Sei sulla pagina 1di 26

Back Forw.

News Research Contact Search


Download Print Version

Theoretical Principles of
Plasma Physics and Atomic Physics
Essential Facts and Formulae

Notes: The content of this site derives largely from my own research and concentrates on
fundamental topics and formulas that are needed for understanding and solving corresponding
theoretical and practical problems. It does not claim to be comprehensive with regard to special
aspects of plasma- or atomic physics. In some cases the approach differs from corresponding
treatments in standard textbooks where the latter can be shown to be flawed. It is indicated in the
corresponding entry when this is the case.
Gaussian cgs-units are used unless otherwise stated; for conversion into Practical- (SI-) units see
the Conversion Table.
.
Search Site

Print Version

INDEX: Absorption, Atomic Decay Probability, Auto- Ionization, Bohr- Einstein Radiation
Formula, Boltzmann Distribution, Boltzmann Equation, Charge Screening, Collision Frequency,
Continuous Medium, Continuum Radiation Coulomb Scattering, Cyclotron Frequency, Debye
Shielding, Detailed Balance, Doppler Broadening, Effective Quantum Number, Elastic
Collisions, Emission Rate, Energy Loss, ExB- Drift, Induced Emission, Inelastic Collisions,
Larmor Frequency, Level Population, Line Broadening, LTE, Maxwell Distribution, Mean Free
Path, Natural Broadening, Optical Depth, Oscillator Strength, Overlap Integral, Photoionization,
Photons, Planck Radiation Formula, Plasma, Plasma Field Fluctuations, Plasma Frequency,
Plasma Oscillations, Plasma Polarization Field, Pseudo- Oscillator, Radiation Pressure,
Radiative Recombination, Radiative Transfer, Resonance Scattering, Saha Equation, Scattering
of Radiation, Spectral Line Shape, Stark Broadening, Transition Probability.

Absorption: Light can be absorbed by Photoionization of atoms (or photo-dissociation of


molecules). In standard treatments, it is assumed that the cross section σIon for this process is
independent of the intensity of the radiation. However, for intensities below a certain threshold it
is obvious that it will be reduced due to the disturbing influence of Plasma Field Fluctuations.
One can adopt the efficiency factor

β(Ew)= Ew2/(Ew2 +∆{E}p2) ,

where Ew is the electric field strength of the radiation with frequency ν (as given by the intensity
I= Ew2/8π) and ∆{E}p=∆Ep.√(ζν,e2+ζν,I2) the effective plasma fluctuation field (see Plasma Field
Fluctuations and Stark Broadening with Tn replaced by 1/(2π ν)).

This leads to the circumstance that the Optical Depth with regard to photoionization is not
proportional to the column density any more but has to be determined through the integral

τ(s)= σIon(0) .0∫sds' N(s').β(Ew(s')) .

Because generally the intensity I (i.e. Ew2) is subject to the Exponential Absorption Law

I(s)= I0.e-τ(s) ,

the optical depth is determined by an integral equation which can be solved numerically (see
/research/nlabsorb.htm).

BACK TO INDEX

Atomic Decay Probability: Atoms in excited states are not stable but decay to lower levels
more or less rapidly. For dipole allowed transitions the problem can be treated as a radiatively
damped oscillator with an amplitude given by the quantum mechanical Overlap Integral <r>i,k
for the lower state i=(m,l') and the upper state k=(n,l) involved. By equating the decay rate of the
energy of a classical oscillator of frequency νi,k with the quantum mechanical decay rate Ai,k.h.νi,k
(h=Planck constant), one obtains for the atomic decay coefficient

Ai,k= 16π.e4/(3c3h).νi,k3.<r>i,k2 .

(one should note that this expression is smaller by a factor 1/4 compared to the usual value
quoted in the literature which is however derived inconsistently from statistical equilibrium
considerations).

In general, <r>i,k can only be evaluated numerically, but for large values of the principal
effective quantum numbers m and n it can be approximated by a power law in terms of these
parameters, with the result

Am,n= 1.3.109.m-1.8.(n-1)-3.2 [sec-1] (m,n >>1)

A numerical summation over all lower levels m reveals furthermore that the Total Average
Atomic Decay Coefficient (i.e. the inverse average lifetime) of level n can be approximated by
An= 1.1.109.(n-1)-3.6 [sec-1] (n >>1)

(neglection of the angular momentum quantum number l in these approximations may lead to an
error up to a factor 2 in the absolute values for Am,n and An, the relative values for fixed l should
be accurate to within a few percent however).

Note: the above formula for Am,n assumes of course that the transition is allowed by the l-
selection rule ∆l=±1. It should not be misunderstood as an expression averaged over l. This is
not so much because of the l-dependence of the decay coefficient (which is quite weak and has
therefore not been explicitly considered here) but because an electron with angular momentum
l>m is unable to decay to level m due to the l-selection rule. In order to get the l-averaged decay
coefficient, one would have to apply a corresponding correction factor (which obviously also
depends on the relative population of the angular momentum substates of the upper level; see for
instance the last paragraph regarding Radiative Recombination).

BACK TO INDEX

Auto- Ionization: Contrary to established opinion, atoms or molecules can ionize each other
through collisions even if their translational energy is smaller than the ionization energy. This is
because bound electrons can collide with each other when two atoms come together and one of
these may gain enough energy in the process to become ionized, leaving the other with
correspondingly less energy in the atom (this is a purely classical process and does not affect the
quantum mechanical states the electrons occupy; one has to remember that the quantum
mechanical wave function for a given energy is finite everywhere in space and allows the
electron therefore to have any classical energy).
This process should be strongly temperature dependent, having its highest efficiency if the
corresponding velocity of the approaching atoms is equal to the velocity of the bound electrons
(i.e. about 108 cm/sec). For smaller velocities the electron orbits will have time to adjust
themselves mutually to the field of the other atom and ionizing collisions will become less likely.
The proposed process could be the explanation for the relatively high plasma density of the
nighttime F- region of the earth's ionosphere. This would lead to an effective cross section of 10-
20
cm2 in this case (which is characterized by atom velocities of 105 cm/sec).
In general this mechanism should result in a significant degree of ionization even in the absence
of any UV- radiation sources, which should be highly relevant for some astrophysical problems
like star formation (see /research/#A8).

BACK TO INDEX

Bohr- Einstein Radiation Formula: The internal electronic energy changes of an atom are
connected to the frequency of the corresponding emitted radiation by the formula ε=h.ν, with h
the Planck constant. Usually, this equation is assumed to determine uniquely the resulting
intensity of the radiation. However, there is theoretical and observational evidence that this
assumption is only valid if the broadening of the spectral line due to plasma field fluctuations
(Stark broadening) is small compared to the natural broadening. In general, one has to assume a
relationship in the form

εrad=(1+∆νm,nd/Am,n).h.ν ,
where ∆νm,nd is the dynamical Stark Broadening due to the plasma field fluctuations and Am,n the
Atomic Decay Probability (natural broadening). This could for instance resolve the discrepancy
if one wants to explain the radiative energy output of the present day sun solely through the
gravitational contraction of an initial gas cloud (see /research/#A5).

