Signals and

Spectra

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Line Spectra and Fourier Series

Fourier Transforms and Continuous Spectra
Time and Frequency Relations
Convolution
Impulses and Transforms in the Limit
Discrete Time Signals and the Discrete Fourier
Transform

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Roadmap

LINE SPECTRA AND FOURIER

SERIES

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Phasors and Line Spectra

Periodic Signals and Average Power
Fourier Series
Convergence Conditions and Gibbs Phenomenon
Parsevals Power Theorem

v(t) = A cos(0t + )

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Phasors and Line Spectra

The phasor representation of a sinusoidal signal comes from Eulers theorem

Any sinusoid as the real part of a complex

exponential

This is called a phasor representation

Only three parameters completely specify a phasor: amplitude,

phase angle, and rotational frequency

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Any sinusoid as the real part of a complex

exponential

One sided spectra

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A suitable frequency-domain description would be the line

spectrum

Phase angles will be measured with respect to cosine waves.

Hence, sine waves need to be converted to cosines via the
identity
sin t = cos (t 90o)
We regard amplitude as always being a positive quantity. When
negative signs appear, they must be absorbed in the phase using
- A cos t = A cos (t 180o)

then
Two sided spectra

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Recalling that Re[z] = (z + z*)

w(t) = 7 10 cos(40t 60o) + 4 sin 120t

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consider the signal

w(t) = 7 cos 20t + 10 cos(220t + 120o) + 4 cos (260t 90o)

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The average value of any function v(t) is defined as

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Periodic Signals and Average Power

In case of periodic signal

The average power (normalized)

10
The average value of a power signal may be positive, negative, or zero.

Let v(t) be a power signal with period T0=1/f0. Its exponential Fourier series expansion is

The series coefficients are related to v(t) by

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Fourier Series

The coefficients are complex quantities in general, they can be expressed in the polar form

the nth term of the Fourier series equation being

11

1. All frequencies are integer multiples or harmonics of the fundamental frequency f0=1/T0.
Thus the spectral lines have uniform spacing f0.
2. The DC component equals the average value of the signal, since setting n = 0

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|c(nf0)| represents the amplitude spectrum as a function of f, and arg c(nf0) represents the
phase spectrum.
Three important spectral properties of periodic power signals are listed below.

3. If v(t) is a real (noncomplex) function of time, then

which means that the amplitude spectrum has even symmetry and the phase spectrum has odd
symmetry.

12

or

an = Re[cn] and bn = Im[cn]

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trigonometric Fourier Series a one-sided spectrum

These sinusoidal terms represent a set of orthogonal basis functions,

Functions vn(t) and vm(t) are orthogonal over an interval from t1 to t2 if

13

well now introduce the sinc function defined by

sinc is an even function of having its peak at = 0 and zero crossings at all other integer
values of , so

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The integration for cn often involves a phasor average in the form

14

To calculate the Fourier coefficients

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EXAMPLE: Rectangular Pulse Train

Multiplying and dividing by t finally gives

15

1
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The amplitude spectrum obtained from |c(nf0)| = |cn| = Af0 |sinc nf0 |

for the case of /T0 = f0 =1/4

We construct this plot by drawing the continuous function Af0 |sinc nf| as a
dashed curve, which becomes the envelope of the lines.
The spectral lines at 4f0, 8f0, and so on, are missing since they fall precisely at
multiples of 1/ where the envelope equals zero.
The dc component has amplitude c(0) = A/T0 which should be recognized as the
average value of v(t).
Incidentally, /T0 equals the ratio of on time to period, frequently designated as
the duty cycle in pulse electronics work

16

Both +180o and -180o were used here to bring out the odd symmetry of the phase.

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The phase spectrum is obtained by observing that cn is always real but sometimes
negative.
Hence, arg c(nf0) takes on the values 0o and 180o, depending on the sign of sinc nf0 .

Having decomposed the pulse train into its frequency components, lets build it back
up again. For that purpose, well write out the trigonometric series, still taking
/T0 = f0 = 1/4, so c0=A/4 and |2cn|=(2A/4) |sinc n/4| = (2A/n) |sin n/4|. Thus
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The Dirichlet conditions for Fourier series expansion are as follows:

If a periodic function v(t) has
a finite number of maxima, minima, and discontinuities per period,
and if v(t) is absolutely integrable, so that v(t) has a finite area per period,

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Convergence Conditions and Gibbs

Phenomenon

then the Fourier series exists and converges uniformly wherever v(t) is continuous.
These conditions are sufficient but not strictly necessary.
20

Under this condition, the series converges in the mean such that if

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An alternative condition is that v(t) be square integrable, so that |v(t)|2 has finite
area per periodequivalent to a power signal.

then

In other words, the mean square difference between v(t) and the partial sum v N(t)
vanishes as more terms are included.

