Engineering intervention in composting

Composting is controlled decomposition and natural breakdown process of organic residues by

microorganisms. Raw organic materials such as crop residues, animal wastes, food garbage,
some municipal wastes and suitable industrial wastes, enhance their suitability for application to
the soil as a fertilizing resource, after having undergone composting. Composting has been
practiced in rural areas for centuries. Farmers traditionally put agricultural and some animal
waste on their field. This is mainly seen as a means of enhancing the soil. Composting of urban
waste has a different motivation. However, the main motivation is to reduce and recycle the
waste, the empathies on comparatively low-value of components of waste.
There are two definitions of composting, where first is a definition in the strict sense of the term,
which differentiates composting from all other forms of decomposition and second one is an
ecological definition.
A definition that distinguishes composting from other biological processes is:
Composting is the biological decomposition of biodegradable solid waste under controlled
predominantly aerobic conditions to a state that is sufficiently stable for nuisance-free
storage and handling and is satisfactorily matured for safe use in agriculture.
An ecological definition is as follows:
Composting is a decomposition process in which the substrate is progressively broken
down by a succession of populations of living organisms. The breakdown products of one
population serve as the substrate for the succeeding population. The succession is initiated
by way of the breakdown of the complex molecules in the raw substrate to simpler forms by
microbes indigenous to the substrate.
There are broad distinction as Traditional and Rapid composting practices has been made,
based mainly on the considerations of the practices being adopted as a convention; and the recent
introductions for expediting the process, involving individual or combined application of
treatments like shredding and frequent turning, mineral nitrogen compounds, effective
microorganisms, use of worms, cellulolytic organisms, forced aeration, forced aeration and
mechanical turnings and so on.
Composts can be made from most organic by-products. Common feed-stocks are poultry, hog
and cattle manures, food processing wastes, sewage sludge, municipal leaves, brush and grass
clippings, sawdust, and other by-products of wood processing. Ideally, several raw materials
should be mixed together to create the ideal range of conditions listed. However, in the real
world this cant always happen. Fortunately composting is a forgiving process that can occur
over a wide range of conditions, and an acceptable moisture content and carbon-to-nitrogen ratio
are required to produce acceptable compost with good management practices. In general, the
combination of feedstock quality and compost management will determine the quality of the
finished product.
Ideal Raw Materials

Vegetable and fruit scraps

Used vegetable cooking oil

Fallen leaves

Egg shells

Tea leaves and tea bags

Old newspapers

Coffee grounds

Lawn clippings

Vacuum cleaner dust

Sawdust (not from treated timber)

Soft stems

Wood ash

Dead flowers

Torn-up cardboard

I) Factors Affecting the Composting Process

All organic material will eventually decompose. The speed at which it decomposes depends on
these factors:
1. Carbon to nitrogen ratio of the material
2. Amount of surface area exposed
3. Aeration, or oxygen in the pile
4. Moisture
5. Temperatures reached in compost pile and outside temperatures
6. pH
1. Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratios
Carbon and nitrogen are the two fundamental elements in composting, and their ratio (C:N) is
significant. The bacteria and fungi in compost digest or "oxidize" carbon as an energy source and
ingest nitrogen for protein synthesis. Carbon can be considered the "food" and nitrogen the
digestive enzymes.
The bulk of the organic matter should be carbon with just enough nitrogen to aid the
decomposition process. The ratio should be approximately 30 parts carbon to 1 part nitrogen
(30:1) by weight. Adding 3-4 kg of nitrogen material for every 100 kg of carbon should be
suitable for efficient and rapid composting. The composting process slows if there is not enough
nitrogen, and too much nitrogen may cause the generation of ammonia gas, which can create
unpleasant odors. Leaves are a good source of carbon; fresh grass, manures and blood meal are
sources of nitrogen.

Table 1. Nitrogen content and C:N of various wastes and residues

Waste

Nitrogen

C:N

10 to 14

3.0

1.7

18

2 to 6

4 to 28

Fish scraps

6.5 to 10

5.1

Fruit wastes

1.5

34.8

Grass clippings

3 to 6

12 to 15

Horse manure

2.3

25

Mixed grasses

214

19

5.5 to 6.5

6 to 10

2.5 to 4

11 to 12

Pig manure

3.8

4 to 19

Potato tops

1.5

25

Poultry manure

6.3

15

4 to 7

11

Sawdust

0.1

200 to 500

Straw, oats

1.1

48

Activated sludge
Blood
Cow manure
Digested sewage sludge

Nightsoil
Non-legume vegetable wastes

Raw sewage sludge

Straw, wheat

0.3 to 0.5 128 to 150

Urine

15 to 18

0.8

2. Surface Area
Decomposition by microorganisms in the compost pile takes place when the particle surfaces are
in contact with air. Increasing the surface area of the material to be composted can be done by
shredding, chopping, mowing, or breaking up the material. The increased surface area means that
the microorganisms are able to digest more material, grow more quickly, and generate more heat.
It is not necessary to increase the surface area when composting, but doing so speeds up the

