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Finishing of Wood
Contents
161
162
Figure162. Micrograph of red oak showing ringporous vessels. (Micrographs prepared by H.A. Core,
W.A. Ct, and A.C. Day. Copyright by N.C. Brown Center for Ultrastructure Studies, College of Environmental
Science and Forestry, State University of New York,
Syracuse, New York. Used with permission.)
Figure 164. Cross-section micrographs of (A) a tropical softwood (Podocarpus imbricate), (B) white spruce
(Picea glauca), (C) Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii
(D) sugar maple (Acer saccharum), (E) persimmon
(Diospyros virginiana), and (F) white ash (Fraxinus
americana). The arrows show a single growth year for
the temperate species.
(temperate species), the cells have large open centers (lumens) and thin cell walls. This is earlywood (also called
springwood). As the growing season progresses, cell walls
become thicker, forming latewood (also called summerwood). The combination of EWLW (and vessels in hardwoods) gives annual growth rings. The properties of these
growth rings affect the ease with which finishes can be applied (paintability) and how long finishes last (service life).
163
(a)
Fifty years ago, most exterior siding and trim were verticalgrain heartwood of western redcedar or redwood. All-heartwood vertical-grain grades of these species are still available as resawn bevel siding and lumber and are excellent
wood substrates for painting (Table 161). Other species are
generally available only as flat-grain or a mix of flat- and
vertical-grain lumber (for example, western hemlock, eastern white pine, lodgepole pine, eastern white cedar, radiata
pine, and southern yellow pine). Finishing characteristics of
flat-grain western redcedar and redwood are similar to other
low-density wood species having moderate EWLW transition (such as eastern white pine, eastern white cedar, and
yellow poplar) Sawing to yield vertical grain is only practical with fairly large-diameter logs. Species available
in small-diameter logs yield mostly flat-grain lumber.
(b)
(d)
(e)
(g)
(f)
(h)
164
Manufacturing
The axial EW and LW cells in a log yield lumber of various grain angles (Fig. 166). At one extreme (board a), the
growth rings are perpendicular to the plane of the board; at
the other extreme (board c), growth rings are parallel to the
plane of the board (although they have an arc). Grain varies between these two extremes. Vertical-grain lumber has a
grain angle from 90 (growth rings perpendicular to surface)
to approximately 45. From 45 to the other extreme (board
c), lumber is considered flat grain. Board b is different.
Lumber cut close to the pith (the center of the log) contains
abnormal wood cells. These abnormal cells are juvenile
wood and have extremely high longitudinal dimensional
change (2%) compared with normal wood (0.10.2%). The
values are the change from green to ovendry (see Chap. 4).
A 10-ft (3-m) board could shrink 2.4 in. (61 mm). This
dimensional instability leads to severe warping and crossgrain checking in lumber containing juvenile wood (see
Chap. 5).
The bark side and pith side of flat-grain or flat-sawn lumber have slightly different properties. The pith side is more
prone to have raised grain than the bark side, particularly
with abrupt-transition wood species (southern yellow pine,
Douglas-fir, and oak (Table 161)). The bark side tends to
check more, and the checking is more pronounced in the
LW bands.
Wood species
Softwoods
Baldcypress
Cedars
Incense
Northern white
Port-Orford
Western red
Alaska yellow
Douglas-firf,g
Pines
Eastern white
Ponderosa
Southernh
Western white
Radiata
Redwoodi
Sprucej
Tamarack/larch
True fir
Western hemlock
Hardwoods
Red alder
Ash
Aspen/cottonwood
Basswood
Beech
Birch
Butternut
Cherry
Chestnut
Elm, American
Hickory
Maple, sugar
Oaks
White oak group
Red oak group
Sweetgum
Sycamore
Walnut
Yellow-poplar
Specific
gravitya
(green/dry)
Shrinkage (%)
Tangential
Radial
Paintabilityc
(latex paint)
EW/LW
transitiond
Is LW
greater than
about 1/3 of
GRe
No
Light brown
G
G
G
G
G
A
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Brown
Light brown
Cream
Brown
Yellow
Pale red
Color of
heartwood
0.42/0.46
6.2
3.8
0.35/0.37
0.29/0.31
0.39/0.43
0.31/0.32
0.42/0.44
0.45/0.48
5.2
4.9
6.9
5
6
7.6
3.3
2.2
4.6
2.4
2.8
4.8
II
I
I
I
I
I
I
III
0.34/0.35
0.38/0.42
0.47/0.51h
0.36/0.38
0.45/0.53
0.38/0.40
0.33/0.35
0.49/0.53
0.37/0.39
0.42/0.45
6.1
6.2
8
7.4
7.0
4.4
7.1
7.49.1
7.0
7.8
2.1
3.9
5
4.1
4.2
2.6
3.8
3.74.5
3.3
4.2
I
II
III
I
III
I
I
II
I
II
G
A
A
G
A
A
G
A
G
G/A
No
Yes/No
Yes
No
Yes/No
No
No
Yes/No
No
Yes/No
Cream
Cream
Light brown
Cream
Cream
Dark brown
White
Brown
White
Pale brown
0.37/0.41
0.55/0.60
0.36/0.40
0.32/0.37
0.56/0.64
0.55/0.62
0.36/0.38
0.47/0.50
0.40/0.43
0.46/0.50
0.64/0.72
0.56/0.63
7.3
8
7.09.2
7.8
11.9
9.5
6.4
7.1
6.7
9.5
11
9.9
4.4
5
3.53.9
5.9
5.5
7.3
3.4
3.7
3.4
4.2
7
4.8
I
III
I
I
I
I
II
I
III
III
III
I
D
R
D
D
D
D
SR
D
R
R
R
D
NA
Yes
NA
NA
NA
NA
Yes
NA
Yes
Yes
Yes
NA
Pale brown
Light brown
Pale brown
Cream
Pale brown
Light brown
Light brown
Brown
Light brown
Brown
Light brown
Light brown
0.60/0.68
0.56/0.63
0.46/0.52
0.46/0.49
0.51/0.55
0.40/0.42
8.8
8.6
10.2
8.4
7.8
8.2
4.4
4.0
5.3
5
5.5
4.6
III
III
I
I
II
I
R
R
D
D
SR
D
Yes
Yes
NA
NA
Yes
NA
Brown
Brown
Brown
Pale brown
Dark brown
Pale brown
Specific gravity based on weight ovendry and volume at green or 12% moisture content.