21

Gibbs ears,
Height is independent
of N

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Regardless of whether v(t) is absolutely integrable or square integrable, the series

exhibits a behavior known as Gibbs phenomenon at points of discontinuity.

22

Parsevals theorem relates the average power P of a periodic signal to its Fourier
coefficients.

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1
Parsevals Power Theorem

23

DRILL PROBLEMS
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24

Solution
is the sum of two periodic functions: and , of periods

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Problem 1.1
Find the fundamental frequency of the periodic signal
.

respectively.
Hence,

is periodic if and only if

where

and are relatively prime integers.

25

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1
But

and

2 and 3 are relatively prime integers, then and .

The
fundamental period of therefore is simply

and its fundamental frequency is just

26

Solution

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Problem 1.2
Sketch the two-sided amplitude spectrum of the signal of
Problem 1.1, then calculate its average power.

Amplitude

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Why?

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he above

exponential series expansion of is just its Fourier series expansion,

with Fourier coefficients

Because it consists of
frequency

components whose

frequencies are only

integer multiples of
for all other
the fundamental
frequency .
Applying Parsevals power theorem then yields

28

Solution
The periodic signal waveform is given by

where

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Problem 1.3
Sketch the two-sided amplitude spectrum of the even
symmetric triangular wave listed in Table T.2 in the
textbook.

29

1
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with complex Fourier series coefficients

by even
symmetry
Ponder!
A time shift of
will bring the
How?
signal to odd
Amplitude symmetry. How
will that affect its

Fourier
coefficients.

30

Problem 1.5

Given two periodic signals and of the same fundamental

period and with Fourier coefficients and , respectively,
show that their product signal is also periodic of the same
fundamental period and with Fourier coefficients given by.

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Problem 1.4
Calculate the average power of the periodic signal of
Problem 1.3.

Problem 1.6

How many harmonic terms are required in the Fourier

sereies of a periodic square wave with 50 percent duty
cycle and amplitude to represent 99 percent of its power?

31

FOURIER TRANSFORMS AND CONTINUOUS

SPECTRA

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Fourier Transforms
Symmetric and Causal Signals
Rayleighs Energy Theorem
Duality Theorem
Transform Calculations

32

Non-periodic signals

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Fourier Transforms

average v(t) or |v(t)|2 over all time youll find that these averages equal zero.
normalized signal energy

33
When the integral exists and yields 0 < E < , the signal v(t) is said to have welldefined energy and is called a nonperiodic energy signal.

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To introduce the Fourier transform, well start with the Fourier series representation
of a periodic power signal

Let the frequency spacing approach zero and the index n approach infinity such
that the product nf0 approaches a continuous frequency variable f

Fourier transform

34

The time function v(t) is recovered from V( f ) by the inverse Fourier transform

2
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The Fourier transform of v(t)

a nonperiodic signal will have a continuous spectrum rather than a line spectrum.
In the periodic case we return to the time domain by summing discrete-frequency
phasors, while in the nonperiodic case we integrate a continuous frequency
function
35

1. The Fourier transform is a complex function, so |V(f)| is the amplitude spectrum

of v(t) and arg V(f) is the phase spectrum.
2. The value of V(f) at f = 0 equals the net area of v(t), since

2
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Three major properties of V( f ) are listed below

which compares with the periodic case where c(0) equals the average value of v(t)
3. If v(t) is real, then

36

and

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EXAMPLE: Rectangular Pulse

so V(0) = A, which clearly equals the pulses area.

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We may take 1/ as a measure of the spectral width.

If the pulse duration is reduced (small ), the frequency width is increased,
whereas increasing the duration reduces the spectral width
Thus, short pulses have broad spectra, and long pulses have narrow spectra. This
phenomenon, called reciprocal spreading,

38

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Symmetric and Causal

Signals
even part of V(f)

odd part of V(f)

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When v(t) has time symmetry,

where w(t) stands for either v(t) cos t or v(t) sin t

If v(t) has even symmetry then v(t) cos t is even whereas v(t) sin t is odd, then
Vo(f) = 0 and

if v(t) has odd symmetry, then Ve(f) = 0 and

40

One-sided Laplace transform is a function of the complex variable s = + j defined

by

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Consider the case of a causal signal, defined by the property that

you can get V( f ) from the Laplace transform by letting s = j = j2f.

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EXAMPLE: Causal Exponential Pulse

which is a complex function in unrationalized form. Multiplying numerator and

denominator by b - j2f yields the rationalized expression

42

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2
Conversion to polar form then gives the amplitude and phase spectrum

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44

Rayleighs energy theorem states that the energy E of a signal v(t) is related to
the spectrum V(f) by

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Rayleighs Energy
Theorem

Integrating the square of the amplitude spectrum over all frequency yields the
total energy.