process. Insects and earthworms also break down materials into smaller particles that bacteria
and fungi can digest.
3. Aeration
The decomposition occurring in the compost pile takes up all the available oxygen. Aeration is
the replacement of oxygen to the center of the compost pile where it is lacking. Efficient
decomposition can only occur if sufficient oxygen is present. This is called aerobic
decomposition. It can happen naturally by wind, or when air warmed by the compost process
rises through the pile and causes fresh air to be drawn in from the surroundings. Composting
systems or structures should incorporate adequate ventilation.
Turning the compost pile is an effective means of adding oxygen and brings newly added
material into contact with microbes. It can be done with a pitchfork or a shovel, or a special tool
called an "aerator," designed specifically for that purpose. If the compost pile is not aerated, it
may produce an odor symptomatic of anaerobic decomposition.
4. Moisture
Microorganisms can only use organic molecules if they are dissolved in water, so the compost
pile should have a moisture content of 40-60 percent. If the moisture content falls below 40
percent the microbial activity will slow down or become dormant. If the moisture content
exceeds 60 percent, aeration is hindered, nutrients are leached out, decomposition slows, and the
odor from anaerobic decomposition is emitted. The "squeeze test" is a good way to determine the
moisture content of the composting materials. Squeezing a handful of material should have the
moisture content of a well-wrung sponge. A pile that is too wet can be turned or can be corrected
by adding dry materials.
5. Temperature
Microbes generate heat as they decompose organic material. A compost pile with temperatures
between 32 and 60oC is composting efficiently. Temperatures higher than 60oC inhibit the
activity of many of the most important and active organisms in the pile. Given the high
temperatures required for quick composting, the process will inevitably slow during the winter
months in cold climates. Compost piles often steam in cold weather. Some microorganisms like
cool temperatures and will continue the decomposition process, though at a slower pace.
6. pH
The most advantageous pH range for most of the biological reaction is between 5.5 to 8.0.
During the process of decomposition the pH increases and at the lower pH, fungi are most
conquered organisms facilitating the decomposition. The domination of bacteria at 6.5 to 7.5 pH
and at high pH, ammonia gas may be generated, which may cause adverse odour, microbial
population decline and resulted poor quality of compost.
II) Category of Composting

Rational composting process control involves the interrelated factors heat output, temperature,
ventilation and water removal. Composting may be divided into two categories by its nature of
the decomposition, breakdown process and oxygen use. Compost happens either aerobically
(with oxygen) or an-aerobically (without oxygen) when organic materials are mixed and piled
together.
i.

Aerobic (with oxygen) composting is the most efficient form of decomposition, and
produces finished compost in the shortest time. If the proper amounts of food (carbon),
nutrients, water and air are provided, aerobic organisms will dominate the compost pile and
decompose the raw organic materials most efficiently. Pile heat is a by-product of
biological burningthe aerobic oxidation of organic matter to carbon dioxide so that
microbes can generate energy.
ii.
Anaerobic composting, decomposition occurs where oxygen (O) is absent or in limited
supply. Under this method, anaerobic micro-organisms dominate and develop intermediate
compounds including methane, organic acids, hydrogen sulphide and other substances. In
the absence of O, these compounds accumulate and are not metabolized further. Many of
these compounds have strong odours and some present phytotoxicity. As anaerobic
composting is a low-temperature process, it leaves weed seeds and pathogens intact.
Moreover, the process usually takes longer than aerobic composting. These drawbacks
often offset the merits of this process, viz. little work involved and fewer nutrients lost
during the process.
III) Methods of composting
In India, four methods and two mainly internationally recommended Methods-the Indore method
(aerobic) and the Bangalore method (initially aerobic but later anaerobic) have been widely
practiced. Yet tremendous renewed interest has been shown in the aerobic process of late. In
developed countries, practicable technologies have now been worked out for the composting of
troublesome wastes such as sewage sludge. Rapid composting processes based upon specific
engineering design have been in use. Widespread interest is also being witnessed in the role of
earthworms in composting of bio-degradable segments of Urban Solid Waste (USW).
Composting of the city garbage has a long history in India since 1934, when the first such
activity was reportedly started at Indore by Mr. Howard. This process of aerobic composting in
windrows has come to be known as the 'Indore Process'. This was followed by the work at IARI
during the last 40's and early 50's by Prof. C.N. Acharya and his team, who developed the
'Bangalore Process', which was a method of co-composting of municipal and agricultural waste
with night soil in covered shallow trenches in a semi-aerobic mode.

