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DEDICATION
To my Mother, Cyprose Oluya, true example of unconditional love and boundless support, to
whom I owe everything.
To my Brothers and Sister, Byron, Bell, Brandsar ,Baker and Brenda, my partners in the Quest.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank my supervisor Prof. M. K. Mang'oli for his guidance, useful hints and
directions proved to be the strong foundation upon which the project was built.
I wish to sincerely express my heart-felt gratitude to my Lecturers in the Department of
Electrical and Electronic Engineering for the enlightening experience in the field of Engineering.
More thanks to Eng. Osewe for the useful practical knowledge he provided to me with regards to
my project.
I am also grateful to my family for providing me with the moral support through this project,
interest and encouragement
To the Almighty God, whom all the glory and honor belongs.
ABSTRACT
Power systems grounding is probably the most misunderstood element of any Power systems
design. This project studies the characteristics of different Power Systems Grounding techniques
as currently applied
distribution network Protective Multiple Earthing (PME) which is a variant of the neutral
earthing is the most widely adopted earthing system arrangement. In this project a comparative
study of PME and Isolated systems is carried out investigating their fault behavior, safety and
requirements. An experiment to demonstrate that there is continuous power dissipation to ground
even under normal system operating conditions in the PME system is also performed and based
on the findings of the study, a recommendation for the Isolated system where and when possible
is made.
Keywords : PME analysis, quantification of power losses
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.0: Direct and Indirect contact ..4
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Typical Formulae for Calculating Earth resistance...8
Table 2.2: Minimum sizes for Steel earth electrodes..8
Table 2.3: Minimum sizes for copper earth electrodes...9
Table 2.4: Minimum standard cross-sectional areas for PEs..9
Table 2.5: The cross-sectional area of MEBs....10
Table 2.7: Minimum cross-sectional Areas of Earthing Conductors....11
Table 3.1: Maximum disconnecting time for AC final circuits not exceeding 32 A...29
Table 3.2: Maximum disconnection time in the IT earthing system (second fault).32
Table 3.3: capacitive values for HF filters built into various devices...39
Description
VS
Step Voltage
VT
Touch Voltage
Rod length
Rod radius
Soil resistivity
IG
IPH
ZE
Earthing Impedance
PME
ZPH
RCD
ECP
ZC
EXCP
EMC
Electromagnetic compatibility
EMI
Electromagnetic interference
ZS
Ia
PEN
TN
ZPEN
PE
IT
TN-C
A neutral grounded electrical supply system where the neutral serves as the
protective conductor, i.e. PEN conductor
TN-C-S
TN-S
A neutral grounded electrical supply system with separate neutral and protective
earthed (PE) conductors
TT
A neutral grounded electrical supply system where the source neutral and the
electrical equipment are grounded
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In many cases, misunderstood concepts and perceptions of the purpose and type of Power
Systems grounding to be selected dates back to the 1940's and earlier. Since that time much
research, coupled with experience, has taken place that is now available to industry. In any
medium or low voltage three-phase system there are three single-phase voltages which are
measured between each phase and a common point called the "neutral point". In balanced
operating conditions these three voltages are phase shifted by 120 and have the value:
V
3
V being the phase-to-phase voltage measured between phases. From a physical point of view,
the neutral is the common point of three star-connected windings. It may or may not be
accessible, may or may not be distributed and may or may not be earthed, which is why we refer
to the earthing system.
Grounding or earthing is normally defined as a connection of various exposed conductive parts
of equipment together and to a common terminal which is in turn connected by the earthing
conductor to an earth electrode. There are two misconceptions in this statement. First, grounding
is not only limited to equipment but also involves the electrical power system, the two being
related and may refer to the same physical installation in some cases. Second, the term
grounding, which is used interchangeably with earthing, is not the same thing. Grounding should
be called earthing, only if it involves the physical earth and in case of a mul-functioning of some
part of the system, some of the current returns back to the source through the earth [1].
Therefore, the standard definition of grounding according to [2] is the conducting connection
whether intentional or accidental between an electrical circuit or conductive equipment part and
a common terminal which is in turn connected by a conductor to an earth electrode or to some
conducting body of relatively large extent that serves in place of the earth.
