CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1

DEVELOPMENT OF BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

The area of Biomedical Engineering happens to be very interesting and exciting in view of
the fact that this provides a lively and effective interface between two leading professions
Engineering and Medicine. Numerous instruments were developed as early as the
nineteenth century- for example the electrocardiograph, first used by Einthoven at the end
of that century. Progress was rather slow until after World War II, when a surplus of
electronic equipments, such as amplifiers and recorders, became available. At that time
many technicians and engineers, both within industry and on their own, started to
experiment with and modify existing equipment for medical use. This process occurred
primarily during the 1950s and the results were often disappointing for the experimenters.
However, they got adequate exposures to Physiological systems and learnt about relevant
physiological parameters. They also encountered a severe communication problem from
the medical profession on account of reluctance and ignorance regarding new
interdisciplinary field.
During the next decade many instrument manufacturers entered the field of medical
instrumentation, but development costs were high and the medical professionals and
hospital personnel were suspicious of the new equipment and often uncooperative. Many
developments with excellent potential appeared to have lost cases. It was during this period
that some progressive companies decided that instead of modifying existing hard wares,
they would go for design of instrumentation systems specifically for medical applications.
Although it is true that most of the same components are used, the philosophy changed,
and equipment analysis and design were applied directly to medical problems.
Solid help was provided by the U.S government in general ,and in particular by NASA
(National Aeronautics and space Administration). The Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo
programs needed accurate physiological monitoring for the astronauts, consequently, much
research and development money went into this area. The aerospaces medicine programs
were expanded considerably, both within NASA facilities and through grants to
universities and hospital research units. Some of the concepts and features of patientmonitoring system presently used in hospitals throughout the world evolved from the base

of astronaut monitoring. The use of adjunct field, such as biotelemetry, also finds some
basis in the NASA programs.
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE MAN INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM
The system which includes both the human organism and the instrumentation required for
measurement on the human being is called the Man Instrument system. The complete man
instrument system must also include the human subject on which the measurements are
being made.
The basic engineering approach to analyze any system is to consider it as a black box. In
order to know its characteristics, stimulus is given to it as an input, and the output is
monitored carefully. Then its equivalent model, either physical or mathematical, is found;
which gives a similar output to the same stimulus. The model is refined iteratively, till the
output of the model matches the actual output of the system measured experimentally.
Biomedical Engineers have the tendency to model biological processes in a similar fashion.
However, this biological process can be extremely complex, especially if it happens to be a
living human being. There are many aspects which a biomedical engineer has to take into
account while analyzing such a model. The living human being, as a model, comprises a
large number of sub-systems such as electrical, mechanical, and chemical. Thermal,
hydraulic, acoustic, optical and pneumatic systems. Additionally, these systems have a large
degree of interaction among them and cannot be considered in isolation. A living human
being can also be considered a complicated communication system, interfaced with a
sophisticated computing system, which together act as a control system. To further
complicate thing, the input-output relation in living human being are not deterministic.
This means that the repeated application of the same input to the same system, under
apparently the same conditions, do not produce the same output signal. The measurement
of these parameters in itself poses a number of problems. Many parameters are not readily
accessible. For example, if we want to measure the potential in the inner lobe of a brain,
reaching that point without appreciable damage to the brain is a challenge. Again the
various systems are interacting with each other to a great extent. To know the input-output
relation of one system, the other system has to ideally remain constant. This is not possible
in the living human being. We cannot stop the nervous system from the working while
studying the circulatory system, even if we know that the nervous system greatly affects the
circulatory system. Many a time, the output of a system becomes the input to the same

