CHAPTER 1

ABSTRACT
This is a new technique for the protection of transmission systems by using the
global positioning system (GPS) and fault generated transients. In this scheme t
he relay contains a fault transient detection system together with a communicati
on unit, which is connected to the power line through the high voltage coupling
capacitors of the CVT. Relays are installed at each bus bar in a transmission ne
twork. These detect the fault generated high frequency voltage transient signals
and record the time instant corresponding to when the initial traveling wave ge
nerated by the fault arrives at the busbar.
The decision to trip is based on the components as they propagate through the sy
stem. extensive simulation studies of the technique were carried out to examine
the response to different power system and fault condition. The communication un
it is used to transmit and receive coded digital signals of the local informatio
n to and from associated relays in the system.
At each substation relay determine the location of the fault by comparing the GP
S time stay measured locally with those received from the adjacent substations,
extensive simulation studies presented here demonstrate feasibility of the schem
e.
CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION
Accurate location of faults on power transmission systems can save time and reso
urces for the electric utility industry. Line searches for faults are costly and
can be inconclusive. Accurate information needs to be acquired quickly in a for
m most useful to the power system operator communicating to field personnel.
To achieve this accuracy, a complete system of fault location technology, hardwa
re, communications, and software systems can be designed. Technology is availabl
e which can help determine fault location to within a transmission span of 300 m
eters. Reliable self monitoring hardware can be configured for installation site
s with varying geographic and environmental conditions. Communications systems c
an retrieve fault location information from substations and quickly provide that
information to system operators. Other communication systems, such as Superviso
ry Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA), operate fault sectionalizing circuit br
eakers and switches remotely and provide a means of fast restoration. Data from
SCADA, such as sequence of events, relays, and oscillographs, can be used for fa
ult location selection and verification. Software in a central computer can coll
ect fault information and reduce operator response time by providing only the co
ncise information required for field personnel communications. Fault location sy
stems usually determine “distance to fault” from a transmission line end. Field
personnel can use this data to find fault locations from transmission line maps
and drawings. Some utilities have automated this process by placing the informat
ion in a fault location Geographical Information System (GIS) computer. Since ad
ding transmission line data to the computer can be a large effort, some utilitie
s have further shortened the process by utilizing a transmission structures loca
tion database. Several utilities have recently created these databases for trans
mission inventory using GPS location technology and handheld computers.
The inventory database probably contains more information than needed for a faul
t location system, and a reduced version would save the large data-collection ef
fort. Using this data, the power system operator could provide field personnel d
irect location information.
Field personnel could use online information to help them avoid spending valuabl
e time looking for maps and drawings and possibly even reduce their travel time.
With precise information available, crews can prepare for the geography, climat
ic conditions, and means of transport to the faulted location. Repair time and r
esources would be optimized by the collected data before departure. Accurate fau
lt location can also aid in fast restoration of power, particularly on transmiss
ion lines with distributed loads. Power system operators can identify and isolat
e faulted sections on taploaded lines and remove them by opening circuit breaker
s or switches remotely along the line, restoring power to the tap loads serviced
by the unfaulted transmission sections.
CHAPTER 3
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
GENERATION TRANSMISSION DISTRIBUTION
Electric power transmission, a process in the delivery of electricity to consume
rs, is the bulk transfer of electrical power. Typically, power transmission is b
etween the power plant and a substation near a populated area.Electricity distri
bution is the delivery from the substation to the consumers.Electric power trans
mission allows distant energy sources (such as hydroelectric power plants) to be
connected to consumers in population centers, and may allow exploitation of low
-grade fuel resources that would otherwise be too costly to transport to generat
ing facilities. Due to the large amount of power involved, transmission normally
takes place at high voltage (110 kV or above). Electricity is usually transmitt
ed over long distance through overhead power transmission lines. Underground pow
er transmission is used only in densely populated areas due to its high cost of
installation and maintenance, and because the high reactive power produces large
charging currents and difficulties in voltage management.A power transmission s
ystem is sometimes referred to colloquially as a grid; however, for reasons of e
conomy, the network is not a mathematical grid.Redundant paths and lines are pro
vided so that power can be routed from any power plant to any load center, throu
gh a variety of routes, based on the economics of the transmission path and the
cost of power. Much analysis is done by transmission companies to determine the
maximum reliable capacity of each line, which, due to system stability considera
tions, may be less than the physical or thermal limit of the line.
CHAPTER 4
TRANSMISSION LINE PROTECTION