As anticipated above, grounding is broadly classified as equipment grounding and system
grounding. Equipment grounding, referred also as protective grounding is mainly for the
prevention from dangerously high shock that may exist when there is a fault current between an
energized electrical conductor and the structure that either encloses it or is nearby whereas
Insulation- This protection consists of an insulation which complies with the relevant
standards,
Barriers or enclosures- This measure is in widespread use, since many components and
materials are installed in cabinets, assemblies, control panels and distribution boards,
All the preceding protective measures are preventive, but experience has shown that for various
reasons they cannot be regarded as being infallible. Among these reasons may be cited: Lack of
proper maintenance, Imprudence, carelessness, Normal (or abnormal) wear and tear of
insulation; for instance flexure and abrasion of connecting leads, Accidental contact, Immersion
in water, etc. A situation in which insulation is no longer effective In order to protect users in
such circumstances, highly sensitive fast tripping devices, based on the detection of residual
currents to earth are used to disconnect the power supply automatically, and with sufficient
rapidity to prevent injury to, or death by electrocution, of a normally healthy human being
In most cases, and certainly for the general public, the chosen protective measures will include a
protection against direct and against indirect contact or protection under normal and under fault
conditions. In the protective measures under fault conditions, two possibilities exist: passive
measures such as supplementary insulation, and active measures, which will break the current in
the faulty circuit. Automatic disconnection before the voltage can do harm to a person touching
the accessible conductive part under fault. For the ECPs to be properly protected it is necessary
to have a protective earth.
In general, when an insulation becomes defective, there will be a rapid evolution to a full fault
and therefore the person touching the ECP as in fig. 1 will be subjected to the same fault current
as the person touching the active part. But just connecting the ECPs to earth is not enough. The
fault current in fig.1 creates a potential rise between ECP and the earth and this voltage can be
dangerous if it exceeds a certain value for a certain time.
Fig 1.0
From the above discussion it is evident that earthing is important in electrical power systems to
minimize voltage and thermal stresses on equipment, provide personnel safety, reduce
communications system interference, and assist in rapid detection and elimination of ground
faults.
Contact resistance between the electrode and the soil adjacent to it.
Rods, pipes, masses of metal, structures, and other devices are commonly used for earth
connections. These are usually of sufficient size or cross section that their resistance is a
negligible part of the total resistance.
2.2.1.2 Electrode-earth contact resistance
If the electrode is free from paint or grease, and the earth is packed firmly, contact resistance is
negligible. Rust on an iron electrode has little or no effect but if an iron pipe has rusted through,
the part below the break is not effective as a part of the earth electrode.
An electrode driven into earth of uniform resistivity radiates current in all directions as in Fig
2.1. The earth shell nearest the electrode naturally has the smallest surface area and so offers the
greatest resistance. The next earth shell is somewhat larger in area and offers less resistance.
Finally, a distance from the electrode will be reached where inclusion of additional earth shells
does not add significantly to the resistance of the earth surrounding the electrode [9].
Approximate values of the earth resistance at 50/60 Hz of typical made electrodes may be
calculated by using the formulas reported in Table 2.1. [6].
Table2.1
Type of Electrode
Earth Resistance
Rod
2L
Grid
4r
Surface
Hot
galvanized
Stainless
Steel
Diameter(mm)
-
Electrode type
dip Strip
or
Round rod for 16
deep
earth
electrode
Round wire for 10
Surface
earth
Electrode
Pipe
25
X-Area(mm2)
90
Thickness(mm)
3
Table 2.3
Copper
Electrode type
Diameter(mm)
X-Area(mm2)
Bare strip
50
Bare rope
1.8(individual strands) 25
Bare Round wire for 25
surface earth electrode
Bare Pipe
20
Tin coated rope
1.8 for individual 25
strands
Zinc coated Strip
50
Thickness(mm)
2
2
2
Area
of
Protective conductors may not necessarily consist of actual conductors, but metallic layers of
cables (e.g., metallic sheaths, armors, concentric conductors, etc.) and metallic conduits can
serve the same protective purpose as long as their equivalent cross-sectional area complies with
Table 2.2 or 2.3. This conductor, in fact, is generally at zero potential and, therefore, does not
require any dielectric insulation. [6].
Aluminum(mm2)
16
Steel(mm2)
50
If the supplementary bonding conductor connects an ECP to an EXCP, its conductance must be
at least half that of the PE serving the ECP. Also, in this case, a current divider takes place and
the EXCP carries part of the fault current.
Table 2.7
Minimum cross-sectional Areas of Earthing Conductors
Mechanically Protected
No Mechanical Protection
Copper
Iron
Copper
Iron
Protected against 2.5
10
16
16
corrosion
Not
protected 25
25
25
25
against corrosion
earthing resistance
Earthing resistance determines the relation between earth voltage VE and the earth current value.
The configuration of the earth electrode determines the potential distribution on the earth surface,
which occurs as a result of current flow in the earth. The potential distribution on the earth
surface is an important consideration in assessing the degree of protection against electric shock
because it determines the touch and step potentials[8].
2.8.1 Earthing resistance
The earthing resistance has two components:
dissipation resistance RD, which is the resistance of the earth between the earth electrode
and the reference earth
resistance RL of the metal parts of the earth electrode and of the earthing conductor.
The resistance RL is usually much smaller than the dissipation resistance RD. Thus, usually the
earthing resistance is estimated to be equal to the dissipation resistance RD.