Dimensional change obtained by drying from green to ovendry. Values reported here are averages from a variety of sources and are provided
for comparative purposes. For more specific values, see Chapter 4.
c
I, easy to finish; III, difficult to finish.
d
A, abrupt-transition softwood; G, gradual-transition softwood; R, ring-porous hardwood; D, diffuse-porous hardwood; SR, semi-ring-porous
hardwood.
e
GR, growth ring; NA, not applicable; yes/no, depends on the specimen. In ring-porous hardwoods, the growth rate (number of rings per
centimeter or inch) will determine the relative proportions of earlywood and latewood.
f
Lumber and plywood.
g
Coastal Douglas-fir.
h
Loblolly, shortleaf; specific gravity of 0.54/0.59 for longleaf and slash.
i
Redwood is listed as paintability I because its LW band is very narrow.
j
Spruce. Values are for Engelmann spruce; other species are similar.
b
165
Moisture content
Moisture content (MC) is the amount of water (in any of
its forms) contained in wood (see Chap. 4). MC includes
water or water vapor absorbed into cell walls and free water
within the hollow center of the cells (lumina); it is expressed
as weight percentage. The amount of water vapor wood can
absorb, depends on wood species; most species can absorb
water vapor to increase their mass approximately 30%
above an ovendry MC condition. This water is hydrogen
bound within the cell wall matrix of hemicelluloses and,
to some extent, cellulose. The limit to the amount of water
bound in the wood cell wall is the fiber saturation point.
The amount of water vapor wood absorbs depends on the
relative humidity (RH) of the surrounding air. If wood is
stored at 0% RH, the MC will eventually approach 0%. If
166
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
Dry specific gravity
0.80
167
Wood Products
Six types of wood products are commonly used on the exterior of structures: (1) lumber, (2) plywood, (3) fingerjointed
wood, (4) reconstituted wood products (such as hardboard
and oriented strandboard (OSB)), (5) woodplastic composites, and (6) preservative- or fire-retardant-treated wood.
Each product has unique characteristics that affect application and performance of finishes.
Lumber
Lumber (such as siding, trim, and decking) for exterior use
is available in many species and products, and several publications describe grades:
168
penetrating finishes such as solvent-borne oil-based semitransparent stains last longer on saw-textured wood than on
smooth-planed wood, many film-forming finishes such as
opaque stains and paints also last longer on saw-textured
wood than on smooth-planed wood. Finishes adhere better,
film buildup is thicker, and service life of the finish is longer
on saw-textured surfaces than smooth-planed surfaces, particularly for flat-grain lumber.
Plywood
As with lumber, species, grain orientation, and surface texture affect finishing of plywood. Manufacturers of softwood
plywood use a lathe to peel logs to give flat-grain veneer.
Peeling causes small checks parallel to grain. When the
face veneer is laid up to form the plywood panel, the side
of the veneer having lathe checks is placed interior to give
a surface free of checks. However, after plywood is placed
Fingerjointed Lumber
To obtain knot free lumber, mills produce lumber that
consists of many small pieces of wood edge-glued and fingerjointed at the end-grain (see Chaps. 10 and 12). Although
fingerjointed lumber contains no knots or other obvious defects, most mills do not sort wood pieces prior to gluing to
give lumber with similar grain orientation and heartwood
sapwood content. A particular board may contain pieces
from different trees, and each piece may have different
finishing characteristics; therefore, finishing requirements
are determined by the most difficult-to-paint component in a
fingerjointed board. Fingerjointed lumber is commonly used
for fascia boards, interior and exterior trim, siding, windows, and doors. Paint often fails in a patchwork manner
according to the paintability of various pieces. The board
pictured in Figure 1610 shows extractive bleed on the component to the right, but not on the component to the left.
Some manufacturers decrease variability in fingerjointed
lumber. For example, fingerjointed redwood siding is available in clear all-heart vertical grain and clear flat grain.
Finishing fingerjointed lumber requires care to ensure consistent finish performance on the whole board. To hide color
169
Weathering
Weathering is the general term describing outdoor degradation of materials and manifests itself physically and
Effect on Wood
Weathering takes many forms depending on the material;
wood and wood products initially show color change and
slight checking. Leaching of water-soluble extractives,
chemical changes, and discoloration of the surface by microorganisms cause color change. As weathering continues,
wood develops checks on lateral surfaces and checks and
cracks near the ends of boards, and wood fibers slowly
erode from the surface. Wood consists of three types of
organic components: carbohydrates (cellulose and hemicelluloses), lignin, and extractives. Weathering affects each of
these components differently, and physical and chemical
changes affect paintability.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates (cellulose and hemicelluloses) are polymers
of sugars and make up 55% to 65% of wood (Chap. 3).
Carbohydrates do not absorb UV radiation and are therefore
resistant to UV degradation. However, hemicelluloses and
amorphous cellulose readily absorbdesorb moisture; this
cyclic wetting and drying may cause different dimensional
change for EW/LW bands. Differential dimensional change
roughens wood, raises grain, and causes checks, cracks,
warping, and cupping. Fewer checks develop in woods with
moderate to low specific gravity than in those with high
specific gravity; vertical-grain boards develop fewer checks
than do flat-grain boards; and vertical-grain boards warp and
cup less than do flat-grain boards. To minimize cupping, the
width of a board should not exceed eight times its thickness.
The tendency to cup increases with the specific gravity and
width/thickness ratio.
Lignin
Approximately 20% to 30% of wood is composed of lignin,
a polymer that helps bond cellulose and hemicelluloses
within cell walls and bonds cells together. The volume between adjacent wood cells (middle lamella) is rich in lignin.
If exposed to UV radiation, lignin in the middle lamella, at
the surface of wood, begins to degrade within a few hours.
The changes are not obvious visually, but they affect the surface chemistry of wood and thus adhesion of finishes. Lignin photodegrades, leaving cellulose fibers loosely attached
to the surface. Further weathering causes fibers to be lost
from the surface (a process called erosion), but this process
is slow. Approximately 6 mm (1/4 in.) of wood is lost in a
century (Fig. 1612). Erosion is slower for most hardwoods
and faster for low-density softwoods. Other factors such as
1611
4 years
8 years
Avg.
