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Experiment - 1
Basics of Structures
Aim
Theory
P1
P2
Bending
P
P
Axial Compression
Axial Tension
Torsion
d.
Roller support
M
V
Fixed Support
v) Degree of freedom
A structure may be capable of movements (displacement and rotations) at its
joints and supports after the load are applied. The total numbers of such
possible movements in a structure is known as degree of kinematic
indeterminacy or degrees of freedom.
The pinned support is allows rotation about the defined axes but at the same
time it cannot allow the translation along all the axes.
The roller support is allowed rotation about all the axes and translation along
one define axis whereas other translation are restricted.
The fixed support is not allowed any translation and rotation along and about
the axis respectively.
Resolution of forces
If a force F acts at an angle with axis of reference
Fx = F cos and Fy = Fsin
Fy = Fsin
F
Fx = F cos
Resultant force
It is that single force, which produce same effect on the body as the number
of forces are producing on it while acting simultaneously, it is also called as
Statically
indeterminate
structures
Conditions of equilibrium are Conditions of equilibrium are
sufficient to fully analyze the not sufficient.
structure
B.M at a section and the force They are not independent
in any member is independent
of material of the components
of structure.
No stress are caused due to Stress are generated due to
temporary changes
temporary changes.
equilibrium to determine all the external and internal reactions and moments.
It is also called the degree of redundancy.
Statically indeterminacy:
It is stated in terms of external indeterminacy and internal indeterminacy.
External indeterminacy.
When the three equations of equilibrium are insufficient to determine all the
reactions at the supports. It is given by number of unknown reactions at
support minus number of known equations of equilibrium.
Internal indeterminacy.
A structure is said to be statically indeterminate if it is a closed structure. So
the minimum cuts are required to open all close loops gives the internal
indeterminacy.
For a space frame, pin jointed structure is said to be determinate one if,
M = 3j 6
The excess no. of members adds to the degree of redundancy.
i)
ii)
i)
No. of joints = 8
Total no. of deformation = 8 x 3 = 24
Conclusion(s) :
Date:
Experiment - 2
Verification of Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams
for Beams using Standard Structural Analysis Package
Aim
: To determine the shear force and bending moment diagrams for different
structures manually and verifying it using SAP2000 NL software
Theory
: The term beam refers to a slender bar that carries transverse loading; that
is, the applied forces are perpendicular to the bar. In a beam, the internal
force system consists of a shear force and bending moment acting on the
cross section of the bar. The internal forces give rise to two kinds of
stresses on a transverse section of a beam: 1) Normal stress that is caused
by the bending moment and 2) shear stress due to the shear force.
The determination of the internal force system acting at a given section
of a beam is straightforward: We draw a free-body diagram that exposes
these forces and then compute the forces using equilibrium equations.
However the goal of beam analysis is to determine the shear force V and
the bending moment M at every cross section of the beam. To
accomplish this task, we must derive the expressions for V and M in
terms of the distance x measured along the beam. By plotting these
expressions to scale, we obtain the shear force and bending moment
diagrams for the beam. The shear force and bending moment diagrams
are convenient visual references to the internal forces in a beam; in
particular, they identify the maximum values of V and M.
When loads are not at right angle to the beam, they also produce axial
forces in the beam.
The transverse loading of a beam consists of concentrated loads,
distributed loads, uniformly distributed loads or a combination of all.
Depending upon the type of support, the reactions at support can be force
or moment. These reactions can be determined by the equations of
Procedure
B
C
1.5 m
Calculate the reactions at supports
M@A=0
+ ve
25 * 1.5 + 5*2.5*2.75 RB * 4 = 0
RB = 17.97 kN
Fy = 0
+ ve
RA + RB = 25 + 5*2.5
RA = 37.5 17.97
RA = 19.53 kN.
2.5 m
- ve
+ ve
+ ve
- ve
Bending Moment :
Sagging Moment + ve
Hogging Moment - ve
SF at B (Just Right of B) = 0
SF at B (Just Left of B) = 17.97 kN
SF at C ( Just Right of C) = 17.97 -5*2.5
= 5.47 kN
SF at C (Just left of C) = 5.47 25
= -19.53 kN
SF at A (Just Right of C) = -19.53 kN
+ ve
A
19.53 kN
B
Shear Force Diagram (SFD)
19.53 kN
From Right to left
+ ve
- ve
+
A
B
C
Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
Likewise we can also find out the values of SF and BM from left
towards right side by adopting the different sign convention as mention
in the step # 2.
Step # 5: Verify the Problem in SAP 2000 NL Software.
Problems :
5 kN
1.
15 kN
2m
2m
2m
2.