CHAPTER 5
WHAT IS TRAVELING WAVE FAULT LOCATION
Faults on the power transmission system cause transients that propagate along th
e transmission line as waves. Each wave is a composite of frequencies, ranging f
rom a few kilohertz to several megahertz, having a fast rising front and a slowe
r decaying tail. Composite waves have a propagation velocity and characteristic
impedance and travel near the speed of light away from the fault location toward
line ends. They continue to travel throughout the power system until they dimin
ish due to impedance and reflection waves and a new power system equilibrium is
reached. The location of faults is accomplished by precisely time-tagging wave f
ronts as they cross a known point typically in substations at line ends. With wa
ves time tagged to sub microsecond resolution of 30 m, fault location accuracy o
f 300 m can be obtained. Fault location can then be obtained by multiplying the
wave velocity by the time difference in line ends. This collection and calculati
on of time data is usually done at a master station. Master station information
polling time should be fast enough for system operator needs.
CHAPTER 6
BENEFITS OF TRAVELING WAVE FAULT LOCATION
Early fault locators used pulsed radar. This technique uses reflected radar ener
gy to determine the fault location. Radar equipment is typically mobile or locat
ed at substations and requires manual operation. This technique is popular for l
ocation of permanent faults on cable sections when the cable is de-energized. Im
pedance-based fault locators are a popular means of transmission line fault loca
ting. They provide algorithm advances that correct for fault resistance and load
current inaccuracies. Line length accuracies of ±5% are typical for single-ende
d locators and 1-2% for two-ended locator systems. Traveling wave fault locators
are becoming popular where higher accuracy is important. Long lines, difficult
accessibility lines, high voltage direct current (HVDC), and series-compensated
lines are popular applications. Accuracies of <300 meters have been achieved on
500 kV transmission lines with this technique. Hewlett-Packard has developed a G
PS-based sub microsecond timing system that has proven reliable in several utili
ty traveling wave projects. This low-cost system can also be used as the substat
ion master clock.

CHAPTER 7
TRAVELING WAVE FAULT LOCATION THEORY
Traveling wave fault locators make use of the transient signals generated by the
fault. When a line fault occurs, such as an insulator flashover or fallen condu
ctor, the abrupt change in voltage at the point of the fault generates a high fr
equency electromagnetic impulse called the traveling wave which propagates along
the line in both directions away from the fault point at speeds close to that o
f light. The fault location is determined by accurately time-tagging the arrival
of the traveling wave at each end of the line and comparing the time difference
to the total propagation time of the line. Refer to Figure 1.0
Unlike impedance-based fault location systems, the traveling wave fault locator
is unaffected by load conditions, high ground resistance and most notably, serie
s capacitor banks. This fault locating technique relies on precisely synchronize
d clocks at the line terminals which can accurately time-tag the arrival of the
traveling wave. The propagation velocity of the traveling wave is roughly 300 me
ters per microsecond which in turn requires the clocks to be synchronized with r
espect to each other by less than one microsecond.
Precisely synchronized clocks are the key element in the implementation of this
fault location technique. The required level of clock accuracy has only recently
been available at reasonable cost with the introduction of the Global Positioni
ng System.
The voltage and current at any point x obey the partial differential
Equations
where L and C are the inductance and capacitance of the line per unit
length. The resistance is assumed to be negligible. The solutions of these equat
ions are
these equations are
where Z = (L/C ) is the characteristic impedance of the transmission line and v=
1/(LC) is the velocity of propagation. Forward (ef and if) and reverse (er and i
r) waves, as shown in Figure 1, leave the disturbed area “x” traveling in differ
ent directions at “v”, which is a little less than the speed of light, toward tr
ansmission line ends. Transmission line ends represent a discontinuity or impeda
nce change where some of the wave’s energy will reflect back to the disturbance.
The remaining energy will travel to other power system elements or transmission
lines. Figure 2, a Bewley lattice diagram, illustrates the multiple waves (repr
esented by subscripts 2 and 3) generated at line ends. Wave amplitudes are repre
sented by reflection coefficients ka and kb which are determined by characterist
ic impedance ratios at the discontinuities. and b represent the travel time from
the fault to the discontinuity.
With GPS technology, and b can be determined very precisely.
By knowing the length (l) of the line and the time of arrival difference
(– b), one can calculate the distance (x) to the fault from
substation A by:
where c= the wave propagation of 299.79 m/sec (1ft/ns) .