In AC circuits one must consider essentially the impedance of an earthing ZE, which is the
impedance between the earthing system and the reference earth at a given operating frequency.
The reactance of the earthing system is the reactance of the earthing conductor and of metal parts
of the earth electrode. At low frequencies - the supply frequency and associated harmonics reactance is usually negligible in comparison to earthing resistance, but must be taken into
account for high frequencies such as lightning transients. Thus, for low frequencies, it is assumed
that the earthing impedance ZE is equal the dissipation resistance RD, which is in turn assumed to
be approximately equal to the earthing resistance, R [8].
The earthing resistance R of an earth electrode depends on the earth resistivity as well as the
electrode geometry. In order to achieve low values of R the current density flowing from the
electrode metal to earth should be low, i.e. the volume of earth through which the current flows
is as large as possible. Once the current flows from metal to earth it spreads out, reducing current
density. Low current density extends electrode life.
The calculation of earthing resistance is usually performed under the assumptions that the ground
is boundless and of uniform structure with a given value of resistivity. Earth resistivity
(specific earth resistance) is the resistance, measured between two opposite faces, of a one-metre
cube of earth The earth resistivity is expressed in -m. Where no information is available about
the value of it is usually assumed = 100 -m.
earth resistivity
The earth resistance depends significantly on how deep the electrode is sunk in the ground. This
is because the moisture content is higher and more stable for deeper ground layers than for
shallow layers. Layers near the surface are influenced more by seasonal and short-term weather
variations and are subject to freezing. One can distinguish several types of earth electrodes
including:
simple surface earth electrodes in the form of horizontally placed strip or wire, either as a
single ended strip or a ring
cable with exposed metal sheath or armor which behaves similarly to a strip-type earth
electrode
rod electrodes which can consist of a pipe, rod, etc. and are driven or buried to a depth
greater than 1 m and usually from 3 m to 30 m or more.
Eq. 2.1
Eq. 2.2
Where VG is the earthing voltage, which is equal to the earthing potential (assuming that the
potential of the reference earth is equal zero). The earthing potential can be described as follows:
Eq. 2.3
The potential difference between two points on the earth surface: one at distance x and other at
distance x+ aS, where aS is assumed to be equal to 1 metre, illustrates the step potential VS, i.e.
earth surface potential existing between two feet, when a person stands at that position on the
earth surface:
=
Eq. 2.4
Eq.
2.5
where x r.
A similar relationship can be described for any other distances x and a. Particularly for x = r and
a = a T = 1m the formula (2.4) enables the calculation of the touch voltage, i.e. the voltage
between a palm and a foot of a person who is just touching the earth electrode or metal parts
connected to it [8]:
=
Eq.
2.6
Eq. 2.7
"T"- Denotes direct connection to earth ("T" derived from the French word "Terre" meaning
earth)
"I"- Denotes isolation from earth except perhaps a connection to earth via a high impedance path
The second letter indicates the connection between earth and the electrical installation being
supplied. where:
"T"- Again denotes presence of a direct connection to earth
"N"- Connection to earth is via the neutral of the supply
2.9.1 IT Grounding System
In " IT" (Isolation Terre) earthing arrangement the electrical distribution system is isolated from
earth and therefore the supply does not provide an earthing connection for the consumers. Thus
the consumers have to have local dedicated earth rods. It finds applications in laboratory rooms,
medical facilities, construction sites, repair workshops, mobile electrical installations, and other
environments that are supplied via engine-generators where there is an increased risk of
insulation faults, often use an IT earthing arrangement supplied from isolation transformers [3].
An illustration of a IT network is shown in figure 2.3
Fig 2.3
overhead distribution conductor be fractured by, say, a fallen tree or branch [3]. Both the supply
and consumer have direct connections to earth as shown in figure 2.4
Fig 2.4
"TN-C " earthing scheme has a combined protective earth and neutral conductor (PEN). That is
one conductor functions as the protective earth as well as the neutral of the power system. TN-C
networks save the cost of an additional conductor needed for separate N and PE connections as is
shown below.
Fig 2.5
2.9.3.2 TN-S
In" TN-S" earthing scheme the protective earth conductor and the neutral conductor of the
system are two separate conductors and are connected together only near the power supply
equipment. In TN-S systems, the consumer has a low-noise connection to earth, which does not
suffer from the voltage that appears on the N conductor as a result of the return currents and the
impedance of that conductor. This is of particular importance with some types of
telecommunication and measurement equipment[3] [6]. This arrangement is shown below.
