P 216 cc 1-5

1. Cell division in unicellular organisms is used to reproduce new

organisms while multicellular organisms use it to grow and create
organs, tissues, etc. to live.
2. The major event in M phase is the splitting of a cell into 2, S phase is
the replication of identical chromosomes, and G0 phase is the start of
the cycle that receives signals to pass the restriction point.
3. What determines if a cell stays in interphase or divides is whether a
signal stimulates it to go pass the restriction point.
4. Some factors that might influence the cell cycle are whether the
body needs new cells of a certain type for growth or replacement.
5. DNA replication is important in cell division because every cell must
have the exact same DNA in every single cell or there will be mutations
that can be fatal.
P 222 CC 1-5
1. DNA polymerase is used to add the nucleotides to the DNA strand,
proofreads the stand for mistakes, and unwinding the DNA helix.
2. DNA synthesis can proceed in both directions because the strands
are anti parallel and so the primer which can only be put in one
direction are going opposite of each other.
3. The number of replication errors is kept to a minimum by having the
DNA polymerase proofread the completed strand.
4. The cell repairs damaged DNA by excision repair where the problem
is found, an enzyme binds and breaks off the problem and then the
DNA polymerase adds the correct sequence.
5. Histones are proteins that cover certain parts of DNA and for genes
to be expressed they need to be uncovered so depending on where
histones are, is where theyre suppressed.
P 225 CC 1-4
1. Mitosis is just the process by which a nucleus divides to create two
nuclei while mitotic cell division includes both mitosis and cytokinesis
which is the splitting of a cell.

2.Chromosomes are are made up of two chromatids while sister

chromatids are split during m phase.
3. chromosomes move during mitosis by being split into two
chromatids by enzymes then motor proteins pull them to opposite ends
4. Prophase is where the nuclear membrane breaks down to smaller
vesicles, chromosomes condense, and spindle fibers form. Metaphase
is where chromosome are pulled to the middle forming a metaphase
plate. Anaphase is where the chromosome split and are pulled to the
opposite spindle poles. Telophase is where the nuclear envelope
reforms creating two nuclei.
P229 CC 1-4
1. Kinases cannot be activated without cyclin build up and so the
processes of the cell cycle wouldn't happen.
2. The checkpoint proteins protect from the build up of too many or
defective cells by putting damaged cells into cell-cycle arrest which
stops the cycle.
3. A cancerous tumor is just one spot on the body with too many cells
while metastasis is the spread of cancerous cells to other parts of the
body.
4. Tumor-suppresser genes are used to inhibit cell division but in
cancer cells they do not function and proto-oncogenes which allow for
cell division to occur at a normal pace are damaged in cancerous cells
which cause for cells to divide actively without stopping.
P230 RI 1-10
1. Signals from proto-oncogenes send signals to pass the restriction
point and proceed from the G0 phase.
2. S Phase replicates the chromosomes and M phase creates two nuclei
from one.
3. The cell repairs damaged DNA by excision repair where the problem
is found, an enzyme binds and breaks off the problem and then the
DNA polymerase adds the correct sequence.
4. Spindle fibers hold the chromosomes in horizontal position and help
separate them to opposite sides of the cell.

5. The enzyme is essential to the replication of DNA because it makes

the copy of the DNA strands by creating new bonds between
nucleotides.
6. DNA replication differs in prokaryotes and eukaryotes because
prokaryotes chromosomes have a single origin of replication while
eukaryotes chromosomes have multiple points of origin
7. The pathways of proto-oncogenes, which promote cell division and
tumor suppressors, which inhibit cell division, are disrupted by cancer.
8. Replication origins are where DNA Polymerase split a DNA strand
and where it starts making copies of the chromatids to create brand
new DNA strands.
9. When errors occur in DNA it undergoes cell-cycle arrest to stop it
from going through cell division so that the problem can be fixed.
10. Centromeres are used in mitosis to attach two sister chromatids to
create chromatids.
P240 cc 1-5
1. mRna molecules are transcribed from the DNA strands to be sent to
the ribosome to where they are transcribed which controls what amino
acids are put together to create proteins.
2. Transcription is where the DNA is unwound by RNA polymerase and
is copied to create a mRNA strand while translation is where the mRNA
is read in the ribosome to line up the right codons and anticodons.
3. Genetic code is the order of nitrogen bases acting as letters in DNA.
4. UUU=UUC, UUA=UUG, UCU=UCC=UCA=UCG, UAU=UAC, UGU=UGC
5. The least important of the 3 bases in the codon is the 3rd because
even if the 3rd base is different some of the codons create the same
protein.
P247 CC1-6
1. Transcription is the unwinding of DNA and its copying to create
mRNA which takes place in the nucleus in eukaryotes and in the
cytoplasm in prokaryotes.

2. RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA strand and joins together RNA
nucleotides to create RNA
3. Introns are segments of mRNA that don't code for proteins while
exons is the remaining mRNA that codes for proteins. Introns must be
removed while exons stay.
4. mRNA is carries the information from the DNA to tell the ribosomes
which amino acids to put together, tRNA brings amino acids and lines
up with the correct codons of mRNA, and rRNA is combined with
proteins to create ribosomes.
5. Primary RNA transcript is the original copy created by RNA
polymerose which still has the introns in it which is spliced out to
create mature RNA which is used in protein synthesis.
6. Molecules that catalyze RNA splicing are protein enzymes that
recognize where introns are.
P 254 CC1-5
1. First the mRNA enters the ribosome and tRNA lines up and attaches
to the correct codon called tRNA charging. The amino acids connect to
each other using peptide bonds until the stop sequence it reached.
2. The accurate initiation of protein synthesis is important because if
started in the wrong place a frame shift could occur where the codons
are shifted over which would code for the wrong amino acids which
would create the wrong protein.
3. The signal sequence is part of the protein sequence which tell the
ribosome where the protein should be sent after its done which is
important because the protein will be completed at that spot if needed.
4. Codons on the mRNA line up with the anticodons on the tRNA which
tell which amino acids to add together to create the protein.
5. Charged tRNA is tRNA that has an amino acid connected which
means it can connect to the right codon which creates a chain of amino
acids to create the protein.
P 257 CC1-5
1. Bacteria are prokaryotes that are considered completely and
reproduce by splitting while viruses are not prokaryotes and are not
considered alive and must rely on their host cell to reproduce for them.

2. The two types of molecules used by viruses to store genetic

information are DNA and RNA depending on what type of virus they
are.
3. A retrovirus is a virus that's genetic code is in RNA not DNA and use
reverse transcription to replicate.
4. Viral diseases are harder to treat than bacterial diseases because
they evolve and replicate quickly, remain hidden in cells, and
antibiotics have no effect on them because they don't have a
metabolism.
5. Benefits of viruses for scientific research are that their DNA can be
spliced to create normal genes that can be used in gene therapy and
for cloning.
P 258 RI 1-11
1. mRNA is carries the information from the DNA to tell the ribosomes
which amino acids to put together, tRNA brings amino acids and lines
up with the correct codons of mRNA, and rRNA is combined with
proteins to create ribosomes.
2. RNA acts as an enzyme when the starting sequence of mRNA acts as
a catalyst to start translation.
3. Not all genes are expressed at the same time because some are
suppressed which creates specialized cells.
4. First primary RNA is synthesized by RNA polymerase, which unwinds
the DNA strand and is coded to create Primary RNA. This is spliced in
the nucleus to create different types of RNA.
5. Each codon has 3 nucleotides instead of 2 or 1 because with 2 or 1
there is not enough combinations of bases to account for the 22 amino
acids while 3 nucleotides creates 64 combinations.
6. The major steps of protein synthesis in the ribosome are that the
mRNA goes in and the codons are read and the tRNA comes through
and the anti-codon lines up with correct codon and the amino acids
build on.
7. The possible roles of the cap and poly-A-tail of mRNA is to protect
the breakdown of the RNA by enzymes and lysosomes that would
break it down if the cap and tail didn't identify it as RNA

8. The mechanism by which proteins are destined to be used in other

places is decided by the signal sequence which directs where the
proteins go to be packaged or transported.
9. The primary structure of proteins are important in cell function
because it helps stabilize the protein as its folded which decides what
exactly the protein does.
10. Transcription is where the DNA is unwound by RNA polymerase and
is copied to create a mRNA strand while translation is where the mRNA
is read in the ribosome to line up the right codons and anticodons.
11. tRNA charging is where amino acids are added to the tRNA which is
carried out by 20 different enzymes and a molecule of ATP as energy. It
dictates gene expression because tRNA connects with the mRNA and
creates the protein.