CHAPTER 8
POSSIBLE CAUSES OF FAULT

CHAPTER 9
WHAT IS GPS
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system made
up of a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit. GPS was originally intended
for military applications, but in the 1980s, the government made the system avai
lable for civilian use. GPS works in any weather conditions, anywhere in the wor
ld, 24 hours a day. GPS Technology allows precise determination of location, vel
ocity, direction, and time. GPS are space-based radio positioning systems that p
rovide time and three-dimensional position and velocity information to suitably
equipped users anywhere on or near the surface of the earth (and sometimes off t
he earth). Concept of satellite navigation was first conceived after the launch
of Sputnik 1 in 1957 when scientists realized that by measuring the frequency sh
ifts in the small bleeps emanating from this first space vehicle it was possible
to locate a point on the earth's surface. The NAVSTAR system, operated by the U
S Department of Defense, is the first such system widely available to civilian u
sers. The Russian system, GLONASS, is similar in operation and may prove complim
entary to the NAVSTAR system. Current GPS systems enable users to determine thei
r three dimensional differential position, velocity and time. By combining GPS w
ith current and future computer mapping techniques, we will be better able to id
entify and manage our natural resources. Intelligent vehicle location and naviga
tion systems will let us avoid congested freeways and more efficient routes to o
ur destinations, saving millions of dollars in gasoline and tons of air pollutio
n. Travel aboard ships and aircraft will be safer in all weather conditions. Bus
inesses with large amounts of outside plant (railroads, utilities) will be able
to manage their resources more efficiently, reducing consumer costs.
CHAPTER 10
HOW IT WORKS
GPS satellites circle the earth twice a day in a very precise orbit and transmit
signal information to earth. GPS receivers take this information and use triang
ulation to calculate the user's exact location. Essentially, the GPS receiver co
mpares the time a signal was transmitted by a satellite with the time it was rec
eived. The time difference tells the GPS receiver how far away the satellite is.
Now, with distance measurements from a few more satellites, the receiver can de
termine the user's position and display it on the unit's electronic map. By know
ing the distance from another satellite, the possible positions of the location
are narrowed down to two points (Two intersecting circles have two points in com
mon). A GPS receiver must be locked on to the signal of at least three satellite
s to calculate a 2D position (latitude and longitude) and track movement. With f
our or more satellites in view, the receiver can determine the user's 3D positio
n (latitude, longitude and altitude). Once the user's position has been determin
ed, the GPS unit can calculate other information, such as speed, bearing, track,
trip distance, distance to destination, sunrise and sunset time and more. Accur
ate 3-D measurements require four satellites. To achieve 3-D real time measureme
nts, the receivers need at least four channels.
CHAPTER 11
THE GPS SATELLITE SYSTEM
The 24 satellites that make up the GPS space segment are orbiting the earth abou
t 12,000 miles above us. They are constantly moving, making two complete orbits
in less than 24 hours. These satellites are traveling at speeds of roughly 7,000
miles an hour. GPS satellites are powered by solar energy. They have backup bat
teries onboard to keep them running in the event of a solar eclipse, when there'
s no solar power. Small rocket boosters on each satellite keep them flying in th
e correct path.
Here are some other interesting facts about the GPS satellites (also called NAVS
TAR, the official U.S. Department of Defense name for GPS):
• The first GPS satellite was launched in 1978.
• A full constellation of 24 satellites was achieved in 1994.
• Each satellite is built to last about 10 years. Replacements are constantly be
ing built and launched into orbit.
• A GPS satellite weighs approximately 2,000 pounds and is about 17 feet across
with the solar panels extended.
• Transmitter power is only 50 watts or less.

CHAPTER 12
IMPLEMENTATION AND TESTING
Evaluation of the fault locator involved the installation of GPS timing receiver
s at four 500kV substations, see Figure 2.0. A especially developed Fault Transi
ent Interface Unit (FTIU) connects to the transmission lines and discriminates f
or a valid traveling wave. The FTIU produces a TTL-level trigger pulse that is c
oincident with the leading edge of the traveling wave. A time-tagging input func
tion was provided under special request to the GPS receiver manufacturer. This i
nput accepts the TTL level logic pulse from the FTIU and time tags the arrival o
f the fault-generated traveling wave. The time tag function is accurate to withi
n 300 nanoseconds of UTC - well within the overall performance requirement of ti
ming to within 1 microsecond.
DISTORTION AND ATTENUATION
OF TRAVELING WAVES
The accuracy of fault location depends on the ability to accurately time tagging
the arrival of the traveling wave at each line terminal. The traveling wave onc
e generated, is subject to attenuation and distortion as it propagates along the
transmission line. Attenuation occurs due to resistive and radiated losses. Dis
tortion of the waveform occurs due to a variety of factors including bandwidth l
imitations of the transmission line, dispersion from different propagation const
ants of phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground components, etc. These effects combin
e to degrade the quality of the leading edge of he traveling wave at large dista
nces from the fault inception point. The accuracy of time tagging the traveling
wave diminishes for the substations far away from the fault. Experience with the
evaluation system has shown that the traveling wave is relatively undistorted f
or distances less than 350 km. To effectively reduce the effects of attenuation
and distortion requires traveling wave detector installations spaced at regular
intervals. For B.C. Hydro, this translates to installing fault location equipmen
t at fourteen out of nineteen 500 kV substations.
Fault Locator System Test
Calculated cumulative arc length from NIC substation to the fault = 13 1,694.5 m
eters.
Fault Locator Difference
Output from Est. Value
Test (meters) (meters)