BACK TO INDEX

Boltzmann Distribution: Statistical Physics proves that in thermodynamic equilibrium (i.e. in a


collisionally determined closed system) the volume density of particles decreases exponentially
with increasing energy,i.e.

f(ε)= exp(-ε/ε0) .

The energy distribution of electrons within an atom is generally assumed to behave in this way.
However, in most practical cases collisions are quite insignificant compared to radiative
processes which are determined by the lifetime of the individual atomic levels. As a
consequence, the distribution function has very little to do with a Boltzmann- distribution (see
for instance /research/levpop.htm).
(see also Maxwell Distribution, Saha- Equation, LTE).

BACK TO INDEX

Boltzmann Equation: As a generalized form of the Continuity Equation, the Boltzmann


equation gives an exact description for the density of a plasma constituent both in real and
velocity space. It is obtained by equating the total time differential for the density distribution
function n(r,v,t) with the local production and loss rates, i.e.

∂/∂t(n(r,v,t)) +v.gradr(n(r,v,t)) +F/M.gradv(n(r,v,t)) = qIon(r,v,t) -lRec(r,v,t) +C(r,v,t) .

The steady-state (time independent) equation is obtained by setting ∂/∂t(n(r,v,t))=0. In this case,
the production and loss rates due to convection (transport) in geometrical and velocity space
(where F contains all external forces on the particle with mass M, i.e. electric, magnetic and
gravitational forces), are exactly balanced by the local production and loss rates due to ionization
(qIon), recombination (lRec) and velocity changing collisions (C) (in general, these last three terms
do also depend on n(r,v,t) which has not been written here).
The ionization and recombination terms are usually neglected in standard treatments. However,
they are vitally important as they are responsible for the inhomogeneities of the plasma density
and affect therefore the velocity distribution function through the convection terms in the
equation (see link below).
Also, one should note that the usual formulation in terms of the normalized distribution function
f(r,v,t)= n(r,v,t)/N(r,t) (with N(r,t) = ∫d3v n(r,v,t) ) is in general not sufficient because of the
dependence of N(r,t) on r.
For the one-dimensional case, the Boltzmann equation can be written as a first order linear
differential equation in either the spatial or velocity variable. Formal solution yields a non-linear
integral equation which can then be solved numerically (see /research/#A6 for an application to
ion diffusion in the earth's ionosphere).

BACK TO INDEX

Charge Screening: see Debye Shielding.

BACK TO INDEX

Collision Frequency: The concept of a collision frequency is probably the most important one
in plasma physics (and the physics of gases in general) when it comes to assessing the
significance of the individual physical processes. It is defined as

νc= N.σc(v).v ,

where N is the volume density of the background medium and σc(v) the cross section of the
particle with velocity v for the type of collision being considered (e.g. Coulomb collisions,
radiative recombination, collisional excitation).

Despite the random nature of collisions, νc can be considered as an exact quantity because the
large number of particles usually assures that the average is very sharply defined within
relatively short time scales and small volumes. This allows therefore an exact assessment of the
importance of the individual collisional processes and also a comparison with the physical time
scales like the Atomic Decay Probability or Plasma Frequency.
(see also Mean Free Path, Level Population, Plasma).

BACK TO INDEX

Continuous Medium: The usual description of the Scattering of Radiation is based on the
assumption of scattering by individual particles. However, this concept breaks down if the
medium becomes 'continuous', that is if the distance between the scattering particles becomes
less than the wavelength of the radiation (analogous to the specular reflection from a surface).
The usual effects of scattering (i.e. spatial redistribution of radiation) disappear in this case as the
scattering phase function becomes sharply peaked into the forward direction. Density gradients
of the medium will then result in a quasi- refraction effect (the refraction of light in the earth's
atmosphere is likely to be of this type).
There is also evidence that this aspect is of relevance for collisional excitation of atomic states
by electrons or ions as the relevant cross section is apparently enhanced if the medium becomes
continuous with regard to the wavelength of the equivalent radiative transition (see
/research/striapot.htm).

BACK TO INDEX

Continuum Radiation: Various processes are listed in the textbook literature that are capable of
producing a radiation continuum. Of these, the free-free processes (which are thought to be
responsible for Bremsstrahlung and Synchrotron Radiation), can be discounted as fictitious: the
emission of radiation can not be explained in a logically consistent manner by the acceleration of
charged particles, as it would make the emission dependent on the state of motion of the
observer. The dynamic changes associated with the emission would therefore become a
subjective quantity, which is logically not acceptable in the same sense as the mutual force
between two objects can (by definition) not depend on the state of motion of the observer
(principle of relativity). It can furthermore be ruled out that the physical objects which cause the
acceleration provide a preferred reference frame, because any force is either a function of the
coordinates alone (coulomb force, gravitational force) or a function of the coordinates and the
velocity (Lorentz force). The overall acceleration would therefore still be ambiguous depending
on the state of motion of each of the interacting particles due to the presence of third bodies.
The only true continuum is produced by the recombination of electrons with ions, which results
in a continuum according to the energy characteristics of the free electron spectrum and the
recombination cross section (synchrotron radiation could well be interpreted in this sense).
However, the discrete atomic spectrum may form a quasi- continuum if the lines are sufficiently
broadened. This happens in particular for high plasma densities and/or highly excited atomic
states . There is theoretical and observational evidence that under these conditions the
'continuum' of blended lines is many orders of magnitude more intense than the actual
recombination continuum (see for instance /research/#A5). (for the latter aspect see also Bohr-
Einstein Radiation Formula).

BACK TO INDEX

Coulomb Scattering: Integration of the well known Rutherford formula over the scattering
angle leads to the Total Cross Section for Coulomb Scattering

σc(E)= 5/16.Z2.e4/ε2 ,

with ε the energy of the scattered particle in the center of mass system, e its charge and Z the
charge number of the target particle.
This form is different from the usual result quoted in the literature which contains the additional
Coulomb- Logarithm factor. The latter can however be shown to be due to an incorrect Energy
Loss- weighting function in the integration of the Rutherford formula (more).

BACK TO INDEX
Cyclotron Frequency: see Larmor Frequency.

BACK TO INDEX

Debye Shielding: The usual theoretical treatment of Debye Shielding (charge screening) of a
test charge Q in plasmas obtains the potential

V(r)= Q/r.exp(-r/λD),

with

λD= √(kTe/4πe2Np)

the Debye Length for a plasma with density Np and electron temperature Te.