Fig 2.6
"TN-C-S" earthing scheme Is a hybrid of the TN-C and TN-S earthing schemes where part of
the system uses the combined protective earth and neutral, usually between the substation and
the entry point to the installation
beyond which it splits up into a separate protective earth and a neutral conductor. The combined
PEN is usually earthed at different convenient places along its run to reduce the risk of broken
neutrals and by doing so ensures the reliability of the earth neutral path. It is this multiple
earthing that gives this scheme its name i.e. protective Multiple earthing scheme(PME). This
scheme has the advantages of both the TN-C and TN-S schemes. The protective earth and neutral
conductor should never be joined within the installation [6]. An Illustration of the PME scheme
is shown in figure 2.7
Fig 2.7
Concerning the safety of persons , the three systems are equivalent if all requirements are fully
met.
Provides a low resistance path to ground for any surges or lightning strikes that may
occur on the electrical system; protection of buildings and installations against lightning.
Provides a low resistance path to ground for fault currents, and thus trips the over- current
protective device (circuit breaker or fuse) quickly when a fault or short circuit occurs; and
most importantly,
Provides a stable reference point for the voltages in each phase of a circuit. A solid
ground point prevents the phase-to-ground and the phase-to-phase voltages from
fluctuating.
3.0 METHODOLOGY/DESIGN
3.1 Protective Multiple Earthing (PME/TN-C-S Grounding System)
In PME systems the utility supply neutral conductor is solidly grounded at the source and at each
fourth span along its distribution. At the terminal pole, the PEN is separated into the neutral and
protective conductors. In these conditions, the ground-fault currents, arising at the users
installation, will basically return to the supply through the distributors neutral conductor, the
PEN. Here the fault-loop does not comprise the actual earth; however, the utility must earth the
center of its transformers secondary star point. The purpose of the system ground is to allow the
operating voltage to-earth to remain stable and to limit overvoltages in fault conditions.
IPh
phase
IG1
PEN
PE
RN
REXCP
IG2
Fig 3.1
It is assumed that in fault conditions, the earth will be partially involved as a return path to the
source because of the connection of the EXCPs to the main grounding bus. As already
substantiated, this bond is essential to guarantee equipotentiality between simultaneously
accessible metal parts. Moreover, in the absence of ground faults, the above earthing
arrangement may cause part of the neutral current to return to the source through the earth.
In this systems, ground-fault currents arising at the users location have large magnitude, as their
return path, the PEN, is parallel to earth. Therefore, the total impedance of the fault-loop |ZLoop|
may be low enough to allow users to use overcurrent devices for automatic disconnection. This
renders the presence of RCDs in PME systems not a mandatory safety requirement. The bonding
connection is of utmost importance, at the service entrance of the dwelling unit, between the
PEN and the PE. It is, therefore essential to periodically inspect and maintain such connection.
Upon loss of this bond, the building would become a TT system, wherein in the absence of
RCDs, which are not strictly necessary in PME, users are exposed to electric shock hazards.
3.1.1 Fault-Loop Impedance in PME Systems
In PME the fault-loop impedance includes the impedance Ze of the utility low-voltage
distribution system, which is usually unknown to the customer. Ze, which increases with the
distance of the faults location from the supply source, may also change in time without the user
knowing it because of modifications in the utility distribution system.
If the total fault-loop impedance ZLoop = Ze + Zuser is excessive, the ground fault current might be
so low and there would be no automatic disconnection and thus the installation of RCDs in
dwelling houses, even in PME systems, although redundant in the case of low value of ZLoop,
can, indeed, guarantee safety when ZLoop is too high.
3.1.2 Energization of the PEN Conductor in PME Systems
PME systems imply a considerable responsibility of the local utility, since, together with the
electric energy, the distributor provides the users with an earth connection, which must ensure
public safety. In fault conditions, the utility PEN, although multiple grounded, may assume a
voltage, with respect to the earth, as is substantiated later on. Such neutral-to-ground voltage can
be transferred as a shock potential to the users ECPs and EXCPs. If utilities cannot certify the
neutral potential as harmless to persons, a TT system should be employed, instead.
3.1.3 Ground Fault on the Low-Voltage Utility Distribution System
The PEN conductor may become live due to a ground fault occurring along its distribution
system, for example, as a result of the fall to earth of overhead cables or of a contact of the line
with an EXCP not connected to a protective conductor. An illustration of this condition is as
shown in figure 3.2 where RN represents the ground resistance of the utilitys earth electrode
system: the neutral conductor is earthed not only at intervals along its run (e.g., at the distribution
poles) but also at the customers dwelling units by means of their ground electrodes (e.g., cold
water pipe).
