Chapter 3

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

CHAPTER 3
The Bipolar Junction Transistor
3.1. Transistor Structure. Operating Modes
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a semiconductor device formed by two pn
junctions. Therefore, it will have three alternating regions. It can be either a narrow n
type region placed between two p type layers (forming a pnp transistor), or a thin ptype region between two n- type layers (representing a npn transistor). Fig. 3.1 shows
the construction and symbols of the two kinds of BJTs. The three terminals of the
transistor are called emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C), respectively. The arrow at
the emitter indicates the conventional direction of the current through the device.
C

C
iC

iC
B

B
vEC

iB

p+
E

vEB

B
vCE

iB

iE

n+
E

vBE

iE

B - Base
E - Emitter
C - Collector

Fig 3.1 BJT construction and symbols: a) pnp transistor (left); b) npn transistor
(right)

The name BJT comes from the fact that the transistor operates with two type of
charge carriers, electrons and holes, in the same time. The first BJT was invented in
1947 at Bell Labs by William Shockley, Walter Brattain and John Bardeen. Their
invention was awarded with the Nobel Prize in 1956.

________________________________________________________________
The key fact in BJT manufacturing consists in making the middle layer (the base) as
thin as possible. Because of this feature, the transistor functionality differs from two
diodes placed back to back. Normally, the base - emitter (BE) junction is forward
biased, while the base collector (BC) junction is reverse biased (fig. 3.2). Also, the
emitter has a higher concentration of impurities than the other two layers. This is
marked by a p+ or n+ sign in fig. 3.1 and fig 3.2.
Since the BE junction is forward biased, the emitter electrons diffuse into the base.
Their flow produce the emitter current iE. To be noticed that the conventional current
direction is opposite to the electron flow direction.

iC

n
VBC

+
C
iC

+ + + + + + + +
- - - - - - - - - -

B
iB

p
- - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + +

vBE
VBE

vCE

iB
E

iE

+
-

n+

Electron
Hole

iE

Depletion region
Electron flow

Fig. 3.2 BJT operating principle illustrated for a npn type transistor

Chapter 3

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

A few of the emitter electrons recombine with the holes found into the base, thus
forming a very small current called the base current, iB. However, most of the emitter
electrons cross over into the BC depletion region, where the strong electric field found
here leads them directly into the collector, thus creating the collector current iC.
Practically 99% of the emitter current reaches the collector and only 1% flows into the
base. This happens because the base layer is very thin. (If it were not so, the majority
of the emitter electrons would recombine with the base holes, never reaching the
collector). The operation of a pnp type transistor is analogous to that of a npn type,
with the role of the charge carriers reversed.
From the above discussions, the following equations can be written for describing
the transistor operation:

i E i B iC ;
iC i B I CE 0

(3.1)

where is called current amplification factor (current gain). It is a dimensionless

number, typically in the range of 100 to 800. In the literature it is also denoted with
hFE. The term ICE0 is the leakage current produced by the minority charge carriers. It
can be neglected in practice. Since the base current iB is hundreds of times smaller than
the collector current iC, it can be neglected also in (3.1):

i E iC ;
iC i B .

(3.2)

Fig. 3.3 presents the typical physical

appearance of a transistor.
As can be noticed, the most important
feature of the transistor is the fact that it
can be used to control a large current to
pass between the emitter and collector, by
the means of a much smaller current (iB).
The device can be compared to a faucet,
E
C
E
where the flow of the water can be
C
B
controlled by opening /closing a control
B
knob. In the same way, a voltage or
Fig 3.3 BJT common packages
current applied to the transistor base may
allow much or less current to pass between
the emitter and the collector. At the limit, the device can be completely closed, when
iC = 0 and the transistor is blocked. This operation mode is called cut off regime and
corresponds to the case when both junctions are reverse-biased. On the other hand, the
device can be made maximum opened when the collector current is maximum. This
mode is called saturation, and corresponds to the case when both junctions are forward
biased. Therefore the transistor can be used as a switch when operating in one of these
two modes (cut-off / saturation). Between the two limits, the device works as an

________________________________________________________________
amplifier. The current gain is a measure of the transistor effectiveness as an
amplifying device.
In many applications the transistor can be
C
connected using one of the following three
possible configurations: common emitter
iC
(CE), common base (CB) or common collector
(CC), depending on which terminal is
B
common between the input and the output
vCE
(fig. 3.4). Among them, the most used
iB
configuration is the CE connection.
vBE
iE
It can be noticed (equation (3.1) and
E
fig.3.1) that two currents and two voltages are
sufficient to specify the transistor operation.
(The third one can be computed from the
C
E
other two.)
Also the transistor operation can be
iE
iC
described by its i-v characteristics. For the
vEB
vCB
CE connection, they are defined as follows:
iB
B
a) The input characteristic relates the input
current iB with the input voltage vBE, when the
E
output voltage vCE remains constant:

i B iB v BE vCE const.

b) The output characteristic relates the

output current iC with the output voltage vCE,
with the condition that the input current iB is
kept constant:

iC iC vCE iB const.

