains the case that they stand on one line, and there
is a popular tradition that the sanctuaries used to be connected by a
road. That V an Erp could discover no traces of such a road is in itself
no objection; it might very well have been symbolic, not a matter of
a solidly laid processional way.
I take it as probable therefore that the three erections did indeed
form a triad, and not only architecturally but also in their religious
conception. In such a case, C~~i Met).~ut could very weil be considered
to form the equivalent to the a1?tamahsmasnas as described in the
Sricakrasa'l!lbhratantra. As we have already proved, these eight cemeteries are representative of the eight petals of the nandakandapadma,
which however may also be symbolically represented by the a1?tamahbodhisattvas, whose figures have been carved on the flanking panels
of the outer walls of the Caf,l~i Met).~Ut. In its symbolic meaning the
Barabu~ur-Met).~Ut group corresponds completely which the description
of the sricakra in the tantra cited.
The bodhisattvas of Met).~Ut have already been many times the object
of discussion, but although this group is in itself interesting enough
it seems unnecessary to go deeper into it here.44 In the temple there
are three !arge stone images placed on three thrones, viz., Buddha
Skyamuni and the bodhisattvas Padmapl}i and Vajrapl]i. There has
long been uncertainty about the last, and it is still a question for
some whether it is indeed Vajrapl}i who is depicted here or whether
it is Mafijusri.45 My own opinion is that the choice here must fall on
the former, particularly because of the positions of the hands of the
image. These correspond in detail with those of a number of images
of Vajrapl]i the identity of which is not in doubt. A clear example
44
45
Cf. Krom, 1918, pp. 419-37; Moens, 1919-21, pp. 585 ff. Moens disputes the
theory of Krom, who, on the basis of the Paiicakrama text edited by De la
\' allee Poussin, wishes to assign a place to the bodhisattvas on the ground of
their orientation by the compass-points. Moens maintains that evidence from
such texts can only be used to establish a grouping by pairs. In general, he
declines to assign any absolute value to them though to my mind he is incorrect
in this. The group falls apart into four groups of figures placed opposite each
other, viz., Maitreya- Mafijusri, Khagarbha- K~itigarbha, AvalokitesvaraSarvanivara!)avi~kambhin, and Vajrap!)i Samantabhadra. As far as the
ultimate result is concerned, I am in agreement with Moens' formulation.
Cf. Krom, 1923, vol. I, pp. 318 ff.
119
46
120
121
difficult than that of the pedanda siva. Sang Buddha is thought to have
acquired his brata in a k~etra, a cemetery, where he had to feed hirnself
Oll everything hideous that he found there, while Bhatra siva acquired
the brata on a mountain-top, where he was able to nourish hirnself
on plants.4B
Let us now concern ourselves with east Java. Here we have the
advantage of possessing a number of written sources which can inform
us on the religious ideas of those days among the literate. These sources
are not only purely religious texts but also chronicles and stories.
A number of the former category have already been adduced. Thus
the Sang Hyang Kamahtiynikan contains much worthwhile evidence,
while texts such as the Sutasoma and others are highly useful as
supplement information. Moens has made extensive use of these texts
in his work.
He has also been able to make use of evidence from inscriptions
and from the Ngarakrtgama, the panegyric poem of Prapafica,
superintendent of the Buddhist clergy, in honour of his patron Rjasanagara, alias Hayam Wuruk. After the writer of this epic has informed
us about the family relations at the court, he gives a description of the
capital of the kingdom, and thereafter a very detailed account of a
journey made by this prince to the eastern tip of the realm, and to
which the major part of his poem is devoted. Prapafica finds occasion
to name a number of sanctuaries, in doing which he does not neglect
to praise his lord on account of the restoration of those that were
dilapidated. At the same timehe learns from a holy man at Singasari
about the history of the princely house, and he relates these facts in
his account. These so-called historical songs are obviously of the
greatest importance for our knowledge of the early history of east Java.
Before we turn to details, however, we should consider the epic
further in itself.
Here we have before us a work by a highly placed ecclesiastical
functionary, and it seems not improbable that this fact will be reflected
in the work itself. There are indeed indications which lead one to
suspect that Prapafica wanted to provide more than a chronicle alone.
The fact that he begins his work with a number of theological considerations is nothing to be surprised at ; and there is as little occasion
for argument about the fact that this exordium contains a number of
48
Cf. V an Eerde, 1911, p. 10; for the story, see Stein Callenfels, 1918, pp. 348 ff.,
repeated by Kat Angelino, 1922, pp. 35 ff. and Rassers, 1926, pp. 238 ff.
122
Cf.
123
124
resemblance to what we bave observed with regard to the nandakandapadma. In this place he then acquires supreme understanding;
he takes possession of the water of life.
It is not only in such well-known stories, which still enjoy a great
popularity and not least in connexion with the wayang, but also in
chronicles that we find sometimes similar elements. The Malay chronicle
Sejarah Melayu bas a story which in this respect is just as remarkable.52 When king Suran bad conquered the whole world within bis
reach - and bad thus secured bis recognition as cakravartin - he
bad a glass ehest made in which he went down to the bottom of the
sea, and after a stay there with its ruler he came up again. After bis
return he bad a "town" built consisting of a large Iake, enclosed by
a sevenfold wall, out of which rose an island planted with many lovely
trees and flowers. This town was given the name of Biji Negara.53
A number of very old motifs play a part in this tale, and in all
probability Suran's journey to the bottom of the sea is symbolically
to be equated with the submersion of Bima in the ocean, while Biji
Negara possesses all the features of the island within the nandakandapadma and of which the island of Devaruci similarly forms a
counterpart.