SGb
LW EW
LW
170 580
290
125
110
105
135
200
165
80
115
95
75
180
130
105
125
145
295
190
210
275
595
315
160
240
180
175
340
315
265
310
310
0.46
0.45
0.31
0.36
0.66
0.35
0.57
0.47
0.48
0.57
0.35
0.38
0.36
0.34
0.39
440
270
270
320
500
405
205
495
330
220
255
245
270
255
320
320
295
EW
10 years
12 years
LW
EW
LW
EW
920
455
1,095
615
1,165
670
390
720
605
1,090
650
345
1,010
640
530
605
555
445
465
545
575
545
475
255
285
315
765
440
220
370
195
225
440
430
320
390
415
800
575
500
345
905
380
710
335
1,325
970
835
555
490
1,225
670
640
590
750
570 Decay
580
475
650
505
680
515
620
965
555
980
710
1,565
965
Decay
745
795
1,255
920
14 years
LW
805
EW
1,355
695 1,070
425
770
520 1,300
445 1,180
1,160 1,800
670 1,180
Decay Decay
560
810
590
950
600 1,470
955
16 years
LW
EW
910 1,475
845
515
500
525
1,380
835
1,250
905
1,405
1,355
1,945
1,385
a
Data from three studies are shown. Specimens were exposed vertically facing south. Radial surfaces were exposed with the grain vertical.
EW denotes earlywood; LW, latewood.
b
SG is specific gravity.
c
All erosion values are averages of nine observations (three measurements of three specimens).
growth rate, degree of exposure, grain orientation, temperature, and wetting and drying cycles affect erosion rate.
Table 162 shows erosion rates for several wood species
measured over 16 years.
Extractives
Extractives (chemicals in heartwood that give each species
its distinctive color) change color when exposed to UV radiation or visible light, and this color change indicates degradation of extractives near the surface. The color change
causes wood to lighten or darken. Some wood species
change color within minutes of outdoor exposure. Wood
also changes color indoors. Ordinary window glass blocks
most UV radiation, therefore visible light causes indoor
color change. UV stabilizers in finishes do not prevent color
change.
Biological Factors
The most common biological factor is mildew, a microorganism that contributes to color change. Mildew does not
cause degradation, but it may cause initial graying or an unsightly dark gray or black blotchy appearance. Dark-colored
fungal spores and mycelia on the wood surface cause this
color. In advanced stages of weathering, after extractives
and lignin have been removed leaving a cellulose surface,
wood may develop a bright silvery-gray sheen. This sheen
on weathered wood occurs most frequently in arid climates
or coastal regions (see Mildew).
1612
Algae can also grow on wood, particularly in damp locations; algae is usually green, and it often grows in combination with mildew.
Effect on Paint Adhesion
Wood erosion is slow, but chemical changes occur within a
few weeks of outdoor exposure. Badly weathered wood having loosely attached fibers on the surface cannot hold paint.
This is not obvious on wood that has weathered for only
2 to 3 weeks. The wood appears unchanged. Research has
shown that surface degradation of wood exposed to sunlight
for 1, 2, 4, 8, or 16 weeks prior to painting (preweathering)
affects service life of subsequently applied paint. The longer
the wood preweathered, the shorter the time until the paint
began to peel. For boards preweathered 16 weeks, the paint
peeled within 3 years; for boards preweathered only 1 week,
the paint peeled after 13 years. Panels that were not preweathered showed no sign of peeling after 20 years. Paints
were commercial oil-alkyd or acrylic-latex primer with one
acrylic-latex top-coat over planed all-heartwood verticalgrain western redcedar. For species with low specific gravity, finish the wood as soon as possible after installation, or
better yet, prime it before installation. In other tests using
wood species having higher specific gravity (such as
Douglas-fir and southern yellow pine), little loss of paint
adhesion occurred until boards had been preweathered for
3 to 4 weeks.
1613
No.
of coats
1
day
7
days
14
days
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
3
4
1
1
12
22
33
12
46
78
5
11
22
78
86
88
9
21
37
43
66
72
52
77
84
5
38
50
45
84
90
7
13
21
85
93
95
55
83
90
91
93
93
91
94
96
98
98
97
100
0
0
2
0
2
27
0
0
0
37
47
55
1
2
5
6
14
20
12
28
39
0
4
6
7
48
64
0
0
1
46
70
78
10
43
64
68
72
76
66
79
86
91
93
82
97
0
0
0
0
0
11
0
0
0
20
27
33
0
0
0
1
2
4
5
11
16
0
0
0
1
26
42
0
0
0
24
49
60
2
23
44
51
57
62
44
62
74
84
87
69
95
1614
Figure 1613. Change in moisture content of ponderosa pine sapwood finished with three coats of
aliuminum-pigmented alkyd paint and exposed to
90% and 30% RH at 26 C (80 F), compared with
moisture content of unfinished wood.
need to work in concert with flashing; they are not a substitute for flashing.
Vent clothes dryers, showers, and cooking areas to outside,
not to the crawl space or attic. Place an air barrier in exterior
walls and top-floor ceilings, and flash penetration through
exterior walls (doors, windows, and vents). Vent to soffits if
possible. Avoid using humidifiers. If the structure contains
a crawl space, cover the soil with a vapor-retarding material
such as black plastic or tar paper.
Do not seal the overlap of lap siding.
In northern climates, use an air barriervapor retarder on the
interior side of all exterior walls and top-floor ceiling to
prevent condensation in the walls and attic. In buildings
that are air-conditioned most of the year, place the air
barriervapor retarder on the exterior side.
Prevent moisture-related problems in siding by using rainscreen design (that is, by furring out the siding 9 to 19 mm
(3/8 to 3/4 in.) from the sheathinghouse wrap)
(Fig. 1615).
1615
Figure 1618. Front view of exterior grade of plywood siding after 10 years of exposure. The righthand portion was exposed to the weather, whereas
the left-hand side was covered with a board to give
a board-and-batten appearance.