(3.4)

c) Finally, the transfer characteristic is

defined by the variation of the output current
iC versus the input voltage vBE, when the
output voltage vCE is maintained constant:

iC iC v BE vCE const.

iE

(3.3)
B

vBC

vEC
iB
C

iC

Fig. 3.4 BJT main connections: a) CE

(top); b) CB (middle); c) CC (bottom)

(3.5)

If the constant parameter in the above equations is varied, a family of

characteristics can be drawn, each curve corresponding to a certain parameter. The
common emitter i-v qualitative characteristics are depicted in Fig. 3.5.
The most important of all these are the output characteristics, since they can be
used to describe the transistor behavior. In the (iC, vCE) plane four main regions can be
defined (fig. 3.5c), corresponding to four different operating modes of the BJT. The
features of each region are summarized below:

Chapter 3

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

a) The cut-off region is characterized by the fact that both junctions are reverse
biased, therefore iB 0, and consequently iC 0. In conclusion no current flows
through the transistor.
VCE1 VCE2

iB

iC

vCE = const.

vCE = const.
VCE2 > VCE1
0

0
0.6V

0.6V

vBE

vBE

iC
ICMax

Breakdown

Saturation
Active Region

IB4

IB3
IB2
IB1
ICE0

IB=0

0
VCE,Sat

Cut-off

VCE,Max vCE

Fig. 3.5 Typical i-v characteristics for a npn BJT operating in the CE mode: a) input curves (top
left hand corner); b) transfer characteristic (top right-hand corner); c) output characteristic
(bottom)

b) The saturation region corresponds to the case when both junctions are forward
biased. The collector current iC reaches its maximum. Also the collector emitter voltage
vCE is smaller than the base emitter voltage, vBE (typical VCE,sat 0.2 V)

________________________________________________________________
c) The active region has the base emitter junction forward biased, while the base
collector junction is reverse biased. In this case the transistor acts as a linear amplifier.
The collector current iC can be controlled by the base current iB, according to (3.2).
Also the collector emitter voltage has to be such that VBE < VCE < VCC, where VCC is
the value of the voltage supply.
d) The breakdown region corresponds to the situation when iC and vCE exceed the
specifications given in the transistor data sheet. Above these values the transistor is
damaged.
Table 3.1 summarizes the main transistor parameters that can be found in a data
sheet, for BC 108, a general purpose npn transistor.
Table 3.1. Typical ratings for BC 108, a common npn transistor, at room temperature (25C)
Symbol
ICE0
VCE0 Max
VCE,sat
IC Max
PD
hFE min

Parameter

BC 108

Collector cut - off current

Maximum value of collector-emitter voltage with the base terminal
left open circuit (IB = 0)
Collector emitter saturation voltage (at IC = 100 mV)
Collector current maximum value
Maximum total power dissipation
Minimum DC current gain at IC = 2mA

15 A
20 V
0.2 V
100 mA
300 mW
110

3.2. BJT Operating Point

The operating point (Q point or bias point) of the BJT is defined as the DC
component pair of the collector current ICQ and the collector emitter voltage VCEQ:

I CQ
Q Q
VCE

(3.6)

Graphically, the operating point is situated at the intersection of the load line and
the output i-v characteristic of the transistor (fig. 3.6). It can be noticed that when the
base current IB decreases, the corresponding Q point approaches the cut off region.
Conversely, as IB increases, it falls near the saturation region. Therefore, when
designing a transistor amplifier, the Q point has to be chosen as much as possible in the
middle of the active region.
A practical diagram for biasing the BJT is shown in fig. 3.7. It is called the selfbias circuit and has several advantages compared to other types of biasing diagrams.
First of all, it is better from a practical perspective, since it doesnt require two voltage
sources. Secondly, the Q point can be stabilized so it doesnt depend on the current
gain, which may vary in a wide range (e.g. 100 800) from transistor to transistor.
This can be done by choosing proper values of the base resistors, so that the base
current IB is much smaller than the divider current ID. Typically it is required that

Chapter 3

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

iC
Saturation
Active Region

IB

ICQ

vCE

0
Cut-off

VCEQ
Load line
Fig. 3.6 Graphical interpretation of the BJT operating point

I D 10 I B

(3.7)

Generally, the algorithm summarized in

fig. 3.8 can be used for performing the DC
analysis of a circuit containing transistors
working in the active region.
In the first step of this algorithm all
capacitors can be replaced with open
circuits, since their reactance

XC

1
C

(3.8)

RC
RB1
100k
IBQ

ID

ICQ
5k
VC
VCEQ

VB
VE

VBE0
RB2
50k

VCC
+15V

IEQ

RE
3k

is practically infinite at zero frequency

(DC regime). Also, the signal sources are
Fig. 3.7 Typical circuit for biasing the BJT
being replaced by short-circuits. For
example, the circuit shown in fig. 3.7
represents already the DC equivalent diagram of a single transistor amplifier (the AC
varying source, the load and the coupling capacitors were not presented yet.).
In the second step, on the resulted diagram, it is important to mark the transistor
currents and voltages with their corresponding conventional directions (as shown in
fig. 3.1).