In the Ngarakrtgama, however, such features are less clearly to
be discerned, though it is not impossible tbat they are to be found
expressed in it. An attempt to identify them would present too many
dangers of a subjective interpretation. It is better, therefore, to leave
such an interpretation aside and to state tbat the journey of Hayam
W uruk, though carried out with a religious intention, is not so clearly
described tbat an outsider can recognize it as such from such features.
Moens had rendered us the greatest service in giving a clear exposition of Buddhism as it flourished in eastern Java and Sumatra
in the time of the monarchs Krtanagara and dityavarman. 54 He was
the first to demonstrate the correct understanding of the Tntrik
character ofthisform of Buddhism, in doing which he was at the same
time able to give an acceptable explanation of various rituals and
actions of these rulers about which the chronicles and inscriptions
inform us in often quite different ways. Although the heart of the
matter remained concealed from him - the "why" of the observed
52
53
125
56
On the bronze replicas, see Brandes, 1904, pp. 95 ff. The Padang C3.1,1<Ji
image has been described and illustrated in P!eyte (1906, pp. 171-77), and
Kern has discussed the inscription on the back of the image in the same issue
(cf. Kern, 1913-29, vol. VI, pp. 165-175). The image is at present in the
Djakarta Museum, No. 6469; cf. Jaarboek van het Bataviaasch Genootschap
van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, 1939, p. 102.
Cf. Foucher, 1900, vol. II, pp. 37 ff. This Lokesvara is a typical "productfigure" : he is seated on an eight-petalled Iotus and is provided with eighteen
arms and nine heads, and is surrounded by eight goddesses. He is a complete
counterpart to the goddess Guhyesvarl, one of the most mystical forms of the
Buddhist Devl, who has already been discussed above (cf. pp. 87 f.). Illustrations are to be found in Sankalia, 1939, pp. 278-281.
126
has brought tagether an important quantity of evidence in the monograph he devoted to the Jago-monument,57 which Grnwedel has
amplified with a number of comments on some older groupings of
the so-called paiictmaka which must have formed the basis of the
group.SB In spite of this evidence the group remains rather puzzling.
It can be split into two parts, viz., the pair of snta-deities Tr and
Sudhanakumra, and the two krodha-forms Bhrkuti and Hayagriva.
Although each group consists of a masculine and a feminine figure,
the latter can no Ionger be regarded as the sakti of the former. In
both cases the feminine figure is of higher rank than the masculine.59
The group gives too little to hold on to for us to risk an explanation.
But the second group of deities also presents various difficulties
of interpretation. It appears to be composed of four Dhyni-Buddhas
and four Trs, who are to be taken as their feminine energies. But
this immediately presents certain peculiarities.
It should be noted in the first place that there are only four DhyniBuddhas and only four Trs instead of five. As far as the DhyniBuddhas are concerned, a solution may be sought in reckoning the
figure of Amitbha in the head-dress of Amoghapsa as the fifth in
the series. This is what is apparently done in the inscription in which
the Padang Cat:l<;li image is said to be caturdaitmika, "itself the
fourteenth", i.e., that it is accompanied by thirteen followers. If we
add together the four Dhyni-Buddhas, the four Trs, and the four
followers of Amoghapsa we thus arrive at twelve followers, so that
only one is missing. Here then Amitbha may occupy the thirteenth
place.SO
Butthis procedure produces a new difficulty, since on the one hand
we have five Dhyni-Buddhas and on the other four Trs. Now we
can assume that the fifth Tr, that of Amoghasiddhi, corresponds
to syma Tr, whom we have already met among the four chief
followers of Amoghapsa, so that the latter need not be brought on
to the stage a second time. There is however another and more likely
possible solution to this problem. This lies in the interesting position
:>7
58
511
127
62
63
Kats, 1910, pp. 114 ff., 189. Cf. Brandes, 1904, pp. 59 ff.
Cf. Bosch, 1918, pp. 29-31.
An example is provided by the remarkable bronze at Leiden (No. 1402/2862)
of Vairocana and VajradhtviSvari: in royal rohes. Cf. Juynboll, Catalogus
Leiden, vol. V, p. 80, PI. XI, 2; Krom, 1916, pp. 321 ff.; Oudheidkundig
Vers/ag, 1917, pp. 141, 144. He is distinguished as a yak~a by the presence of
jewel-boxes, as for example in the bronze from Badawi now at Jogyakarta
(cf. Oudheidkundig Vers/ag, 1925, p. 88).
128
+ +
+
65
129
130
131
rava belongs in the middle one, but finds it less easy to name an
occupant for the northern. As Jessie Biom rightly observes, what
stood here was not the linga-pedestal, as Rouffaer - for want of a
better hypothesis - concluded. 71 But this astute scholar did not know
either of the existence of the Cmut:t<;l-image which in 1928 was found
in fragments at Ardimulya in the immediate neighbourhood of Singasari
and was in that year reconstructed by the care of the Archaeological
Service.72 Although badly damaged, it remains a very interesting piece
(Plate XIII). I have remarked above that the piece is a complete match
to the Tibetan smasna-mat:t<;lalas. It is thus par cxcellence a piece
belonging to surroundings where ceremonies are performed which to
judge by their type formed a part of the Bhairava cult. W e can thus
imagine that the CmuiJ.<;l of Ardimulya stood in the northern compartment of Krtanagara's Purwapatapan, as a demonie form of Devi,
and that the image of Prvati, as a peaceful aspect of the sarne goddess,
constituted a counterpart in the southern compartment, while Mahk.la
had his place between the two.
Although a location for the Cmu:~f<;l image has thus been found,
not all the riddles connected with it have been solved. One of the
peculiarities which is as yet unexplained is the presence of a pair of
small carvings above the two followers of the main figure. One is so
damaged that it cannot be distinguished or explained. The other
displays a feminine figure sitting with drawn-up legs on a large fish.
