Chemical Reaction Engineering

Chemical reaction engineering is the branch of chemical engineering which deals

with chemical reactors and their design, especially by application of chemical
kinetics.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPANY (Pak American Fertilizers

Ltd.)
Pak American Fertilizers Limited (PAFL) is located at Iskanderabad (Daudkhel),
Distt: Mianwali and produces 1050 metric tons of urea per day. PAFL is the subsidiary of
National Fertilizer Corporation of Pakistan (NFC). Japan Bank of International Cooperation
(JBIC) provided loan for setting up the fertilizer plant. The plant was commissioned in 1999. The
old plant was closed down in 1997 and a new Ammonia/Urea Plant commenced commercial
production in 1999. The new plant is designed to produce 600 Ton/Day Ammonia and 1,050
Ton/Day urea using natural gas as feed and fuel. Both plants have been designed by TOYO
Engineering Japan. Ammonia plant is under license from Kellogg International, USA, while urea
plant is TEC's own. The plants are latest in design and most modern. The company possesses
over 11,481 Kanals of land, comprising 6,432 for Factory, 2,818 for Housing Colony and 2,230
for experimental farm.

PLANT SECTIONS
There are two main sections in Pak American Fertilizers Limited, which are enlisted below:

Ammonia Production

Urea Production

AMMONIA PRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION:
Ammonia, NH3, is a comparatively stable, colorless gas at ordinary temperatures, with a boiling
point of 33C. Ammonia gas is lighter than air, with a density of approximately 0.6 times that of
air at the same temperature. The characteristic pungent odors of ammonia can be detected as low
as 1 -5ppm. Ammonia can be highly toxic to a wide range of organisms.
Ammonia vapor can be fatal. When dissolved in water, elevated levels of ammonia are also toxic
to a wide range of aquatic organisms. Ammonia is highly soluble in water, although solubility
decreases rapidly with increased temperature. Ammonia reacts with water in a reversible reaction
to produce ammonium (NH4)+ and hydroxide (OH)- ions.
Ammonia is a weak base, and at room temperature only about 1 in 200 molecules are present in
the ammonium form (NH4)+. The formation of hydroxide ions in this reaction increases the pH
of the water, forming an alkaline solution.

AMMONIA MANUFACTURING:
Ammonia is generally manufactured from natural gas using the steam reforming process. There
are several reaction stages and catalysts are key to the economic operation of ammonia
production plants.

Diagram 1 illustrates the chemistry of the ammonia process and the basic materials of the
catalysts used. The first stage is purification where impurities, mainly sulfur compounds, are
removed from the gas stream. Steam reforming is performed in two stages. In the primary stage,
the endothermic reactions take place at pressures around 30 bar and temperatures of 800C or
higher. This is followed by an exothermic secondary reformer where air is added to the partially
reformed gas stream. The carbon monoxide in the gas leaving the secondary reformer is
converted to carbon dioxide in the shift reactors and then removed by scrubbing from the gas
stream. Any residual carbon oxides are then converted back to methane by methanation before
compression of the hydrogen and nitrogen to ammonia synthesis pressure. The final reaction
stage is ammonia synthesis where the hydrogen and nitrogen combine to form ammonia. This
reaction stage takes place at high pressure (100-350 bars) and is highly exothermic.

DIAGRAM 1: Chemistry Of Ammonia Process

Diagram 2 shows a simplified block diagram of a typical 1000 tone/day ammonia plant
including details of operating temperatures, catalyst ammonia plant including details of
operating temperatures, catalyst volumes, and catalyst and gas compositions.

DIAGRAM 2: Simplified block diagram for (1000 T/day) ammonia plant

USES OF AMMONIA:

Chemicals

synthesis of:
nitric acid, HNO3, which is used in making explosives
such as TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene), nitroglycerine
which is also used as a vasodilator (a substance that
dilates blood vessels) and PETN (pentaerythritol
nitrate).
sodium hydrogen carbonate (sodium bicarbonate),
NaHCO3
sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
hydrogen cyanide (hydrocyanic acid), HCN
hydrazine, N2H4 (used in rocket propulsion
systems)

Explosives

ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3

Fibers & Plastics

nylon, -[(CH2)4-CO-NH-(CH2)6-NH-CO]-,and other

polyamides

Refrigeration

used for making ice, large scale refrigeration plants, airconditioning units in buildings and plants

Pharmaceutical

used in the manufacture of drugs such as sulfonamide

which inhibit the growth and multiplication of bacteria
that require p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) for the
biosynthesis of folic acids, anti-malarials and vitamins
such as the B vitamins nicotinamide (niacinamide) and
thiamine.

