MANUFACTURING PROCESS

LESSON 20
MOUNDING SAND, ELEMENTS OF MOULD AND DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS, GATING, RISER, RUNNER, CORE
Sand Preparation
Green sand mold are used in 85% of foundries. Green sand is a mixture of sand, clay, carbonaceous material and water (Figure 4).
The sand provides the structure for the mold, the clay binds the sand together and the carbonaceous materials prevent rust. Water is
used to activate the clay. The green sand mixture is packed around a pattern of the metal piece and allowed to harden. The mold is
carefully removed from the pattern and prepared for the molten metal.

Sand Reclamation
Green sand can be reused multiple times without significant
refinement. The sand is filtered to remove fines that develop
from the process. Additional sand is added to account for sand
that is lost. Then the sand is remolded for a different metal
piece.
Chemically bound sand used for core making and other types
of molds is not so easily reused. However, many methods have
been developed to recover foundry sand, with mixed success.
The object of sand reclamation is to remove residual binders
and contaminants from the sand grains so the sand can be
reused without affecting the quality of the mold. The sand
reclamation process is defined by the American Foundrymens
Society Sand Reclamation and Recovery Committee as the
physical, chemical or thermal treatment of a refractory aggregate
to allow its reuse without significantly lowering its original
useful properties as required for the application involved.

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Four methods for recovering sand have been developed. The

method that will be useful depends largely on the type of metal
cast, the binders used, and the desired reuse.
Attrition Sand Reclamation
Attrition sand reclamation technology spins two streams of
sand in opposite directions in the presence of heat. The
combination of sand abrasion and binder combustion free the
sand particles from some binders. Attrition cannot remove all
residual binders, but works well with no-bake binders. The
yield from this process is a high strength recycled sand.
Because all binders cannot be removed through attrition, the
sand characteristics may be changed. For some casting operations the characteristics may be changed significantly enough
that the sand may be be ineffective for furture castings.
Attrition methods of sand reclamation may also produce large
quantities of dust. The dust can be captured in air emission
control equipment, hence contributing to the total volume of
solid waste.

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Water (Wet) Reclamation

Wet reclamation uses water to remove sand binders (Figure 6).
The process uses on the different water solubilities of sand and
binders to separate the two. Clay bonded systems work well
with water reclamation processes because the clays are very
soluble in water. Sodium silicate sand binders can also be
removed using wet reclamation. The sodium silicate dissolves
part of the sand crystal when binding, but can be removed by
exposing it to water. After the sand is soaked in a water bath it
is dried and reused.Although wet reclamation was used in the
1950s and 1960s, it has been nearly eliminated as a method of
sand recovery. Chemical binders are also no longer sufficiently
hydrophilic to dissolve in water. Further, organic resins that do
dissolve and other water soluble impurities can cause significant
water contamination. The high volume of waste water and
strict environmental regulations can make wet sand reclamation
too expensive.

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MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Dry Sand Reclamation

Dry sand reclamation relies on mechanical and pneumatic
scrubbers to remove lumps and binders from sand (Figure 5).
Mechanical scrubbing moves each sand grain through a sand-tometal or sand-to-sand interface to remove impurities.
Pneumatic scrubbers use air to propel sand between baffles.
These scrubbers are particularly good for removing clay from
molding sands and binders in systems that are not baked.Dry
reclamation can produce large quantities of dust. These air
emissions have to be monitored and captured by control
equipment. Dry sand reclamation may also not be capable of
removing binders to the extent necessary for reuse in some
foundry operations.

Thermal Sand Reclamation

Thermal reclamation uses heat in a rotary kiln, multiple-hearth
furnaces, or a fluidized bed to combust binders and contaminants (Figure 7). In removing binders, the process can cause
sand to change in composition. Combustion products from
the fuel used to heat the sand and thermal cracking of the sand
crystals may occur. The resulting sand may be significantly
different than the original sand. Depending on the type of
casting, thermally treated sand may or may not be
usable.Infrared energy can also be used to thermally treat sand.
This method may maintain more of the sands original
composition, while still destroying binders. Infrared units,
called electric sand reclamation units, are in place in the United
Kingdom and Canada (Navistar Goes Infrared, 1993).
External blowers push the sand through fluidized beds,
allowing the sand to directly contact the infrared radiation which
breaks down the binders. The electric sand reclamation units do
not produce the combustion products associated with traditional thermal reclamation processes.

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Sand Recycling
Another option for foundry sand is recycling. Many industries
use sand as a raw material in their processes. As foundry sand is
usually not hazardous, it can serve this purpose. Markets for
spent foundry sand include manufacturing of: cement, concrete,
asphalt, bricks and tiles, flowable fill (permeable, low-strength
concrete), geotechnical fill and roadfill, daily landfill cover, and
manufactured topsoil and composting. Liability and local
legislation must, of course, be considered before selling spent
foundry sand.
Spent Slag and Emissions Control Dust
Slag and emissions control dust constitute the remainder of the
solid waste produced by foundries. Not much has been written
regarding process modification to reduce these solid wastes.
However, if the slag or dust contained sufficient metal content,
they can be fed back into the furnaces to reclaim the remaining
metal dust. The metals can also be recovered from the dust
using electrolytic or other metal recovery techniques. The
recovered metal can either be added to the molten metal or sold
for other uses.