________________________________________________________________
Next, the transistor equations can be
written in their simplified form (3.2).
Also, the base emitter voltage can be
assumed equal with the offset voltage of
forward biased pn junction:

VBE 0 0.6 V

1. Plot the DC
equivalent circuit

2. Mark transistor
currents and
voltages

(3.9)

The equations given by the external

circuit can be obtained by applying
Kirchhoff Laws, Ohms Law, the voltage
divider rule, the Thevenin theorem, etc.
In the current example (fig. 3.7), after
applying the Thevenin theorem between
the transistor terminal base and the
ground, a simplified diagram like the one
shown in fig. 3.9can be obtained, where:

VBB

3. Write the
transistor equations
(3.2)

4. Write the external

circuit equations

RB 2
VCC 5 V
RB1 RB 2

5. Solve to find the

unknown quantities

RBB RB1 || RB 2 33.3 k

Next, by applying Kirchhoff second law,
around the left loop, and taking into
account the transistor equations (3.2) the
collector current can be derived
immediately:

I CQ

VBB VBE 0
RBB RE

VCC
+15V

(3.10)

It can be noticed that generally ICQ

depends on the current gain . In
practice this relation is undesirable,
due to the large range variation of this
parameter. In turn this may cause a
significant variation of the Q point,
which is required to be as stable as
possible inside the active region.
This inconvenient can be avoided
if

RBB RE

Fig. 3.8 General algorithm for DC analysis

of transistor circuits

ICQ

RC
5k
VC

IBQ

VCEQ
RBB
VBB

+
-

VBE0
IEQ

VE
RE
3k

VCC

+
-

(3.11)

which is satisfied in the current

example for 100.

Fig. 3.9 Equivalent diagram obtained by applyin

the Thevenin Theorem for the circuit in fig. 3.7

Chapter 3

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

Then the bias point collector current can be approximated as:

I CQ

VBB VBE 0
1.47 mA
RE

(3.12)

The collector-emitter voltage, VCEQ can be drawn from the second Kirchhoff law
written for the loop on the right:
Q
VCE
VCC RC RE I CQ 3.24 V

(3.13)

Thus it can be concluded that the operating point in the current example is ICQ =
1.47 mA and VCEQ = 3.24 V.
The same result can be obtained directly, if neglecting the base current IBQ relative
to the divider current ID. The left branch of the circuit in fig.3.7 can be approximated
with a voltage divider. Then the base voltage VB can be computed easily by applying
the voltage divider rule:

VB

RB 2
VCC 5 V
RB1 RB 2

(3.14)

Next the emitter voltage and current can be obtained immediately from the bottom-left
loop:

VE VB VBE 0 4.4 V
I EQ I CQ

VE
1.47 mA
RE

(3.15)

The collector- emitter voltage VCEQ is computed identically with (3.13).

The initial assumption (3.7) can be next verified by comparing the two currents:

ID

VCC VB
0.1 mA
RB1

(3.16)

If the minimum value of the current gain = 100,

I BQ

I CQ

0.014 mA I D

Finally it can be concluded that the initial assumption was true.

The load line equation can also be drawn from the second Kirchhoff law written for
the loop on the right, similar to (3.13:

VCC RC RE iC vCE

(3.17)

This line can be plotted in the( iC, vCE) plane by finding the intercepts with the axes
(fig.3.10):

iC 0 vCE VCC 15 V ;

V CC

vCE 0 iC R R 1.875 mA
C
E

(3.18)

________________________________________________________________
iC[mA]
Saturation

VCC
RC+RE
ICQ
1.47

Active Region
ic

1.875

Ic

Qopt

ICQopt
0.94

VCEQ

VCEQopt

vCE[V]

7.5

3.24

VCC
15

Vce

Cut-off

Load line

Fig. 3.10 The load line and the Q point

It can also be noticed in fig.3.10 that the

position of the Q point is indeed in the active
region, thus the transistor works as an
amplifier, as desired. However, when a signal
source is applied at the input, the transistor
currents and voltages will have variations
around their DC values. If the input signal
amplitude is increased, the total collector
current iC or the collector emitter voltage
vCE may extend beyond the active region
boundaries reaching into the saturation or
into the cut-off domains. In this case, the
signal at the amplifiers output may be
distorted (fig. 3.11). Thus, if a sine wave is
applied at the input, the voltage at the
amplifiers output may present flattened
peaks. The decomposition in Fourier series of
this waveform leads to additional superior

vi(t), vO(t)
Vi
t[s]

time
0
t[s]