system in the form of a feedback. The analysis of such system becomes even more
complicated.
All instrumentation engineers are well versed with the loading effects of an instrument. If
we introduce an ammeter in the circuit, ideally its impedance should be zero. But
practically it always has some impedance, how so ever small. The very presence of ammeter
reduces the current in the arm in which the current is to be measured. This is because of the
energy extracted by the ammeter while measuring the current, and is known as the loading
effect. Such loading effect is all the more prominent in human being examined by a doctor
for his blood pressure, and sphygmomanometer cuff is tightened around his arm, the
anxiety that this measurement arouses may itself result in increase of his blood pressure.
Any kind of interference that distorts the measured signal from a living human being is
called an artifact. This artifact may be on account of a signal picked by the system from
outside, like from a 50Hz power line, or from within the system that may arise on account
of movement of the subject or moreover of the electrode. For example, when an electrode is
connected to the chest of the signal may result in relative motion of the electrode with
respect to the chest. This motion result in an artifact5 called baseline wander. Many a times,
anesthesia is applied to the subject to reduce this king of motion, but then this itself may
cause some unwarranted changes in the measurement.
In addition to artifact, the amount of energy applied for measurement is also to be limited.
For example, while measuring resistance, either a fixed amount of current is passed from
the specimen under test and the potential across it is measured, or conversely a fixed
potential is applied across the specimen and the current through it is measured. The
resistance is then calculated as a ratio of the potential across the specimen to the current
through it. However, while measuring the galvanic skin resistance (GSR) of the living
human being, we have to consider the amount of excitation given to the skin tissue.
Unlimited excitation may result in damage to the tissue on account of joules heating effect
(I2 R).
1.3 COMPONENTS OF MAN-INSTRUMENT SYSTEM
A block diagram of the man instrument system is shown in figure 1.1. the basis component
of this system are essentially the same as in any instrumentation system. The only real

difference is in having a living human being as the subject. The system components are
given below.
1 Subject:
The subject is the human being on whom the measurements are made.
2. Stimulus:
In many measurements, the response to some form of external stimulus is required. The
instrumentation used to generate and present this stimulus to the subject is vital part of the
man instrumentation system whenever responses are measured. The stimulus may be
visual( flash of light), auditory ( A tone), tactile ( a below to the Achilles tendon) or direct
electrical stimulation of some part of the nervous system.
3. Transducer:
In general, a transducer is defined as a device capable of converting one form of energy or
signal to another. In the man instrumentation system, each transducer is used to produce
an electric signal that is in an analog of the phenomenon being measured. The transducer
may measure temperature, pressure, flow or any of the other variables that can be found in
the body, but its output is always an electrical signal. As indicating in figure 1.1 two or
more transducers may be used simultaneously to obtain relative variations between
phenomena.

Figure 1.1 Components of Man-Instrument System

4. Signal conditioning equipment:

The part of the instrumentation system that amplifies, modifies or in any other way changes
the electric output of the transducer is called signal conditioning or sometimes signal
processing equipment, the purpose of the signal-conditioning equipment is to process the
signal from the transducer in order to satisfy the function of the system and to prepare
signals suitable for operating the display or recording equipment that follows.
5. Display equipment:
The electrical output of the signal conditioning equipment must be converted into a form
that can be perceived by one of mans senses and that can convey the information obtained
by the measurement in a meaningful way. The input to the display device is the modified
electrical signal from the signal conditioning equipment. Its output is some form of visual,
audible or possibly tactile information. In the man instrumentation system, the display
equipment may include a graphic pen recorder that produces a permanent record of the
data.
6. Recording, Data-processing and transmission equipment:
It is often necessary or at least desirable, to record the measurement information for
possible later use or to transmit it from one location to another, whether across the hall of
the hospital or halfway around the world. Equipment for these functions is often a vital
part of the man instrument system. Also, where automatic storage or processing of data is
required or where computer control is employed, an on-line analog or digital computer
may be part of the instrumentation system.
7.Control Devices:
Where it is necessary or desirable to have automatic control of the stimulus, transducers or
any other part of the man-instrumentation system, a control system is incorporated. This
system usually consists of a feedback loop in which part of the output from the signal
conditioning or display equipment is used to control the operation of the system in some
way.
1.4 PHYSIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS OF THE BODY

The physiology of humane system of the body and source of biomedical system are shown
is figure 1.2. In order to obtain valid measurement from a living being, it is necessary to
have some understanding of the subject on which the measurements are being made.
Inside the human body one can find electrical, mechanical, thermal, hydraulic, pneumatic,
chemical and various other types of systems, each of which communicates with an external
environment, and internally with the other system of the body. These individual systems
are organized to perform many complex functions by means of a multilevel control system
and communication network. The integrated operation of all these systems and their
various subsystems help to sustain life, learn to perform useful task, acquire personality.
The inputs and outputs of communication are illustrated in figure 1.2. These various inputs
and outputs can be measured and analyzed in a variety of ways. Most are readily accessible
for measurement, but some like speech, behavior and appearance are difficult to analyze
and interpret needing special technologies.
The functional systems of the body are the nervous system, the cardiovascular system and
pulmonary system. The major systems communicate with each other as well as with
external environment. Similar to communication between complete person and the
environment.