This result is merely academic because the assumption of a Boltzmann energy distribution in the
Debye-Hückel theory implies a collisionally dominated isothermal situation where the pressure
gradient exactly cancels the force due to the electric field. This non-vanishing potential is
therefore the consequence of the implicit assumption of collisions in Thermodynamic
Equilibrium preventing the purely electrostatic screening which would hold in a collisionless
plasma. However, collisions (and the related pressure forces) should only be relevant in a plasma
if the collision frequency is higher than the plasma frequency (which determines the timescale
for the electrostatic re-arrangement of charges). Unless one is dealing with a very low degree of
ionization, this condition is only satisfied for extremely high plasma densities as encountered in
solids, fluids or the interior of the sun.
It is clear that in almost all cases of practical interest, a force free steady-state situation can only
exist if the electric field is exactly zero within the whole plasma. This is obviously only possible
if the test charge is directly neutralized at its surface by charges that have been attracted from the
plasma. Charge neutrality within the volume is hereby conserved by the electrons slightly
contracting towards the center, which leaves therefore the positive charge excess at the surface of
the plasma volume (as one would expect for a conducting medium).
In addition, one should note that for near collisionless plasmas not only will the assumption of
TE be invalid (as indicated above), but also the approximation of a Local Thermodynamic
Equilibrium (LTE), i.e. the velocity distribution function may become non-Maxwellian due to
diffusion effects in the presence of spatial inhomogeneities. This in turn will produce self-
consistent electric fields which serve to adjust the electron flux balance as to maintain local
charge neutrality. (see /research/#A6). These plasma polarization fields are obviously not being
screened by the plasma, as they are themselves the result of the dynamical imbalance between
electrons and ions. In general, a consideration of the force balance is therefore not appropriate,
but one has to consider the flux balance of particles (this is how one treats for instance the well
known problem of spacecraft charging).
(see also LTE, Maxwell Distribution).

BACK TO INDEX
Detailed Balance: All physical steady-state situations are by definition characterized by an
equality between production and loss processes. A detailed balance is the most general form of
an equilibrium as it assumes that the latter holds for each point in phase-space separately.
Examples for a detailed balance equation are the Boltzmann Equation and the equation for the
atomic Level Population (in contrast, for both of these cases LTE -models with their given
energy distribution will generally yield invalid results).
One should note that a detailed balance equation does, in contrast to LTE, in general not describe
a closed system but assumes certain given input and output rates. For correct results it is
obviously important to make sure that these are true sources and sinks for the particle or
radiation densities, i.e. that these processes do in reality not significantly couple back into the
system.

BACK TO INDEX

Doppler Broadening: Line radiation emitted or scattered by an atom is shifted in frequency due
to the Doppler effect. As the latter is proportional to the velocity of the atom, the Doppler
broadening reflects therefore directly the velocity distribution function of the atoms. For
collisionally dominated plasmas, this can be taken as identical with the Maxwell Distribution,
but in general it can depart considerably from this situation and one would need to solve the
Boltzmann Equation for the correct distribution function (see /research/#A6 for the problem of
the ion velocity distribution function in the earth's ionosphere).

BACK TO INDEX

Effective Quantum Number: For all neutral atoms in their ground state, the outer electrons
have about the same distance from the nucleus (1.5 Bohr radii). In an approximate sense, one can
therefore identify this with the ground state of hydrogen and assign to it the effective quantum
number n=1.

BACK TO INDEX

Elastic Collisions: An elastic collision between two particles conserves both the total energy
and momentum. The change of these values for each particle depends on their masses (see
Energy Loss). Because of this, the energy transfer between electrons and ions can usually be
neglected. Electron-electron and ion-ion collisions on the other hand are, at least in certain
energy bands, often negligible compared to Inelastic Collisions or Radiative Recombination for
the energy balance of the plasma (the relative importance of these processes depends on the
corresponding Collision Frequencies).
Elastic collisions of plasma electrons with bound atomic electrons can lead to collisional
ionization and can therefore be an important factor for the atomic Level Population. It can also
interfere with Radiative Recombination.
All type of collisions tend to inhibit collective processes in plasmas (see under Plasma).
BACK TO INDEX

Emission Rate: The intensity of radiation emitted during a discrete atomic transition is
determined by the Level Population and the Atomic Decay Probability. However, there is
observational evidence that this emission is enhanced if the line broadening due to plasma field
fluctuations exceeds the natural line broadening (see Bohr- Einstein Radiation Formula, Stark
Broadening). For free-bound transitions this enhancement does not occur and the intensity of the
corresponding recombination radiation is directly determined by the plasma density and the
associated Radiative Recombination rate into the atomic levels.

BACK TO INDEX

Energy Loss: The relative energy transfer during elastic scattering of two particles with masses
m1 and m2 (m2 initially resting) by the angle Θ is (independently of the interaction potential)
given by

∆(Θ)= 4m1m2/( m1+m2)2.sin2(Θ/2) .

This form is normally used as a weighting function when integrating the Rutherford formula to
obtain the total cross section for Coulomb scattering. However, this procedure neglects a further
factor sin(Θ/2) which describes the density of particles hitting the surface of a spherical target
and provides the geometrical connection between the mono-directional incident particle beam
and the spherical scattering surface (this connection is ignored in the literature throughout, which
invalidates in these cases the interpretation of the scattering angle as an independent variable; see
(Coulomb Collision Cross Section). With the additional factor, the total cross section for
Coulomb Scattering is finite and the Total Relative Energy Loss becomes

∆= 8/(5π).m1.m2/(m1+m2)2 =
= 8/(5π).m1/m2 if m1<<m2

(for further interest see also the exact and general solutions for the Elastic Collision in 2
Dimensions and the Elastic Collision in 3 Dimensions).

BACK TO INDEX

ExB- Drift: The motion of an individual charged particle in combined static and electric fields
can be described by a cycloidal trajectory with a uniform drift into the direction of ExB.
However, this result neglects the presence of other charges that will react to any externally
applied field until the latter is cancelled by the resultant charge displacement field (in a
collisionless plasma). As the total electric field inside the plasma volume is therefore 0 (the
potential drop due to the applied field occurs at the boundaries), the electron orbit is in this case
therefore still given by the usual Larmor circle and no drift occurs. Only in collisional plasmas
(i.e. collision frequency > plasma frequency) would an ExB drift be possible as here the
shielding is only imperfect due to the additional pressure force (see Debye Shielding).