This is a representation which is by no means unknown in East
Javanese art. It occurs more than once, namely in reliefs which - as
Galestin has shown- illustrate the Story of sri Taiijung.73 However,
it is precisely this scene which raises difficulties in the interpretation
of the reliefs. The text of the story itself makes no mention of it, and
it can only be explained in a round-about way. In any case, it seems
highly unlikely that the representation on the CmuiJ.<;l image should
have anything to do with the sri Tafijung Story. So it would seem
more correct to seek an explanation in a purely iconographical direction.
The representation answers in fact to the description found in texts
of the goddess Triveni or Yuktatriveni, who sits on a fish with her
legs drawn up behind her.74 But what has this goddess to do with
our image?
Biom, 1939, p. 66.
Oudheidkundig Verslag, 1928, vol. I, pp. 21 ff.; O.D. Photographs Nos. 88978906, 9019-9030, 9045-9046, 9066.
;a Galestin, 1939, pp. 154 ff.; Prijono, 1938.
74 Moor, 1864, p. 28; cf. Knebel, 1904, pp. 258, 292.
71
72
132
75
76
77
78
711
133
use of flowers during the ceremony. Plate XIV shows both priests
side by side, one from Bali and the other from Nepal.
During the memukur-ceremony, a ritual of release on behalf of the
soul of a deceased, the pedanda employs a nurober of special attributes.
In the first place there is the kekasang, a square cloth kept on the lap
of the priest and which for this ceremony is usually decorated with
embroidered nava-sanga emblems standing for the group of nine deities.
Moreover, he does not use the suvamba as container for the holy
water during this ceremony, but the sangku sudamala or nava-sanga
cup, a special form of the prasens or zodiac-cup.SO
The nava sanga or nava devat thus appear to be specially connected
with this ceremony, and therefore with the mortuary ritual. However,
the group also occurs elsewhere, e.g., on a key-stone in Cat:t<;li Ngrimbi
(see Plate XVa).
Daroste has made a special study of the group and has collected
material on it.Sl He has the following to say about it:
"It was at a cremation feast at Karangasem that I first became
acquainted with it. In the death-chamber there was a bed of state next
to the deceased- a young girl- with a Iot of cushions. At the head
stood a likeness of Devi Ratih, the goddess of Iove and beauty ; a little
lower was a representation of Pertiva, representing understanding,
and then lower down there was an arrangement of nine bowls, one
in the middle and eight around it (the whole forming not a circle but
a square), each one with a cushion. All the cushions were of different
colours. The central one was multicoloured, and the eight surrounding
ones, each marking a point of the compass, were of single colours.
Each colour stood for a deity.
At later cremation ceremonies I saw the same ideas symbolized in
a square piece of cloth on which these gods were represented by
embroidered depictions of the divine weapons (astra or sikep) in the
appropriate colours. This group of eight gods of the cardinal points
(a~tadevat) exist in and derive from siva, and in the resultant total
of nine they are thus called the nava devat- or the nava sanga. Sometimes two gods are added to them, for the zenith and the nadir, thus
making ten guardians of the world (dasa lokaplakas) grouped around
siva, the whole grouping together with siva then being named Ekda.Sa
Rudras. All these deities have their energies (sakti), represented as
their feminine Counterparts, their consorts."
80
81
134
Place
Name
sakti
Um
Lak!?n
Sarasvati
Cmul)<;i.
E.
S.E.
s.
s.w.
!Svara
Mahe5vara
Brahm
Rudra
w.
Mahdeva Sati
N.W.
Sankara
Raudri
N.
Vi!?I)U
Sri
N.E.
centre
sambhu
siva
8:l
83
weapon
vajra
dupa
datf<;la
mok:>ala
colour
character
white
light red
darkred
orange
ashamed
brave
cowardly
simpleand
true
impotent
(n.iga-)
yellow
psa
ankusa
green
tapasperformer
gad or
black
y~a-killer
cakra
Mahdevi trisla
light blue helpful
padma
multimanifold
Um
colonred
135
( N.)
Visnu
..
Paramasiva
(zenith)
(N.W.) Sankara
( W. ) Mahdeva - - - -
"/
Siva
----1vara ( E. )
(centre}
"'Mahe!vara (S.E.)
Sadsiva
(nadir}
Brahm
( S.}
Fig. 13.
11).84 The organs of the human body are also brought into relation
with this group.S5
I t is from an iconographical standpoint, however, that the group
is most interesting. In the first place it should be noted that although
the group is in principle an eightjnine group, i.e., it consists of a main
figure with eight aspects surrounding it, there is nevertheless one
important qualification to be made. \V e observe, namely, that the gods
seated to the N orth and the South are not in fact aspects of siva but
are the gods Vi1;>l)U and Brahm. This can be no accident, and all the
less because of the places they occupy in the group and which make
it possible to draw a vertical line through it connecting the trinity of
Vi1;il)U-Siva-Brahm. This feature can be explained if we assume that
in a group composed of siva with eight surrounding aspects another
group of three deities, in which siva was similarly the foremost figure,
was substituted at the same time as two of the eight aspects of siva
*
84
RS
136
86
87
Cf. p. 99 above.
Van der Tuuk, 1897-1912, vol. I, p. 542, s.v. nava-; cf. Goslings, 1926, p. 204.
CONCLUSIONS
Cf. p. 57 above.
138
CONCLUSIONS
139
140
Ii
CONCLUSIONS
141
The Tantras themselves stress the commandment that the "left hand path"
may not be followed until after the "right hand path" has been completed,
and even then only under the guidance of an experienced guru. Tantrism
ought not therefore to be judged exclusively by the standards of the "lefthand path", as is commonly done in Western evaluations of the process.