Pulp & Paper

ammonium hydrogen sulfite, NH4HSO3, enables some

hardwoods to be used

Mining

& used

in

nitriding

(bright

annealing)

steel,

Metallurgy

used in zinc and nickel extraction

Cleaning

ammonia in solution is used as a cleaning agent such as

in 'cloudy ammonia'

DETAILED PROCESS DESCRIPTION

The ammonia process is the low energy natural gas reforming process. The ammonia plant
design is based upon producing 600 MTPD of anhydrous liquid ammonia. Feedstock is natural
gas and at battery limit has the following composition;

Table: Composition of Feedstock

Conditions for Feedstock:

Pressure at battery limit, 7.5 Kg/cm2a

Temperature at battery limit, 28 0C
Lower heating value, 9606 Kcal/NM2
Sulphur, H2S, 10 ppmv
Sulphur, Organic, 13 ppmv

PROCESS STEPS:
The process is as follows;

Raw synthesis gas preparation

Synthesis gas purification
Purified synthesis gas compression and ammonia synthesis
Ammonia refrigeration system
Process condensate stripper
Ammonia recovery system
Steam system
Other utilities

1. Raw Synthesis Gas Preparation:

Raw synthesis gas is produced from natural gas in the following four stages;
1. Compression, preheating and final desulphurization of natural gas feed.

2.

Partial reforming to intermediate level of hydrocarbons in the primary reformer furnace.

3.

Final reforming in secondary reformer where sufficient air is introduced to provide

quantity of nitrogen required for synthesis.

4.

Conversion of carbon monoxide and steam in the reformed gas to carbon dioxide and
hydrogen in water shift reactors.

Knock Out Drums:

Natural gas is used as feedstock and fuel. The natural gas at 7.5 Kg/cm2a passes through a feed
gas knockout drum, (A-120-F), consisting of demister pad to remove suspended liquids and
solids. The natural gas is split in to two streams feed gas and fuel. Thee feed gas portion is
compressed to 46.0 Kg/cm2a in a steam driven 2-stage centrifugal natural gas compressor, (A102-J). After the first discharge it passes through an inter stage cooler, (A-135-C), and an inter
stage knockout drum, (A-121-F), to remove any moisture. In order to maintain a 2% level of
hydrogen in gas a hydrogen rich stream is introduces from (A-104-F). To protect the compressor
over a wide range of operating conditions surge valves are provided.

Fig. Knock out Drum

Fig. Demister pads

Hydrotreator:
The compressed natural gas then flows to the convection section of primary reformer where it is
heated to 399 0C. It then flows to the hydrotreater, (A-101-D), where the hydrogenation of sulfur
compounds to H2S takes place. Hydrotreater consists of 8.6 m3 cobalt-molybdenum catalyst
through which the feed gas flows and conversion of sulfur to hydrogen sulfide takes place.
Reaction is;
S + H2

H2S

After passing through the hydrotreater it passes into desulphurizers, (A-102-DA/DB), which
contains a 21 m3 layer of zinc oxide catalyst. The hydrogen sulfide produced is absorbed by the
zinc oxide catalyst as a result of which the gas becomes free of sulfur, ( S < .01 ppm). Reaction

is;
ZnO + H2S
Operating variables for hydrotreator are

ZnS + H2O

Hydrogen/ Fee gas ratio (0.02 mol H2/ mol feed gas)

Temperature
(371 0C-399 0C)

Pressure (46.0 Kg/cm2), Temperature of exiting

stream is 388 0C.

De sulfurized natural gas

21 m3 of catalyst
Feed

After the sulfur compounds have been removed, it is essential to reform he feed gas under
conditions that will produce H2. This is done by contacting the gas and steam with nickel catalyst
in suspended tubes at elevated temperatures and pressure

Primary & Secondary Reformer:

This stream is mixed with 44.0 Kg/cm2a and 390 0C, high pressure steam, in the ratio of 3.5
moles of steam per mol of organic carbon. The steam mixed gas then goes to the convection
section of primary reformer where its gets heated to 621 0C. After heating it is distributed to the
catalyst tubes suspended in radiant section of primary reformer. The catalyst is in the form of

rings or cylinders that are filled in to the tubes. The entering gas is split in to three streams each
having 52, catalyst filled, tubes suspended in furnace. Here the following reactions take place;
2CH4 + 3H2O

CO + CO2 + 7H2

The partially reformed gas from the primary reformer enters the secondary reformer, (A-103-D),
lower combustion chamber nozzle with water jacketed transfer line, (A-107-D). The temperature
at the secondary inlet will be about 833 0C. Here it is mixed with stichiometric nitrogen
requirements of ammonia synthesis reaction. The air supply for combustion in secondary
reformer is provided by steam turbine driven air compressor, (A-101-J). The air is preheated in
the convection zone of primary reformer to about 621 0C. The exit temperature from secondary
reformer is about 1013 0C.