ZPh
Zi
IG
V Ph
RE
Fig. 3.2
VN
RN
RE is the minimum earth resistance of EXCPs not connected to an equipotential system, through
which a fault may occur. The earth current, by circulating through RN and RE energizes the PEN
conductor and, therefore, the users ECPs. The contact resistance with earth also limits this
ground current and in some cases can be very high (e.g., line in contact with snow or sand). The
distributors overcurrent devices, therefore, may not be able to clear the fault within the
maximum permissible times, exposing persons to the risk of electric shock. To identify safe
values for the PEN potential and the maximum earth resistance RN:
V =V
R
R +R +Z +Z
R
R +R
50V
Eq. 3.1
Where both the phase conductor impedance Zph and the internal impedance of the source Zi
ignored because they are generally negligible with respect to RN and RE. As a safety criterion,
we can assume as safe the PEN conductor if its potential VN does not exceed the safety limit of
50 V. From Eq. (3.1) we derive the condition RN must comply with to keep the PEN potential
rise below 50 V:
R
50
R
V 50
Eq. 3.2
zi
ZPH
V PH
VST
ZPEN
Fig 3.3
Taking the cross-sectional area of the PEN as half of the phase conductor (common situation),
the users ECPs will reach the following prospective touch voltage:
=
2
2
L1
L2
L3
PEN
Fig 3.4
PE
User A
PE
User B
The loss of the PEN conductor also triggers overvoltages. From Fig 3.4, where two users are
supplied by two different phases and the same PEN. The absence of the PEN as a return path
causes a voltage divider between the two users single-phase loads, which are now supplied by
the line-to-line voltage. This may cause the supply to each load to exceed the nominal value,
with great risk of overheating of the equipment and therefore of initiating fire.
3.1.7 Stray Currents
Unavoidable stray currents continuously circulate through the actual earth. As they depend on
the supplied loads, they are likely to escalate over time. Stray currents may produce interferences
among electrical systems by transferring potential rises to healthy systems, thereby exposing
persons to touch voltages
3.1.8 Stray Voltages
The neutral conductor, although earthed at the substation, may, in fact, be energized above
ground, where it enters the users premises. The reason being that supply cables employed to
power up the customers, composed of phase and PEN conductors, have finite impedance, which
may cause voltage drops along their runs
L1
L2
L3
IN
PEN
Fig 3.5
VNG
PE
User A
PE
User B
The voltage drop along the PEN increases with its length and the contributions from the
customers; therefore, VNG at User B is greater than at User A. The neutral-to-ground voltage,
which may reach several volts, also exists between the neutral and the protective conductors.
In the case of a defect in the insulation between these two conductors, a low-resistance object
might bridge the gap between them, with the possible result of setting on fire any flammable
material eventually present.
3.1.9 Automatic disconnection for PME systems Principle
The automatic disconnection is achieved by overcurrent protective devices or RCDs. Use of
RCDs on TN-C-S systems means that the protective conductor and the neutral conductor must be
separated upstream of the RCD. Any insulation fault to earth results in a phase to neutral shortcircuit resulting in high fault currents which allow for use of overcurrent protection but can give
rise to touch voltages exceeding 50% of the phase to neutral voltage at the fault position during
the short disconnection time. In order to ensure adequate protection, the earth-fault current:
=
Where;
0.8
For all final circuits with a rated current not exceeding 32 A, the maximum disconnecting
time will not exceed the values indicated in Table 3.1
For all other circuits, the maximum disconnecting time is fixed to 5s. This limit enables
discrimination between protective devices installed on distribution circuits
Table 3.1
Phase Voltage (VPH)
50 <
120
0.8
120 <
240
0.4
240 <
400
0.2
< 400
0.1
The earthing system always provides a return path for faults in the LV grid. The
grounding conductors at the transformer and at all customers are interconnected. This
ensures a distributed grounding and reduces the risk of a customer not having a safe
grounding.
Has the advantage that in case of an insulation fault, the fault voltages (touch voltages)
are generally smaller than in TT earthing systems. This is due to the voltage drop in the
phase conductor and the lower impedance of the PEN conductor compared with the
consumer earthing in TT systems.
PME earthing system could work with simple over current protection.
High reliability of disconnection of a fault by over current devices (i.e. fault current is
large enough to activate the over current protection devices).
Potential rise of exposed conductive parts with the neutral conductor in the event of a
break of the neutral network conductor as well as for LV network phase to neutral and
phase to ground faults and MV to LV faults.
The utility is not only responsible for a proper grounding but also for the safety of
customers during disturbances in the power grid
Figure 3.6.
The occurrence of a ground fault causes the system capacitance to become unbalanced. The earth
electrode resistance RG, in fact, is in parallel to the capacitance of the faulty phase. Upon the first
fault the system evolves from a balanced three-phase capacitive load, with no neutral wire, to an
unbalanced capacitive-resistive load. Because of this unbalance, a potential difference VNG = VNVG, also referred to as neutral potential rise, appears between the point of neutral N at the source
and the ground G at the faulty ECP. The presence of VNG changes the voltage between the line
conductors and the ground(i.e.,V1G,V2G ,andV3G) with respect to the systems voltages (i.e., V1N,
V2N, and V3N). The two sets of vector quantities identical in normal conditions will now differ.
