Some Solutions to Endertons Mathematical

Introduction to Logic
Kelvin Soh

October 30, 2014

Overview
This document details my attempt to solve some of the problems in Herbert
Endertons A Mathematical Introduction to Logic (2nd Edition) [1]. Its main
purpose is to facilitate my own learning. I have posted it online as a possible
resource for others also using the book. Itd be great if this document helps
anyone out in any form or fashion. Do feel free to email me if you have any
comments or to point out any errors (of which there will likely be plenty).

Sentential Logic

1.1

The Language of Sentential Logic

Lemma 1 The number of left parenthesis, right parenthesis and connective

symbols are equal in a wff.
Proof: We will use the induction principle. Let l, r and c be, respectively, the number of left parenthesis, right parenthesis and connective symbols in a wff.
Base case: l = r = c = 0.
Induction hypothesis: Let and be two wffs. l = r = c and
l = r = c .
Inductive step: Let = (). l = l + 3, r = r + 3, c = c +
3 = so l = r = c by the induction hypothesis. By a similar argument,
the number of left parenthesis, right parenthesis and connective symbols in
( ), ( ), ( ) and ( ) are equal.
QED

kelvinsjk@gmail.com, www.mathelement.com/about/

Exercises (Page 19)

2. Show that there are no wffs of length 2, 3, or 6, but that any other
postive length is possible.
All wffs must have at least one sentence symbol. By lemma 1 (from this
document), any wff with connectives will be of length at least 4. Thus any
wff of length 2 or 3 must not contain any connectives. However the only
wffs that do not contain any connectives are made up of just one sentence
symbol. Hence no wff can be of length 2 or 3.
From the proof of lemma 1, each formula building operation adds 3 to the
length of its constituents. Suppose a wff of length 6 is possible and denote it
by . Consider a shortest construction sequence and its last element. Since
is not just a sentence symbol, = E () or = E (, ) for some wffs
and where  = , , or .
If = E (), must have length 3 we have shown to be impossible. If
= E (, ), and have total length 3. Hence one of , has length 2
which we have also shown to be impossible.
A1 , = (A1 ) and = (A1 A2 ) are examples of wff of length 1, 4
and 5 respectively. = ( A1 ) is an example of a wff with length 9. For
any other length n, n 7, n can be written as n = 3k + 1, n = 3k + 2 or
n = 3(k + 1) for some k 2. If n = 3k + 1, we can construct it with and
k 1 repeated negations. If n = 3k + 2, we can construct it with and k 1
repeated negations. If n = 3(k + 1), we can construct it using and k 2
repeated negations. 
3. Let be a wff; let c be the number of places at which the binary connective symbols (, , , ) occur in . Show by using the induction
principle that s = c + 1.
Base case: For a sentence symbol, c = 0 and s = 1 so s = c + 1.
Induction hypothesis: Let and be two wffs such that s = c + 1 and
s = c + 1.
Inductive step: Let = (). c = c . s = s = c + 1 = c + 1.
Let = (). c = c + c + 1.
s = s + s = (c + 1) + (c + 1) = c + 1. 

4. Assume we have a construction sequence ending in , where does not

contain the symbol A4 . Suppose we delete all the expressions in the
construction sequence that contains A4 . Show that the result is still a
legal construction sequence.
Let the original construction sequence be < 1 , . . . , n > and the new sequence be < 01 , . . . , 0k >. Since does not contain the symbol A4 , it was
not deleted so 0k = . We now consider the other terms in the new sequence,
0i . Since 0i = j for some i j, we have at least one of the following (due
to < 1 , . . . , j > being a construction sequence):
(A) 0i = j is a sentence symbol
(B) 0i = j = E (k ) for some k < j
(C) 0i = j = E (k , l ) for some k < j, l < j
If we are in case A, 0i satisfies the requirement for a construction sequence. If
we are in case B or C, since 0i does not contain A4 , k and l must not contain
it either. Hence they remain in the new sequence and we can write k = 0a
for some a. Since the original ordering of the sequence was maintained and
k < j, a < i. Similarly, l = 0b for some b < i. The new sequence thus
satisfies the 3 conditions and it is a legal construction sequence as well. 
5. Suppose the is a wff not containing the negation symbol .
(a) Show that the length of is odd.
(b) Show that more than a quareter of the symbols are sentence symbols.
We will first follow wthe suggestion and prove by the induction principle that
the length of , l is of the form 4k + 1 and the number of sentence symbols,
s is k + 1.
Base case: If is a sentence symbol, l = 1 = 4(0)+1 and s = 1 = (0)+1.
Induction hypothesis: Suppose we are given wffs and such that
l = 4k + 1 and s = k + 1, l = 4h + 1 and s = h + 1.
Inductive step: Since does not contain , we need not consider ().
Now considering = (), l = 3 + l + l = 4(k + h + 1) + 1.
s = s + s = (h + k + 1) + 1.
k+1
The result implies (a) immediately. (b) follows as 4k+1
> 14 . 