1616
Expected service
lifed (years)
Semitransparent
stain
Suitability
Expected
service lifeb
(years)
Suitability
Expected
service lifec
(years)
Suitability
Paint
Solidcolor
stain
Low
Low
High
12
12
23
Moderate
Moderate
High
24
24
48
High
Moderate
Excellent
1015
812
1520
812
610
1015
Low
High
High
12
23
23
Low
High
High
23
47
48
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
610
812
610
68
810
68
Low
Low
12
23
Moderate
High
24
48
Moderate
Moderate
Excellentf
48
812
1215
46
610
1015
High
High
Excellentf
812
812
1015
610
610
1015
High
High
12
23
Moderate
High
Low
23
36
13
Low
Low
Moderate
45
45
Estimates were compiled from observations of many researchers. Expected life predictions are for average location in the
contiguous USA; expected life depends on climate and exposure (such as desert, seashore, and deep woods).
b
The higher the pigment concentration, the longer the service life. Mildew growth on surface usually indicates the need for
refinishing.
c
Smooth unweathered surfaces are generally finished with only one coat of stain. Saw-textured or weathered surfaces, which are
more adsorptive, can be finished with two coats; second coat is applied while first coat is still wet.
d
Expected service life of an ideal paint system: three coats (one primer and two top-coats). Applying only a two-coat paint system
(primer and one top-coat) will decrease the service life to about half the values shown in the table. Top-quality latex top-coat paints
have excellent resistance to weathering. Dark colors may fade within a few years.
e
Medium-density overlay (MDO) is painted.
f
Edges are vulnerable to water absorption and need to be sealed.
g
Water-repellent preservatives and semitransparent stains are not suitable for hardboard. Solid-color stains (latex or alkyd) will
perform like paints. Paints give slightly better performance because the solids content of paint is higher than that for solid-color
stains and thus paints give greater film build for the same volume of finish used.
1617
of lumber, edges of plywood, and back-priming and are discussed in several sections of this chapter.
Penetrating finishes that use paraffin oil as the solvent are
also available. These formulations penetrate wood, and the
oil helps improve water repellency. Paraffin oil is not a volatile solvent; therefore, these finishes comply with air quality requirements. They are usually a good value, because
virtually all of what comes in the can ends up in the wood.
The service life is approximately 1 year, but they are easy to
apply. If an excessive amount is applied, the wood surface
may remain oily for a few weeks. Do not use them as a pretreatment prior to applying other finishes.
Figure 1619. Effect of water-repellent preservative
treatment after 5 years of outdoor exposure. A, window sash and frame treated with a water-repellent preservative and then painted; B, window sash and frame
not treated before painting.
Prior to changes in finish formulation because of VOC regulation, paint companies formulated solvent-borne WRPs for
use as a pretreatment prior to priming. At this time, finding a
WRP formulated for this use is difficult. In fact, paint manufactures seldom honor a finish warranty, if customers apply
a WRP prior to using their finish, particularly if a different
paint company made the WRP. In spite of decades of research showing the benefits of WRP treatment of wood prior
to priming, they are seldom used. Information on WRPs as
a wood treatment, prior to priming, is included in this chapter in case a paint manufacturer markets a WRP specially
formulated for this use in the future. They are particularly
effective for improving the service life of paint on difficultto-paint wood species and decay-prone areas (Fig. 1619).
Currently available WRPs can be used for sealing end grain
1618
Application process
Appearance of wood
Process
Service lifeb
Water-repellent
preservative (WRP)
Brush-apply 1 coat or
dip. Apply a second coat
only if it will absorb.
Brush-apply 1 coat or
dip. Apply a second coat
only if it will absorb.
Brush-apply 1 coat or
dip. Apply a second coat
only if it will absorb.
Brush to remove
surface dirt; wash
to remove mildew
Same as with WRP
13 years
48 years (on
saw-textured or
weathered
wood)
1020 years
for paintc; 615
years for solidcolor staine
23 years
Refinish exterior wood when the old finish has worn thin
and no longer protects the wood. If all factors are working
in concert (good structure design to shed water, effective
flashing, paintable wood surface, and end grain sealed),
paint degradation is benign weathering of paint to expose
the primer or in the case of a penetrating finish, to expose
the wood surface. In these cases, there is rarely much
surface preparation other than mild washing prior to refinishing. Mildew growth is not paint degradation, but an
appearance problem; remove it with a commercial cleaner
or bleachdetergent solution. If factors are not working in
concert, paint may crack and peel.
1620
Refinishing
Oil-based semitransparent penetrating stains degrade by
slow erosion of pigments to give a gray slightly weathered
appearance. Refinish when wood begins to show before all
pigment is lost. Stains do not crack or peel unless excessive
stain formed a film. Simply use a dry stiff-bristle brush to
remove surface dirt, dust, and loose wood fibers and restain. As with clear finishes, remove mildew prior to refinishing. The subsequent application of penetrating stain often
lasts longer than the first because it penetrates the porous
weathered surface.
If oil-based semitransparent stain did not penetrate properly and formed a film, it may fail by cracking and flaking.
In this case, surface preparation may involve scraping and
sanding. For wood having a thick film, it may be necessary
to remove all the old finish with a paint stripper prior to restaining. This is a difficult situation; parts of the structure
may have areas where the old finish eroded and the surface
is weathered; parts may have an intact or peeling film.
Oil-based stains do not penetrate areas having a film; filmforming finishes (paint or solid color stain) do not bond to
weathered areas. Either remove the finish in places having a
film and re-stain or scuff sand the weathered area, scrap and
scuff sand the area having a film, and refinish with solidcolor stain or paint.
When refinishing semitransparent stains, the stain must
penetrate wood. As mentioned above, stain service life
varies with exposure (that is, the weathering of the stain);
therefore, stain may not penetrate well in some areas. For
example, an area under the eaves, even on the south side of
a structure, may be relatively unweathered compared with
the lower part of the wall. When applying stain to such an
area, feather the new stain into the old. If the stain does not
penetrate the wood within an hour, remove excess stain to
avoid forming shiny spots, which indicate a film. The north
side of a structure may not need to be re-stained nearly as
often as the south side (northern hemisphere).
Do not apply oil-based semitransparent stains over solidcolor stain or paint.
Note: Do not use steel wool or wire brushes to clean wood
or to prepare a surface for refinishing because they contaminate the wood with iron. Minute amounts of iron react
with tannins in woods like western redcedar, redwood, and
oak to yield dark blueblack stains (see Finish Failure or
Discoloration).
Film-Forming Finishes
In a range of least to most protection from UV radiation and
photochemical degradation of wood, film-forming finishes
are ranked as follows: clear varnish, pigmented varnish,
waterborne latex semitransparent stains, solid-color stains,
and paints.
Clear Varnish
Clear varnish is a transparent film-forming finish that enhances the natural beauty and figure of wood. In a book
originally published in 1904, A.H. Sabin listed 16 types of
varnish (architectural, cabinet, carriage, marine, and piano,
to name just a few) (Sabin 1927). These varnishes were a
solution of natural resins, linseed or tung oil, or both, and
turpentine. In a recent publication, Wicks and others (2007)
describe modern varnishes as urethane-modified alkyds.