Fig. Primary reformer and convection section.

Catalyst bed consists of 18.0 m3 of nickel catalyst. The catalyst is supported on a bed of 19-25
mm spheres laid on a bed of 50 mm dia low silica alumina refractory spheres. The spheres and
catalyst are supported by an arched brick dome located over the exit chamber of secondary
reformer.

Waste Heat boilers:

Raw synthesis gas at 1013 0C leaves the bottom of secondary reformer and passes through the
tube side of reformed gas waste heat boiler, (A-101-C). The gases are cooled to about 640 0C.
The process stream is further cooled in steam super heater, (A-102-C), to a temperature of 371

0C before entering high temperature shift converter, A-104-DA. High temperature shift effluent
is cooled from 434 oC to 216 0C before entering low temperature shift converter, (A-104-DB), by
heating boiler feed water on shell side of exchanger.

HTS And LTS:

HTS (High temperature shift converter), is constructed as a single bed vessel having iron oxide
as a catalyst. Catalyst volume is 29.2 M3. Raw synthesis gas enters at 371 0C where a large
percentage of CO content will be reacted in accordance with the following reaction:
CO + H2O

CO2 + H2

The reaction is a reversible one, with shifting of CO favored by low temperature. However, the
rate of reaction is favored by high temperature. To attain a specified CO conversion, the principal
operating variables are temperature and steam gas ratio. The steam gas ratio is usually
maintained constant.
If the reaction is near equilibrium, a decrease in temperature will likely improve conversion, and
if not near equilibrium, a temperature decrease will reduce shifting reaction. The temperature
conditions selected for shift converters are based on a higher temperature for HT converter to
take advantage of higher conversion rates for high CO content and low temperature for LT
converter, to take advantage of favorable equilibrium conditions for low CO concentrations in
this section of converter.

LTS (Low temperature shift converter), consists of a bed of Cu-ZnO catalyst and is operated at
a temperature of 216 0C. However, lower temperature is permissible and desirable. The
temperature at the inlet to LTS is controlled by heat exchange which takes place in (A-103-C)
exchangers. HTS effluent passes through these exchangers giving heat to BFW for HP steam
generation, which cools the stream to 216 0C. Max permissible temperature in LTS is 260 0C.

Fig. LTS & HTS

After the synthesis gas has been prepared it is purified off carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
to yield a high purity nitrogen hydrogen synthesis gas.

2. Carbon dioxide Removal:

Absorber and Stripper:
Carbon dioxide gas present in synthesis gas is poison for ammonia synthesis catalyst and
therefore must be removed from the synthesis gas. Removal of bulk CO2 is accomplished by
absorption in a counter current flow of potassium carbonate solution in CO2 absorber, (A-101E).
The process gas enters the CO2 absorber, (A-101-E), and flows upward through three packed
beds. As the gases flow upwards through the beds they are contacted by the down flowing
carbonate solution which absorbs most of the CO2. 69.3 M3/hr of lean carbonate solution is
pumped through the distributor above top bed and 545.5 M3/hr of semi lean solution is pumped
through the distributor above second bed. The scrubbed gases pass through demisting pads in
absorber top and through CO2 absorber over head knockout drum, (A-103-F). The temperature
of the gas leaving the absorber is 70 0C and the tower bottom rich solution at 118.5 0C.

The CO2 rich carbonate solution is stripped in CO2 stripper, (A-102-E). The rich solution flows
from the bottom of the absorber to the stripper through a hydraulic turbine where the solution is
let down in pressure from 32.5 Kg/cm2 to approximate 2.0 Kg/cm2 at the stripper inlet. Pressure
energy is recovered by the hydraulic turbine powered pump, (A-107-J) that returns semi lean
solution to the absorber. Due to pressure drop CO2 will flash from the solution.
Semi lean solution is withdrawn from (A-117-F) at 114 0C and pumped to the second bed of
absorber. The remaining solution in the stripper floes through the semi lean trap out and re enters
the stripper to proceed down the tower to lower bed to the bottom trap out pan. There it is
withdrawn to main re boiler (A-105-C) and returns to stripper bottom.