-Vi

t[s]

Input signal vi(t)

Output signal vO (t)
Fig 3.11 Signal distortion example

Chapter 3

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

11

harmonics. For example in audio applications the listening quality may be seriously
affected.
In order to obtain a maximum gain from the amplifier and in the same time no
output signal distortions, it is a good practice to choose the transistors bias point as
much as possible in the middle of the load line segment from the active region
(fig.3.10). This particular operating point is called optimum, Qopt. In the current
example,

Qopt

VCC
Q
I C 2 R R 0.94 mA
C
E

V
V Q CC 7.5 V
CE
2

(3.19)

Example 1
In the above circuit (fig. 3.7), often the inverse problem might arise: for example to
find the resistances RB1 and RB2, such that the transistor works in its optimum Q point.
It is assumed that the total value of the base resistors remains the same i.e. 150 k.
In this case the analysis starts from the tail to the head. First, the emitter voltage VE
is found:

VE I CQ RE 0.94 3 2.8 V

(3.20)

The base voltage VB can be computed next, from the bottom-left loop:

VB VE VBE 0 2.8 0.6 3.4 V

(3.21)

Requiring the condition (3.7), thus assuming IB >> ID, then it follows that:

VCC
15

0.1 mA
RB1 RB 2 150

(3.22)

VB 3.4

34 k
I D 0.1

(3.23)

RB1 150 34 116 k

(3.24)

ID
Still at the same time,

RB 2
and therefore,

If the value of the total base resistance RB1 + RB2 is not given, then the divider
current ID has to be chosen, according to (3.7) considering the worst conditions. For
example assuming the minimum value of the current gain factor min = 100, it follows
that

I BMax

Q
I Copt

min

0.94
0.0094 mA
100

________________________________________________________________
and therefore the divider current can be chosen ten times higher:

I D 10 I BMax 0.094 mA
Consequently,
V
15
RB1 RB 2 CC
159.6 k
ID
0.094

(3.25)

The rest of the problem can be solved in a similar manner, by following the same
equations (3.23 3.24) and choosing a proper RB1 + RB2 value, according to (3.25).
3.3. BJT Large Signal Model
The large signal model describes the behavior of the transistor in the presence of
relatively large base and collector currents. It includes all three basic operating modes
highlighted previously, in the output characteristic plane (fig. 3.6).
Thus, in the cut-off region, both junctions are reverse biased. The collector current
is given by the small leakage current

I C I CE0 0

(3.26)

Therefore, it acts virtually as an open circuit and can be replaced by the corresponding
circuit shown in fig. 3.12 a, where ICE0 denotes a very small current source.
In the active mode the BE junction is forward biased, therefore it can be modeled by
a DC voltage source VBE = 0.6 V, placed between the base and the emitter. At the same
time, the BC junction is reverse biased, so there is an open circuit between these two
terminals. In this case the base current is amplified by the gain factor at the collector
according to (3.2), and thus IC can be modeled by a current source IB, as shown in
fig. 3.12 b.
Finally, in the saturation regime both junctions are forward biased. Again the BE
junction can be replaced by a DC voltage source VBE = 0.6 V as in the previous case.
Also, the voltage drop between the collector and the emitter is very small (typically
less than 0.2 V). Thus an additional DC voltage source VCE,sat can be placed between
these two terminals to specify this property (fig. 3.12 c). (Evidently, since VBE > VCE,sat
the BC junction still remains forward biased).
Example 2
In some microcomputer applications it is required to turn on an off an LED from
one of its digital output ports. A transistor has to be employed to drive the LED device
as shown in fig. 3.13 a. It is known that VBE0 = 0.6V; VCEsat = 0.2V; = 65. The LED is
turned on at VLED = 1.4V and ILED > 15mA. Also its maximum dissipated power is PMax
= 100mW. On the other hand, the microcomputer output resistance is RB=1k and its
output voltage levels corresponding to the off and on states are VOFF = 0V and VON =
5V, respectively. Also it can provide an output current no more than 5 mA.

Chapter 3

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

13

iC
Saturation

Active Region

C
IC
B

+ - IB

VBE

C
VCE, sat
B

IB
E

IC=IB

+ VBE

vCE

ICE0
0

VCE,Sat

Cut-off
C
ICE0 0
B
E

Fig. 3.12 The large signal models of the BJT: a) Cut off mode bottom; b) Active
mode - top right hand corner; c) Saturation top left hand corner.