142
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144
Berg, C. C.
1938
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1924
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1928
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1932
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Bleichsteiner, R.
1937
Die gelbe Kirche. Mysterien der buddhistischen Klster
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Blom, Jessie
1939
Antiquities of Singasari. Leiden, 8vo. (thesis)
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1942
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1918
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1917
De bijzetting van koning Kretanagara te Sagala. Oudh.
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Welke waarde hebben de oud-Javaansche monumenten
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1925
TBG, LXV, pp. 509-589.
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De Inscriptie van Keloerak. TBG, LXVIII, pp. 1-62.
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145
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1938
1942
Chakravarti, Ch.
1930
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1937
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1923
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1928
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Abh. kn.-Bayer. Akad. d. Wissensch. : Abhandlungen der kniglichenBayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (in German).
Annuaire Inst. Phil. & Hist. Orient. : Annuaire de !'Institut de Ia
philologie et histoire orientale (in French).
BEFEO: Bulletin de l'Ecole franc;aise d'Extreme-Orient (in French).
Bijdragen TLV: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (van
Nederlandsch-Indie) (in Dutch).
Cult. lnd. : Cultureel Indie (in Dutch).
Djw: Djw, tijdschrift van het Java-lnstituut (in Dutch).
Elsev. Geill. Maandschr.: Elseviers Geillustreerd Maandschrift (in
Dutch).
Etudes Linossier: Etudes d'Orientalisme publiees par le Musee
Guimet a Ia memoire de Raymonde Linossier, Paris 1932, 2 vols.
(in French).
Feestbundel Bat. Gen. 1928: Feestbundel uitgegeven door het Koninklijk Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen bij
gelegenheid van zijn 150-jarig bestaan 1778-1928, 2 vols. Weltevreden 1929, 8vo (mainly in Dutch).
Gedenkschr. Kon. lnst. 1926: Gedenkschrift uitgegeven ter gelegenheid van het 75-jarig bestaan op 4 Juni 1926 van het Koninklijk
lnstituut voor de Taal-, Land-en Volkenkunde van Nederlandschlndie. Den Haag 1926, 8vo (in Dutch).
Gr. 1.-A. Ph.: Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde.
Hand. 1e Congr. TLV Java: Handelingen van het Eerste Congres
voor de Taal-, Land-en Volkenkunde van Java, Solo 1919. Weltevreden, 1921, 8vo (mainly in Dutch).
Ind. Hist. Quart. : Indian Historical Quarterly.
Int. Arch. f. Ethn. : Internationales Archiv fr Ethnographie (in
German, English and French).
JASB: Journal of the (Royal) Asiatic Society of Bengal.
J. As.: Journal Asiatique, periodique trimestriel publie par Ia Societe
Asiatique (in French).
158
JISOA:
J.
OAZ:
OLZ:
Oudh. Vers!.:
INDEX
A
abhi~eka 24 ff., 63
cra 24ff.
di Buddha 88, 111, 113
di Sakti 30, 88
dityavarman 104, 124
advaya-(jiina) 110
Ady Kli 19
.Ady Klik 15
aghorcra 25 f.
Aghori 83
Agneyidhral_1mudr 11
Agni 69, 99
agnimai}.Q.ala 21 ff., 37, 132
aharpkra 22 ff., 26, 37
ahirpsa 4
Airvata 31
Aisvarika 95, 114
jii-cakra 8, 19, 21 ff., 31, 37 f., 43,
59f.
ksidhral].mudr 11, 12
Ak~obhya 110, 127 ff.
Alaksmi 50
altar~pieces 53 ff.
amkala 22
Amarvati 62
mbhasidhranmudr 11
Amitbha 74, O, 126
Amoghapsa 62, 125, 126
Amoghasiddhi 110, 126
Amsterdam (museum) 67
amulet 43, 60
Anhatacakra( -padma) 8, 15, 16, 22, 38
nandakandapadma 14 ff., 18 f., 21-24,
35 f., 84 f., 93, 99 f., 108, 112, 115,
118 f., 124 f., 132, 134, 139
Ananta 91 f.
Andhaksura 83 f.
ndhras 90
antartman 21, 36
anusvra 11
anuttarayoga 21, 106
Aparjit 16
Arapacana 44
Arapacana Maiijusri 44
Ardhanri 109, 129
Ardhanrisvara 11, 129
Ardhasiva 136
Ardimulya 131
arhat 107
arkamandala 22
arpadhtu 57
ryadesa 79
rya Tr 88
sana 5, 7, 11
Asanga 79, 106
Asitnga Bhairava 16, 82, 84
Asoka 51, 100 f .
a~ta-devat 133
a~tamahbodhisattva 55 f., 108, 110,
112 f., 118 f.
a~tamahsmaSna 80, 118
a~tamahSmasnasdhana 80
a~tamangala 53 ff., 61 ff., 74
a~tngayoga 4, 60, 107
a~tngikamrga 107
astra 133
asura 83, 86
Asurndhakapadma, see Visuddhi-cakra
AttttahsasmaSna 82
avadhta 139
Avadhti 81
Avalokite5vara 111, 113, 118
Avatamsaka 44
avidy.1, 6
B
Badawi 127
Bagalmukhidhral}.yantra 32
Bahal ( li) 67
Bajrapl].i 110
Balapramathal}.i 49
Balavikaral}.i 49
Bali 20, 63, 120, 132 ff.
bali-pitha 40
bl}.a-liilga 38
BarabuQ.ur 51, 62, 104 ff., 115-120
Bardo-Thosgrol 67, 80
Baroda (museum) 67
Bat Curp 114
Bavani 85
Begtse 96f.