i. Anaerobic Decomposition
1. The Indian Bangalore Method

This method of composting was developed at Bangalore in India by Acharya (1939). The method
is basically recommended when night soil and refuse are used for preparing the compost. The
method overcomes many of the disadvantages of the Indore method such as problem of heap
protection from adverse weather, nutrient losses due to high winds / strong
sun rays, frequent turning requirements, fly nuisance etc. It is recommended as a satisfactory
method of disposal of town wastes and night soil. Trenches are dug 90 cm (3 ft.) deep, 1.5 to 2.5
m broad and 4.5-5.1m long, depending upon the amount of refuse and night soil to be disposed
of. Depths greater than 9 cm are not recommended because of slow decomposition. The pits
should be located away from city limits.
The composting procedure is as follows:
First a layer of refuse about 15 cm thick is spread at the bottom of the trench. Over this, nightsoil is added corresponding to a thickness of 5 cm. Then alternate layers of refuse and night soil
are added in the proportion of 15 cm and 5 cm respectively, till the heap rises to 30 cm above the
ground level. The top layer of refuse should be at least 25 cm thickness. Then the heap is covered
with excavated earth. If properly laid, a man's legs will not sink when walking over the compost
mass.
Within 7 days as a result of bacterial action considerable heat (over 60C) is generated in the
compost mass. This intense heat which persists over 2 or 3 weeks, serves to decompose the
refuse and night-soil and to destroy all pathogenic and parasitic organisms. At the end of 4-6
months, decomposition is complete and the resulting manure is a well-decomposed, odourless,
innocuous material of high manurial value ready for application to the land.
2. The Indian Indore Method
An important advance in the practice of composting was made at Indore in India by Howard
during the period 1924 to 1926. The traditional procedure was systematized into a The Indore
method involves building a heap to the height of 1.5 metres with a base of 2m by 2m tapering up
to about 1.2m by 1.2m made up of layers. The first layer is brush or similar to improve
drainage. Then there are alternate layers of low nitrogen and high nitrogen material and the heap
is often then covered in 5cm of compacted soil to reduce fly issues and contain odours and loss
of nitrogen. If left unturned the heap would usually be ready after one year. Otherwise turning
after 8-10 days then after a month would give useable compost after a total of 2-3 months.
Anaerobic conditions are common in the Indore method (especially without turning) meaning
potential smell issues (if the soil casing is missed out). The heap can be made over time (many
home garden composts are in that way similar to the Indore method) but this is not ideal and will
usually mean a lack of temperature build up and therefore a slower process with lack of weed
and disease control.
3.

Nadep method of composting

The Nadep method of making compost was invented by a farmer named N.D. Pandharipande
(also popularly known as Nadepkaka) living in Maharashtra (India). The method, which has
become quite popular among the farmers in Western India, now bears his name.