The transistor large signal model can be used to find the collector resistance RC for
this application. It is also required to check if the power dissipated by the LED doesnt
exceed the maximum limit.
When the microcomputer voltage is V1 = VOFF = 0, the transistor is obviously in its
cut off region since the BE junction is reverse biased. Thus IB = 0, and therefore IC 0
also, so the LED is off (fig. 3.13 b).
On the other hand, when the microcomputer voltage is V1 = VON = 5V, the transistor
has to be biased in its saturation region. It follows that the device can be replaced by
DC voltage sources: VBE0 = 0.6V between the base and the emitter and VCEsat = 0.2V
between the collector and the emitter, respectively (fig. 3.13 c).
The Kirchhoff second law written for the loop on the right gives:

RC

VCC VLED VCE,sat

IC

________________________________________________________________
At the same time,

+VCC

IC I LED 15 mA

IC

RC

Therefore, it follows that

RC

5V

5 1.4 0.2
220
15

VLED

If for example the chosen collector resistance

is RC = 110 , then the collector current will be

IC

IB

5 1.4 0.2
30 mA
0.11

VC
VCE

In this last case, the power dissipated by the

LED

RB
1k VBE0

V1

VE

PLED I C VLED 30 1.4 42 mW 100mW

doesnt exceed the maximum power limit PMax
+VCC
RC

Fig. 3.13 a) LED driver circuit

+VCC

5V

5V
IC

RC

IC

VLED

VLED
VC
IB = 0
RB
1k
VI=0

ICE0 0

B
VE
VBE0

IC
IB

VB

+ - -

RB
VI=5V

1k

VC

VCE, sat

VE
VBE0

Fig. 3.13 b) BJT replaced by its cut-off model (left); c) BJT replaced by its
saturation model (right)

It can be noticed that the transistor in this example works indeed in the saturation
mode. Evidently, the collector voltage VC = VCE,sat = 0.2V is smaller than the base
voltage VB= VBE0 = 0.6V, and thus the BC junction is forward biased (like the BE
junction). From the left loop it can be drawn that

Chapter 3

IB

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

15

VON VBE 0 5 0.6

4.4mA
RB
1

However, it can be seen that equation (3.2b) cannot be applied here anymore since
it will lead to a different result:

I C I B 95 4.4 418 mA
3.4. BJT Small Signal Model
The small signal models of the BJT are based on the fact that the transistor
characteristics can be assumed linear in the neighborhood of the operating point. These
models can be applied when the amplitudes of voltages and currents are much smaller
than the values from the Q point. Typically, the small signal condition is given by

Vbe Vth 25 mV / 25C

(3.27)

This condition is usually satisfied in practice (e.g. amplifiers used to magnify low
level voltages acquired by various sensors).
There are known many models which approximate the dynamic behavior of a BJT
such as the natural model (also known as the Giacoletto model), the hybrid parameter
(h-parameter) model, etc.
i2 = iC
In the following discussion, the
2
C
hybrid parameter model is used.
According to this representation the
transistor is regarded as a
i1= iB
B
quadripole (a two port device). The
1
v2 = vCE
base and emitter terminals represent
the input port, denoted 11 (fig.
3.14). In the same manner, the v1 = vBE
collector and emitter terminals form
E
2
1
the output port, 22. Obviously, in
this representation the emitter is
common between the two ports.
Fig. 3.14 Transistor modeled as a quadripole (two
port device)
The transistor is thus modeled as
a black box with its properties
defined by a matrix of parameters, specified also in the device data sheets:

v1 h11e
i h
2 21e

h12e i1

h22e v 2

(3.28)

where the index e denotes the fact that the transistor has the common emitter
connection. Equivalently, it can be written that:

________________________________________________________________
v1 h11e i1 h12e v 2

i2 h21e i1 h22e v 2

(3.29)

Thus the first parameter h11e is defined as the input impedance when the output
voltage variation around the Q point is zero:
d

h11e

v1
i1

(3.30)
v2 0

Knowing that

v1 v BE ; v2 vCE ; i1 iB ; i2 iC

(3.31)

it follows that graphically, the h11e parameter represents the slope to the input
characteristic, taken in the Q point (fig.3.15), since evidently it can also be written as:

h11e

Vbe
Ib

(3.32)
vCE const

where Vbe, Ib denote the small signal amplitudes of voltage and current.
iB
tg h11e
ib

Ib

IBQ

vBE

0
VBEQ
vbe
Vbe

BJT input characteristic

for vCE = VCEQ
Linear approximation
around the Q point
The Load line

Fig. 3.15 Graphical interpretation of the h11e parameter

Sometimes h11e is also denoted hie, to indicate an input parameter. Typically it

ranges within a few kilo ohms, h11e = 2k 4 k.

Chapter 3

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

17

The second parameter denoted in (3.28) with h12e is defined as the input to output
voltage ratio, thus is a dimensionless quantity. It represents the reverse voltage gain
factor when the input is open:

v
h12e 1
v2

(3.33)
i1 0

In terms of transistor voltages and currents,

equation (3.33) can be written as:

h12e

Vbe
Vce

IBQ

2Vce

iB = const.

(3.34)
iB const.

Fig. 3.16 presents the graphical interpretation

of this parameter. In the literature it is also
denoted hre (reverse parameter). Typically,

h12e 10

VCEQ

iB

but in practice it is usually neglected.