BACK TO INDEX

Induced Emission (Absorption): Atomic Physics distinguishes two different mechanisms for
radiative transitions between two levels i,k of an atom: a) spontaneous emission that occurs with
a probability given by the Atomic Decay Constant Ai,k, and b) induced emission or absorption
due to an external radiation field. Resonant scattering is for instance usually considered as an
absorption of a photon which lifts an electron to a higher energy level followed by the re-
emission of a photon when the electron falls spontaneously back again. However, both a
theoretical consideration and experimental evidence shows that this picture of a two-step process
is not correct and that resonant scattering has to be described as a coherent process (i.e. a forced
oscillator with damping constant Ai,k). Unlike photoionization or excitation by electron/ion
impact, scattering involves therefore no atomic energy changes as no work as being done.
The existence of an induced absorption process is therefore implausible, as the same physical
cause (i.e. the external radiation field) can not result in two different effects. By means of
symmetry arguments, this questions also the reality of the induced emission process.
(see also Scattering of Radiation).

BACK TO INDEX

Inelastic Collisions: An inelastic collision is a quantum mechanical process in which classical


energy and momentum is not conserved as kinetic energy is turned into atomic (or molecular)
excitation energy. Established theory assumes that for excitation to take place the particle has to
exceed the energy of the transition in question. However, experimental evidence shows that
collisional excitation is a resonant process characterized by a sharply peaked cross section
identical with the cross section for resonant scattering of light for the same transition (see
/research/reschem.htm). The usual non-resonant behavior of atomic excitation is therefore at best
a by-product of the actual resonant process.
Collisional excitation of hydrogen by protons is likely to be the decisive cooling process needed
for star- and solar system formation and also for the low temperature of the photosphere of the
present day sun (see /research/#A8 and /research/#A9 respectively).

BACK TO INDEX

Larmor Frequency: The period of revolution of a charge q with mass m on its Larmor circle in
the magnetic field B is characterized by the Larmor frequency

ωB= qB/mc ,

and the associated Larmor Radius is determined by


rB= v/ωB ,

where v is the velocity of the particle perpendicular to the magnetic field.

BACK TO INDEX

Level Population: In Detailed Balance equilibrium, the density of atoms in the excited state n is
given by the ratio of the production rate qn and the loss (depopulation) rate νnloss, i.e.

Nn= qn/νnloss ,

where qn consists of the primary production rate due to Radiative Recombination and a
secondary rate due to cascading from higher levels, i.e.

qn= qnRec+ qncasc .

qnRec is determined by the plasma density and the radiative recombination cross section while
qncasc is given by the population of levels higher than n and their Atomic Decay Probability.

The loss frequency on the other hand is given by

νnloss= An +νnc + νn* ,

where An is the total decay probability to lower levels, νnc the Collision Frequency for collisions
with plasma electrons of sufficiently high energy to enable ionization from level n, and νn* the
photoionization frequency (if applicable).
(see /research/levschem.htm for a schematic illustration of these processes and
/research/levpop.htm for numerical results applicable to the earth's ionosphere).

BACK TO INDEX

Line Broadening: see Natural Broadening, Doppler Broadening, Stark Broadening.

BACK TO INDEX

LTE: Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium (LTE) is usually assumed for a gas if collisions
dominate other physical processes. In this case the local velocity and energy distribution of
particles is given by the Maxwell Distribution and Boltzmann Distribution respectively and a
temperature can be defined (which in contrast to Thermodynamic Equilibrium (TE) can vary
spatially however).
For anything but the highest gas densities, atomic processes (e.g. radiative transitions) and/or
dynamical effects can be much more important than elastic collisions however and the
assumption of LTE is not justified anymore within the whole energy range.
(see also Saha Equation, Planck Radiation Formula).

BACK TO INDEX

Maxwell Distribution: The velocity distribution of a collisionally dominated gas can strictly be
shown to be given by the Maxwell distribution

f(v)= 1/√π/v0.exp[-(v/v0)2]

(which corresponds to the Boltzmann Distribution exp(-ε/ε0) if formulated in terms of the


energy).
For most practical applications this form is being taken for granted without further justification.
However, in many cases the condition of elastic collisions dominating all other processes (LTE)
is not even approximately fulfilled. This holds for instance for the physics of the ionosphere and
space plasmas where recombination and collisional excitation (i.e. radiative processes) are of far
greater importance in particular for the electrons. Not only would the assumption of a Maxwell
distribution yield here quantitatively wrong results, but even prevent a correct qualitative
understanding of the physics involved.
Even in the presence of elastic collisions only, the resultant equilibrium distribution can be
different from a Maxwell distribution, namely if the situation is not isotropic.
For more see the page Collisional Relaxation of Gases and Maxwell Velocity Distribution.

BACK TO INDEX

Mean Free Path: Together with the Collision Frequency, the mean free path is a statistical
quantity which allows an assessment of the importance of collisional processes in plasmas (in
this case the spatial scales involved). It is defined as

Lc= 1/(N.σc)

A mean free path consideration shows for instance that the striations in glow discharges can not
be explained by generally accepted values for the collisional excitation cross section (see
/research/striatn.htm).

BACK TO INDEX

Natural Broadening: The spontaneous transition between two atomic states i and k can be
described as an oscillator with frequency νi,k and damping constant Ai,k (see Atomic Decay
Probability). Solution of the oscillator equation yields the characteristic Lorentz Line Shape

φL(ν)= Ai,k/4π2/[(ν-νi,k)2+(Ai,k/4π)2]
Ai,k is called the natural or damping width of the corresponding spectral line (this applies both
for emission and absorption). The ν-2 decrease of the line intensity with increasing distance from
the resonance frequency νi,k is characteristic of any exponentially damped oscillator.

The natural broadening may be masked both by Doppler Broadening and Stark Broadening (see
also Spectral Line Shape).

BACK TO INDEX

Optical Depth: The relative amount of absorption or scattering of light along a given distance s
can be characterized by the optical depth

τ(s)= σ.0∫sds'N(s') ,

where N is the density of the medium and σ the cross section for the corresponding process.
This definition assumes that σ is independent of the intensity of the radiation and therefore of the
variable s (as the intensity in general will be a function of s). However, in the case of
Photoionization, the disturbing influence of Plasma Field Fluctuations can reduce the absorption
efficiency, resulting therefore in a more complicated behaviour (see Absorption).

In terms of τ, the intensity reduction is however always given by the Exponential Absorption
Law

I(s)= I0.e-τ(s) .

BACK TO INDEX

Oscillator Strength: The oscillator strength is the factor by which the scattering cross for a
classical damped oscillator has to be multiplied in order to yield the quantum mechanical
Resonance Scattering cross section, i.e.

fi,k:= Ai,k/Γ ,

where Ai,k is the quantum mechanical Atomic Decay Probability and

Γ= 2ωi,k2e2/(3mc3)

is the classical damping constant for an oscillator with angular frequency ωi,k (=2πνi,k).