The current circulating after the first fault, is mainly a small capacitive and will always go
undetected by overcurrent devices. In the case of indirect contact with a faulty ECP, persons are
exposed to the risk of electrocution. Cf increases with the cables extension and so does the
ground-fault current flowing through the person.
Figure 3.7
To avoid this hazard, the ECPs must be earthed, as previously anticipated. The presence of the
intentional ground lowers the prospective touch voltage to the potential drop across
evident benefit for the safety against indirect contact. If V
, with
fault current to ground, the automatic disconnection of supply is not necessary, as the ground
fault does not cause any hazard to persons and may persist within the ECP. However it is
essential to know that there is a fault and need to track and eliminate it promptly, before a second
fault occurs. To meet this need the fault information is provided by an Insulation Monitoring
Device (IMD) monitoring all live conductors, including the neutral. When the neutral is not
distributed (three-phase three-wire distribution), the following condition must be satisfied:
0.866
When the neutral is distributed (three-phase four-wire distribution and single phase distribution),
the following condition must be satisfied:
0.5
During an unresolved first fault to ground, a second fault involving a different phase might take
place. In this case, the phase-to-phase voltage drives the fault current, and an actual short circuit
occurs.
Figure 3.8
In this situation, at least one of the protective devices safeguarding the circuits will trip and
disconnect the supply. On the other hand, the second fault exposes persons to risk of
electrocution in the time frame the overcurrent devices take to trip. With reference to Fig. 3.10,
prospective touch voltage is calculated as; VST1 on ECP 1
3
+
3
+
The fault-loop has a driving potential which is not the phase voltage (240 V), but the line to line
voltage (415 V). It is clear that if RG2 were low when compared to RG1, persons in contact with
ECP 1 would be exposed to nearly the whole line-to-line voltage. To prevent these hazards, and
as already anticipated, the first fault should be resolved in the shortest possible time by the
maintenance team.
3.2.2 Insulation Monitoring Device
The IMD supervises the insulation reactance and/or resistance between the power lines and the
earth.
Figure 3.9
The IMD continuously monitors the impedance to ground (i.e., resistance and capacitive
reactance) by injecting both a d.c. and an a.c. current through the neutral point of the system.1 If
such impedance decreases below a predetermined value, due to a first fault to ground, an
audible/visual alarm will be initiated. Such alarm will alert the maintenance crew and will stay
on for the entire duration of the fault. Once the faulty circuit has been located and fixed,
operators will manually switch it off.
3.2.3 Protection Against Direct and Indirect Contact by Using RCDs in IT Systems
The additional protection, normally provided by RCDs in PME, is not effective in IT systems.
The fault current, in fact, cannot activate the RCD, because it flows entirely back through its
toroid via the system distributed impedance. The RCD does not sense any unbalance and,
therefore, cannot intervene as the nature of the fault-loop, in fact, prevents their proper operation
and renders their installation ineffective.
3.2.4 Protection Against Indirect Contact in the Event of a Second Fault to Ground
After the occurrence of the first fault to earth, the IT system is no longer ungrounded, because of
the accidental connection of the faulty phase to earth. In the event of a second fault involving a
different phase, the IT system evolves into TT or TN according to the earthing arrangement of
ECPs (i.e., individually or collectively).
3.2.4.1 ECPs Earthed Individually or in Groups
If ECPs are earthed individually, or in groups, in the event of a second fault, the system
becomes TT and we are in the case in Fig. 3.10. Protection against indirect contact is achieved if
the following condition, applied to the generic ith ECP, is fulfilled:
50
The optimum protection against indirect contact in TT systems is carried out by RCDs. The fault
current circulating through the earth, due to the second fault may in fact be too low to operate
promptly the overcurrent devices. RCDs can clear the fault within the safe time required,
generally in correspondence of a ground current of at least five times their residual operating
currents.
L1
L2
L3
ECP 2
ECP 1
Figure 3.10
IG
The additional costs due to the necessity of RCDs, effective under second fault conditions in the
previous arrangement, and due to the installation of individual ground electrodes, usually induce
designers to collectively earth the ECPs to a single ground electrode.
3.2.4.2 ECPs Earthed Collectively to a Single Grounding System
The ECPs may be earthed collectively, that is, connected to one single grounding system. If the
neutral is not distributed, at the occurrence of a second fault, involving a different live conductor,
the system becomes TN.
In this case, the voltage between the line conductors, equal to 1.732 times the voltage between
line conductor and neutral, drives the fault current. The second fault may randomly occur in a
different circuit, which, for example, supplies an ECP remotely located with respect to the
location of the first fault. Thus, the fault impedance may be due to the contributions of line
conductors and protective conductors of different cross-sectional areas. This possibility renders
extremely challenging the prediction of the total fault-loop impedance in IT systems evolved
into a TN.