Another h- parameter, denoted h21e in (3.28) is
the current gain factor computed when the
output voltage variation is zero:

i2
i1

h21e

0
VBEQ

vBE

2Vbe

Fig. 3.16 Graphical interpretation

of the h12e parameter

(3.35)
v2 0

It is also identical with:

Ic
Ib

h21e

(3.36)
vCE const.

This parameter represents the current gain of the BJT and is approximately equal to
the transistor parameter described by (3.1) (3.2). In the literature it is also denoted
with hfe (forward parameter). The graphical interpretation of h21e is shown in fig.3.17a.
Finally, the last parameter in (3.28) is h22e. It is defined as the output admittance
when the output is kept open:
d

h22e

i2
v2

(3.37)
i1 0

Clearly it can also be expressed in terms of transistor voltages and currents as:

h22e

Ic
Vce

(3.38)
iB const.

________________________________________________________________
Its graphical interpretation is depicted in fig. 3.17 b. This parameter indicates that
the output characteristic is not exactly flat. Precisely, h22e represents the slope of the
output characteristic with the horizontal axis, in the Q point. It has units of
conductance (i.e. Siemens). Typically, h22e 10-5 S, or h22e-1 100 k. In many
applications this parameter can be neglected. In the literature this h22e is also denoted
hoe (specifying an output parameter).
iC
IBQ + Ib

2Ic

IBQ

ICQ

IBQ - Ib
vCE

0
VCEQ
iC

2Ic

ICQ

IBQ

tg h22e
vCE

0
VCEQ
2Vce

Fig. 3.17 Graphical interpretations of the BJT small signal h parameters:

a) h21e (vCE = VCEQ = const.) top; b) h21e (iB = IBQ = const.) bottom.

Assembling the previous definitions, the BJT small signal model for medium
frequencies can be derived and is presented in fig. 3.18.

Chapter 3

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

i2 = Ic

i1= Ib

h11e

1
h22e

v2 = Vce

E
1

Ic

Ib

Vbe

h21eIb

v1 = Vbe
h12eVce

19

h21eIb

h11e

Vce

Neglected
parameter

Fig. 3.18 BJT h-parameter small signal model for medium scale
frequencies: a) Complete diagram (top); b) Simplified model (bottom)

3.5. The Transconductance

Another useful small signal parameter is the transfer conductance or simply the
transconductance. It is defined as the local slope of the transfer characteristic (fig.
3.19) and is denoted with gm:
d

gm

iC
v BE

Q po int

Ic
Vbe

Q po int

I I
c b
I b Vbe Q po int

(3.39)

Therefore the transconductance can be expressed in mA/V. Taking into consideration

the equations (3.32) and (3.36), it follows immediately that gm can also be written as:

gm

h21e
h11e

(3.40)

On the other hand, it can be shown that:

I CQ
gm
;
Vth

Vth

kT
25 mV / 25C
q

(3.41)

________________________________________________________________
Thus, assuming the room ambient temperature (25C), in most applications the
transconductance can be computed as:

g m 40 I CQ

(3.42)

It can be noticed that the collector current in the BJT h- parameter model (fig. 3.18)
can also be computed in terms of the transconductance:

I c h21e I b h11e g m I b g m Vbe

(3.43)

iC

ic
Ic

ICQ

vBE

tg gm

VBEQ
vbe
Vbe

BJT transfer characteristic

for vCE = VCEQ
Linear approximation
around the Q point
The Load line

Fig. 3.19 Graphical interpretation of the BJT transconductance, gm

3.6. Using the h- Parameter Model in AC Circuit Analysis

Fig. 3.20 a presents a typical voltage amplifier using a single BJT - common
emitter connection. It can be observed that this circuit contains two voltage sources.
The DC voltage source VCC is required for biasing the transistor in the active region so
that it can work as an amplifier. On the other hand, the AC source vg provides the
variable signal to be amplified.
Usually it is more convenient to analyze such circuits in two steps, applying the
superposition theorem. The DC analysis can be performed first, by considering inactive
the AC source vg. The DC components of voltage/ currents can be computed for
example by following the general algorithm described in section 3.2, fig. 3.8. The AC
analysis can be done next, in order to determine the small signal components which are
superimposed over their DC values. Typically, the quantities which are usually

Chapter 3

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

21

required when performing the AC analysis are the voltage gain, Av and the input /
output circuit resistances Ri and Ro, respectively, as defined below:
d

Av

Vo
;
Vi

dV
V
Ri i ; Ro o
Ii
Io

(3.44)

.
Vg 0

This amplifier can also be referred as a two port circuit (fig. 3.20 b) for which the
quantities defined in (3.44) are sufficient to describe its functionality.
VCC
+15V

RB1
ID

RC
5k

ICQ

C2 +1600
5V

VC
Rg

Ii

C1

VB

VCEQ

600
+ Vg

ICQ

Vi
vi

~
-

3k

vg

+
Ri

RL
50k
50k

CE

Ro

600
600

Vi
vi

Vo
vO

ICQ

RE

RB2

Ii

Rg
+ Vg
-

VE

VBE0

AvVi

Io

Vo
vO

Fig. 3.20 Voltage amplifier. a) Typical single transistor diagram

(top); b) Two-port equivalent circuit (bottom)

RL
50k
50k

________________________________________________________________
In the above diagram depicted in fig 3.20a, the capacitors are chosen such that at
the working frequency (usually a few kilohertz), their reactance can be neglected,
compared to the circuit resistances. For example, if the capacitor value is chosen 1 F
its reactance at 5 kHz will not exceed 100 ohms.