Evaluation yields

fi,k= 2π2.m/h.νi,k.<r>i,k2 ,

where <r>i,k is the quantum mechanical Overlap Integral for the states i and k in question.
One should note that this value is a factor 3/4 smaller than the usual expression for the oscillator
strength quoted in the literature. However, this here should be the correct value as it has been
derived strictly without any statistical assumptions. Established theory claims furthermore that
the oscillator strength is subject to a normalization called the f-sum rule (i.e. Σkfi,k=1). This is not
correct as all transition are statistically independent possibilities for the electron and therefore all
add up numerically. The probability for each transition is uniquely specified by the decay
probability Ai,k and not the oscillator strength which, as indicated, is only a proportionality factor
to derive the quantum mechanical resonance scattering cross section from the classical oscillator
model.

BACK TO INDEX

Overlap Integral: The physical constants for atomic dipole transitions can generally be obtained
by considering the power radiated by an oscillator whose dipole moment is given by the
quantum mechanical overlap integral

<r>i,k:= r0.0∫∞dρ Ψi(ρ).ρ. Ψk(ρ) ,

where ρ is a dimensionless distance variable normalized to the Bohr radius

r0= h2/(4π2me2)=
=5.3.10-9 [cm]

with h the Planck constant, m the electron mass and e the elementary charge.

Ψi and Ψk designate the normalized radial wave functions of the energetically lower and upper
state respectively. For bound-bound transitions, state k is characterized by the pair of principal
quantum number and angular momentum (n,l) and i by (m,l±1), whereas for bound-free
transitions (Photoionization, Radiative Recombination) k is characterized by the continuum
electron energy ε (in this case, the corresponding wave function Ψε(ρ) (the regular Coulomb
wave function) can not be normalized separately and the absolute value of <r>i,k has to be fixed
by experimental measurements of the Photoionization cross section which is proportional to
<r>i,k2).

In general, the overlap integral can only be calculated exactly by numerical integration. For
principal quantum numbers m,n>>1 however, it can, both for bound-bound and bound-free
transitions, be approximated analytically which enables a simple representation of both the cross
section and decay constant in terms of these quantum numbers or the continuum energy (see
under Resonance Scattering, Atomic Decay Probability, Photoionization, Radiative
Recombination).
Note: the square of the overlap integral is sometimes also called 'Line Strength'. This name is
only justified in absorption where the Resonance Scattering- cross section is directly determined
by this quantity. In emission, the intensity of spectral lines depends (for a given Level
Population) on the Atomic Decay Probability which is proportional to νi,k3.<r>i,k2).
BACK TO INDEX

Photoionization: Electromagnetic radiation of frequency ν can ionize an atomic level n if the


corresponding ionization energy εn <h.ν. On the basis of the Pseudo- Oscillator model, the
corresponding cross section for this process is calculated from the quantum mechanical Overlap
Integral involving the wave functions for the bound state n and the continuum energy ε=h.ν-εn
(as continuous wave functions can not be normalized (contrary to established theory), the
absolute value for the photoionization- (as well as recombination-) cross section has to be fixed
by experiments). It has a characteristic energy dependence and decreases rapidly for ε>εn (see
/research/recrsect.htm which shows the numerically identical curves for Radiative
Recombination).
For high effective quantum numbers n (for lower states it is still a good estimate), the cross
section can be approximated by

σnIon(ε)= 3.7.10-17.√(A/T).n2.4.h(ε) [cm2] (n>>1) ,

where (roughly)

h(ε)= 1 for ε≤2εn and


h(ε)= (ε/2εn)-2.9 for ε>2εn
and A the atomic mass number and T the neutral (ion) temperature in oK.

The power law dependence on the quantum number and energy has been derived 'empirically'
from explicit numerical calculations involving exact wave functions for hydrogen-like atoms for
electron energies ε=10-8...4 Rydberg (1 Rydberg=13.6 eV) and quantum numbers n=1...1000
averaged over the angular momentum quantum number l. Over this range, the resultant absolute
value for the cross section should be accurate to within a factor 2.
For sufficiently small radiation intensities, the photoionization cross section will be reduced due
to the plasma field fluctuations (see Absorption) and the increase of the ionization time in
comparison to the coherence time of the radiation (see Photons).
(see also the page Photoionization Theory for Coherent and Incoherent Light).

BACK TO INDEX

Photons: Established physical theory assumes light to be of a dualistic nature, i.e. either to be
described as a wave (explaining interference effects) or as a particle (photon). Only the latter is
claimed to account for the almost instant release of photo-electrons in the photoeffect. However
this conclusion is reached because the interaction of the electromagnetic wave with the atom is
not being considered properly: an energy flux for the e.m. wave is defined which is assumed to
mysteriously build up within the atom until the ionization energy is reached. It is easy to show
though that an in-phase acceleration of an atomic electron by a wave of frequency ν and
amplitude E will yield an energy increase h.ν within about TIon = 7.10-18 .√(ν)/E [sec] ( ν [Hz], E
[statvolt/cm] ) (for sunlight ( E=10-2 statvolt/cm) this amounts to about 10-8 sec) (for more see
the page Photoionization Theory for Coherent and Incoherent Light).
The notion of a photon still makes some sense though in as far as one is dealing with individual
wave trains emitted in the course of the atomic transitions. In general there is no unique
relationship however between the number of these wavetrains and the number of released
photoelectrons, as the latter depends on certain factors like coherency (i.e. effective length) and
amplitude of the wavetrains as well as disturbances of the Photoionization process by collisions.

BACK TO INDEX

Planck Radiation Formula: In Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium (LTE) the energy and
velocity of particles can be macroscopically described by the Boltzmann- and Maxwell-
distributions, whereas the associated radiation is assumed to be given by the Planck Radiation
Formula. The latter is mathematically strictly derived from certain model assumptions, but these
have no real physical basis and lack any connection to the actual radiation processes, i.e. atomic
transitions. It is for instance not obvious why the radiation density at a certain wavelength should
be determined by the condition of a standing wave (oscillator) in a fictitious cavity. On the other
hand, explicit numerical calculations of the radiation intensity produced in a given plasma by
recombination and cascading into atomic levels clearly show a qualitative resemblance to a
Planck Function (see /research/solspec.htm. With a more accurate and realistic computation, the
actual form of the Planck Radiation Formula might be recovered, but it would need a detailed
mathematical analysis to show its connections to the quantum mechanical atomic transition
constants that actually determine the radiation spectrum.
It should be emphasized however that in most cases of practical interest the assumption of LTE
is not appropriate and the spectrum will therefore differ from a Planck Function anyway, i.e. it
becomes a function of several physical parameters instead of only the temperature.
(see also Continuum Radiation, LTE, Maxwell Distribution, Boltzmann Distribution, Saha
Equation).