Spar varnish (a combination of novolac phenolics resin and
tung and linseed oils) is also available. Urethane-based varnishes have good abrasion resistance and perform well on
furniture, floors, and interior woodwork. However, varnish
lacks exterior permanence unless protected from direct sunlight; varnishes in direct sunlight generally require refinishing every l to 2 years. Varnishes embrittle by exposure to
sunlight and develop severe cracking and peeling. They last
longer in protected areas, such as soffits, doors protected by
porches, or the north side of structures; however, even in
protected areas, apply a minimum of three coats. Staining
the wood (oil-based semitransparent stain) prior to applying
varnish improves its service life; the pigments in the stain
decrease the photodegradation of the wood, thus maintaining varnish adhesion. Varnish is a high-maintenance finish
and is not generally used on the exterior of structures.
Clear varnish usually fails by a combination of cracking and
UV degradation of the wood at the woodvarnish interface.
This can be identified by examining the back of a chip of
varnish and finding wood fiber attached. Refinishing usually
requires scraping, sanding, or power-washing the finish off
and then reapplying the finish.
Pigmented Varnish
Finish manufacturers have modified clear varnish to improve exterior performance by adding finely ground inor-
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1622
possible with stains). Paint is the only finish that can give
a bright white appearance. Paint retards penetration of
moisture, decreases discoloration by wood extractives, and
retards checking and warping of wood. However, paint is
not a preservative. It will not prevent decay if conditions are
favorable for fungal growth.
Paint is available in two general types: solvent-borne oilalkyds and waterborne latexes (usually acrylic or vinyl
acrylic polymers).
Oil-based paint is a mixture of finely ground inorganic pigment in a resin (binder) with additives to speed curing, improve application, and give mildew resistance. The simplest
resin is a drying oil, such as linseed oil. Modern oil-based
paints have the drying oil combined with a poly functional
alcohol to form an oil-alkyd. Oil-alkyds for wood have excess oil (that is, long-oil-alkyds), making them more flexible
than short-oil-alkyds (that is, having a shortage of oil). Oilalkyds form a film by reacting with oxygen in the air to give
a cross-linked polymeric network. Prior to regulation of the
amount of organic solvent in oil-alkyds, they contained turpentine or mineral spirits. Modern oil-alkyds have complex
solvent systems to meet VOC requirements.
Latex-based paint is also a mixture of finely ground pigment
in a resin. The resin is a synthetic polymer, and it coalesces
to form a film; these polymers do not react with oxygen. The
main solvent is water, with other solvents to keep the polymer flexible while it coalesces. Acrylics and vinyl acrylics
are typical resins in wood finishes.
Oil-alkyd or latex primers link wood to top-coats and provide a base for all succeeding top-coats (initial top-coats and
refinishing). Primers seal the surface to prevent extractives
bleed, provide adhesion between the wood and top-coats,
and give color base to even out differences in wood color
and top-coat color. Primers flow into void spaces at the
wood surface to improve top-coat adhesion and block extractives in species such as redwood and western redcedar.
At this time, oil-alkyd primers block extractives better than
do latex primers, but paint manufacturers continue to improve latex primers. Oil-alkyd primers block water absorption into end grain and, to a limited extent, can penetrate
wood cell walls, thus modifying the surface and improving
its dimensional stability. Latex primers do not penetrate cell
walls but merely flow into cut cells and vessels. Latex primers do not seal the end grain as well as oil-alkyd primers
do. Latex primers are more flexible and stay more flexible;
thus, they are less likely to crack as they age. Latex primers
are porous and thus permeable to water and water vapor;
oil-alkyd paints are less permeable to water and water vapor
(Table 163).
Latex top-coats can be applied over oil-alkyd primers. Latex
paints formulated with acrylic resins are resistant to weathering; they maintain their gloss better than oil-alkyd paints.
Oil-alkyd top-coats tend to lose gloss within a year or two
1623
1624
Treated Wood
Copper-based preservatives (copper azole, ammoniacal copper quat (ACQ), ammoniacal copper zinc arsenate (ACZA),
chromated copper arsenate (CCA)), creosote, and pentachlorophenol are common factory-applied preservatives.
Of these, wood treated with copper azole and ACQ is often
used to construct porches, decks, and fences. The treatment
has little effect on finishing once the wood has dried; species
and grain orientation affect finishing more than preservative
treatment does. Waterborne treatments containing copper
may maintain a brown color for approximately 2 years.
Some copper-based preservatives may have a water repellent included in the treatment to give the treated wood better
resistance to weathering. Even if the manufacturer treated
the wood with water repellent, maintain it with a finish to
extend its service life. People often replace decking because
of weathering, not decay.
Creosote and pentachlorophenol are generally used for
industrial and commercial applications where applying a
finish is not considered practical. Creosote is oily, and wood
treated with creosote does not accept a finish. Pentachlorophenol is often formulated in heavy oil. Wood treated with
preservatives formulated in oil will not accept a finish.
Marine Uses
The marine environment is particularly harsh on wood
because of wind-blown salt spray, abrasion by sand, and
direct and reflected UV radiation. Any of the types of finish
discussed previously can be used in marine environments.
Boats
Varnish enhances the appearance and protects wood trim
on boats (hence the name spar varnish), but it is exposed
to more sunlight and water than on structures. Therefore, it
needs regular and frequent refinishing. Paint manufacturers recommend three to six coats for best performance.
Applying oil-based semitransparent stain to wood prior to
varnishing increases the service life of the varnish, but the
stain obscures some of the color of the wood. Keeping the
appearance of wood trim bright and new is labor intensive
but often well worth the effort.
Finish hulls with marine paint (two-part epoxy- or urethanepaint). Protect areas below the water line with antifouling
paint. Consult manufacturers for information on these
products.
Panel Products
The edges of panel products such as plywood, OSB, and fiberboard are vulnerable to absorption of water. To minimize
edge swelling and subsequent finish peeling, seal the edges
of these products with a WRP, oil-alkyd primer, or sealer
formulated for this use. The type of edge sealer depends on
the surface finish. Prior to staining (oil-based semitransparent stain), seal with the stain or a WRP; prior to painting
(paint or solid-color stain), seal with an oil-alkyd primer.