L1
L2
L3
IG
ECP 1
ECP 2
Figure 3.11
To take into account the second fault in a different circuit, the protection against indirect contact
of persons touching one faulty enclosure is effective if the following condition is fulfilled:
3
2
If the neutral conductor is distributed to loads, a first or second fault may involve this conductor.
In this case, the voltage Vph between the faulty line and neutral conductor will drive the fault
current. Condition for safe automatic disconnection of supply is:
2
Table 3.2 Maximum disconnection time in the IT earthing system (second fault).
Phase Voltage (V)
No Neutral
With Neutral
No Neutral
With Neutral
120
0.8
0.4
1.0
240
0.4
0.8
0.2
0.5
400
0.2
0.4
0.06
0.2
Continuity of supply. The main advantage of using the IT earthing system for network
operation is without doubt the continuity of supply it offers, as there is no need to trip on
the first fault Another of this systems strong points is guaranteed safety against the fire.
Increased safety against the fire hazard. Electricity is often the cause of fire.
Standards, set the threshold for this risk at 500mA on an insulation. This value can be
considerably exceeded, particularly with stray currents that flow through building
structures when faults occur in the TN system. IT is the only earthing system that
monitors insulation of the neutral conductor, It is because the current of the first fault is
particularly low that the IT earthing system has been chosen for use in certain
establishments at risk from fire and explosion.
Less downtime on control and monitoring circuits. Even if safety of persons with
respect to the electrical hazard is guaranteed by the various earthing systems, or by use of
Safety by Extra Low Voltage (SELV), safety of persons with respect to mechanical
hazards may not be guaranteed in certain cases. More care must therefore be taken when
wiring such circuits in the TT and TN than in the IT system, as the latter warns the
operator of the incident (first insulation fault), thereby guarding against electrical and
mechanical hazards.
Limits linked to loads With a high earth capacitive coupling (presence of filters). A
number of devices fitted with capacitive filters offer the same disadvantage, due to their
number, as very long networks when the IT system is used. These capacitive leakages
have a particularity, with respect to distributed capacity mainly due to network cables, i.e.
they can be unbalanced. Office computer equipment: micro-computers, monitors and
printers, concentrated on the same single-phase feeder, is an example of this. Typical
values are provided below.
Table 3.3 capacitive values for HF filters built into various devices.
Device
Micro computer
20nF-40nF
UPS
40nF
70nF
Fluorescent tubes
20nF
Case of networks with replacement power supply. The fact that a network can be
supplied by several sources makes it necessary to detect the first fault and to trip on the
second fault, irrespective of the voltage source in operation.
This three-terminal test is the method that can be carried out with three or four terminal earth
testers. Although four terminals are necessary for resistivity measurements, the use of either
three of four terminals is largely optional for testing the resistance of an installed electrode
This reading with P at 50% of the distance from the earth electrode to C is noted as R1.
Reference probe P is then moved to a location 40% of the distance to C. The reading at this point
is noted as R2. A third reading, R3, is made with P at a 60% distance. The average of R1, R2 and
R3 is calculated as RA. The maximum deviation from the average is then determined by finding
the greatest difference between individual readings and the average. If 1.2 times this percentage
is less than the desired test accuracy, RA can be used as the test result. If the result is not within
the required accuracy, probe C has to be placed farther away and the tests repeated.
3.3.1.2 Dead earth method
When using a four-terminal instrument, P1 and C1 terminals connect to the earth electrode under
test; P2 and C2 terminals connect to an all-metallic metal system (e.g. a water pipe system). The
water system could be any suitable metal structure or similar. With a three-terminal instrument,
connect X to the earth electrode, P and C to the pipe system, see Figure 3.3. If the water system
is extensive (covering a large area), its resistance should be low and is usually much less than
one ohm. You can then take the instrument reading as being the resistance of the electrode under
test.
Figure 3.14
It is, however important to note the limitations to this test method as follows:
The dead earth metal (e.g. water pipe) system must be extensive enough to have a
negligible resistance.
The dead earth metal (e.g. water pipe) system must be metallic throughout
The earth electrode under test must be far enough away from the dead earth (e.g. water
pipe) system to be outside its sphere of influence.
Unfortunately, the Fall of Potential method also comes with several drawbacks:
The clamp-on ground tester performs a stake less test which is a ground resistance test
performed without disconnecting the ground. Based on Ohms Law (R=V/I), the stake less test
induces a known voltage in a loop circuit that includes ground, measures resultant current flow
and calculates the loop resistance of the circuit. Four pole earth testers also perform a stake less
test; however they use two clamps, a voltage clamp (V clamp) and a current clamp (I clamp), and
keep the clamps separate to prevent interaction between the two. All elements of the loop are
measured in series. The method benefits from low return path resistance.