BACK TO INDEX

Plasma: Sometimes called the fourth state of matter, a plasma is far from being a clearly defined
physical state and the only common feature in the various situations is that to some degree free
charges (i.e. ions and electrons) are present.
Generally, one has to distinguish between the microscopic and the collective properties of a
plasma. The former are individual particle processes like Coulomb Scattering, Radiative
Recombination or Inelastic Collisions, whereas the latter are for instance given by Plasma
Polarization Fields, Plasma Oscillations or Debye Shielding. Collective processes can occur only
if the Plasma Frequency is higher than the Collision Frequency. Apart from very high volume
densities like those encountered in fluids, solids or the interior of stars, this is however usually
fulfilled. For the latter example there is the additional property that, due to the high temperature
in combination with the high density, no bound electronic states can exist and therefore no
radiative processes either.

BACK TO INDEX

Plasma Field Fluctuations: The movement of the randomly distributed particles leads to an
irregularly varying electric field at each point in the plasma with the average field strength and
fluctuation period determined by the average particle distance rp (i.e. the density NP) and the
particle velocity v, i.e.

∆Ep= 1.25.10-9.NP2/3 [statvolt/cm =3.104 V/m] ,

and

∆tf= 2.rp/v .

For electrons with an energy of εe [eV], the fluctuation period becomes (NP in [cm-3])

∆te= 2.10-8/NP1/3/√ εe [sec] ,

whereas for ions with atomic mass number A and temperature T

∆tI= 9.4.10-5/NP1/3/√(T/A) [sec] .

These plasma field fluctuations are important in several respects: they can broaden spectral lines
as well as enhance their intensity and scattering cross section (see Stark Broadening, Emission
Rate, Resonance Scattering). They can also interfere with other fields like that of
electromagnetic waves and affect therefore for instance the Photoionization process.

BACK TO INDEX

Plasma Frequency: If the electrons are collectively displaced by a distance d from the ions in a
finite volume of plasma with density Np, this gives rise to a Displacement Field

E= 4π.Np.e.d ,

where e is the elementary charge.

In a collisionless plasma, this is equivalent of having an oscillator with frequency

ωp= √(4π.Np.e2/m) ,
with m the electron mass (in principle the reduced mass M.m/(M+m) for the corresponding ion
and electron mass should be used here, but as m<<M this is practically identical with m; in any
case, the usually assumed ion plasma frequency (where M replaces m in the equation above)
does not occur here unless one is dealing with an ion-ion plasma).

For natural conditions, ωp should be merely considered as the time scale for restoring charge
neutrality rather than the frequency for a regular free plasma oscillation as the latter will not be
stable in a chaotic medium. However, if the plasma is subjected to a well defined external
perturbation like for instance electromagnetic waves, a precisely defined driven oscillation can
be maintained in principle indefinitely (see Plasma Oscillations).

BACK TO INDEX

Plasma Oscillations: A collective displacement of the electrons from the ion background results
in an electric field which tends to restore the initial quasi-neutrality situation within a time scale
given by the Plasma Frequency. In a random medium, a well defined displacement of charges is
however unlikely to arise naturally. Even if the plasma oscillations are excited artificially (by
means of radio waves for instance) they will in general be difficult to maintain because of
outflow and inflow of plasma from and to the volume in question. In the presence of magnetic
fields however, charges can not move vertically to the field lines and therefore both free and
driven oscillations become possible. In this case two resonance frequencies exist which are
determined by a combination of the plasma frequency with the Larmor Frequency in the form

Ω-= √(ωp2+ωB2) -ωB and

Ω+= √(ωp2+ωB2) +ωB .

The two- dimensionality of the problem in the presence of a magnetic field causes a non-
linearity of the displacement force which results in a modulation of any driven oscillation and
therefore limits its maximum amplitude (see /research/#A2). This circumstance could be of
crucial importance for the heating of plasmas by means of radio waves.
One has to be aware however that any type of sufficiently frequent collisions will prevent these
systematic oscillations (see under Plasma).

BACK TO INDEX

Plasma Polarization Field: The electrons and ions in a plasma are collectively bound because
of their charge and therefore can not separate from each other even for high relative velocities.
Established theory claims that for a plasma of density Np and electron energy εe, this would
result in a steady-state plasma polarisation field (see Plasma Frequency and Debye Shielding for
d=λD and kT=εe)

E= √(4π.Np.εe) .
However, it is obvious that classically a steady-state field can not be maintained as it would
accelerate the ions and consequently make the plasma volume unstable (further processes can of
course re-stabilize the situation; see below).
The only two solutions classically possible are therefore that either the electrons lose most of
their kinetic energy to the ions (so that both diffuse with the same velocity), or that the electrons
oscillate with regard to the ion background (see Plasma Oscillations) (a further possibility is of
course that the charges can not be displaced in the first place because they are already confined
locally by a magnetic field for instance).
In planetary and stellar atmospheres a steady-state plasma polarisation field does exist however
because the upwards accelerated ions are lost at greater heights through recombination (see
/research/#A6).

BACK TO INDEX

Pseudo- Oscillator: For the description of bound-free atomic transitions (i.e. Photoionization),
the model of a forced, radiatively damped oscillator is obviously not applicable in the same way
as for Resonance Scattering because the incident radiation is not scattered but turned into kinetic
energy of the released electron. One can however postulate (see Cowan, The Theory of Atomic
Structure and Spectra) that this process can otherwise be described as if energy is absorbed by an
oscillating dipole (Pseudo- Oscillator), i.e. the cross section for photoionization can be specified
by the same parameters as for resonance scattering (in particular in terms of the Overlap Integral
(effective dipole moment)). The fundamental difference is however that for bound-free
transitions the energy states are not independently fixed, as the upper (the energy of the released
electron) is dependent on the lower and the frequency of the incident radiation (i.e. ε= -εn +h.ν).
Furthermore, the continuum wave functions can not be normalized separately like the wave
functions of the bound electrons as their amplitude remains finite at infinite distances. The
absolute value of the overlap integral (and therewith the photoionization cross section) is
therefore theoretically undetermined and has to be fixed by an experimental measurement (it
turns out that this yields a normalization factor 8.3.10-6 to the unnormalized cross section).