Plywood siding products may have a saw-textured surface
(such as T111 siding) or a paper overlay (MDO). Saw-textured surfaces may be finished with oil-based semitransparent stain, solid-color stain, or paint. Paint gives the longest
service. Paper overlay products will not accept a penetrating
finish (such as oil-based semitransparent stain); finish with
paint or solid-color stain.
During pressing of OSB and fiberboard panels for exterior
use, manufactures usually include MDO. The panels are
cut to give lap siding. The MDO protects the surface from
moisture and gives a good surface for film-forming finishes.
However, as with plywood, the edges and areas around fasteners are vulnerable to water absorption and need to
be sealed.
Fire-Retardant Coatings
Fire-retardant finishes have low surface flammability, and
when exposed to fire, they intumesce to form an expanded
Back-Priming
Back-priming is applying primer or WRP to the back side
of wood (usually siding) before installing it. Back-priming
with stain-blocking primer retards extractives staining, particularly run-down extractives bleed. It decreases absorption
of water, thus improving dimensional stability. Siding is less
likely to cup, an important consideration for flat-grain wood.
Improved dimensional stability decreases stress on the finish, thus decreasing paint cracking.
At the time siding is back-primed, seal end grain with oilalkyd primer. This process has an even greater effect in stopping water absorption than back-priming. Primed end-grain
eliminates paint failure near the ends of boards. Prime ends
cut during installation.
Factory Finishing
Factory priming hardboard siding has been a standard industry practice for many years, and recently, factory-finished
(primer and top-coats) siding, trim, and decking have
become common. Factory finishing offers several advantages: avoids finishing during inappropriate weather, gives
consistent film thickness, contributes to timely completion
of structures, and decreases overall cost. Factory finishing
is advantageous in northern climates where exterior finishing is impossible during the winter. Controlled application
ensures consistent 0.10 to 0.13 mm (4 to 5 mil) dry film
thickness. Siding is normally primed on all sides, including
the end grain. When installing factory-finished siding, prime
following cross-cuts. Controlled conditions enable many
factory finishers to guarantee their products against cracking, peeling, and blistering for 15 years.
1625
1626
Figure 1621. Water blisters (also called moisture blisters) caused bubble-like deformation of paint film.
Cross-Grain Cracking
Modern waterborne latex finishes seldom fail by cross-grain
cracking. If latex finishes crack across the grain, dimensional instability of wood under the finish causes it. For example, cross-grain checking of juvenile wood causes paint
to crack. In this case, replace the board and repaint.
If juvenile wood is not to blame, cross-grain cracking usually occurs on structures having thick layers of oil-alkyd
paint. If the wood is not the cause of paint failure, remove
the old paint and apply new finish to the bare wood. Old
paint probably contains lead (see Lead-Based Paint).
Water Blisters
Water Blisters (also called moisture blisters) are bubble-like
deformation of paint films (Fig. 1621). As the name implies, these blisters usually contain water when they form.
Water blisters form between the wood substrate and the first
coat of paint. After the blisters appear, they may dry out and
collapse. Small blisters may disappear completely and large
ones may leave rough spots; in severe cases, the paint peels.
Oil-alkyd paint recently applied to wet wood is most likely
to blister. Old paint films are too rigid to swell and form
blisters; they usually crack and peel. Water blisters are not
common on latex paint systems.
Minimizing water absorption into wood is the only way
to prevent water blisters. Water blisters may occur on siding and trim where rain enters through improperly flashed
doors, windows, and vents; they are common near unsealed
end grain of siding and trim. Water from ice dams and
overflow from blocked gutters can also cause water blisters.
Movement of water vapor from the inside of a structure to
siding and trim may also cause water blisters. Plumbing
leaks, humidifiers, and shower spray are sources of inside
water. Minimizing water absorption also prevents decay
(rot), warping, and checking of wood.
Mill Glaze
Since the mid-1980s, a condition known as mill glaze
(also called planers glaze) has been reported to cause paint
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 1622. (a) Cross-section view of flat-grain
southern yellow pine showing dense LW bands
crushed into less dense EW directly beneath them; (b)
raised grain caused by rebound of LW bands following
wetting; (c) a thin coat of film-forming finish applied
over a stressed flat-grain surface will crack as the
wood rebounds.
failure. Controversy exists over the exact cause of this condition, and many people use it as a catch all for unexplained
paint failures. They attributed the paint failure to dull planer
blades or excessive heat during planing. However, investigations of reported mill glaze by FPL scientists showed that
other factors caused finish failure; scientists were unable to
duplicate mill glaze in the laboratory. FPL scientists found
three causes for paint failures that others had attributed to
mill glaze: (1) raised grain under a thin film, particularly
on smooth flat-grain lumber, (2) wood weathering prior to
application of film-forming finishes, and (3) moisture (usually water). These factors often occurred together.
Paint failure occurred because of raised grain on flat-grain
boards, particularly on species having abrupt EWLW transitions. Planer blades tend to crush dense LW bands into less
dense EW that lie directly beneath them on flat-grain surfaces (Fig. 1622a). Later, when these boards are exposed
to moisture, crushed EW absorbs moisture and rebounds,
which causes the surface LW bands to protrude from the
surface (Fig. 1622b). A thin coat of film-forming finish
applied over a stressed flat-grain surface will crack as the
wood rebounds (Fig. 1622c; see Paint Cracking). Failure is
most common on flat-grain siding finished with insufficient
film build of oil-based solid-color stain. Thin coatings of oilbased solid-color stain and to some extent waterborne latex
stains are weak and do not withstand the stresses caused by
raised grain. These low-solids coatings provide only 0.03 to
0.05 mm (1 to 2 mil) of dry-film thickness, whereas a brushapplied three-coat paint system (primer and two top-coats)
Intercoat Peeling
As the name implies, intercoat peeling is loss of adhesion
between coats of finish, usually peeling of a new paint from
old paint (Fig. 1623). It usually occurs within a year of repainting. Prevent intercoat peeling by ensuring that old paint
is free of dirt, mildew, and chalk prior to repainting.
Intercoat peeling can also result from allowing too much
time between applying primer and top-coat. If more than
2 weeks elapse between applying an oil-based primer and a
top-coat, clean the surface before applying the second coat.
If the primer (particularly oil-alkyd primers) has weathered
for several months, it may be necessary to re-prime prior to
applying the top-coats (see Testing for Adhesion).
