The Basics of Power Cable: Technical Papers | Southwire

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Wire & Cable Technical Library: Technical Papers

The Basics of Power Cable
W.F. (BUDDY) POWERS, JR., P.E.
Senior Development Engineer
Wire & Cable Technology
SOUTHWIRE COMPANY
Carrollton, Georgia
ABSTRACT
Engineers should keep abreast of the latest changes in the equipment they use. While
many components are exciting and fun to learn about, the more mundane components,
like wire and cable, can be very important. Engineers weather new or experienced need
good technical information on the component of the system to make a good installation.
It is the purpose of this paper to give basic information about wire and cable
supplemented by up to date wire and cable issues.
INTRODUCTION
Insulated power cables can seem to be complicated. In fact, many cables are
electrically sophisticated. To simplify we must understand the cable's components and
basics of conductor cables. These fundamentals apply to multiple conductor cables.
There are two basic components in a low voltage cable, the conductor and the electrical
insulation (dielectric). There are different types of conductors and insulations.
Sometimes jackets or armoring are added.
As voltage increases other components are added to handle higher electrical stresses.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss each component, to help an engineer specify the
type components required for specific applications.
CONDUCTORS
Conductor selection depends on ampacity, voltage, physical properties, flexibility,
shape, and economics. The most commonly used metals are copper and aluminum.
Conductors may be solid or stranded. A conductor's size is specified by cross sectional
area. US practice is to specify area using American wire gage (AWG) up to 4/0 and by
thousand circular mils (kcmil), for larger. Standard International practice is to specify
area in square millimeters (mm^2). For stranded conductors, the area is the sum of the
area of each strand.
A circular mil is the area of a circle having a diameter of one mil (one mil is equal to
0.001 inches). To determine the cmil area of a solid conductor, square the diameter in
mils.
Stranded conductors are more flexible but have a larger diameter than a solid of the
same area. Diameters of stranded conductors vary depending upon the exact type of
construction. These constructions include concentric round, compressed, compact and
compact sector. The number of strands is usually based on a geometric progression of
single strand layers (1, 6, 12, 18, etc.).
Class B and C Stranded Conductors

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Class B and Class C conductors are constructed according to ASTM 2.03, Standards
B8, B609, and B231. Class B stranding is for normal use. Class C uses more strands.
It is used when more flexibility is required. Class B or C can be compressed up to 3% of
its uncompressed diameter. Each layer of strands of a Class B or Class C conductor is
applied in a spiral. Each layer of a conductor is an opposite hand spiral to the layer
beneath it.
19 Wire Combination Unilay Stranded Conductors
19 wire combination unilay strand has a diameter equal to the compressed strand of the
same size. It is made according to ASTM Volume 2.03, Standards B786 and B787. The
strands of a unilay strand are in the same direction.
Copper
Drawing is the process of pulling a wire through a series of smaller and smaller dies.
Drawing large copper rod into a finished wire results in the work hardening. Work
hardening causes a soft temper rod to become a higher temper wire. Soft temper
copper conductors are desirable because of flexibility.
Annealing the wire after drawing or stranding makes the conductor softer. Annealing is
done in an oven or by in-line annealers on the drawing machines.
Copper can be provided in three tempers based on ASTM. These tempers are soft (or
annealed), medium-hard-drawn, and hard-drawn. Soft copper is used for insulated
conductors. Medium hard-drawn and hard-drawn copper is used in overhead due to
higher breaking strengths.
Coating copper strands can protect against corrosion. A commonly used coating is lead
alloy coating (LAC) specified by ASTM Standard B189. Another coating is tin specified
by ASTM Standard B33. Tinning is usually done for conductors being drawn down to a
very fine gage as those found in the electronics industry. LAC is usually done to protect
against environmental corrosion.
Aluminum
Drawing aluminum rod into a wire also results in the work hardening. Annealing may be
used to reduce the hardening. There are several alloys of aluminum commonly used for
electrical conductors. 1350 (formerly EC grade) and 8000 series aluminum alloys meet
ASTM Standards B233 and B800 respectively. 8000 series alloys are used because
they are harder and make better connections. 1350 is used by utilities for overhead and
underground cables. 8000 series alloy is used for 600 volt UL cables. The 1990 NEC
mandates the use of 8000 series aluminum alloys. Aluminum can be provided in five
tempers based on ASTM.
Water Blocked
Water blocked conductors prevent moisture migration along the conductor strands. A
water blocking compound occupies the spaces between the strands of the conductor.
This blocking compound reduces the possibility of premature failure from water.
Conductivity
Conductivity is typically specified in percent. This percent is based on an International
Annealed Copper Standard (IACS). This standard was established in 1913 by the
International Electrotechnical Commission. It specifies the conductivity of copper as
100%. The conductivity of aluminum is about 61%. It is common to use 61%
conductivity for aluminum in power cable.