The Nadep method of making compost is making good compost, which other methods can lay
claim to its real secret lies in the large quantities of compost the process can deliver with a
minimum of human effort within a specific period of time. The process basically involves
placing select layers of different types of compostible materials in a simple, mud-sealed structure
designed with brick and mud water. The system permits conversion of approximately 1 kg of
animal dung into 40 kg of rich compost which can then be applied directly to the field.
DESCRIPTION OF THE MAIN FEATURES
The Nadep method of making compost involves the construction of a simple, inexpensive
rectangular brick tank with enough spaces maintained between the bricks (partial honeycomb
pattern) to provide for necessary aeration. The recommended size of the tank is of the order of
3.0 m (length) x 1.8 m (breadth) x 0.9 (height). If more material is available for composting, then
the length should be increased. However, the breadth should never exceed 1.8 m. The tank can
be erected with bricks and with the use of mud mortar. Cement may also be used throughout but
this is not necessary. However, the last two (topmost) layers of brick ought to be done in cement
so that the structure has stability and is not damaged during actual operations of filling and
emptying the tank.
Since the compost is destined for agricultural fields, it would also be appropriate to keep in mind
that the closer the tank is to the fields, the less time would be required to transport it once it is
ready. The bottom of the tank or the tank bed should also be covered as far as possible with an
impervious layer or sealed to prevent the possibility of seepage of any liquid waste into the soil
below. The tank bed can in fact also be laid with bricks provided the ground is level. The
honeycomb wall should be approximately 25 cm thick. The best way to create the honeycomb
effect is to leave out the alternate brick when one reaches the third row from below. Once the
tank is completed, there comes the important task of placing the layers of organic material within
the structure. The quantities required are as follows:
(a) 1,500 kg of plant and farm waste, including dried husk, twigs, stalks, roots, leaves, etc. from
which all plastic, glass and stones have been removed.
(b) 90-100 kg of cowdung. In place of this, the slurry from biogas plants can also be used.
(c) Dried, filtered soil (from the fields and channels) from which again all materials like glass,
stones and plastic have been removed. Soil mixed with urine from cattlesheds is especially
productive.
(d) Water requirements will vary from season to season The important technique in the
manufacture of Nadep compost is that the entire tank should be filled in one go. Filling should
be completed within 24 hours and should never go beyond 48 hours, as this would affect the
quality of the compost. Before charging the tank with the materials, it is advisable to wet the
inner walls and the tank bed with cowdung dissolved in water. Thereafter, one commences
charging the tank with the first layer as follows:
First layer: Plant waste is filled up to a height of 15 cm. This will take up at least 100 to 120 kg
of the material.

Second layer: 4 kg of cowdung should now be mixed well in 125 to 150 litres of water and
sprinkled on the plant waste in such a way that the material is completely wet with
it. More water will be required in summer for the wetting.
Third layer: The wet cowdung-sprinkled waste is covered with another 60 kg of clean, filtered
soil and water is sprinkled on it again. Thereafter, the tank continues to be filled
with this series of three layers in the same sequence up to one and a 15 cm above
the rim of the tank in the shape of a cone. Usually, the standard tank can take 11 or
12 series of layers.
Then, once the filling is completed, comes the job of having the tank sealed. This is easily done
by covering the top with a 7.5 cm layer of soil all around. The soil layer is then plastered with
liquid cowdung slurry carefully so that no cracks emerge. After a period of 15 to 20 days, due to
microbial activity that has already commenced, the material above the rim of the tank will shrink
to below the tank rim. The tank should be opened and filled again with the same sequence of
layers up to a height of one and a 15 cm above the tank rim. Once again, the material should be
covered in 8 cm of soil and sealed with liquid cowdung slurry. Thereafter, in order to maintain
the moisture level (which should be about 15% to 20%) and also to prevent cracking, cowdung
mixed with water is sprinkled on the compost heap. Water may also be sprayed through the holes
on the tank sides. The entire tank is covered with a thatched roof to prevent excessive
evaporation of moisture. At no point of time should the compost be allowed to become dry.
Depending on the way in which the preparations have been done, the compost will take between
90 and 120 days to be completely ready for removal and use. When the tank is opened, the
compost will be a deep brown colour with a pleasant smell. It should be removed and sieved
through a grill. The filtered fertiliser should be used and the remains placed back into the tank for
the next cornposting process. Each large tank can be harvested three times in one year.
4. Coimbatore method, composting is done in pits of different sizes depending on the waste
material available. A layer of waste materials is first laid in the pit. It is moistened with a
suspension of 5-10 kg cow dung in 2.5 to 5.0 I of water and 0.5 to 1.0 kg fine bone meal
sprinkled over it uniformly. Similar layers are laid one over the other till the material rises 0.75
m above the ground level. It is finally plastered with wet mud and left undisturbed for 8 to 10
weeks. Plaster is then removed, material moistened with water, given a turning and made into a
rectangular heap under a shade. It is left undisturbed till its use.
5. Chinese rural composting
a. The pit method
In this method composting is carried out in a corner of a field and in a circular or rectangular pit.
Rice straw, animal dung (usually pig), aquatic weeds or green manure crops are used and often
silt pumped from river beds is mixed with the crop residues. The pits are filled layer by layer,
each layer being 15 cm thick. Usually, the first layer is of a green manure crop or water hyacinth,
the second layer is a straw mixture and the third layer is of animal dung. These layers are
alternated until the pit is full, when a top layer of mud is added; a water layer of about 4 cm
depth is maintained on the surface to create anaerobic conditions which help to reduce losses of
nitrogen. Approximate quantities of the different residues in tons per pit are: river silt 7.5, rice
straw 0.15, animal dung 1.0, aquatic plants or green manure 0.75 and superphosphate 0.02. Three
turnings are given in all, the first one month after filling the pit and, at this time, the