Fig. Stripper & absorber

Flash Tank, A-117-F

Semi-lean solution from A-102-E flows through the four compartments of Flash Tank, A-117-F.
Each compartment is maintained at lower pressure by the A-401-LA-LD, Steam Ejectors.
Flashing of the semi-lean solution from approximately 1.89 kg/cm2, cools the solution from
125.60C to 1140C.
The pressure for each compartment is maintained by the ejector for that compartment. The
ejector extracts the flashed vapor created by the pressure reduction. The normal driving force for
the ejector is 4.5kg/cm2a steam generated in A-113-C, CO2 Stripper Overhead Condenser Re
boiler. Ejectors are relatively trouble-free but in this service they may become fouled with
carbonate/bicarbonate. They can be cleaned by flushing with hot de mineralized water. If one or

all of the ejectors are taken out of service, the Benfield unit can still operate by injecting steam
instead to maintain the system balance of the stripper bottom.

CO2 Stripper Quench Cooler, A-110-C and CO2 Stripper Overhead Condensate Re
boiler, A-113-C
After separation from the Benfield solution, CO2 product vapor is cooled by quench water
flowing down the top bed. After picking up heat from the CO2 product vapor, the water for the
quench is cooled by being pumped through the exchanger (A-110-C) by the CO2 Stripper
Quench Pump, (A-109-J/JA). Cooling water is used to pick up A-110-C heat. Part of the water
from the CO2 stripper wash section is used to generate ejector steam in exchanger A-113-C.
Steam from the (A-113-C).

3. AMMONIA PRODUCTION SYSTEM

Compression of Synthesis Gas and Water Removal:
The purified gas is compressed from 31.2kg/cm2a to about 78.2 kg/cm2a in the first case of the
Synthesis Gas Compressor, A-103-J, and then chilled in two steps: first, by heat exchange to
cooling water in the Synthesis Gas Compressor Inter stage Cooler, A-116-C, to 410C, then
ammonia refrigeration in the Synthesis Gas Compressor Interstate Chiller, A-129-C. This chiller
cools the gas to 4.40C, dropping the water in the Synthesis Gas Compressor First Stage
Separator, 105-F.
The low moisture content synthesis gas leaving A-105-F goes to the Molecular Sieve Driers, A109-DA/DB, where all the water is removed. These are regenerated by dry synthesis gas exit the
driers. The synthesis gas then goes to the second case of A-103-J, and pressure is increased to
about 146 kg/cm2a to enter the synthesis loop. At an intermediate point (last wheel suction) of
the second case of A-103-J, the synthesis gas is joined by the synthesis of recycle gas.

4. Synthesis (Conversion) of Synthesis Gas to Ammonia:

The synthesis converter A-105-D contains 31.6 M3 of promoted in catalyst. The catalyst is
contained in an international basket designed which has three separate catalyst beds within
horizontal reactor. The catalyst beds are divided into four sections. The first bed contains 228
catalysts to limit the temperature rise. Fresh feed can be injected above the first bed to control the
temperature of the produced gas. The first bed effluent is passed through the interchanger A-122-

C before being passed through the second bed, and the second effluent passes through
interchanger A-122-C followed by beds 3A in series.

5. Separation of Anhydrous Liquid Ammonia from Synthesis

Gas:
The ammonia produced in the synthesis reaction would quickly build a level to interfere with the
reaction so it has to be continuously removed from the synthesis recycle gas stream going to the
converter. This is done by chilling the recycle stream via a series of cooler chillers to condense
the net ammonia product that is produced in each pass through the converter.
The temperature of the recycle gas stream is -17.80C by the time it reaches the Ammonia
Product Separator, A-106-F. Condensing and sub cooling the ammonia in the synthesis gas loop
to -17.80C at 136.7 kg/cm2a pressure will reduce the ammonia in the recycle gas stream from
15.8 to 2.793. The resulting chilled ammonia liquid collects in the Ammonia Product Separator,
A-106-F, which is level controlled (LICA-1351). The liquid ammonia leaving A-106-F is fed to
the Ammonia Letdown Drum, A-107-F, for the final product purification step of the process.