BACK TO INDEX

Radiation Pressure: In most physics textbooks (see for instance Berkeley Physics Course Vol.3
(Waves)), the radiation pressure on a free charge due to an electromagnetic wave is classically
derived by means of the assumption that the velocity (induced by the electric field component) is
always in phase with the oscillating magnetic field and therefore the Lorentz force q/c*v×B
(Gaussian units) always has the same sign. This is not true. It is obvious (and indeed easy to
show by integration of the equation of motion) that v never changes sign as equal periods of
acceleration and deceleration alternate (ironically, this is treated in some detail in Berkeley
Physics Course Vol.1 (Mechanics)).
The quantum mechanical argument that radiation pressure is a necessary consequence of
momentum conservation is also invalid as photons (i.e. electromagnetic wavetrains) are massless
and in fact have no momentum (see the page regarding the Photoelectric Effect on my
Physicsmyths website). Even if one assumes a momentum, a radiation pressure force could only
be caused by a momentum change dp/dt, but this is not possible because the speed of light c has
to be constant (the usual definition of the photon momentum p=E/c implies that momentum
change is always associated with a given energy change, however for a particle with mass M,
E=p2/2M, i.e. energy change depends on M). Deriving a radiation pressure by means of the
conservation laws would therefore be an unallowed generalization from classical mechanics and
indeed violate the experimental fact of the constancy of the speed of light.
A true radiation pressure effect could only occur in the case of resonant scattering or absorption
by bound atomic electrons (i.e. in spectral lines or for photoionization) as here the velocity of the
oscillating electrons is always in phase with the driving field. For solid state materials, discrete
resonances may in fact be broadened to such an extent as to result in a radiation pressure effect
throughout the spectrum (see also Scattering of Radiation). The problem is however that one
would have refer the velocity v in the Lorentz force- term to some reference frame. For a static
magnetic field this can be taken to be the velocity relative to the source creating the field, but for
an electromagnetic wave this is in principle undefined, unless the nucleus which the electron
orbits provides the reference frame.
It is therefore much more likely that in a given case the apparent 'radiation pressure' is caused
either by thermal surface effects or electrons which are released from the surface by the
radiation.

BACK TO INDEX

Radiative Recombination: This is the inverse process to Photoionization and, assuming


symmetry of these processes, the cross section can be taken as identical. This leads to the
numerical approximation for large values of the principal effective quantum number n (for lower
states it is still a good estimate)

σnRec(ε)= 3.7.10-17.√(A/T).n2.4.h(ε) [cm2] (n>>1) ,

where (roughly)

h(ε)= 1 for ε≤2εn and


h(ε)= (ε/2εn)-2.9 for ε>2εn ,
with ε the energy of the recombining electron, εn the ionization energy for level n, A the atomic
mass number and T the neutral (ion) temperature in oK (see Photoionization for further
explanations).

It should be noted that this result is very much different from the usual formulation found in the
literature which is however inconsistently based on a statistical approach and does not conform
with experimental and observational data (see /research/recrsect.htm).

For the calculation of the density of atomic levels populated by recombination, it is important
that Radiative Recombination has to be described as a two-step process (see
/research/levschem.htm), i.e. the electron recombines (more or less instantaneously) into a 'pre-
bound' level n and from there into the actual level n with the Recombination Decay Constant

AnRec= 7.104.n-3.4 [sec-1]

This result is independent of the continuum energy ε as the energy dependence of the Overlap
Integral cancels almost exactly the frequency dependence in the basic formula for the Atomic
Decay Probability.

Also, it should be mentioned that, unlike the Atomic Decay Probability between bound levels ,
the recombination probability depends quite significantly on the angular momentum quantum
number l (decreasing for increasing l). Although for the formulae above this is not relevant as
long as the l-states have identical energy (i.e. are 'degenerate'; which justifies using an l-average
as done here), the subsequent cascading to lower levels is affected by the population of the l-
substates as the l-selection rule restricts the further decay options. This means that one either has
to apply corresponding correction factors (see for instance Appendix 2, Eq.(A.2.10) in
/papers/radscat2.htm#a210 ) or one has to consider the angular momentum explicitly (which
would dramatically increase the computational effort necessary to calculate a whole level
scheme).

BACK TO INDEX

Radiative Transfer: Unless the optical depth of the medium is much smaller than 1, radiative
transfer effects due to scattering and absorption of the radiation are crucially important for the
correct interpretation of observed intensities and spectral shapes. The theoretical treatment
requires in general a solution of an integral equation for the source function in the medium,
which in most cases requires suitable numerical algorithms (see the page Non-LTE Radiative
Transfer of Spectral Lines in a Plane-Parallel Medium for an example).
In certain cases, one wants a direct inversion of the radiative transfer equation, in the sense that
the source function is directly determined by the measured intensities (rather than through trial
and error fits of corresponding 'forward' model calculations). This poses in general much greater
problems mathematically and numerically (see A Direct Numerical Solution to the Inverse
Radiative Transfer Problem) .

BACK TO INDEX

Resonance Scattering: Electromagnetic radiation is scattered if its frequency ν is close to one of


the atomic transition frequencies νi,k provided that the lower level of this transition is occupied
by an electron.
The cross section for this process can be derived by considering the power radiated by a damped
oscillator with damping constant Ai,k (see Atomic Decay Probability) which is driven by the
electric field of frequency ν.
For combined natural and Doppler broadening it is given by
σi,k(w)= 2π5/2.e2/h.νi,k/c/(∆ν)D. <r>i,k2.H(a,w) ,

where

w=(ν-νi,k)/(∆ν)D

is a dimensionless variable normalized to the Doppler width (∆ν)D, H(a,w) the Voigt- function
for the corresponding natural and Doppler broadenings (see Spectral Line Shape), <r>i,k the
quantum mechanical Overlap Integral for the transition, and furthermore e the elementary
charge, h the Planck constant and c the velocity of light.

For principal effective quantum numbers m,n>>1 the overlap integral <r>i,k depends primarily on
these parameters and can be approximated analytically, which leads to

σm,n(w)= 5.1.10-12.[1/m2-1/n2]-3.m-1.8.(n-1)-3.2.√(A/T) .H(a,w) [cm2] (m,n>>1)

where A is the atomic mass number and T the temperature in oK.

Usually, the angular distribution of the scattered radiation exhibits the typical characteristics for
dipole scattering, i.e. the Rayleigh Scattering phase function 3/4.(1+cos2θ) for unpolarized
incident radiation (θ=scattering angle).
The combination of the frequency coherence of the scattering in the atom's frame and the
frequency due to the Doppler effect leads in general to complicated Partial Frequency
Redistribution functions. In many cases the natural broadening is however negligible and the
scattered line can be assumed to have a Doppler profile independent of the spectral shape of the
incident radiation (Complete Frequency Redistribution). In this case the cross section above
would of course also follow a Doppler profile, i.e. H(a,w) = exp(-w2).