superphosphate is added and thoroughly mixed in. Water is added as necessary. The second
turning is done after another month and the third two weeks later. The material is allowed to
decompose for three months and produces about eight tons of compost per pit
b. High temperature compost
This form of compost is prepared mainly from night soil, urine, sewage, animal dung, and
chopped plant residues at a ratio of 1:4. The materials are heaped in alternate layers starting with
chopped plant stalks and followed by human and animal wastes; water is added to optimum
amount.
At the time of making the heap, a number of bamboo poles are inserted for aeration purposes.
After the heap formation is complete, it is sealed with 3 cm of mud plaster. The bamboo poles
are withdrawn on the second day of composting leaving the holes for aeration of the heap.
Within four to five days, the temperature rises to 60-70oC and the holes are then sealed. The first
turning is usually done after two weeks and the moisture is made up with water or animal or
human excreta; the turned heap is again sealed with mud. The compost is ready for use within
two months.
In some locations, a modified method of high temperature composting is used. The raw
materials, crop stalks (30%), night soil (30%) and silt (30%) are mixed with superphosphate at
the rate of 20 kg superphosphate per ton of organic material. The compost heaps have aerating
holes made by inserting bundles of maize stalks instead of bamboo poles.
ii.

Aerobic Composting

1.

Windrow composting

Windrow composting is the production of compost by piling organic matter or biodegradable

waste, such as animal manure and crop residues, in long rows (windrows). This method is suited
to producing large volumes of compost. These rows are generally turned to improve porosity and
oxygen content, mix in or remove moisture, and redistribute cooler and hotter portions of the
pile. Windrow composting is a commonly used farm scale composting method. Composting
process control parameters include the initial ratios of carbon and nitrogen rich materials, the
amount of bulking agent added to assure air porosity, the pile size, moisture content, and turning
frequency.
The temperatures of the windrows must be measured and logged constantly to determine the
optimum time to turn the windrows for quicker compost production. Manually collecting data
cannot be done continually and may expose the person collecting the data to harmful pathogens.
Automatically collecting the data and transmitting the data wirelessly back to a centralized
location allows composting temperatures to be continually recorded
The organic material is formed into long piles that are typically 1.5 m 3 m high, 3 m 6 m
wide, and up to 100 m or more in length. This process requires that you leave an open space
between the windrow, which provides room for the composting turning equipment to operate.
Elevating-face or drum-style compost turners are typically used in windrow composting.

2. PASSIVE WINDROW
Passive windrow composting is a very low-cost approach requiring more land, but less labour
and capital than other composting methods. Generally, material to be composted is collected and
promptly piled into windrows which remain untouched. The materials may be wetted before they
are initially formed into windrows, but this is not essential. A windrow is simply an elongated
pile of material with a more or less triangular cross-section. A windrow should measure about 3
metres wide and 1.5 metres high; its length will vary depending upon the amount of materials
used. Aeration occurs naturally. As hot air rises, fresh air is drawn into the pile. Materials can be
added as they become available, or stockpiled until sufficient amounts are available to make a
good sized pile or windrow. Two windrows should be used. When the first one is large enough, it
should be allowed to decompose undisturbed. Additional waste should then be added to the
second windrow. Covering the windrow with a layer of finished compost will help prevent
moisture loss, reduce odour problems, and produce a more uniform compost. Composting in
these windrows can take from six months to two years.
Large passive windrows can be as wide as 7 metres, and as high as 4 metres and of any length.
The centres of a windrow this size will quickly become anaerobic and only by turning can it
receive a new oxygen supply. An unpleasant odour will develop in the anaerobic region and may
begin to emanate from the composting material; hence, a large land area is necessary to buffer
residents and businesses from the odour. Since rapid composting can take place only in the
presence of oxygen, the compost normally will require three years to stabilize. With both the
small and large windrows used in passive windrow composting, there is no ability for process
control. Therefore only medium product quality is produced.
3.