Bhadr 16
Bhagavadgit 1
Bhairava 16-18, 48, 81ff., 86, 88, 93,
160
c
caitya 52
Caityapr~ngava 53
cakra (padma) 7 ff., 13, 37 f., 58, 138
cakrdhi~thtri 32, 50
cakraratna 61
cakravQa 45
cakravartin 61, 68, 124
lCam-srail (ICam-sriil) 97
Cmui}Q 16, 82 ff., 130, 131, 134
Cai}Qa 58, 84
Cal}qa Bhairava 16, 58, 84
Cai}Qali 69
Catt4amahroiat~atantra 14, 128
Cai}Qik 16
Cal}<;iograsmaSna 82
Candra 69, 84, 99
candramai}Qala 11, 22-24, 37, 47, 132
Candramukha 123
Carpati 90
Carpatipda 82, 90
Cauri 69
cemetery, see : smaSna
Ceylon 89
China 18, 47, 51, 56, 62, 72 f.
Chio-ch'an-ch'ao 62, 92
mch'od-rten 51 f.
Cilu 57
cincra 18
Cinacrasaratantra 18
Cinmayi 15
Citkla 32
citta 46, 48, 58
citta-cakra ( -mai}Qala) 58
citta-srup.skra 4, 5 f.
Comilla 67
C'os-rgyal-phyi-sgrub 50, 77, 95, 97
D
'Dab-brgyad 66
Daicin Tengri 98
Dainichi N yorai 111
Qkini 66 f., 101
l;:>kini 32, 34, 46, 50, 88
dak~?il}cra 24 f.
Dak~?il}a Kli 85
daSksaro vci 57
dasa lokapla 133
dasyu 90
Deslouis, collection 56, 119
Deva 46
Devaruci 123 f.
Devi 15, 17, 21, 26, 46, 50, 82, 86, 88 ff.,
96, 100 f., 130, 138
Devi Kui}Qalini 8 ff., 12 f., 19 ff., 29,
32, 35, 38
Dhanafijaya 83
dhar bija 31 f.
dhar mai}Qala 31
dhral} 6
dhral}mudr 11
161
INDEX
dhrat:ti 47, 89
dhanna 94
Dharma 46, 95, 114, 120
Dharma Devi 85
dharmadhtumai;l<;lala 72 f.
dharmakya 109 f., 112, 119, 129
Dharmakirti 106
dharmapla 96, 140
Dharmapradipaka 55
dhtu 111
dhtumai;l<;lala 72
dhyna 6, 24
Dhyni-Buddha 51, 112, 115, 126ff.
Divarupa 110
Divylivadna 116
Djakarta (museum) 115, 125
'Dod-'khams-dbati-phyug-dmag-zor-ma
89
:Oombi 69
Drag-gsed 96-100
Drona 123
Dub~jed, see: sGrub-byed
Durg 15, 48, 86 f.
cf. Kli-Durg, Nava Durg
E
G-bu 111
golayantra 54 f.
mGon-po-phyag-drug-pa 96
mGon-po-yid-bzi-nor-bu 96
granthi~thna 9, 38
sGrub-byed ceremony 65 f.
Guhyasamajatantra 13, 14
Guhyapati 112
Guhyesvari 81, 85, 87 ff., 125
guru 14, 15, 30 f., 36, 65, 141
Guru 21, 46, 130
Gunung Butak 130
H
Hachiman 98
Hkini 36
haqlsa 14, 16, 19, 21, 36, 94 f., 99
Hatr~sopani~ad 16, 23, 26
hathayoga 2, 6 ff., 11, 12, 137
Hayagriva 96, 125 f.
Hayam Wuruk 121 f., 124
Heruka 64 ff., 91
Hevajra 68 ff., 89, 99
H evajrasekaprakriy 68 f.
Hevaj ravasit 68 ff.
Himlaya 108
Hinayna 107 f.
hrdaya-pui;l<;larika 139
I
F
fakir 2, 29
flame (symbol) 21, 37, 59, 132
foot-prints 54 ff.
fo-yen-tsun 63
Further India 39, 69, 114
G
GahvarasmaS.na 82
Gambhiravajra 78, 80
gai;la 83
gai;lacakra 78, 81
Ga~!javyha 44
Gandharva 20
Gandharvamlik(-tantra) 18, 20
Gai;le5a 93 f., 122, 130, 135
Gatig 8, 122, 132
garbhadhtu 111 ff., 114, 119f.
garbhadhtumai;l<;lala 72
Gauri 69
Ghasmari 69
Ghera~l}asatr~hita 7, 11, 15, 32
Ghorndhakasmasna 82
J
Jaggayyapeta 62
Jago, Cai:t<;li - 125 ff.
Jaka Dolok 129
J alatUI:IQa 35
Jaina 64
Jambhala 97
Japan 72
Java 67, 68, 86, 100, 102 ff., 124
Jawi, Cai;l<;li - 128
Jayanti 16
11
162
Jayavgisvari 87
Jhailkesvari 87
Jina ( -pati) 67, 111, 129
j!va 14, 16, 19, 45, 94
j!vnmukta 25 f.
j!vtman 16, 18 ff., 99, 129
jfina 110
jfinamrga 2 f., 24
j finasakti 86
jfinayoga 2 f., 26
J vl~pkulasmaSna 82
Jye~thdevi 49 f.
K
Kacchapa 90
Kacchapapda 82, 90
mKha'-'gro-ma 66
Kailsa 40, 44 f., 83
Kla 15, 49, 81 ; cf. Mahkla
kalcakra 21 f., 112, 119
Klacakra 22, 57, 66, 73, 79, 100
Kalankasmasna 82
Kalavikarana 49
Kalavikarani 49
Kli 15, 1i, 26, 49 f., 76, 81 f., 88 ff.,
93, 95 ff., 101
Kli-Durg 48; cf. Durg
Klikulmrta 19
Kma 32
kmadhtu 57
Kamalaraksita 81
Kanklamlini 21
Kanybhartar 97
Kapla Bhairava 16, 82, 84
Kplikas 82, 84
Kapilavastu 61
Karangasem 132, 133
dKar-chag 55 ff.