Figure 1.2: physiology of human body and sources of biomedical signals

The major role of biomedical instrumentation is to make possible the measurement of
information communicated by these various elements bigger or smaller unit of body such
as cellular level or even molecular then then the functions of the mind and body of man
could be clearly understood and could be completely defined by presently known laws of
physics, chemistry and other sciences. The difficulty is that many of the input are not
accessible for measurement. The interrelationships among elements are sometimes very
complex and involves so many systems the laws and relationships thus the mathematical
models in use today contain so many assumption and constraints that their application is
often limited.A brief engineering oriented description of the major physiological systems of
the body are given below:
The Bio Chemical System:
An integrated unit of chemical system that produce energy for the activity of the body,
messenger agents for communication materials for body repair and growth, and substances
required to carry out the various body functions are within the body. All operations of this

highly efficient chemical factory are managed by a single point of intake for fuel (food),
water and air, all the sources materials for numerous chemical reactions are produced with
in the body. The body contains all the monitoring equipment needed to provide the degree
of control necessary for each chemical operation and it also has an efficient waste disposal
system similar to a chemical factory.
The Cardiovascular System:
Cardiovascular system can be considered as complex, closed hydraulic tubing. The arteries
and arterioles tubing change its diameter to control pressure. Reservoirs in the veins
changes their volume and characteristics to satisfy certain control requirements, and a
system of gates and variable hydraulic resistance such as vasoconstrictors and vasodilator,
continually alters the pattern of fluid flow shown in figure 1.3

Figure 1.3 Cardiovascular system

The four chambers pump acts as two synchronized but functionally isolated two stage
pumps shown in figure 1.4. The first stage of each pump i.e. the atrium collects blood from
the system and pumps it into the second stage the ventricle. The action of the second stage
is so timed that the blood is pumped into the system immediately after it has been received

from the first stage. One of the two stage pumps i.e. right side of heart collects blood from
the main hydraulic system i.e. systemic circulation and pumps it through an oxygenation
system i.e. lungs, the other pump i.e. the left side of the heart receives blood from the
oxygenation system and pumps it into the main hydraulic system. The speed of the pump
i.e. heart rate and its efficiency i.e. stroke volume are constantly changed to meet the overall
requirements of the system.

Figure 1.4 Structure of the Heart

The blood which flows in a laminar fashion, acts as a communication and supply network
for all parts of the system. Carriers i.e. red blood cells of fuel supplies and waste materials
are transported to predetermined destination by the fluid. The fluid also contains
mechanism for repairing small system punctures i.e and for rejection foreign elements from
the system i.e. platelets and white blood cells, respectively. Sensors provided to detect
changes in the need for supplies, and built up of waste materials, and out of tolerance
pressures in the system are known as chemoreceptor, P co2 sensors and baro receptors,
respectively. These and other mechanisms control the pumps speed and efficiency, the
blood flow pattern through the system, tubing diameter, and other factors. As part of the
system works against gravity, special one way valves are provided to prevent gravity from
pulling blood against the direction of flow between pump cycles. The variables of prime

importance in this system are the pump i.e. cardiac output and the pressure, flow rate and
volume of the blood at various locations throughout the cardiovascular system.
The Respiratory System:
The respiratory system in the human body (figure 1.5) is a pneumatic system in which an
air pump alternately creates negative and positive pressures in a sealed chamber and
causes air to be sucked into and farced out of pair of elastic bags.

Figure 1.5 the Respiratory System

The lungs are connected to the outside environment through a passage way comprising nasal
cavities, pharynx, larynx, tracheas, bronchi and bronchioles. The passage bifurcates to carry air
into each of the lungs wherein it again sub divides several times to carry air into and out of
each of the many tiny air spaces within the lungs. In the tiny air spaces of the lungs is a
membrane interface with the hydraulic system of the body through which certain gasses can
defuse. Oxygen is taken into the blood from the incoming air and carbon dioxide is transferred
from the blood to the air under the control of the pneumatic pump. Thus, the blood circulation
from the link in the supply of oxygen to the tissues and in the removal of gaseous waste