TURNED WINDROW

Aeration of the windrow can be achieved through mechanical turning. Turning can also be done
manually, but is considered impractical with volumes larger than one or two cubic metres.
Uniform decomposition, as well as pathogen destruction, is best achieved by turning the outer
edges into the centre of the pile at each turn. However, if this cannot be accomplished, the
frequency of turning can be increased. Turning should also be more frequent than under a regular
schedule when the moisture content of the pile is too high so as to minimize the development of
anaerobic conditions. In areas that receive heavy rainfall, it may be necessary to cover the
windrows so they do not become too wet; however, the cost of this may be prohibitive for certain
operations. Alternatively, maintaining a triangular or dome shaped windrow is effective for
shedding excess rain or preventing excess accumulation of snow in the winter. In windrow
composting, the raw material is mixed and placed in rows, either directly on the ground or on
paved or concrete surfaces. During the active compost period, the size of the windrow decreases.
Following the active period, windrows at the same level of maturity can be combined into larger
rows, making additional space for more raw materials or compost. The equipment used for
turning the windrow, varies from front-end loaders or bulldozers to specially designed turning
machines. Loaders, although inexpensive compared to turners, have a tendency to compact the
composting material, are comparatively inefficient, and can result in longer composting periods
and less consistent quality. There are two basic types of windrow turners. The most commonly
used have a series of heavy tines that are placed along a rotating horizontal drum which, turns,
mixes, aerates and reforms the windrow as the machine moves forward. A second type uses a

moving, elevator table chain equipped with sharp teeth. These windrow turners are either self
contained units that straddle the row, or are powered by a tractor driven power takeoff.
Windrows should be turned frequently at first and then at longer intervals by the end of the first
month.
4. AERATED STATIC PILE
The aerated static pile composting method was developed by the United States Department of
Agriculture and can be a very efficient system. During recent years, this method has become
popular at the municipal level in composting sewage sludge, but has not yet become popular on
the farm. The aerated static pile method does not mechanically agitate compost material to
achieve the desired level of aeration. The pile is constructed above an air source such as,
perforated plastic pipes, aeration cones or a perforated floor; and aeration is accomplished either
by forcing or drawing air through the compost pile. This system of aeration requires electricity at
the site and appropriate ventilation fans, ducts and monitoring equipment. The monitoring
equipment determines the timing, duration and direction of air flow. The pile should be placed
after the floors are first covered with a layer of bulking agent, such as wood chips or finished
compost. The material to be composted is then added, and a topping layer of finished compost
applied to provide insulation. The optimum size of pile is related to the materials composted, air
flow capabilities and the type of handling equipment. In some facilities, the initial mix is piled
between temporary fencing or movable highway dividers. This allows considerable flexibility
with respect to the size and location of the pile within the working area or building. In aerated
static pile operations, the timing, duration and uniform movement of air are important. Air flow
requirements change depending upon the materials composted, the size of the pile, and age of the
compost. A major difficulty with the static pile system is the efficient diffusion of air throughout
the entire pile, especially with wastes characterized by a large particle size distribution, high
moisture content, or a tendency to clump. Other problems include the formation of channels in
the pile which allow forced air to short-circuit. This causes excessive drying due to evaporation
of moisture near the channels. These situations may require more frequent turns of piles. Aerated
static piles can produce excellent compost, provided that two basic operating conditions are met:
The initial material has adequate porosity; and
The air flow system works properly and provides adequate air flows uniformly during the
active compost period to all areas of the pile.
In comparison to windrow composting, aerated static piles require a different level of
management and monitoring. Windrow composting is often regarded as a "normal" extension of
an existing manure handling system, since some or all of the existing farm machinery can be
used for windrow composting. Aerated static piles require additional equipment and
infrastructure investment, and these assets are dedicated solely to the compost operation.
In addition, pre-compost product mixing is a very important step in aerated static pile systems. In
contrast, the mixing and blending is done throughout the active composting stage in windrow
composting. Odour is an operation problem that can affect any type of compost system; however,
odour problems are often inherent within a windrowing system. In contrast, if odour problems
develop in an aerated static pile system, they can be easily identified and corrective measures

taken such as for example, changing air flows; improving air flow capacities; dispersion and
filters; and increasing the insulative cover. With negative air pressure delivery, air is drawn
through the pile and can be cleaned using a bio-filter before releasing it to the atmosphere; with
positive air pressure, air is pushed through the pile and the exterior insulative cover of mature
compost cleans the exhaust air.
5. Composting in reactor
Compost reactor systems are high rate controlled aeration systems which are designed to provide
optimal composting conditions involving mechanical mixing of compost under controlled
environmental conditions. Although various designs are available, the different systems are
similar in that they are both capital and management intensive. Common reasons for choosing
reactor composting over other methods include:
Odour control
Space constraints at the site
Process and materials handling control
Better public acceptance due to the Aesthetics/appearance of the composting site
Less manpower requirements
More consistent product quality