XC

1
1
1

32
C 2fC 2 3.14 5 10 3 10 6

Like in the DC case, an algorithm can be developed for performing the AC analysis
too. The steps of this procedure are being summarized in fig. 3.21.
Thus in the first step, the AC equivalent circuit has to be plotted, taking into account
that all capacitors can now be replaced by
shortcircuits (wires). In addition to this, the DC
1. Plot the AC
voltage source VCC is passivated and can also be
equivalent circuit
replaced by a shortcircuit between its terminals.
The AC equivalent circuit for the amplifier
presented in fig. 3.20a is shown in fig. 3.22a.
2. Replace the
transistor by its
Next, the transistor can be replaced by its
small signal model
simplified h-parameter small-signal model
discussed in section 3.4, fig 3.18b. The resulted
diagram for the current example is shown in fig.
3. Mark voltages
3.22b.
and currents
The currents and voltages will be marked on
the new circuit usually using small letters (for
variations), or capital letters with small
4. Compute the
subscripts (for amplitudes). The transistor
transistor smallcurrents/
voltages
will
respect
their
signal parameters
conventional directions.
The BJT the small signal parameters h11e and
gm can be found with the help of the equations
5. Write circuit
(3.40) and (3.42), and the value of the collector
equations
current from the Q point, computed in the DC
analysis stage.
Next, linear circuit equations can be written
for the AC diagram using the Kirchhoff laws,
6. Solve to find the
AC quantities
Ohms law, the voltage divider rule, etc.
Finally, the AC required quantities such as
the voltage gain, the input and output
Fig. 3.21 General algorithm for AC
resistances, can be computed from their
analysis of transistor circuits
definitions (3.44) and the equations written in
the previous step.

Chapter 3

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

23

Example 3
For the amplifier shown in fig. 3.20a, knowing that the transistor has min = 50 and
VBE0 = 0.6 V the first question is to find the base resistances RB1 and RB2 such that a
maximum voltage gain is obtained and in the same time the output signal is free of
distortions.
In this situation, the voltage, current and power gains are to be computed, together
with the amplifiers input and output resistances, given the fact that h21e = 200.
Finally, the value of the coupling capacitors C1 and C2 are required, that will permit
the transistor to operate in the audio range.
For this example, the load line equation, the optimum Q point and the emitter and
base voltages are given by (3.17) (3.21), as shown previously in section 3.2. The base
resistors RB1 and RB2 can be computed in a similar way as in Example 1. Thus, for
min= 50, the current flowing through the base voltage divider can be taken

I D 10 I BMax 10

I CQ

min

0.19 mA

Therefore, the base resistances can be chosen accordingly:

RB1

VCC VB 15 3.4

61 k
ID
0.19

RB2

VB
3.4

18 k
I D 0.19

In order to perform the AC analysis of the amplifier, the corresponding AC

equivalent circuit is derived (fig. 3.22), by following the steps specified in the general
algorithm described previously (fig. 3.21).
Ic

Io

C
Rg

+
Vg

~
-

~
600

Ib

Ii

600 V

RB1

RB2

vi

61 k

18 k

vg

vg

vg

Ri

T
B

RC
5k

RL
50 k

vg

vg

Ri,T

Fig. 3.22 AC equivalent circuit for the amplifier in fig. 3.21

Vo
vi

________________________________________________________________
Here Ri,T denotes the transistor input resistance, defined by
d

Ri ,T

Vi
Ib

(3.45)

Fig. 3.23 presents also the AC circuit with the transistor replaced by its equivalent
small signal h-parameter simplified model (fig. 3.18).
Rg Ii

+
Vg

~
-

Ib

~
600

RB
14 k

600 V

vg

vi

Ib

Ic

Vce

h21eIb

Vbe h11e

(gmVbe)

vg
E

RC||RL
4.5k

Vo
vi

vg

Ri,T

Ri

Fig. 3.23 AC diagram for the amplifier in fig. 3.21 with the transistor
replaced by its small signal model

In this equivalent diagram

RB RB1 || RB2 14 k

(3.46)

It can be noticed that the input transistor resistance can be derived from Ohms
Law:

Ri ,T

Vi
h11e
Ib

(3.47)

and the parameter h11e can be computed from (3.40) - (3.42):

h11e

h21e
h
200
21e Q
4.7 k
g m 40 I C 40 0.94

Consequently, the input amplifier resistance will be in this case

Ri

Vi
RB || Ri ,T 14 k || 4.7 k 3.4 k Ri ,T
Ii

The voltage gain can be written as a product of three fractions

Av

Vo Vo I c I b

Vi I c I b Vi

where each term can be computed easily. Thus,

(3.48)

Chapter 3

Av

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

Vo I c I b
1
1
RC || RL h21e
RC || RL h21e
I c I b Vi
Ri ,T
h11e

25

(3.49)

g m RC || RL 40 0.94 4.5 169.