10 kN
5 kNm
2m
2.5 m
2.5 m
10 kN
3.
10 kN/m
1m
1m
1m
1m
10 kN
4.
6 kN
2m
2m
10 kN
5.
15 kNm
3m
Calculations
3m
3m
Conclusion(s) :
Date:
Apparatus
Theory
aa
and
ba
ab
and
bb.
Now let us consider that the both forces P act simultaneously on the beam.
The deflection corresponding to the load P acting at A is
aa
and
ba
ab,
and
and
bb.
Knowing these deflections, we can easily calculate the work done by the
two loads P as they are slowly and simultaneously applied to the beam. This
work equal to the total strain energy U of the beam, is
U = P(
aa
ab)
+ P(
ba
bb)
---------------------------------(a)
P
A
B
aa
ba
P
B
A
ab
bb
P
A
aa
ab
ba
bb
The total strain energy of the beam subjected to two loads does not depend
upon the order in which the loads are applied. Because the beam behaves
linearly, the strain energy must be the same when the loads are applied
simultaneously and when one load is applied before the other load. The
final state of the beam is the same in both cases. Let us assume that load A
is applied first, followed by the load at B. Then the strain energy of the
beam during the application of the first load is
P
aa
----------------------------------------(b)
aa. When
bb;
bb
----------------------------------------(c)
ab.
The
----------------------------------------(d)
ab
Thus, this additional strain energy is produced. Equation (d) does not
contain the factor because the force P remains constant during the time
that the additional deflection
ab
(d), we get the total strain energy for the case when one load is applied
before the other:
U=P
aa
+P
bb
+ P
ab
-----------------------------------------(e)
This amount of strain energy must be equal to the strain energy produced
when the two loads are applied simultaneously (Equation (a)). Equating the
two expressions for strain energy leads to the following result:
ab
ba
Procedure
: i) Place the metal beam on simple supports and measure the spans.
ii) Place the load hooks at any point say C whose distance is measured
from left support, say A.
iii) Mark another point, say D, on the beam and measure deflection using
dial gauge.
iv) Add load at point C and measure corresponding deflection at point
D. Take readings for at least three different weights.
v) Repeat similar procedure by adding weights at point D and measuring
deflections at point C.
vi) Compare the readings of deformations at points C and D.
Observation
Table
Sr.No. Load at point A (gm)
Div
Deflection at
D (mm)
C (mm)
Div
1
2
3
4
5
6
Calculations
Conclusion(s) :
Reference
Experiment No
Flexural Rigidity of Beam
Aim
Apparatus
Theory
Stress is the resistance offered by a body against its deformation, strain is the ratio of
change in dimension to the original dimension, and Youngs modulus of elasticity, E is
the ratio of intensity of tension or compressive stress to the corresponding strain within
the linear elastic range.
E=
Macaulays Method:
We know the basic differential equation for the deflection curve:
EI
Where, M is positive when it is of sagging nature.
Integrating once, we have EI
Integrating again, we have EIy = Thus, integrating the basic differential equation once, we get the slope at a given point,
while integrating it again; we get the value of deflection at the given point. Since the
deflection is obtained by integrating the basic differential equation twice, the method is
known as the double integration method. In the process of double integration, two
constant of integration C1 and C2 will be obtained, the values of which can be determined
by using the conditions at the two ends of the beam. This method is introduced by Sir
Macaulay, thats why it is often called as Macaulays Method.
It is a method for determining the deflections of a beam subjected to point loads original
discontinuous loads. It gives the relation between flexural strength EI and the deflection.
The bending moment at the section is given by,
=
On Integrating
- - -
- -
=0
At
At
Procedure
Take a simply supported beam and mark point equidistant from the opposite side.
Dial gauge was placed at the centre of the beam to find the deflection.
For different set of symmetric loadings find the deflection.
The observation were made and requisite calculation were performed
Observations :
Span length =
Least count of dial gauge =
SR. NO
LOAD
(gm)
DISTANCE
(N)
a (cm)
DIAL GAUGE
READING
FLEXURAL
RIGIDITY
b (cm)
1
2
3
4
5
Average
Calculations :
EI =
Result
:
The flexural rigidity of simply supported beam is found to be____________________
Reference
Experiment No
Three Moment Theorem (Clapeyrons Theorem)
Aim
Theory
:
This theorem, developed by Clapeyron in 1857, provides a simple method to
analyze continuous beams. This theorem also called as Clapeyrons theorem,
develops a relationship between the moment at three consecutive supports of
continuous beams and the B.M. in the corresponding simple spans. The support
moment can be determined from these relationships by the boundary conditions of
the beam. These relationships are developed by considering the continuity of the
beam displacement curve over supports (compatibility conditions). The three
moment theorem or Clapeyrons theorem is stated as If a beam (shown in the
figure below) has n supports the ends of which are fixed, then the same number
of equations required to determine the support moment can be obtained from the
consecutive span.