1627
(a)
Mildew
(b)
Figure 1624. Mildew is most common in shaded,
moist, or protected areas (a) on wood and (b) on painted wood.
Chalking
Weathering of paint causes chalking; chalk is a residue of
degraded resin and pigments. These degradation products
form a fine powder. Some chalking is desirable because
it allows the paint to self-clean. However, chalking is objectionable when the degradation products (especially the
pigments) wash down a surface having a different color or
when it causes premature paint failure through excessive
erosion. Most paints chalk to some extent, but chalking is
minimal with modern latex paints.
Latex paint or solid-color stain can be applied over existing
paint if the old paint is clean and sound (chalk free). Prior to
refinishing a chalky surface, scrub it thoroughly with a detergent solution to remove degraded finish residue and dirt.
Rinse thoroughly before repainting. To check for excessive
chalking, lightly rub the paint surface with a dark (for lightcolored paint) or white (for dark-colored paint) cloth. The
amount of pigment removed by the cloth is a good indication of chalking. If the surface is still chalky after cleaning,
it may need to be primed prior to repainting. Otherwise, the
new paint may peel. Before repainting surfaces, conduct a
simple test (see Testing for Adhesion).
1628
Water-Soluble Extractives
In many hardwoods and softwoods, the heartwood contains
water-soluble extractives. (Sapwood does not contain watersoluble extractives.) Western redcedar and redwood are
two common softwoods that contain highly colored watersoluble extractives; extractives give these species their attractive color, but they can also discolor paint. When wood
gets wet, water dissolves some extractives; then as the wood
dries, water carries water-soluble extractives to the surface.
The water evaporates leaving extractives behind as a reddish
brown stain. Discoloration shows in two ways: diffused and
run-down extractives bleed.
Diffused extractives bleed is caused by (1) water from rain
and dew that penetrates a porous or thin paint coating, (2)
water that penetrates joints in the siding, railings, or trim,
1629
Iron Stain
Iron stains occur from rusting of fasteners or by the reaction
of iron with tannins in wood. The appearance is different for
each of these reactions.
In wood species that lack tannins, iron merely rusts, giving
a brown stain to the wood surrounding the fastener. The iron
also causes slight degradation of the wood near it (often
referred to as wood sickness). This discoloration develops
over many months or years of exposure.
side of the siding onto the front side of the siding below it,
where it evaporates leaving red streaks (Fig. 1626).
Prevent run-down extractives bleed by (1) fixing roof leaks,
maintaining gutters, and preventing ice dams, (2) decreasing condensation or the accumulation of moisture in wall by
lowering indoor humidity and installing effective air barriers
in wall systems, (3) designing structures having adequate
roof overhang to minimize wetting by dew and wind-blown
rain, (4) back-priming siding prior to installation with a
stain-blocking primer, and (5) using rain-screen construction
to vent the back side of siding (see Back-Priming).
By eliminating the cause of extractives bleed, the discoloration will usually weather away in a few months. However,
extractives in protected areas (under the eaves, soffits, and
porch ceilings) become darker and more difficult to remove
with time. In these cases, wash the discolored areas with a
mild detergent soon after the problem develops. Paint
cleaners containing oxalic acid may remove stains.
Blue Stain
Blue stain is a fungus that can infect sapwood of trees and
logs (Fig. 1627). Insects, such as the pine beetle, may carry
it into a living tree. Pine beetle infestation often disrupts the
flow of nutrients, thus killing the tree. Sapwood of lumber
from beetle-killed trees usually contains blue stain. Blue
stain may also infect logs after harvest while the MC is still
high. The fungus causes a blue discoloration of the wood,
but the organism does not weaken wood structurally. The
fungus lacks the enzymes necessary to digest wood polymers; it lives off the unpolymerized sugars in the sapwood
(see Chap. 14). Neither commercial mildew cleaners nor
household bleach with detergent can remove it. If the color
is objectionable, use a pigmented finish to hide it (see Mildew).
Effective control of blue stain takes place prior to using
lumber at the construction site: maintain healthy forests,
1630
Pitch
Figure 1628. Iron stain on newly installed wood siding. Poor quality galvanized nails corrode easily and,
like uncoated steel nails, usually cause unsightly staining of the wood.
Knots
Knots in many species contain an abundance of resins and
other highly colored compounds. These compounds can
sometimes cause paint to peel or turn brown. Eliminating
paint discoloration caused by extractives in knots is difficult
because some of the extractives are soluble in oil-based
primers and diffuse through them. Latex-based formulations do not block them either. Coat the knot with shellac or
specially formulated knot sealer. Do not use varnish to seal
knots; varnish is not formulated for this use. After sealing
knots, apply primer and two top-coats. Knots usually check
as wood dries; if the checks form after the wood has been
1631
(b)
Figure 1630. (a) Pitch exudation from an isolated spot;
(b) pitch exudation from a large pocket or seam.
1632
1633
1634
Paint Strippers
Removing paint and other film-forming finishes from wood
is a time-consuming and often difficult process. Finish
removal is necessary if a finish has extensive cracking or
peeling (see Finish Failure or Discoloration). It may be necessary to remove paint containing lead; however, if the paint
is still sound and it is not illegal to leave it on the structure,
paint over the lead-based paint to seal in the lead (see LeadBased Paint).
Methods described here can remove finishes from furniture;
however, companies that specialize in stripping furniture
usually immerse the furniture in a vat of paint stripper, then
clean and brighten the wood.
Mechanical and chemical are general types of stripping
methods. Consult product literature for additional information on appropriate uses and safety precautions. Regardless
of the method used to strip paint, sand the wood prior to
applying new finish.
Mechanical Methods
Scraping, sanding, wet or dry sandblasting, spraying with
pressurized water (power washing), and using electrically
heated pads, hot air guns, and blowtorches are mechanical
methods for removing finishes.
Scraping is effective for removing loosely bonded paint
or paint that has already partially peeled from small areas
of the structure. If possible, sand weathered surfaces and
feather edges of paint still bonded to wood. Do not sand if
the old paint contains lead (see Lead-Based Paint).
If paint has partially debonded on large areas of a structure,
contractors usually remove the finish by power washing.