Karimun-besar 54
Karkotaka (Karkata) 81, 91 ff.
karma-mandala 72
karmayog~ 3 f.
Karprdistotra 85
Krtikeya 97, 130
Kathsaritsgara 17
Kafhopani~ad 13
Ktyyani 80 f., 86
kaulcra 25 f.
K aulvali~;~irna:,a 14, 79, 84
Kaumri 16, 82 ff.
kya 46, 58, 111, 113; cf. trikya
kyacakra 58
kya-sa~pskra 4 f.
Kedung W ulan 129
kekasang 133 f.
Kelurak 120
Kerima 67
Khagnan 88
Khagarbha 118
Khubilai Khagan 68 ff.
KilakilasmaSna 82
kle5a 1 ff.
Kb Daishi 110
Kong-bu 111
Kongkai 111
Kongshu 111
Koravsrama 134
Kotesvari 87
kramadiksbhiseka 25
kriy-mrga
7
kriyyoga 2 f., 26
Krkalsapda 82, 91
Krodha Bhairava 16, 82, 84
krodha-deities 86, 125
Kr~IJ.a 1, 81
Krtanagara 104, 124 f., 128, 130 f.
KsntiSila 79
ksetra 121
K~itigarbha 118
Kubera 96
Kukkuripda 67, 82, 91
Kukurarja 78, 81
kulcala 33 ff.
Kulika 91 f.
Kumra 83
Kumri 16
kumri-pj 84
kumbha 29, 62 f. ; cf. prl).akalasa
kumbhaka 5, 19
Kul).<;ialini, see : Devi Kul).<;ialini
Kunjarakarna 103
kurma mudr 20
Kutarja 78
Kwannon (Kwan-yin) 111, 115
2;
163
INDEX
litigodbhavamrti 39
Locan 127 ff.
Lokapla 49, 91, 99, 133
Loke5vara 110 ff., 113 ff., 125
Lumbung, Cal)<;li - 120
lucky signs 54 ff.
Lyi 91
M
macrocosm 39, 45 f., 48, 132, 137
magical practices 77, 79, 141
M ahbhrata 122
M ahcinkranwcara 18
Mahdeva 18, 49, 134 f.
Mahdevl 135
Mahkla 15, 76, 81, 83, 90 f., 95 ff.,
98, 130 f.
Mahkll 67, 96
Mahlak~ml 16, 82 f.
mahmal)Qala 72, 74
Mahmeru
M ahmeghamm;tjalavar~avardhana
namastra 92
Mahnirvt;~atantra 13, 15, 16, 19, 29,
34, 63, 83 f., 91, 100
Mahpadma 91 f.
mahprl)dik~bhi~eka 25 f.
mahsarprjybhi~eka 25
mahsukhamal)<;lala 64 f., 67
Mahvairocana 63, 111
mahvyu 21
Mahyna 51, 92, 105 ff., 107 ff.
mahyoga 21, 24, 26, 113, 120
Mahesvara 83, 109 f., 112, 134 f.
cf. siva Mahesvara
Mahesvarl 16, 82 ff.
Mahi~sura 86
Mahissuramardinl 86 f.
maithtma 30
Maitreya 55, 118
Majapahit 124
Malang 129
manas 22 f., 36
manas-cakra 22 f., 36
mnaslpj 15, 48
mal)<;lala (cosmic symbol) 71 ff., 117
mal)<;lala (yantra) 11, 63
mal)<;lala (cakra) 21 f.
mal)<;lala-offering 45 f.
Maii.gal 16
Mali.galesvarl 87
Mal)ipra-cakra ( -padma) 8, 22
Mafijugho~a 96
Mafijusri 44, 72, 81, 87, 96, 118, 120
Mafijusrini'lmasa'ltlgiti 57
Manonmani 49 f.
Mantrayna (Mantra-Buddhism) 72,
N
Nbhi-cakra ( -padma) 8
nabhodhranmudr 11
nabhomal)<;lala 11
n<;la 19, 58, 109
n<;li 7 f., 122, 132
nga 35, 45, 56, 81, 91 ff., 108, 123
Nagapertala 35
Ngarakrtgama 104 ff., 121, 124
Ngaripda 82, 91
Ngrjuna 108
ngastambha 92
ngi 8
Nland 57, 92, 115
r N am-bcu-dbaii.-ldan 56 ff., 132
Nandi 83
rNam-rgyal bumpa 65 f.
Nandin'i 16
Nrasimhi 16
Nryai;tl 16
nava-devat 63, 133
Nava-Durg 48, 85 ff.
navaratna 63
nava sanga 133 ff., 136
navayonicakra 41, 63
Nyiks 16, 84
Nyiksiddhi 84
Nepal 6, 47, 51, 72, 76 ff., 81 ff., 85,
87, 90, 91, 93, 113, 133
ngili-tma 109, 132
Ngrimbi, Cal)Qi - 133
nlcakula 90
164
Nila 83
nirmQ.akya 109, lll, 119, 129
nirvnakala 22
niskaia 109 f.
ni~rtti 13, 25
niyama 4f.
Njai Ageng Nagapertala 35
0
01!1 37, 44, 56, 95, ll4
p
Padang Rotjo 126
Padang CaQ.<;ii 62, 125, 126
padma ( cakra) 8 ff., 13 f.
Padmaka 91 f.
padma-class 111 f.