The minus sign in the voltage gain expression (3.49) indicates the fact that the
phase shift between the output and the input voltage is 180.
Also, noticing that the input signal generator resistance Rg and the input amplifier
equivalent resistance Ri form a voltage divider, the voltage gain relative to the voltage
source Avg, can be written as:

Avg

Vo Vo Vi
Ri
3.4

Av
169
143
Vg Vi Vg
Ri Rg
3.4 0.6

(3.50)

The output resistance of the transistor Ro,T is defined as the equivalent resistance
seen at the output of the device, when the input is short circuit to the ground while an
external source is connected at the output (fig. 3.24). In this case the base current Ib=0
and consequently Ic=0. It follows therefore that :
d

Ro ,T

Vo
Ic

(3.51)

Vg 0

Thus, the output resistance of the amplifier will be:

d

Ro

Vo
Io

RC || Ro ,T RC 5k

(3.52)

Vg 0

Io

Ic
C
T
Rg

~
600
600

Vi=0
vvgi

Ib=0

RB
14 k
vg

RC
5k

RL
50 k

vg

vg

Vo
vi

Ro,T

Ro

Fig. 3.24 Circuit configuration for computing the output resistances

In a similar manner, the current gain Ai of the amplifier can be put in the form:

________________________________________________________________

Ai

Io Io Ic Ib

Ii Ic Ib Ii

(3.53)

The first and the last fractions in (3.53) can be computed by applying the current
divider rule, it follows that:

RC
RB
h21e
13
RC RL
RB Ri ,T

Ai

Finally, the power gain Ap will be given by:

Ap

Po Vo I o

Av Ai 1859
Pi Vi I i

In conclusion, the transistor in this example amplifies both voltage and current, and
thus amplifies in power.
The capacitors C1 and C2 in the amplifier diagram in fig.3.20a are designed to
perform the coupling of the AC source and the load to the remainder of the circuit (For
this reason they are called coupling capacitors). Basically, they have to provide
separate paths for the DC and AC components in the circuit. Evidently, they act as
open circuits for the DC voltages and currents, allowing the transistor to be biased in
the active region, so it may work as an amplifier. On the other hand, their impedances
have to be negligible at the working frequencies, so they can act as short circuits, thus
connecting the AC source and the load to the amplifier. The emitter capacitor CE
(called emitter bypass capacitor or decoupling capacitor) serves a similar purpose, i.e.
to provide a stable DC bias point and on the other hand, to increase the amplifier gain.
The audio frequency domain is considered between 20 Hz and 20 kHz. It follows
that the capacitive reactance of C1 has to be much smaller than the equivalent
resistance seen by the capacitor between its terminals.

X C1

1
Rg Ri
2f L C1

(3.54)

even at the lowest frequency fL = 20 Hz. Thus, C1 >> 2F. For example it can be
chosen 22F, a standard value. In a similar way,

X C2

1
Ro RL
2f L C 2

(3.55)

Therefore, C2 >> 0.14 F, so its value can be chosen for example 2F.
Finally, the emitter bypass capacitor sees across its terminals two resistances
connected in parallel: RE and the equivalent resistance of the transistor between its
emitter and ground, Ri,TE (fig. 3.25)

Ri ,TE

h11e I b RB || Rg I b h11e RB || Rg
Ve

Ie
I b h21e I b
h21e 1

(3.56)

Chapter 3

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

27

C
Ie

Ic
Ib

Ve

RC||RL

Rg||Ri

Ie
h11e

Vbe

Ib

Ic
RC||RL

Ve
B
Ib

Rg||Ri

Fig. 3.25 Circuit configuration for computing equivalent resistance

in the emitter of the BJT

It can be noticed in (3.56) that Rg << RB and thus Rg || RB Rg . Therefore,

Ri ,TE

h11e R g

(3.57)

h21e 1

After replacing the corresponding values, Ri,TE 26, which is a small resistance. The
bypass emitter capacitor has to be chosen such that

X CE

1
RE || Ri ,TE
2f L C E

(3.58)

or

C E

2f L RE || Ri ,TE

300F

The capacity for this case can be chosen at least ten times higher than the computed
value, i.e. 3000F, which is a high capacity. Yet in practice it would be reasonable to
select a somewhat a smaller value (e.g. 1000 F).