Elements of mould and design

considerations, gating, riser, runner,
core.
Elements of Mould
Figure 23.1 presents the cross-section of a typical two-part sand
mould and incorporates many features of the casting process.
The casting starts with the construction of a pattern, an
approximate duplicate of the final casting. The moulding
material is then packed around the pattern, and the pattern is
removed to produce a mould cavity. The flask is the box that
contains the moulding aggregate. In a two-part mould, the
cope is the top half of the pattern, flask, mould or core. The
drag is the bottom half of any of these features. A core is a
sand shape that is inserted into the mould to produce internal
features on a casting, such as holes or passages for watercooling. A core print is the region added to the pattern, core, or
mould that is used to locate and support the core within the
mould. The mould material and the core then combine to form
the mould cavity, the void into which the molten metal will be
poured and solidified to produce the desired casting. A riser is
an extra void created in the mould that will be filled with
molten metal. It provides a reservoir of molten metal that can
flow into the mould cavity to compensate for any material
shrinkage that occurs during solidification. Any shrinkage voids
should then be in the riser and not in the final casting.

FIGURE 23.1
Cross-section of a typical two-part sand mould,
indicating various mould components and
terminology

Gating, Riser, Core

The cavity in the sand is formed by using a pattern (an
approximate duplicate of the real part), which are typically made
out of wood, sometimes metal. The cavity is contained in an
aggregate housed in a box called the flask. Core is a sand shape
inserted into the mold to produce the internal features of the
part such as holes or internal passages. Cores are placed in the
cavity to form holes of the desired shapes. Core print is the
region added to the pattern, core, or mold that is used to locate
and support the core within the mold. A riser is an extra void
created in the mold to contain excessive molten material. The
purpose of this is feed the molten metal to the mold cavity as
the molten metal solidifies and shrinks, and thereby prevents
voids in the main casting.

Typical Components of a Two-part Sand-Casting Mold.

In a two-part mold, which is typical of sand castings, the upper
half, including the top half of the pattern, flask, and core is
called cope and the lower half is called drag. The parting line or
the parting surface is line or surface that separates the cope and
drag. The drag is first filled partially with sand, and the core
print, the cores, and the gating system are placed near the
parting line. The cope is then assembled to the drag, and the

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The gating system is the network of channels used to deliver

the molten metal from outside the mould into the mould
cavity. The pouring cup is the portion of the gating system that
intially receives the molten metal from the pouring vessel and
controls its delivery to the rest of the mould. From the pouring
cup, the metal travels down the spruce (the vertical portion of
the gating system), then along horizontal channels (called
runners), and finally through controlled entrances, or gates,
into the mould cavity.

Sprues and Runners

The parting line or parting surface is the interface that separates

the cope and drag halves of the mould, flask, or pattern, and
the halves of a core during some core-making processes. The
draft is the taper on a pattern or casting that permits it to be
withdrawn from the mould. The mould or die used to produce
casting cores is known as a core box. Finally, the term casting is
used to describe both the process and the product when molten
metal is poured and solidified in a mould.
Design Considerations

The gating system, which brings the molten metal to the

mold cavity, is illustrated in its simplest form. The design
of this system is critical in the introduction of clean metal
to the mold cavity .

The molten material is poured in the pouring cup, which is part

of the gating system that supplies the molten material to the
mold cavity. The vertical part of the gating system connected to
the pouring cup is the sprue, and the horizontal portion is
called the runners and finally to the multiple points where it is
introduced to the mold cavity called the gates. Additionally there
are extensions to the gating system called vents that provide the
path for the built up gases and the displaced air to vent to the
atmosphere.
The cavity is usually made oversize to allow for the metal
contraction as it cools down to room temperature. This is
achieved by making the pattern oversize. To account for
shrinking, the pattern must be made oversize by these factors,
on the average. These are linear factors and apply in each
direction. These shrinkage allowance are only approximate,
because the exact allowance is determined the shape and size of
the casting. In addition, different parts of the casting might
require a different shrinkage allowance. See the casting allowance
table for the approximate shrinkage allowance expressed as the
Pattern Oversize Factor.
Sand castings generally have a rough surface sometimes with
surface impurities, and surface variations. A machining (finish)
allowance is made for this type of defect.

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Here the datums are being checked on the prototype casting.