Padmanarte5vara 112, 125
Padmapl).i 111 ff., 114 f., 118 f.
Padmapur1Ja 86
Padmasambhava 66 f., 78, 80
Pdukpaiicaka 9
dPag-bSam-I!on-bZan 80, 90
'Phags-pa 68
Paharpur 69
Pla-dynasty 106
pamor ing kawula gusti (mysticism)
138
Paiicakrama 118
pafictmaka 126
Pan-cen Rinpoche 74
Pndavas 123
par~ ~ lhi.ga 38
Paramadevat 19
Paramaha111sa 26
Paramasiva 36, 109 ff., 112, 136
Paramtman 19
Paramesvari 20
Pararaton 130
Prthividhral).mudr 11, 32
Prvati 17, 83, 95, 130 f.
Pasir Pafijang 54
Pasupati 49
pta 71
Patafij ali 4
Pawon, CaQ.<;Ii - 117-120
pedanda 20, 120 f., 132 f.
Peking 70
Pertiwa 133
Petabumi 35
Petunggriyana 35
phur-bu 46
Phnl!l Bantey Nan 114
Phi.gal 7 f., 59, 122, 132
pitha 16, 27
Prajfipramit 88, 114
Prajiipramit 44, 108
prakrti 22 f.
Prambanan 120
prl).a 7, 13, 19
prl).aprati;;t}l 20 f., 63
prl).aropl).aprakra 19
prl).yma 5, 60
pranava 37
Prapafica 121, 122, 124, 128
Prapaiicasratantra 7, 16, 63, 83
prasidhraQ.mudr 11
pratyhra 5
pravrtti 13, 25
Prthivi 19, 49
pj 40, 47
Pukkasi 69
Pulinda 90
Pul).<;ira 90
prl).bhi;;eka 25, 29, 68
prl).adik;;bhi;;eka 25
prl).a-kalasa 64
Prnnanda 80
puru.;;a 6
Purusa 23
Purnapatapan 130 f.
R
rjadhirjayoga 12
Rjasanagara 121
Rja-yoga 2, 6, 13, 137
Rjesvari 87
rk;;asa 89, 101
rakta-rgya-mts'o 89
Rma-Krsna 80f.
Ratih 133.
Ratnmsa 128
Ratnni 61
Ratnasambhava 110
Ratnatraya 111
98
Raudri 49, 134
Renge-bu 111
'right-hand' path 13 f., 24 f., 36, 48,
120, 123, 138, 141
ro-lang rite 78
r;;imal).<;ialayantra 64
rta 94
Rudra 38, 49, 84, 109, 134 f.
Rudraymala 17
rpadhtu 57
Ruru Bhairava 16, 82, 84
Raudra-Kr~l).a-VaisravaiJ.a
s
Sabar 90
34
Sadsiva 11, 12, 18, 50, 109f., 112,
129, 136
.~abdastomamahnidhi
INDEX
77
San-bu 111
Sailgha 46, 95, 114, 120
Sang Hyang Kamahynikan 53, 62,
103-105, 110 f., 121, 127
sangku sudamala 133
Sang Satyavn 122
Sankara 86, 134 f.
sailkhapla 91 f.
Sailku 92, 93
Sails-rgyas mKha'-'gro-ma 66
Sntikara 91, 93
Sapta-Mtrks 83
Saptaratna 53 f., 62 ff., 68, 74
Sarasvati 8, 122, 132, 134
Sro 93
Sarvabhtadamani 49
sarva mailgala 53 f.
Sarvanivarat;~avi~kambhin 118
~atcakra(-bheda) 9, 13, 16, 20, 22ff.,
30, 50, 112, 122, 132, 141
SatcakranirPa7Ja 9, 10, 12, 15, 31,
33, 36
Sati 134
165
Saur 90
savara 90
savarapda 82, 90
Savari 69
Svitri 122
Sejarah Melayu 124
Sekakriykrama 71
Selagriya, Cat;~<Ji - 92
Sewu, Cat;~<Ji - 120
Shingon Buddhism 111, 127
siddhntcara 25 f.
Siddhrtha 61
siddhi 79
sikep 133
Sikhim 66
Simpang 129
Singasari 121, 129 f.
si$ya 30
sitavana 77
Siva 8, 12, 18 f., 21, 30, 38 f., 44, 48 ff.,
83 f., 86, 88, 95 f., 97, 109, 112, 120,
133 f., 138
siva-Ardhanarisvari 136
Siva-Bhairava 48, 83, 88, 89
~iva-Buddha 128 f.
Sivabuddhlaya 130
siva-Devi 50, 136
siva-Mahkla 67, 82, 90, 93
siva-Mahesvara 109
siva-Rudra 48
siva-sakti 88
Sivasa!?fhil 7, 13
sivasthna 45
Skanda 94
smasna 26, 64, 76 ff., 80 ff., 84 f., 92 ff.
smasna Kli 85
smasnamat;~<Jala 93-100, 114, 131
Smasna~idhi 80
soma 8, 138
somacakra 22
Sri (Devi) 134
Sricakra 40, 43, 63, 64, 80, 117, 118
Sricakrasa'l?fbhiiratantra 43, 64, 65, 67,
80, 117-119
Sri Tafijung 131
Sriyantra 40, 44
Sroil-btsan-sgam-po 98
stambha 92
stpa 51 f., 116 f.
suddha my 109
suddhavidy 109
Sudhanakumra 125 f.
Suir 90
sukra Bhairava 82
Sumatra 62, 67, 104, 124 f.