BACK TO INDEX

Saha Equation: The Saha equation describes the ratio of different stages of ionization of an
atom under the assumption of LTE and , like the latter, suffers therefore from the limitation that
it is strictly only applicable if elastic collisions are responsible for establishing the energetic
distribution of particles. In most practical cases (in particular for low gas densities) radiative
processes will be more important and an explicit detailed equilibrium calculation is necessary in
order to determine the distribution of electrons over the various energy levels.
(see also LTE, Boltzmann Distribution, Maxwell Distribution).

BACK TO INDEX

Scattering of Radiation: Established theory distinguishes usually two mechanisms for the
scattering of radiation: 1) quantum mechanical scattering by atomic resonances (resonance
scattering), and 2) classical (continuous )scattering by free charges (Thomson Scattering). The
latter is based on the hypothesis that accelerated charges radiate, an assumption that is however
inconsistent with the concepts of mechanics as it would lead to different results in different
reference frames (see http://www.physicsmyths.org.uk/#continuum). In fact, resonance
scattering can account also for the so called 'continuous scattering' if one includes highly excited
atomic states energetically broadened by plasma field fluctuations. This can theoretically be
shown to explain for instance the scattering of radio waves by the ionosphere (see
/research/#A3).
It is furthermore not recognized in standard treatments that the usual effects of scattering due to
the redistribution of radiation disappear in case of a continuous medium , that is if the
wavelength exceeds the average distance of scatterers (see
http://www.physicsmyths.org.uk/#refraction).
(see also Radiation Pressure).

BACK TO INDEX

Spectral Line Shape: The frequency dependence of an atomic emission or absorption line with
frequency νi,k is determined by the mechanisms Natural Broadening, Doppler Broadening and
Stark Broadening. If the gas is collisionally dominated, the velocity distribution function can be
described by the Maxwell Distribution and the first two broadening mechanisms can be
combined into the Voigt Function

H(a,w)= a/π.-∞∫∞du exp(-u2)/[(w-u)2+a2] ,

where

w=(ν-νi,k)/(∆ν)D and
a=Ai,k/4π/(∆ν)D ,

with (∆ν)D the Doppler broadening and Ai,k the natural damping constant.

H(a,w) combines the properties of the Maxwell velocity distribution function and Lorentz-
damping profile and for a<<1 (which is usually the case) can be roughly approximated by

H(a,w)= exp(-w2)/(1+a) + a/√π/(1+w2) .

For a more exact representation of H(a,w), one can numerically evaluate the above integral
expression, but a more efficient way is to calculate it over the real part of the complex error
function which is usually available in computer libraries of mathematical subroutines.

The Stark broadening due to plasma field fluctuations, which is dominant for sufficiently high
plasma densities and/or quantum states, is determined by the Holtsmark Distribution which can
not be expressed as an elementary function but has to be approximated. In first order, the line
wing intensity decreases like ν-5/2, so it might be a sufficient approximation to replace the bracket
under the integral for H(a,w) by [(w-u)2.5+aS2.5] with aS given by

aS=(∆ν)S/4π/(∆ν)D ,
where (∆ν)S is the normal line width due to Stark Broadening.
In this case the integral would probably have to be evaluated explicitly by numerical integration
(with an according re-normalization).

BACK TO INDEX

Stark Broadening: A static electric field ES is known to split the energy of an atomic level n of
hydrogen or hydrogen-like (e.g. highly excited) atoms by the amount (not considering sub-
splitting due to directional quantization)

δεnS = ±e.ES.r0.n2 ,

with e the elementary charge and r0 the Bohr radius.

This corresponds to the energy difference which the electron experiences in the field ES on its
path with radius r0.n2.

However, the plasma microfield is not static but varies randomly with an average period ∆tf
given by the plasma density Np and the average particle velocity (see Plasma Field Fluctuations).

If ∆tf is much smaller than the orbital period

Tn= 8.6.10-18.n3 [sec] ,

of the atomic electron, the latter will not experience any field at all any more. One can therefore
assume that the energy splitting becomes correspondingly reduced by a factor

µn= 1/[1+(Tn/∆te,I)2] ,

where ∆te,I=∆te+∆tI is the average fluctuation period for the electrons and ions (because of the
much smaller velocity, only the ions will usually be relevant here).

The normal level splitting in a plasma becomes therefore

∆εnS= ±2.10-15.µn.n2.Np2/3 [eV] ,

where the value for the constants and the normal electric field strength in a plasma of density Np
(in [cm-3]) have been inserted.

Because a spectral line frequency is given by the energy difference between states belonging to
different principal quantum numbers m and n, the frequency broadening of a line is given by

∆νm,nS= ±0.49.[µn.n2-µm.m2].Np2/3 [Hz].


This statistical broadening is only the consequence of the variability of the energy levels due to
the plasma field fluctuations and does not change the overall cross section or radiative emission
rates because it is subject to the usual normalization of the particle density.
However, one can assume on the basis of observational evidence (see /research/#A3) that there is
also a true broadening of each level due to the change dEp/dt of the plasma field. This dynamical
broadening can be taken to be of the form

∆νm,nd= ±0.49.√(ζn,e2+ζn,I2) .n2.Np2/3 [Hz],

where

ζn,e= ∆te.Tn/(∆te+Tn)2 and


ζn,I= ∆tI.Tn/(∆tI+Tn)2 .

Due to the functions ζn,e and ζn,I, the broadening has its maximum if either ∆te= Tn or ∆tI= Tn
(due to the small values of Tn, only the electrons will usually contribute here apart from
sufficiently high quantum numbers).

This dynamical broadening is dominant for sufficiently high quantum numbers (e.g. n>60 for
Np=105 cm-3) and can vastly increase the scattering cross section and/or the radiative emission
intensities because it is not subject to a normalization with regard to the particle density.

In both cases, the profile of the broadened line is given by the Holtsmark Profile which can not
be expressed analytically in closed form (in first order, the line wing intensity decreases
proportional to ν-5/2, but even with this approximation it is not impossible to include the Stark
Broadening into a general analytical function for the Spectral Line Shape).

Note: although the initial formula for the line splitting above effectively assumes a linear Stark
effect (and therewith appears to limit the result to hydrogen-like atoms), one has to bear in mind
that the electric plasma microfield is not static but varies on a time scale ∆tf which is practically
for all cases much shorter than the time required to polarize the atomic charge distribution
(which should be given by the linear Stark frequency). The present treatment should therefore
also be applicable to low lying states of multi-electron atoms.

BACK TO INDEX

Transition Probability: see Atomic Decay Probability.

BACK TO INDEX

Conversion Table cgs/SI- Units


Print Version
Search Site

News

Thomas Smid (M.Sc. Physics, Ph.D. Astronomy)


email: thomas at plasmaphysics.org.uk Go to the Feedback Page

Potrebbero piacerti anche