Chapter 1- Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

1.1

Protons and neutrons collectively known as nucleons.

Uranium 238 is heaviest atom found in earts crust.
Atomic Number (Z)- the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
Mass Number (A)-the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
The atomic number defines the element.
Isotopes are atoms that have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons. Isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties.
When referring to nuclides, electrons are excluded.
In neutron absorption, a sample of a stable isotope is placed inside a nuclear reactor
and bombarded with neutrons. When one of the bombarding, or irradiating, neutrons
collides with a nucleus of the stable isotope, the neutron is absorbed into the nucleus.
This creates an unstable isotope of the sample element.
The heaviest stable isotope in the universe is 209 83 Bi.

1.2

Alpha particle is a positive chunk of matter. It consists of 2 protons and 2 electrons. Is

identical to a helium nucleus. It can be written as.
When an atom changes into a different element, it experiences nuclear transmutation.
In decay equations, the electric charge is conserved as well as the number of nucleons.
In any nuclear reaction, including radioactive decay, atomic and mass numbers are
conserved. Energy is released during these decays.
Beta particles are electrons originating from the nucleus of a radioactive atom. It has a
single negative charge. Has a mass number of zero.
Beta decay occurs in nuclei in which there is an imbalance of neutrons to protons. If a
light nucleus has too many neutrons to be stable, a neutron will spontaneously change
into a proton, and an electron and an uncharged massless particles called an
antineutrino.
Different beta decay occurs when atoms have more protons. A proton may
spontaneously change into a neutron and emit a neutrino and a positively charged beta
particle. This particle is call a positron. Positron are an example of anti matter.
After emitting an alpha or beta particle, the daughter nucleus holds an excess of
energy. The protons and neutrons in the daughter nucleus rearrange slightly and
remove this extra energy by releasing gamma radiation (High-frequency
electromagnetic radiation).
Gamma rays have no mass and are uncharged.
Common gamma ray emitter is iodine 131.
The excited state of a nucleus is called a metastable state and usually lasts for a short
time.
Two different forces inside the nucleus. An electric force of repulsion between protons.
The nuclear force, a strong force of attraction between nucleons, which acts over only a
very short range.
Common detector of radiation is Geiger counter.
Technetium 99 is the most widely used radioisotope in nuclear medicine.

1.3

All radiation orginates from the nucleus of the radioisotope.

Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons. It is relatively heavy and slow
moving because containing four nucleons. The emission speed of alpha particles go up
to 20000km/h, less than 10 percent of the speed of light. These particles have a double

positive charge. It is very easy to stop them. They travel a few centimetres in the air
before losing energy. They have a poor penetrating ability.

1.4

Beta particles are fast moving electrons created when a neutron decays into three
parts-a proton, an electron (beta particle) and an antineutrino. Beta particles are much
lighter than alpha particles and emission speeds are up to 90% of light speed. Beta
particles are more penetrating than alpha particles. They will travel few metres through
air or a sheet of aluminium will stop them.
Gamma rays are high-frequency electromagnetic radiation. They have no rest mass
and travel at the speed of light. They have no electric charge. They are a very
penetrating form of radiation. They can virtually travel an unlimited distance.
Alpha particles have high ionising ability because of slow speed and double charge and
poor penetrating ability.
Beta particles do not ionise as readily because of collisions from other others due to its
negativity but have a higher penetrating ability than an alpha particle.
Gamma rays are the most highly penetrating form of radiation because of no charge
and moving at light speed. They have a very poor ionising ability but very high
penetrating ability.
Energy of things are measured in joules.
The energy of radioactive emission is usually expressed in electronvolts(eV). An
electronvolt is the energy that an electron would gain if it were accelerated by a
voltage of 1 volt.
1eV=1.6x10^-19 J
Alpha particles typically have enrgies of 5-10 million eV. It corresponds to 5-10% of
light speed.
Beta particles are ejected with few million eVs.

Chapter 2- Concepts in Electricity

2.1

Key Words