Sumbing, Mt. 92
Sumeru 47 ; cf. Meru
sun (symbol) 21, 3'1, 59, 132
snya 6
166
Surabaya 129
Suran 124
Srya 69, 84, 99
sryamat:u;lala 21, 22 f., 37, 132
Su~tuiU). 7, 8, 19 f., 59, 122, 132
Sutasoma 67, 103, 121
suvambha 133
Svdhi~thna-cakra ( -padma) 8, 22
Svayambh 81, 87
svayambh-liftga 32, 38
Svayambha PurtJa (Vrhat-) 81 f., 87 f.
Sve~tadevasya pjana 17, 47
Syma Tr 125 f.
vc 46, 58
Vacchlesvari 87
Vairocana 47, 110, 127ff.
vai~l}.avcra 24 f.
V ai~l}.avi 16, 82 ff.
Vaisraval}.a 96
vajrcrya 106, 132
Vajradevi 129
Vajradhara 112f.
Vajradhtu 111, 127
vajradhtumal}.c;lala 72 f.
Vajradhtvisvara 127 f.
Vaj radhtvisvari 127 ff.
vajrakya 58
T
vaj ra-dass 111 f.
Vajrapl}.i 89, 111 f., 114, 118 f., 127
V ajrapradipafippani 80
Tai-Yun Lun-tsing-u-King 92
Vajrasattva 112, 127 f.
Taishan-temple 73
V ajrasattva 47
Tazkai 111
Vaj ravrhi 67, 69 f. ; see also : Vrhi
Tak~aka 83, 91 f.
Vajrayna 105
rTa-mgrin 96
Vajre5vari 87
Tantra-school, cf. Tantrayna
Vkcakra 58
Tantrarajatantra 16
Tantrayna (Tantrism) 14, 70, 77, 79 f., Vm 49
vmcra 25
105 ff., 115 f., 124 f., 139
Vmadeva 49
Tapanuli 67
V mana purtJa 86
tapas5
vanapla 94
Tr 15, 88, 115, 126 f.; see also:
Vrha 83
rya Tr
Trantha 67, 77 ff., 81, 91 f., 100, 106 V araha purtJa 84
Trtantra 17
Vrhi 16, 82 f. ; see also : Vaj ravrhi
Tashi-lhumpo 74
Vardhavar~astra 92
tathgata 55, 61, 110 f.
Var~aparvata 35
tathgata-class 111
Varul}.a 69, 91, 94, 99
tattva 9, 109
Varul}.a-nga 82, 91, 93
tejas 20
Vsini-deities 48
tejodhral}.mudr 11
V asi~tha 17 f.
Teli-ka-pao 67
Vstupati 93, 99
ten, 'All powerful -, see:
Vsuki 83, 91 f.
rNam-bcu-dbaft-ldan
Vasundhar 69, 99
Tibet 18, 21, 47, 50, 51, 56, 66 f., 77, 88 Vatsalesvari 87
Trawas 35 f., 39
Vat Srei Santhor 114
trikya 111 ff.
vyavidhral}.imudr 11
trimrti 120
vyaviyadhral}.imudr 11
triratna 120
Vyu 69, 99
Triveni 131 f.; see also: Yuktatriveni vedcra 24 f.
Trivikramasena 79
vetla 78
Tumapel 128
vetlasiddhi 78
Vetlapaiicavi11J~ati 17, 79
Vettali 69
u
vidhy 6
vidhyrja 96
Vidhyesvara 110, 112
Ugra Bhairava 49
vihra 117
Um 100, 134 f.
Vijay 16
Unmatta Bhairava 16, 82, 84
Vijayanagara 124
utpannakrama 58
Vindhya mountains 86
167
INDEX
vira 15
Virabhadra 83
Viresvara 88
Virpk~a 91
Virpk~apda
vi~a 8
Vi~l).U 38 f., 48,
82, 91
w
world-mountains; see Meru
y
yab-yum (position) 69
Yajamna 49
Yak~a 94, 100, 114, 127
yama 5
z
Zodiac-cup 133
Sahasrra-padnta
-.. Visuddhi-cakra
Anhata-cakra
lnandakandapadma
Ml)ipiira-cakra
Svidhi$thna-cakra
Piilgal
141
Miildhra
PLATE I
Photo: A. A. Bake
(Woreldkroniek) ,
Y ogin in zajrswza, showing the location of the cakras and the main nt}is.
PLATE II
PLATE III
PLATE IV
Filchner Expedition.
PLATE V
PLATE VI
PLATE VII
Photo: E. E. S C'hlieper.
Group of Lamaistic bronzes found near Peking, and prohably used in a IIevajravasit,
vanished shortly after their discovery.
PLATE VIII
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PLATE X
PL\TE XI
PLATE XII
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sanga emblems.
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from :
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TABLE II
(cf. pp. 108 ff., and p. 128)
MANTRA-B UDDHI SM
SAIVASIDDHNTA
Dharmakya
(nirguna-deities)
(ni,l'kala-deities)
V AJRADHARA (di-Buddha)
SIVA
Sarp.bhogakya
( sagu~a-nirgu~a-deities)
Amoghasiddhi
Sarpbhu
Vairocana
/
Amitbha -
( sakala-ni,l'kala-deities)
siva
V AJRASATTVA (Vajrapl}i)
Ak!?obhya
Ratnasambhava
(together they compose the Vajradhtu)
NirmJ?.akaya
( sagu~a-deities)
Vi~l}u
SADSIVA - Mahe5vara
Brahm
( sakala-deities)
Gagal}agafija
K~itigarbha
Maitreya -
"
Vajrapl}i
LOKE~;vARA -
"
Mafijusri
(Padmapl}i)
Samantabhadra
MAHESVARA
surrounded by the 8 Vidye5varas 1
Khagarbha
Sarvanivaral}avi!?kambhin
siva-Rudra
Siva-Rudra
Vt!?I}U
Vt!?I}U
.I
Brabm
1
.I
I
Brahm