This methods work well for paint that is loosely bonded. If
paint is tightly bonded, complete removal can be difficult
without severely damaging wood. The pressure needed to
debond tightly bound paint from wood can easily cause deep
erosion of wood. If high pressure is necessary to remove
paint, the paint probably does not need to be removed prior
to refinishing. Power washing erodes less dense EW more
than dense LW, leaving behind ridges of LW, which are difficult to repaint. Power washing is less damaging to wood
than is wet or dry sandblasting, particularly if low pressure is used. If more aggressive mechanical methods are
required, wet sandblasting can remove even tightly-bonded
paint. Dry sandblasting is not suitable for removing paint
from wood because it severely erodes wood along with the
paint and it tends to glaze the surface. Power washing and
wet and dry sandblasting are not suitable for paint containing lead.
Power sanders and similar devices are available for complete paint removal. Some devices are suitable for removing
paint that contains lead; they have attachments for containing the dust. Equipment that has a series of blades similar
to a power hand-planer is less likely to gum up with paint
than equipment that merely sands the surface. Planers and
sanders cannot be used unless the fasteners are countersunk.
Consult the manufacturers technical data sheets for detailed
information to determine the suitability of their equipment
for your needs and to meet government regulations on leadcontaining paint.
Paint can be softened using electrically heated pads, hot air
guns, or blow torches, then removed by scraping it from the
wood. Heated pads and hot air guns are slow methods and
cause little damage to the wood. Blowtorches have been
1635
Chemical Methods
Efficient paint removal may involve mechanical and chemical methods. Stripping paint chemically has the following
steps: apply paint stripper, wait, scrap off the softened paint,
neutralize the stripper (if necessary), wash the wood, and
sand the surface to remove wood damaged by the stripper and raised grain caused by washing. Chemical paint
strippers, although tedious to use, are sometimes the most
reasonable choice. Some are extremely strong chemicals
that quickly remove paint but are dangerous to use. Others
remove the paint slowly but are safer. With the exception of
alkali paint stripper, how safe a product is and how fast it
removes paint seem to be inversely correlated.
Solvent-Based Strippers
Fast-working paint strippers usually contain methylene
chloride, a possible carcinogen that can burn eyes and skin.
Eye and skin protection and a supplied-air respirator are
essential when using this paint stripper. Paint strippers having methylene chloride can remove paint in as little as 10
min. Some paint strippers are formulated using other strong
solvents because of concerns with methylene chloride; the
same safety precautions should be used with these formulations as with those containing methylene chloride. Consult
product literature and strictly observe safety precautions.
Alkali-Based Strippers
As an alternative to strong solvents, some paint strippers
contain strong bases (alkali). As with solvent-based paint
strippers, alkali-based strippers require eye and skin protection. Follow manufacturers recommendations concerning
use of a respirator. Although alkali-based paint strippers
soften paint rather slowly, they are strong chemicals and can
severely damage wood. Strong alkali pulps the wood surface. After paint removal, neutralize the surface with mild
acid. Unfortunately, balancing the acid and base concentrations is difficult. If excess alkali remains in the wood, it may
degrade the wood and subsequent paint coating. Excess acid
can also damage wood. Alkali strippers are often left on
painted wood a full day or overnight and are usually covered to slow evaporation. These covered types of products
have the advantage of containing the paint stripper and paint
quite well, an important consideration when removing paint
1636
Lead-Based Paint
Lead-based paint was widely used in residential structures
in the United States until the early 1940s, and its use continued to some extent, for the exterior of dwellings, until 1976.
In 1971, Congress passed the Lead-Based Paint Poisoning
Prevention Act, and in 1976, the Consumer Product Safety
Commission (CPSC) issued a ruling under this Act that limited the lead content of paint used in residential dwellings,
toys, and furniture to 0.06%. Prior to any paint restoration
on structures built prior to 1976 (and probably a good idea
on any structure), check paint for lead. Check for lead using
a solution of 6% to 8% sodium sulfide in water or using a
Literature Cited
AWPA. 2008. Book of standards. Birmingham, AL: American Wood Protection Association.
Sabin, A.H. 1927. Technology of paint and varnish. 3rd ed.
London: John Wiley & Sons.
Additional References
APA. 1979. Stains and paints on plywood. Pamphlet B407B.
Tacoma, WA: American Plywood Association.
Arnold, M.; Feist, W.C.; Williams, R.S. 1992. Effect of
weathering of new wood on the subsequent performance
of semitransparent stains. Forest Products Journal. 42(3):
1014.
ASTM. 2003. Standard specification for zinc coating (hotdip) on iron and steel hardware. A 153/A 153M01a. West
Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International. 1(6).
Black, J.M.; Mraz, E.A. 1974. Inorganic surface treatments
for weather-resistant natural finishes. Res. Pap. FPL232.
Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 44 p.
Bussjaeger, S.; Daisey, G.; Simmons, R.; Spindel, S.;
Williams, S. 1999. Mildew and mildew control for wood
surfaces. JCT Coatings Tech. 71(890): 6769.
Cassens, D.L.; Feist, W.C. 1980a. Wood finishing: finishing
exterior plywood, hardboard and particle board. North Central Region Extension Pub. 132. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue
University, Cooperative Extension Service.
Cassens, D.L.; Feist, W.C. 1980b. Wood finishing: paint
failure problems and their cure. North Central Region Extension Pub. 133. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University,
Cooperative Extension Service.
Cassens, D.L.; Feist, W.C. 1980c. Wood finishing: discoloration of house paintcauses and cures. North Central
Region Extension Pub. 134. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue
University, Cooperative Extension Service.
Cassens, D.L.; Feist, W.C. 1980d. Wood finishing: selection
and application of exterior finishes for wood. North Central
Region Extension Pub. 135. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue
University, Cooperative Extension Service.
Cassens, D.L.; Feist, W.C. 1980e. Wood finishing: finishing
and maintaining wood floors. North Central Region Extension Pub. 136. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University,
Cooperative Extension Service.
Daniels, T.; Hirsch, M.; McClelland, K.; Ross, A.; Williams,
R.S. 2004. Clear exterior finishes: finding the balance
between aesthetics and durability. JCT Coatings Tech.
1(9): 4248.
Feist, W.C. 1979. Protection of wood surfaces with chromium trioxide. Res. Pap. FPL339. Madison, WI: U.S.
1637
Mall, D.D.; Bonura, T.; Bussjaeger, S.; Carll, C.; Panila, D.;
Williams, R.S. 2004. Frequently asked questions: wood and
coatings applications. JCT Coatings Tech. 1(3): 3649.
McDonald, K.A.; Falk, R.H.; Williams, R.S.; Winandy, J.E.
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