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ELECTRICAL INSULATION OR DIELECTRIC

There are many insulations used in electric power cables. Insulations are classified as
thermoplastic or thermoset. Thermoplastic materials lose their form upon heating.
Thermoset materials maintain their form in spite of heat. These insulations range from
common thermoplastic polyvinyl chloride to advanced thermoset tree-retardant
crosslinked polyethylene and synthetic rubber compounds.
Polyethylene
Polyethylene (PE) is a long chain hydrocarbon. It is a thermoplastic produced by the
polymerization of ethylene gas under pressure. PE is popular being inexpensive, easily
processed and resistive to chemicals and moisture, and with good electrical properties
and flexible in low temperature. PE is produced in low, linear low, medium, and high
densities. As the density increases, so does the hardness, yield strength, stiffness, heat
and chemical resistance.
When PE cables are required to be resistant to sunlight, carbon black or other suitable
ultra-violet (UV) inhibitors are added. UV radiation can degrade the physical and
electrical properties of PE without UV inhibitors.
When PE cables are required to be flame retardant materials are added to make it
flame retardant.
PE's electrical properties are excellent. PE is susceptible to degradation by corona
discharges at high voltages. PE is susceptible to treeing when subjected to high
electrical stress. Corona discharges and treeing may lead to premature cable failure. In
the past PE was used in high voltage cable, but it is not used in cables over 5 kV today.
Crosslinked Polyethylene
Crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) is a thermoset. It is produced by compounding PE
(polyethylene) with a crosslinking agent, like organic peroxide. The molecules of
polyethylene are "crosslinked", forming an interconnected network. The terms "cured"
and "vulcanized" are also used for "crosslinked".
Peroxide can be used to crosslink only low density polyethylene. Recent silane
crosslinking technology works on all densities. Crosslinked polyethylene can operate at
higher temperatures and higher voltages than thermoplastic polyethylene.
Crosslinking improves polyethylene's physical and electrical properties. Additives
reduce the electrical properties of the polyethylene. Medium voltage (5 to 46 kV) uses
unfilled crosslinked polyethylene, with impulse strengths of 2700 V/mil.
Fillers, like carbon black, increase the tensile strength and hardness for low voltage
applications. Carbon black also provides ultra-violet protection.
XLPE cables may be operated at a conductor temperature of 90C and at 130C during
emergency conditions. XLPE has good low temperature properties, increased
resistance to corona compared with thermoplastic polyethylene, and good impact,
abrasion, and environmental stress crack resistance.
Recent Developments
Recent technology has resulted in Tree Retardant XLPE insulation compounds. TRXLPE is used for medium voltage applications.
For low voltage applications, the compounding of halogen or non-halogen flame
retardants into the insulation achieves the required level of flame retardancy. Nonhalogen flame retardants do not generate toxic acid gases on combustion. These
retardants are areas of recent developments for low voltage cables and jackets.