6. Ammonia Production Purification (Removal of Absorbed

Gases):
As previously noted, the liquid ammonia that is separated from the synthesis gas will contain a
certain amount of absorbed gases that would result in a contaminated product. The purpose of the
refrigeration system in the product purification step is twofold: first, flash and re flash of liquid
ammonia at lower pressure levels to release all absorbed gases and direct them to the fuel gas
system; second, as an integral part of the refrigeration system, the process chillers remove heat
from the synthesis gas in the synthesis gas loop to sub cool the recycle gas to -17.80C for the
satisfactory separation and removal of the net ammonia make from the synthesis loop. These
chillers are so located in the refrigeration system to take full advantage of the various pressures
(and temperature) levels at which it is operated.

Fig. Simplified flow sheet for typical ammonia plant

7. Ammonia storage:
Anhydrous ammonia is usually stored as a liquid in refrigerated tanks at 33.3C and atmospheric
pressure, often in doubled-walled tanks with the capacity for hundreds or thousands of tonnes.
The low temperature is usually maintained by the venting of ammonia gas. The vented gas is reliquefied for recycling, or absorbed in water to make aqueous ammonia. Relatively small
quantities of anhydrous ammonia are sometimes stored under pressure in spherical vessel at

ambient temperature. Ammonia is corrosive to alloys of copper and zinc and these materials
must never be used in ammonia service.
Iron and steel are usually the only metals used in ammonia storage tanks, piping and fittings.

Chemical Reactors
In chemical engineering, chemical reactors are vessels designed to contain chemical reactions.
The design of a chemical reactor deals with multiple aspects of chemical engineering.
Chemical engineers design reactors to maximize net present value for the given reaction.
Designers ensure that the reaction proceeds with the highest efficiency towards the desired
output product, producing the highest yield of product while requiring the least amount of money
to purchase and operate. Normal operating expenses include energy input, energy removal, raw
material costs, labor, etc. Energy changes can come in the form of heating or cooling, pumping
to increase pressure, frictional pressure loss (such as pressure drop across a 90o elbow or an
orifice plate), agitation, etc. Chemical reaction engineering is the branch of chemical engineering
which deals with chemical reactors and their design, especially by application of chemical
kinetics.

Types of Reactors
1. CSTR (Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactor)
2. PFR(Plug Flow Reactor)
3. Batch Reactor
4. Semi-batch reactor
5. Catalytic reactor

CSTR (Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactor)

In a CSTR, one or more fluid reagents are introduced into a tank

reactor equipped with an impeller while the reactor effluent is
removed. The impeller stirs the reagents to ensure proper mixing.
Simply dividing the volume of the tank by the average volumetric

flow

rate through the tank gives theresidence time, or the average

amount of time a discrete quantity of reagent spends inside the

tank.

Using chemical kinetics, the reaction's expectedpercent completion can be calculated. Some
important aspects of the CSTR:

At steady-state, the flow rate in must equal the mass flow rate out, otherwise the tank will
overflow or go empty (transient state). While the reactor is in a transient state the model
equation must be derived from the differential mass and energy balances.

The reaction proceeds at the reaction rate associated with the final
(output) concentration.

Often, it is economically beneficial to operate several CSTRs in series. This allows, for
example, the first CSTR to operate at a higher reagent concentration and therefore a
higher reaction rate. In these cases, the sizes of the reactors may be varied in order to
minimize the total capital investment required to implement the process.

It can be seen that an infinite number of infinitely small CSTRs operating in series would
be equivalent to a PFR.

The behavior of a CSTR is often approximated or modeled by that of a Continuous Ideally

Stirred-Tank Reactor (CISTR). All calculations performed with CISTRs assume perfect
mixing. If the residence time is 5-10 times the mixing time, this approximation is valid for
engineering purposes. The CISTR model is often used to simplify engineering calculations
and can be used to describe research reactors. In practice it can only be approached, in
particular in industrial size reactors.

PFR(Plug

Flow

Reactor)
A

tubular reactor is a vessel through which flow is continuous, usually at steady state, and
configured so that conversion of the chemicals and other dependent variables are functions of
position within the reactor rather than of time. In the ideal tubular reactor, the fluids flow as if
they were solid plugs or pistons, and reaction time is the same for all flowing material at any
given tube cross section. Tubular reactors resemble batch reactors in providing initially high
driving forces, which diminish as the reactions progress down the tubes.
Flow in tubular reactors can be laminar, as with viscous fluids in small-diameter tubes, and
greatly deviate from ideal plug-flow behavior, or turbulent, as with gases. Turbulent flow
generally is preferred to laminar flow, because mixing and heat transfer are improved. For slow

reactions and especially in small laboratory and pilot-plant reactors, establishing turbulent flow
can result in inconveniently long reactors or may require unacceptably high feed rates.
In a PFR, one or more fluid reagents are pumped through a pipe or tube. The chemical reaction
proceeds as the reagents travel through the PFR. In this type of reactor, the changing reaction
rate creates a gradient with respect to distance traversed; at the inlet to the PFR the rate is very
high, but as the concentrations of the reagents decrease and the concentration of the product(s)
increases the reaction rate slows. Some important aspects of the PFR:

All calculations performed with PFRs assume no upstream or downstream mixing, as

implied by the term "plug flow".