Mathematically,
Where,
= span length AB
= span length BC
= flexural rigidity of span AB
= flexural rigidity of span AB
= moment at support A,B and C
= flexural rigidity of span AB
= flexural rigidity of span BC
= distance of C.G of
from A
= distance of C.G of
E1 I1
from C
E2 I2
l1
l2
a) Given system
MA
MB
MC
b) Reduced system
X1
X2
A2
A1
Que.
: Determine the support moments and draw SFD and BMD for the beam
shown below considering youngs modulus is constant.
15 kN
12 kN/m
8 kN/m
M
C
A
B
2m
3m
2m
20 kNm
3m
Result
:
The three hinge moment theorems are verified using SAP2000.
Reference
:
Clapeyron, B.P.E., Calcul dune pouter elastique resposant librement sur des
appuis inegalement espaces, Comptes Rendus, Vol.45, 1857, pp. 1076-1080.
Experiment No
Bettis Theorem (Reciprocal-work Theorem)
Aim
Theory
:
The reciprocal-work theorem states that The work done by the forces in the first
state of laoding when they move through their corresponding displacement in the
second state of loading is equal to the work done by the forces in the second state
of loading when they move through their corresponding displacements in the first
state of loading.
Bettis law is an extension of Maxwells theorem.
Q2
Q1
Qn
Pm
Q2
Q1
Q2
Q1
Qn
Pm
Pm
P2
P2
P2
P1
P1
P1
Qn
OR
Procedure
:
1. The apparatus was setup and the span of the beam is measured.
2. Two sets of three points were chosen.
3. At one set of points, dial gauge were setup and load is applied as other set.
Load
(P)
Deflection Caused by
Load (P)
Division
Deflection
(mm)
Load
(Q)
Deflection Caused by
Load (Q)
Division
Deflection
(mm)
Summation
Calculations :
Result
Reference
:
1) Betti, E., Teoria della Elasticita, II Nuova Cimento, Series 2, Vol. 7 and 8,
1872.
2) Rayleigh, Lord, Some General Theorems relating to vibrations, Proceeding
of London Mathematical Society, Vol. 4, 1873, pp. 357-368.
Date:
Theory
Procedure
: Determine the B.M and S.F. diagrams for the beams shown in Fig below.
50 kN
10 kN/m
1)
EI
8m
EI
4m
2m
25 kN/m
2)
1.5 EI
EI
Support C sinks by
10 mm
10 m
8m
Assume EI = 10 MNm2
150 N/m
125 Nm
3)
200 N
C
A
2.5 EI
1.5 m
2EI
3m
4m
5 kN
4)
4 kN/m
2 kNm
EI
2.5 m
1.5 m
1.25 EI
2.5 m
2m
2m
Conclusion
References
: 1. Cross, Hardy (1930), Analysis of Continuous Frames by Distributing FixedEnd Moments. Proceeding of the American Society of Civil Engineers(ASCE):
pp. 919-928.
2. Wang C. K., Indeterminate Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York (1983).
Date:
Theory
The slope deflection method is a structural analysis method for beams and
frames introduced in 1915 by George A. Maney. The slope deflection method was
widely used for more than a decade until the moment distribution method was
developed. This method consider the deflection as primary unknowns, while the
redundant forces were used in the force method. In this method, the relationship is
established between moments at the ends of the members and the corresponding
rotations and displacement.
The basic assumption used in the slope deflection method is that a typical member
can bend but shear and axial deformation are negligible. It is no different from
that used with the force method. The basic idea of the slope deflection method is
to write the equilibrium equations for each node in terms of the deflections and
rotations. Solve for the generalized displacements. Using moment displacement
relations, moments are then known. The structure is thus reduced to a determinate
structure.
Sign Convention All clockwise internal moments and end rotation are positive.
Fundamental Slope-Deflection Equations
w(x)
B
A
A
MAB
MBA
B
Where,
FEMAB = Fixed end moments due to external loading over span AB at joint A
FEMBA = Fixed end moments due to external loading over span BA at joint B
w(x)
A
FEMAB
FEMBA
Rotation at A
MAB
A
MBA
Rotation at B
MBA
MAB
A
: 1) Scan the beam and identify the number of segment and kinematic unknowns.
A segment is the portion of the beam between the two nodes. Kinematic
unknowns are those rotations and displacements that are not zero and must be
computed.