product of metabolism. The movement of gasses between blood and the alveolar air is basically
due to constant molecular movement or diffusion from point of highest pressure to points of
lower pressure.
An automatic respiratory control centre in the brain maintains heart pump operation at a
speed that is adequate to supply oxygen and take away carbon dioxide as required by the
system. In each minute, under normal conditions, about 250ml of oxygen are taken up and
250 ml of CO2 are given out by the body and these are the amounts of the two gases, which
enter and leave the blood in the lungs. Similar exchanges occur in reverse in the tissues
where oxygen is given up and CO 2 is removed. The extract amount of CO 2 expired depends
upon the metabolism, the acid base balance and the normal 15-20 breathes/min, each one
involves about 500ml of air.
The respiratory system variable which are important for assessing the proper functioning
of the system are respiratory rate, respiratory air flow, respiratory volume and
concentration of CO2 in the expired air. The system also requires measurements to be made
of certain volumes and capacities such as the tidal volume, vital capacity, residual volume,
inspiratory volume and expiratory reserve volume.
The Nervous System
The nervous system is the control and communication network for the body which
coordinates the functions of the various organs. Rapid communication between the various
parts, the effective integrated activity of different organs and tissues and coordinates
contraction of muscles are almost entirely depends upon the nervous system. It is thus, the
most highly developed and complex system in the body. The centre off these activities is the
brain with memory, computational power, decision making capability and a host of input
output channels.
The nervous system consists of a central and a peripheral part, the central nervous system
is (Figure 1. 6) made up of the encephalon and the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous
system comprises all the nerves and groups of neurons outside the brain and the spinal
cord.

Figure 1.6 Central nervous system, human brain and spinal cord
The brain consist of three parts namely the cerebrum, cerebellum and brain stem.
Cerebrum:
The cerebrum consists of two well demarcated hemispheres, right and left and each
hemisphere is sub divided into two lobes: frontal lobe and temporal lobe in the left
hemisphere and patient and occipital in the right hemisphere (figure 1.7). The outer layer of
the brain is called the cerebral cortex. All sensory inputs from various parts of the body
eventually reach the cortex, where certain regions relate specifically to certain modalities of
sensory information. Various areas are responsible for hearing sight, touch and control the
voluntary muscles of the body.

Figure 1.7 cut away section of the human brain

The cerebral cortex is also the centre of intellectual functions. The frontal lobes are essential
for intelligence, constructive imagination and thought. Here, large quantities of information
can be stored temporarily and correlated, thus making a basis for higher mental functions.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum acts as a physiological microcomputer which intercepts various sensory
and motor nerves to smooth out the muscles motions which could be otherwise jerky. It
also consists of two hemispheres which regulates the coordinates of muscular movements
elicited by the cerebrum. The cerebellum also enables a person to maintain his balance.
Brain Stem:
The brain stem connects the spinal cord to the centre of the brain just below the cerebral
cortex. The essential parts of the brain stem are (i) medulla oblongata which is the lowest
section of the brain stem and contains centers for regulates the work performed by the
heart, the vasomotor centers, which control blood distribution and respiratory centre which
controls the ventilation of the lungs. (ii) The Pons located just above the medulla and
protruding somewhat in front of the brain stem. (iii) Midbrain which lies in the upper part

of the brain stem (iv) the diencephalon is located above and slightly forward of the mid
brain. It has one part, the thalamus, which act as a relay station for sensory pathways to the
cortical sensory centre of the cerebrum.
Short Answer Questions
Q1. Explain the Cell Structure?
Ans. The basic living unit of the body is a cell. Each organ in our body is an aggregate of many
different cells held together by intercellular supporting structures. Each type of cell is meant
for performing one particular function. Each cell consists of a centrally located nucleus, also
called cell core, surrounded by cytoplasm. The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm is
separated from the surrounding fluids by a cell membrane. The different substances that make
up the cell one collectively called protoplasm which is mainly composed of water, electrolytes,
proteins, carbohydrates and lipids.
Q2. Name the factors that are considered in the design of biomedical instrument system.
1.Range
2.Sensitivity
3.Linearity
4.Frequency Response
5.Accuracy
6.Stability
7.Isolation
8.Simplicity
9.Signal to noise ratio.

Q3. Name the physiological systems of the body.

1. Bio chemical System
2. Cardio vascular System
3. Regulated System
4. Nervous System
Q4. What are the various parts of generalized instrumentation system?
1. Measurand
2.Primary sensing element

3.Variable conversion element

4.Signal processing unit
5.Output display
6.Control & feedback element

Q5. Give the classifications of biomedical instruments.

i) According to the quantity that is sensed, pressure, flow or temperature sensing
devices.
ii) According to the principle of transduction used, resistive, inductive, capacitive,
ultrasonic or electrochemical devices.
iii) According to the measurement techniques, cardio vascular, pulmonary, nervous
& endocrine systems.
iv) According to the clinical medical specialties, pediatrics, obstetrics, cardiology
or radiology.

Q6. What is meant by measurement?

Ans. Measurement is an act or the result of comparison between the quantity and a predefined
standard.