Reagents may be introduced into the PFR at locations in the reactor other than the inlet.
In this way, a higher efficiency may be obtained, or the size and cost of the PFR may be
reduced.

A PFR typically has a higher efficiency than a CSTR of the same volume. That is, given
the same space-time, a reaction will proceed to a higher percentage completion in a PFR than
in a CSTR.

Advantages and disadvantages

CSTRs (Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor) and PFRs have fundamentally different equations, so
the kinetics of the reaction being undertaken will to some extent determine which system should
be used. However there are a few general comments that can be made with regards to PFRs
compared to other reactor types.
Plug flow reactors have a high volumetric unit conversion, run for long periods of time without
maintenance, and the heat transfer rate can be optimized by using more, thinner tubes or fewer,
thicker tubes in parallel. Disadvantages of plug flow reactors are that temperatures are hard to
control and can result in undesirable temperature gradients. PFR maintenance is also more
expensive than CSTR maintenance. [2]
Through a recycle loop a PFR is able to approximate a CSTR in operation. This occurs due to a
decrease in the concentration change due to the smaller fraction of the flow determined by the
feed; in the limiting case of total recycling, infinite recycle ratio, the PFR perfectly mimics a
CSTR.

Applications
Plug flow reactors are used for some of the following applications:

Large-scale reactions
Fast reactions
Homogeneous or heterogeneous reactions
Continuous production
High-temperature reactions

Batch Reactor:

The Batch reactor is the generic term for a type of vessel widely used in the process industries.
Its name is something of a misnomer since vessels of this type are used for a variety of process
operations

such

as

solids

dissolution,

product

mixing,

chemical

reactions,

batch

distillationcrystallization, liquid/liquid extraction and polymerization. In some cases, they are not
referred to as reactors but have a name which reflects the role they perform (such as crystallizer,
or bio reactor).
A typical batch reactor consists of a tank with an agitator and integral heating/cooling system.
These vessels may vary in size from less than 1 litre to more than 15,000 litres. They are usually
fabricated in steel, stainless steel, glass linedsteel, glass or exotic alloy. Liquids and solids are
usually charged via connections in the top cover of the reactor. Vapors and gases also discharge
through connections in the top. Liquids are usually discharged out of the bottom.
The advantages of the batch reactor lie with its versatility. A single vessel can carry out a
sequence of different operations without the need to break containment. This is particularly
useful when processing, toxic or highly potent compounds.

Semi-batch reactor
A semi-batch reactor is operated with both continuous and batch inputs and outputs. A fermenter,
for example, is loaded with a batch, which constantly produces carbon dioxide, which has to be

removed continuously. Analogously, driving a reaction of gas with a liquid is usually difficult,
since the gas bubbles off. Therefore, a continuous feed of gas is injected into the batch of a
liquid.One chemical reactant is charged to the vessel and a second chemical is added slowly.

Catalytic reactor
Although catalytic reactors are often implemented as plug flow reactors, their analysis requires
more complicated treatment. The rate of a catalytic reaction is proportional to the amount of
catalyst the reagents contact. With a solid phase catalyst and fluid phase reagents, this is
proportional to the exposed area, efficiency of diffusion of reagents in and products out, and
turbulent mixing or lack thereof. Perfect mixing cannot be assumed. Furthermore, a catalytic
reaction pathway is often multi-step with intermediates that are chemically bound to the catalyst;
and as the chemical binding to the catalyst is also a chemical reaction, it may affect the kinetics.
The behavior of the catalyst is also a consideration. Particularly in high-temperature
petrochemical processes, catalysts are deactivated bysintering, coking, and similar processes.
A common example of a catalytic reactor is the catalytic converter following an engine.

References

Pak American Fertilizer Process Manual

http://www.scribd.com/doc/12256147/Chemical-Reactor-Design
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_reactor

http://openpdf.com/ebooks
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Freebookspot.com
http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=48