2) for each segment, generate the two governing equations. Check the end
conditions to see whether one of the end rotations is zero or not. If there are no
element loads, the FEM term is zero.
3) For each kinematic unknowns, generate an equilibrium conditions using the
FBD.
4) Solve for all unknowns by combining all the equations from step 2 and 3. Now
the equations are entirely in terms of the kinematic unknowns.
5) Compute the support reactions with appropriate FBDs.
Exercise
Problem
: Determine the B.M and S.F. diagrams for the beams shown in Fig below.
50 kN
10 kN/m
B
1)
EI
EI
8m
4m
2m
25 kN/m
B
2)
1.5 EI
EI
Support C sinks by
10 mm
10 m
8m
Assume EI = 10 MNm2
150 N/m
125 Nm
3)
200 N
2.5 EI
2EI
3m
1.5 m
4m
5 kN
4)
4 kN/m
2 kNm
EI
2.5 m
1.5 m
1.25 EI
2.5 m
2m
2m
Conclusion
References
Date:
Theory
Exercise
Problem
: Determine the B.M and S.F. diagrams for the beams shown in Fig below.
50 kN
10 kN/m
1)
EI
EI
8m
4m
2m
25 kN/m
2)
1.5 EI
EI
Support C sinks by
10 mm
10 m
8m
Assume EI = 10 MNm2
150 N/m
125 Nm
3)
200 N
C
A
2.5 EI
2EI
3m
1.5 m
4m
5 kN
4)
4 kN/m
2 kNm
EI
2.5 m
1.5 m
1.25 EI
2.5 m
2m
2m
Conclusion
References
Date:
Theory
support like an abutment at the lower ends (A and B). Hinge C, is provided at the
highest point of the centre line of the arch. The horizontal distance between the
lower ends A and B is called the span of the arch. When ends A and B are at the
same level, the height of the crown (point C), above the level of the ends is called
the rise of the arch.
W1
a
Crown, MC = 0,
C
Rise, yc
y
HA A
HB
Span
VA
VB
Any external loads tends to cause an increase in the span length, as horizontal and
vertical movement are not possible. Reactions at both ends A and B will have
both horizontal and vertical components. The horizontal component of reactions
are equal if there is no horizontal applied load over the arch. By using M C = 0, we
can easily find out the horizontal reactive component whereas the vertical
reactions will get from MA = 0 and FY = 0. The difference between beam and
arch is that in case of arch a horizontal thrust is induced at each support which
provides a hogging moment Hy at any section. This is called the H moment at
section X-X.
Actual BM at X-X = Beam moment at X-X H moment at X-X.
Taking moment about C,
Va . (L/2) = H.h + W1((L/2)-a)
Hence, H is calculated.
The bending moment at section XX, x distance from support A is
MX = VA. x W1(x-a) H.y
In case of parabolic arch the numerical relation between x and y is
Advantages
References
Date:
Theory :
The method of using the hammer is explained using Fig.2. With the hammer
pushed hard against the concrete, the body is allowed to move away from the
concrete until the latch connects the hammer mass to the plunger, Fig.2a. The
plunger is then held perpendicular to the concrete surface and the body pushed
towards the concrete, Fig.2b. This movement extends the spring holding the
mass to the body. When the maximum extension of the spring is reached, the
latch releases and the mass is pulled towards the surface by the spring, Fig.2c.
The mass hits the shoulder of the plunger rod and rebounds because the rod is
pushed hard against the concrete, Fig.2d. During rebound the slide indicator
travels with the hammer mass and stops at the maximum distance the mass
reaches after rebounding. A button on the side of the body is pushed to lock
the plunger into the retracted position and the rebound number is read from a
scale on the body.
Observations:
Results
Conclusion :
Date:
Theory
Rolling Loads:
Loads that can occupy any location on a structure are known as moving
loads or rolling loads in order to distinguish them from stationary loads.
Bridge loading (highways and railways), for instance, comprises a
series of concentrated loads, or loads spread over a certain length, or a
combination of both. It is difficult to determine the location of such
loads for their maximum effects at a section by inspection, and the
process may involve several trials. A systematic procedure is essential
to determine the possible locations of live loads on a structure for
design purposes. Further, loads that are a combination of both
concentrated and distributed loads leads to avoidable complications in
analysis. Such loads are usually replaced by their equivalent uniformly
distributed loads (EUDL) in order to simplify design computations.
It is essential to determine the maximum possible effects of loads on a
structure to design its cross sections to withstand the applied loads with
adequate safety. Influence lines provide an infallible means of
determining the worst possible effects (BM, SF and AF) of dead loads
Conclusion(s)