,
50Hz
= 10,
1
4
Figure 3.16 Set up for the measurement of the earth electrode resistance
20
10 = 0.5
From which
=
With
(V)
(V)
(V)
2.7
1.40
1.36
0.136
2.6
1.35
1.29
0.129
2.5
1.30
1.24
0.124
2.4
1.25
1.20
0.120
2.3
1.20
1.15
0.115
2.2
1.10
1.10
0.110
2.1
1.05
1.05
0.105
2.0
1.00
0.99
0.099
(V)
(V)
(V)
(V)
(A)
()
2.7
1.36
1.22
0.146
1.254
0.0146
85.89
2.6
1.31
1.19
0.140
1.210
0.0140
86.43
2.5
1.26
1.14
0.136
1.164
0.0136
85.59
2.4
1.21
1.09
0.131
1.119
0.0131
85.42
2.3
1.15
1.04
0.125
1.075
0.0125
86.00
2.2
1.10
0.99
0.120
0.980
0.0120
81.67
2.1
1.05
0.95
0.115
0.885
0.0115
76.96
4.1 Analysis
The average earth resistance was obtained as
=
The relative value of earth current to the current that flows in the circuit when isolated from earth
was calculated as;
Table 4.3
2.7
0.1081
10.8
2.6
0.1085
10.9
2.5
0.1097
11.0
2.4
0.1092
10.9
2.3
0.1087
10.9
2.2
0.1091
10.9
2.1
0.1095
11.0
Giving the average earth current as a percentage of the isolated circuit current as
(%) =
The instantaneous ac electrical power that is dissipated to earth due the system grounding can be
estimated as;
=
=(
sin
= (0.11
sin
The curve of the earth current as a function of the source voltage was plotted and showed a
linear relationship as shown in figure 4.1 from which table 4.4 was deduced.
Figure 4.1
Table 4.4
x
f(x)
f'(x)
0
40
80
120
160
200
240
0
0.2168
0.4336
0.6503
0.8671
1.0839
1.3006
0
0.0054
0.0054
0.0054
0.0054
0.0054
0.0054
TN-C-S
IT 1
IT 2
f''(x)
Comments
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
ELECTRICAL
Fault Current
--
--
Fault voltage
In the IT system, the touch voltage is very low for the first
fault, but is considerable for the second
Touch voltage
PROTECTION
Indirect contact
Continuous overvoltage
Transient overvoltage
RCD)
OVERVOLTAGES
Overvoltage if transformer
breakdown
(primary/secondary)
ELECTROMAGNETIC
COMPATIILITY
Immunity to nearby lightening
strikes
Continuous emissions of an
EM field
Only the IT system avoids tripping for the first insulation fault
Transient non-equipotentiality
of the PE
CONTINUITY OF SERVICE
fault
INSTALLATION
Special devices
-/+
-/+
Number of cables
MAINTENANCE
Cost of repairs
--
--
Installation damage
++
5.0 CONCLUSION
In terms of the protection of persons, the three system earthing arrangements (SEA) are
equivalent if all installation and operating rules are correctly followed. Consequently, selection
does not depend on safety criteria. It is by combining all requirements in terms of regulations,
continuity of service, operating conditions and the types of network and loads that it is possible
to determine the best system.
From the findings of the experiment it is true that there is electrical energy dissipated to ground
and is dependent on the magnitude of the current drawn by the load as well as the earth
resistance. Also evident is that the isolated systems portray superior qualities to the PME systems
except for the likelihood of
simultaneous faults. Given that the requirements to install the two system earthing arrangements
is the almost the same, except for high basic insulation levels in IT, and that both systems
guarantee automatic disconnection of the supply, the IT system earthing arrangement provides a
better solution.
5.2 REFERENCES
[1] Schneider Electric-Electrical Installation Guide 2008-LV Distribution
[2] IEC 60364-1:2005(E), Electrical installation of buildings, Part 1: General principles.
[3] IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
,IEEE Std. 142, USA, 2007
[4] Schneider Electric Industrial electrical network design guide T & D 6 883 427/AE
[5] Dr. Massimo A.G. Mitolo-Electrical safety of Low voltage systems pp.143-145
[6] V.K. Mehta & Rohit Mehta Principles of Power System Chapter 26 pg 587-599
[7] Prof Henryk Markiewicz & Dr Antoni Klajin Power Quality Application Guide Earthing &
EMC
[8] Megger Getting Down to Earth A practical guide to earth resistance testing pg 7-33
[9] Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2008-Protection against electric shocks
[10] Bernard Lacroix and Roland Calvas - Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 Earthing
systems worldwide and evolutions
[11] Cahier technique no. 178 The IT earthing system (unearthed neutral) in LV
[12] Dr. C.R. Bayliss CEng FIET and B.J Hardy ACGI CEng FIET Transmission and
Distribution Electrical Engineering Third Edition, Elsevier Ltd, 2007- Chapter 8