45

the total pulse energy is E A2

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The energy spectral density of a rectangular pulse, whose spectral width was claimed
to be |f|=1/. The energy in that band is the shaded area in the figure, namely

46

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Rayleighs theorem is actually a special case of the more general integral

relationship

47

The theorem states that if v(t) and V( f ) constitute a known transform pair, and if
there exists a time function z(t) related to the function V( f ) by
then

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Duality Theorem

48

z(t) = A sinc 2Wt

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EXAMPLE: Sinc Pulse

Well obtain Z(f) by applying duality to the transform pair

Re-writing

49

 Fouriertransform
tables may be very helpful in the

calculation of the Fourier transform, especially when

utilized in connection with the duality theorem.
Similarly, Laplacetransform tables may also prove useful
in the calculation of the Fourier transform when the signal
in question is causalas was pointed out earlier.
In addition, either approach could be utilized when
applicable for the calculation of the Fourier series as
follows.
Let be a periodic signal and let , a nonperiodic signal
consisting of one period of .
If it is possible to calculate , then the Fourier coefficients of
are simply given by (prove it!)

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Transform Calculations

50

2
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Fourier transform table.

51

2
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Fourier transform table. (continued)

52

DRILL PROBLEMS
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53

Solution
The signal waveform may be sketched according to the following
table after noting its even symmetry, as shown below.

2
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Problem 2.1
Sketch
the waveform and the amplitude spectrum of the

signal then determine the frequency bandwidth for which

99 percent of its energy is contained within.

54

Then by duality it follows that

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calculate the Fourier transform of , we first not the analogy

To
between its mathematical form and that of the Fourier transform
Ponder!
of the signal , namely, in the Fourier transform table.
How would you
Rewriting
elaborate on
reciprocal
with .
spreading for
this signal?

and

55

By Rayleighs energy theorem

Because of the form of the first integral is not easy to calculate.
For a specific frequency bandwidth, , on the other hand, and
because of the symmetry property of the signal spectrum, the
second integral may be modified to yield

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with a maximum .
Hence, a 99% energy bandwidth, , corresponds to or
and

56

TIME AND FREQUENCY

RELATIONS

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Superposition
Time Delay and Scale Change
Frequency Translation and Modulation
Differentiation and Integration
57

If a1 and a2 are constants and

then

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Superposition

generally

58

Replacing t by t - td in v(t) produces the time-delayed signal v(t - td).

The amplitude spectrum remains unchanged in either case, since

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Time Delay and Scale

Change
proof

= t - td

59

The scale signal v(t) will be expanded if || < 1 or compressed if || > 1; a

negative value of yields time reversal as well as expansion or compression.

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Scale change, produces a horizontally scaled image of v(t) by replacing t with t.

60

 = - | |
= - ||t
t = /
dt = -d/||

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proof, for case < 0

61

3
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EXAMPLE: Superposition and Time Delay

62

we have : 1 = - ftd
2 = - f (td + T)
1 2 = fT
1 2 = ft0
where
t0 = td + T/2

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with
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t0 = 0
T=

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Frequency translation or complex modulation

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Frequency Translation and

Modulation

65

2. Though V(f) was bandlimited in W, V (f - fc) has a spectral width of 2W.

Translation has therefore doubled spectral width. Stated another way, the
negative-frequency portion of V(f) now appears at positive frequencies.
3. V(f - fc) is not hermitian but does have symmetry with respect to translated
origin at f = fc.

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1. The significant components are concentrated around the frequency fc.

These considerations are the basis of carrier modulation, we have the following
modulation theorem:

66

3
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EXAMPLE: RF Pulse

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Differentiation theorem

3
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Differentiation and
Integration

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3
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Integration theorem

Differentiation enhances the high-frequency components of a signal, since

|j 2fV(f )| > |V(f)| for |f | > 1/2.
Conversely, integration suppresses the high-frequency components.
69

3
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EXAMPLE: Triangular Pulse

Has zero net area,

and integration produces a triangular pulse shape

70

3
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Applying the integration theorem to Zb (f)

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3
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The triangular function

72

DRILL PROBLEMS
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73

(a)

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Problem 3.1
Sketch the amplitude and phase spectra for the modulated
signals depicted below, where the unmodulated carrier is .

(b)

Solution

a) The modulated signal may be expressed as

whose Fourier transform is simply

How
?