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Ethylene Propylene Rubber

Ethylene Propylene Rubber (EPR) is a thermoset made from ethylene and propylene.
EPR is used for cables from 5 kV to 35 kV and low voltage cables.
Peroxide is used to crosslink most EPR compounds. However, work has been done on
the use of silane crosslinking systems. Sulfur crosslinked used to be used, but is being
replaced by peroxide. EPR is filled 50% or more. Common fillers are treated clay and
silicate.
EPR may be used up to 90C continuously or 130C during emergency conditions. EPR
has good elastic properties, ozone resistance, environmental, and low temperature
resistance. EPR is good for medium voltage applications.
Polyvinyl Chloride
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC or vinyl) is thermoplastic. PVC is the standard insulation for
cables rated at 1000 volts or less. PVC is a mixture of PVC resin, plasticizer, fillers,
stabilizers, and modifiers. The quantity and type of each determines the properties. A
broad range of electrical, physical and chemical properties is possible.
PVC has good electrical properties. It is tough and resistant to flame, moisture, and
abrasion. Resistance to ozone, acids, alkalies, alcohols, and most solvents is adequate.
PVC can be made resistant to oils and gasoline. PVC can have temperature ratings
from 60C to 105C.
PVC has the disadvantage of having a high dielectric constant and dissipation factor.
Also plasticizer loss can cause hardening and cracking. PVC compounds stiffen as
temperatures decline, and are not recommended for flexing below -10C, although
special formulations will allow flexing to -40C.
Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene
Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CSPE) is a thermoset, commonly called by DuPont's
trade name "Hypalon." CSPE is polyethylene plus chloride and sulfonyl groups. This
changes stiff PE into a rubbery polymer. It is crosslinked with organic peroxides and
sulfur.
CSPE is a mixture of polymer, fillers, modifiers and crosslinking agents. The quantity
and type affecting the final properties. CSPE contains a Halogen (Chlorine) and is flame
retardant. CSPE can be rated 90C and has excellent tensile strength and abrasion
resistance. It has good weather, oil, chemical, and fluid resistance.
SHIELDING
Dielectric Fields
In all electrical cables there is a dielectric field when the conductor is energized. The
density of the field is dependent upon voltage on the conductor and the thickness of the
insulation. The denser the field the more the insulation is "worked".
In a low voltage cable the insulation is not "worked" enough for further design
considerations. As voltage increases the insulation is "worked" more. The field becomes
crowded. It becomes important that a cable have conducting (and semi-conducting)
components to smooth and evenly space the equipotential lines. The main difference
between nonshielded and shielded cables is having conducting components in the
insulation system.
Shielding uses conducting and semi-conducting stress control layers to make the
dielectric field within the insulation symmetrical. For 2 kV, shielding is required only over
the conductor. At 5 kV, shielding is required over the insulation too. If the insulation

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shield is at ground, all of the voltage is confined to the insulation.

Conductor Shield
The conductor shield is a layer of semi-conducting material. Semi-conducting materials
do not conduct electricity well enough to be a conductor but will not hold back voltage.
It "smooths" out the surface irregularities of the conductor. The conductor shield makes
the voltage on the inside of the insulation the same. Industry specifications define the
performance of conductor shield.
The conductor shield should come loose from the conductor without "pickoffs", while
bonding to the insulation. Good insulation shields are extruded in tandem with the
insulation.
Insulation Shield
The insulation shield consists of two components. These components are the extruded
(auxiliary) shield and the metallic (primary) shield.
The extruded shield consist of a semi-conducting layer similar to the conductor shield. It
makes the voltage on the outside of the insulation the same.
The primary shield can consist of metal tape, drain wires or concentric neutral (CN)
wires. Grounding the primary shield makes the voltage on the outside of the insulation
ground. The copper of the shield is usually bare, but may be coated with lead or tin.
Some primary shields consists of drain wires and tape. Aluminum and lead can also be
used as the shield.
Concentric neutral wires serve a two fold purpose. They function as the metallic
component of the insulation shield and as a conductor for the neutral return current.
Their cross sectional area must be sized in order to function as the neutral conductor.
ICEA and AEIC provide the required characteristics of the insulation shield.
JACKETING, SHEATHING, AND ARMORING
The terms jacketing, sheathing and armoring can be confusing and sometimes
redundant.
Jacketing is usually a plastic cover. PVC is a common jacket material. Jackets provide
mechanical, thermal, chemical and environmental protection. They normally perform no
electrical function. They ease installation and routing concerns by enclosing multiple
conductors.
Sheathing includes tubes, tapes, or wires for armor and a built-in grounded conduit. The
term "sheathing" is typically a tubular metallic covering. Lead or aluminum are common
sheathings.
Armoring is used to protect the cable from penetration by sharp objects, crushing
forces, and damage from gnawing animals or boring insects. High tensions may
damage armor. Armoring can be an interlocked tape of a continuous tube.
Sometimes it is hard to distinguish between jackets, sheaths, armoring and shield. For
example: An overall seamless metal covering is usually called a sheath. It can act as
armor and electric shield. It can also be a jacket
A plastic covering, usually called a jacket, can act as armor providing mechanical
protection.