With the use of the CAD systems the accuracy of the final
casting can be to a fine tolerance.
If economy and best results are to be obtained, it is very
important that the designer of castings give careful attention to
several requirements of the process and, if possible, cooperate
closely with foundry. Frequently, minor and readily permissible
changes in design will greatly facilitate and simplify the casting
of a component and will reduce the percentage of defects.
One of the first features that must be considered by a designer
is the location of the parting plane, an important part of all
processes that use segmented or separable moulds. The location
of the parting plane can affect each of the following: 1. The number of cores,
2. The use of effective and economical gating,
3. The weight of the final casting,
4. The method of supporting the cores,
5. The final dimensional accuracy, and
6. The ease of moulding.
In general, it is desirable to minimize the use of cores. Often, a
change in the location of the parting plan can assist in this
objective, as illustrated in Figure 23.2. Note that the change also

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MANUFACTURING PROCESS

sand is poured on the cope half, covering the pattern, core and
the gating system. The sand is compacted by vibration and
mechanical means. Next, the cope is removed from the drag,
and the pattern is carefully removed. The object is to remove the
pattern without breaking the mold cavity. This is facilitated by
designing a draft, a slight angular offset from the vertical to the
vertical surfaces of the pattern. This is usually a minimum of 1
or 1.5 mm (0.060 in), whichever is greater. The rougher the
surface of the pattern, the more the draft to be provided.

MANUFACTURING PROCESS

reduces the weight of the casting by eliminating the need for

draft. Figure 23.3 shows another example of how a simple
design change eliminated the need for a core.
The location of the parting plane can also be dictated by certain
design features. Figure 23.4 shows how the specification of
round edges on a part can restrict the location of the parting
plane. The specification of draft can also fix the parting plane, as
indicated in Figure 23.5. This figure also shows that considerable freedom can be provided by simply noting the need to
provide for a draft or simply letting it be an option of the
foundry. Since mould closure may not always be consistent,
consideration should also be given to the fact that dimensions
across the parting plane are subject to more variation than those
that lie within a given segment of the mould.

FIGURE 23.2 Elimination of a core by changing the

location of the parting plane
Controlling the solidification process is of prime importance in
obtaining quality castings, and this control is also related to
design. Those portions of a casting that have a high ratio of
surface area to volume will experience more rapid cooling and
will be stronger and harder than the other regions. Heavier
sections will cool more slowly and, unless special precautions are
observed, may contain shrinkage cavities and porosity or may
have large grain-size structures.
Ideally, a casting should have uniform thickness in all directions.
In most cases, however, this is not possible. When the section
thickness must change, it is best if these changes are gradual, as
indicated in the various sections of Figure 23.6

FIGURE 23.3 Elimination of a dry-sand core by a change

in part design

FIGURE 23.4 Effect of rounded edges on the location of

the parting plane

FIGURE 23.5 (top left) Location of the parting plane

specified by draft (top right) Part with draft unspecified
(bottom) Various options in producing that part

FIGURE 23.6 Guidelines for section changes in castings

When sections of castings intersect, two problems can arise.
The first is the possibility of stress concentrators. This problem
can be minimized by providing generous fillets (inside radii) at
all interior corners. Excessive fillets, however, can cause the
second problem, known as hot spots. Figure 23.6 shows that
localized thick sections tend to exist where sections of castings
intersect. These thick sections cool more slowly than the others
and tend to be sites of localized, abnormal shrinkage. When the
differences in section are large, as illustrated in Figure 23.7, the
hot-spot areas are likely to result in serious defects in the form
of porosity or shrinkage cavities.
Defects such as voids, porosity, and cracks can be sites of
subsequent failure and should be prevented if at all possible.
Sometimes cored holes, as illustrated in Figure 23.8, can be used
to prevent hot spots. Where heavy sections must exist, an
adjacent riser can often be used to feed the section during
shrinkage, as in Figure 23.9. If the riser is properly designed, the
shrinkage cavity will lie totally within the riser and can be
removed when the riser is cut off.
Intersecting ribs can cause shrinkage problems and should be
given special consideration by the designer. Where sections
intersect to form continuous ribs, contraction occurs in
opposite directions as the various ribs contract. As a consequence, cracking frequently occurs during cooling. By staggering

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Large unsupported areas should be avoided in all types of

casting, since such sections tend to warp during cooling. The
warpage then disrupts the good, smooth surface appearance
that is so often desired. Another appearance consideration is the
location of the parting line. Some small amount of fin, or
flash, is often present at this location. When the flash is
removed, or if it is considered small enough to leave in place, a
region of surface imperfection will be present. If this is in the
middle of a flat surface, it will be clearly visible. However, if the
parting line is placed to coincide with a corner, the defectline
will go largely unnoticed.

FIGURE 23.6: Hot spot at section r2 caused by intersecting sections

MANUFACTURING PROCESS

the ribs, as shown in Figure 23.10, there is opportunity for

slight distortion to occur, thereby ensuring that high stresses are
not built up.

FIGURE 23.9 Use of a riser to keep the shrinkage cavity

out of a casting

FIGURE 23.10 Method of using staggered ribs to prevent

cracking during cooling
Notes:

FIGURE 23.7 Hot spot resulting from intersecting sections

of various thickness

FIGURE 23.8: Method of eliminating unsound metal at the

centre of heavy sections in castings by using cored holes

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