74

Method 1: Modulation followed by a time delay

The modulated signal in this case is simply a delayed version of
that in (a) and it may be experessed as

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(b) The signal here could be interpreted in one of two ways:

whose Fourier transform is just

obtained by applying the modulation theorem followed by the
time delay property of the Fourier transform.
75

Method 2: Time delay followed by modulation

Ponder!
Is it
In this specific instance could equally well be expressed
asalways
possible to
interchange the
order of the
whose Fourier transform is
mathematical
operations as
with this
which simplifies to
problem?

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as before, after noting that .

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Signal waveform

Its spectrum

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The modulating signal

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Modulated signal (a)

Signal waveform

Its spectrum

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Modulated signal (b)

Signal waveform

Its spectrum

e: The phase spectrum in this sketch is not to scale.

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CONVOLUTION

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Convolution Integral
Convolution Theorems
80

The convolution of two functions of the same variable, say v(t) and w(t), is
defined by

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Convolution Integral

take the functions

81

But obtaining the picture of w(t - ) as a function of requires two steps:

First, we reverse w(t) in time and replace t with to get w();

4
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v() has the same shape as v(t)

Second, we shift w() to the right by t units to get w[-(-t)] = w(t-) for a given
value of t.

82

when t < 0
w(t - )

t-T

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As v(t) * w(t) is evaluated for - < t < + , w(t - ) slides from left to right
with respect to y()

t
functions dont overlap

83

4
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when 0 < t < T

w(t - )

t-T

t
functions overlap for 0 < < t

84

4
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when t > T

w(t - )

t-T

functions overlap for t - T < < t

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86

proof

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Convolution Theorems

87

4
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EXAMPLE: Trapezoidal Pulse

If 1 > 2, the problem breaks up into three cases: no overlap, partial overlap, and
full overlap.

88

or

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case 1: no overlap

|t| > (1 + 2)/2

89

The region where there is partial overlap

and

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case 2: partial overlap

90

4
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case 2: total overlap

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The spectrum becomes (A1 sinc f) (A2 sinc f) = A sinc2f

92

Rectangular function v(t) = A (t/) whose transform, V(f) = A sinc f,

4
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EXAMPLE: Ideal Lowpass Filter

We can lowpass filter this signal at f = 1/ by multiplying V(f) by the rectangular

function

The output function is

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Review Questions

94

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Problems to Ponder

95

IMPULSES AND TRANSFORMS IN THE LIMIT

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Properties of the Unit Impulse

Impulses in Frequency
Step and Signum Functions
Impulses in Time
96

The unit impulse or Dirac delta function (t)

5
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Properties of the Unit

Impulse

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98

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99

Knowing

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Impulses in Frequency

100

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Direct application of the frequency-translation and modulation theorems yields

101

then its Fourier transform is

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102

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EXAMPLE: Impulses and Continuous Spectra

103

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104

The unit step function

5
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Step and Signum

Functions

the signum function (also called the sign function)

105

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The signum function is a limited case of the energy signal z(t), where
v(t) = e-btu(t) and

so that z(t) sgn t if b 0

106

Hence,

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The step and signum functions are related by

107

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An impulsive DC term appears in the integration theorem when the signal

being integrated has nonzero net area.

since u(t - ) = 0 for > 0

108

Impulses in Time
let 0

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An impulsive signal with zero duration has infinite spectral width,

whereas a constant signal with infinite duration has zero spectral width.

109

show that the inverse transform does, indeed, equal v(t).

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But the bracketed integral equals (t - )

110

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We relate the unit impulse to the unit step by means of the integral

Repeatedly differentiate the signal in question until one or more stepwise

discontinuities first appear. The next derivative, say the n th, then includes an
impulse Ak (t - tk) for each discontinuity of height Ak at t = tk, so

where w(t) is a nonimpulsive function

111

5
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EXAMPLE: Raised Cosine Pulse

Well use the differentiation method to find the spectrum V(f ) and the highfrequency rolloff

112
has no discontinuities

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d2v(t)/dt2 is discontinuous at t = so

the first term of d3v(t)/dt3 can be written as w(t) = -(/)2dv(t)/dt

113

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114

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Review Questions

115

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Problems to Ponder

116

DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS AND THE

DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM

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Foundation
Convolution using the DFT
117

Foundation
If we sample a signal at a rate at least twice its bandwidth, then it can be completely
represented by its samples
sampled at rate fs = 1/Ts

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118
where x(k) is a discrete-time signal

Function X(n) is the Discrete Fourier transform (DFT)

The DFT spectrum repeats itself

every N samples or every fs Hz

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The DFT is computed only for

positive N
Note the interval from
n(n+1) represents fs /N
Hz
the discrete frequency

119

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Inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT)

120

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6
Convolution using the DFT

121

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Review Questions

122

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Problems to Ponder

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