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Nonmetallic Jackets
Nonmetallic jackets include PE, PVC, Nylon, CSPE (Hypalon) and armoring. PE, PVC,
and Nylon are thermoplastic materials. CSPE is a thermoset material. Armoring can be
either. These materials conform to one or more of the standards issued by AEIC,
ASTM, CSA, ICEA, IEEE, NEMA, and UL as dictated by specific requirements and
applications.
Metallic Sheaths
Lead is one of the oldest sheathing materials used on power cables. Lead is fed into a
cylinder. A hydraulic piston forces it around the cable. Lead is a very effective moisture
barrier. This contributes to the long-term reliability of cable.
A disadvantage of lead is weight. Lead is prone to deform under continuous load due to
"creep". Lead sheaths are also susceptible to fatigue failure from vibration and thermal
cycling.
Aluminum is also used as sheathing. It is lighter than lead and has good mechanical
properties. Aluminum sheaths may be extruded similar to lead. Aluminum sheaths can
also be applied by a thick metal tape around the core and welded. After forming, an
aluminum sheath can be corrugated.
Water Impervious Constructions
Water impervious constructions use a special sheath. This sheath is in the form of a
metal/plastic laminate tape. This tape can be applied with two different approaches, on
core and under jacket. On core use a thin lead tape laminated with a semi-conducting
plastic. The tape is bonded to the insulation shield. In the under jacket approach, the
lead is laminated to an insulating plastic. The tape goes over the neutral wires and
bonds to the jacket. A water absorbing agent is used in the area between the insulation
shield and the jacket to prevent water migration.
Failures induced by treeing in the insulation are reduced with a water impervious layer.
Using a lead laminate tape accomplishes this without the added bulk, weight and cost of
a thick lead or welded aluminum sheath. The cable can be handled and terminated in
much the same manner as standard cables.
Armoring
Typical requirements for interlocked, flat tape, and round wire armoring appear in
specifications such as ICEA S-68-516.
Interlocked armor is a flat metal tape, bent into an "S" shape then helically wrapped
around a core so the edges lock together. The two most commonly used materials are
galvanized steel and aluminum. An outer jacket of PVC or PE is often used.
Advantages of interlocked armor includes flexibility and ease of termination.
A big disadvantage: interlocked armor cannot be used under high tension.
Applications include commercial or industrial power, control and lighting. Interlocked
armor is used in ducts, troughs, and raceways or suspended from aerial messengers.
Interlocked armor is not a moisture barrier.
A flat steel, copper or bronze tape is used for armoring. It is helically wrapped around
the cable core. The tape is typically protected by a jacket. Applications include
commercial or industrial installations in conduit, ducts, troughs, and raceways or
suspended from aerial messengers.
Round wire, when used as armoring are helically wrapped around the core of the cable.

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Galvanized steel is typically used. An overall jacket may be used. Applications include
submarine, bore hole, dredge, shaft and vertical riser cables.
Teck Cables
To meet CSA and Ontario Hydro requirements, a double PVC jacketed interlocked
armor design is used. The CSA designation is "Teck Cable". In this construction, an
additional PVC jacket is under the armor. This provides extra protection against thermal
degradation, mechanical damage, and fluid penetrations. The inner jacketed core can
be routed and terminated beyond where the armor is terminated.
CONCLUSION
Engineers should certainly keep abreast of all the latest developments, but learning
about the new and latest equipment is frequently done at the expense of learning the
basics thoroughly. It is the mundane subjects that sometimes get left by the wayside. A
full understanding of wire and cable by some individual in an organization can insure all
installations of highly sophisticated equipment are successful and conform to the
requirements of the customer.
REFERENCES
[1] Thomas P. Arnold and C. David Mercier, "Southwire Company Power Cable
Manual".

W. F. (Buddy) Powers, Jr. (M'90) graduated from the Georgia Institute of Technology.
He joined Southwire's Research and Development Department more than 12 years ago,
and has focused on product and process development of wire and cable technology. In
1988 he was promoted from Product Development Engineer to his present position of
Senior Development Engineer and assumed the responsibility of coordinating new
product development internally and with customers. He currently develops products
catering to the industrial power cable market.
Mr. Powers is a member of the National Society of Professional Engineers, the Georgia
Society of Professional Engineers, and the Canadian Standards Association. He was
named the "Young Engineer of the Year" for the State of Georgia in 1989.
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