Fault Locator Response to Traveling Waves Generated by Routine Switching of Subs

tation Equipment
Line Estimated Tp Measured Tp

The distance to the fault from the line terminals is given by:
Where Vp is the velocity of propagation for the line and
Denotes stations with travelling wavedetector installations
Figure 2.0 Fault Locator Lnstallations and Testing
CHAPTER 13
WHAT’S THE SIGNAL
GPS satellites transmit two low power radio signals, designated L1 and L2. Civil
ian GPS uses the L1 frequency of 1575.42 MHz in the UHF band. The signals travel
by line of sight, meaning they will pass through clouds, glass and plastic but
will not go through most solid objects such as buildings and mountains. A GPS si
gnal contains three different bits of information — a pseudorandom code, ephemer
is data and almanac data. The pseudorandom code is simply an I.D. code that iden
tifies which satellite is transmitting information. You can view this number on
your GPS unit s satellite page, as it identifies which satellites it s receiving
. Ephemeris data tells the GPS receiver where each GPS satellite should be at an
y time throughout the day. Each satellite transmits ephemeris data showing the o
rbital information for that satellite and for every other satellite in the syste
m. Almanac data, which is constantly transmitted by each satellite, contains imp
ortant information about the status of the satellite (healthy or unhealthy), cur
rent date and time. This part of the signal is essential for determining a posit
ion.

CHAPTER 14
HOW ACCURATE IS GPS
Today s GPS receivers are extremely accurate, thanks to their parallel multi-cha
nnel design. 12 parallel channel receivers are quick to lock onto satellites whe
n first turned on and they maintain strong locks, even in dense foliage or urban
settings with tall buildings. Certain atmospheric factors and other sources of
error can affect the accuracy of GPS receivers. GPS receivers are accurate to wi
thin 15 meters on average. Newer GPS receivers with WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation
System) capability can improve accuracy to less than three meters on average. N
o additional equipment or fees are required to take advantage of WAAS. Users can
 also get better accuracy with Differential GPS (DGPS), which corrects GPS signa
ls to within an average of three to five meters. The U.S. Coast Guard operates t
he most common DGPS correction service. This system consists of a network of tow
ers that receive GPS signals and transmit a corrected signal by beacon transmitt
ers. In order to get the corrected signal, users must have a differential beacon
receiver and beacon antenna in addition to their GPS.

CHAPTER 15
SOURCES OF GPS SIGNAL ERRORS
Factors that can degrade the GPS signal and thus affect accuracy include the fol
lowing:
• Ionosphere and troposphere delays — The satellite signal slows as it passes th
rough the atmosphere. The GPS system uses a built-in model that calculates an av
erage amount of delay to partially correct for this type of error.
• Signal multipath — This occurs when the GPS signal is reflected off objects su
ch as tall buildings or large rock surfaces before it reaches the receiver. This
increases the travel time of the signal, thereby causing errors.
• Receiver clock errors — A receiver s built-in clock is not as accurate as the
atomic clocks onboard the GPS satellites. Therefore, it may have very slight tim
ing errors.
• Receiver clock errors — A receiver s built-in clock is not as accurate as the
atomic clocks onboard the GPS satellites.
• Number of satellites visible — The more satellites a GPS receiver can see, the
better the accuracy. Buildings, terrain, electronic interference, or sometimes
even dense foliage can block signal reception, causing position errors or possib
ly no position reading at all. GPS units typically will not work indoors, underw
ater or underground.
• Satellite geometry/shading — This refers to the relative position of the satel
lites at any given time. Ideal satellite geometry exists when the satellites are
located at wide angles relative to each other. Poor geometry results when the s
atellites are located in a line or in a tight grouping.
• Intentional degradation of the satellite signal — Selective Availability (SA)
is an intentional degradation of the signal once imposed by the U.S. Department
of Defense. SA was intended to prevent military adversaries from using the highl
y accurate GPS signals. The government turned off SA in May 2000, which signific
antly improved the accuracy of civilian GPS receivers.
CHAPTER 16
CONCLUSION
Thus the use of GPS in protection of transmission systems is beneficial with res
pect to
Value regarding programmatic goals:more reliable monitoring using GPS related te
chnologies.
Technical merit: new fault location algorithm based on new input data.
Emphasis on transfer of technology: CCET partnership aimed at commercialization.
Overall performance: on time, with all goals met so far.
CHAPTER 17
REFERENCES
www.wikipedia.com
www.howstuffworks.com
www.tycho.usno.org
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