1.2

Truth Assignments

Exercises (Page 27)

1. Show that neither of the following two formulas tautologically implies
the other:
(A (B C))
((A (B C)) ((A) ((B) (C)))).
Let and denote the two formulas above respectively. Consider v such
that v(A) = v(B) = v(C) = F . Then v() = T but v() = F . Hence
6|= .
Now consider v such that v(A) = T, v(B) = v(C) = F . Then v() = T
but v() = F . Hence 6|= . 
2. (a) Is (((P Q) P) P) a tautology?
(b) Define k recursively as followss: 0 = (P Q) and
k+1 = (k P). For which values of k is k a tautology?
(a) Yes. This can be checked by the truth table. 
(b) k is a tautology iff k = 2n for n 1. We shall prove this by induction
on n to show that if k = 2n, k is a tautology while if k = 2n + 1, k is not
a tautology.
Base case: For n = 1, part (a) shows that 2 is a tautology. Since 2
is a tautology, 3 = (2 P) is not a tautology by considering any truth
assignment v such that v(P) = F .
Inductive step: 2n+2 = ((2n P) P). By the induction hypothesis,
2n is a tautology so v(2n ) = T for all truth assignments v. By checking the
truth table we can conclude that 2n+2 is a tautology. 2n+1 = (2n P).
2n+1 is not a tautology by considering any truth assignment v such that
v(P) = F . 
3. (a) Determine whether or not ((P Q) (Q P)) is a tautology.
(b) Determine whether or not ((P Q) R) tautologically implies
((P R) (Q R)).
(a) It is a tautology by checking of the truth table.
(b) Yes (by checking of the truth table). In fact they are tautologically
equivalent. 

4. Show that the following hold:

(a) ; |= iff |= ( ).
(b)  iff |= ( ).
(a) : (Given ; |= ) For any v such that v() = T for all ,
if v() = T , then v() = T since ; |= . Hence v( ) = T . If
v() = F , then v( ) = T . Hence |= ( ).
: (Given |= ( )) For any v such that v() = T and v() = T ,
v() = T since |= ( ). Hence ; |= . 
(b)  iff for any v, v() = v() = T or v() = v() = F iff
v( ) = T for all v iff |= ( ). 
5. Prove or refute each of the following assertions:
(a) If either |= or |= , then |= ( ).
(b) If |= ( ), then either |= or |= .
(a) True. For any v such that v() = T for all , if |= , then
v() = T so v( ) = T . Otherwise |= so v() = T and hence
v( ) = T . Hence |= ( ). 
(b) False. Let = , = A and = (A) where A is a sentence symbol.
Then |= ( ) but 6|= and 6|= . 
6. (a) Show that if v1 and v2 are truth assignments which agree on all
the sentence symbols in the wff , then v1 () = v2 (). Use the
induction principle.
(b) Let S be a set of sentence symbols that includes those in and
(and possibly more). Show that |= iff every truth assignment
for S which satisfies every member of also satisfies .
(a) If = Ai , where Ai is a sentence symbol, , then v1 () = v2 () because
v1 and v2 agree on all the sentence symbols in . The inductive step
follow immediately from the induction hypothesis. Thus v1 () = v2 ()
by the induction principle. 
(b) The forward implication follows directly from the definition of tautological implication. The reverse follows from part (a). 

8. (Substitution) Consider a sequence 1 , 2 , . . . of wffs. For each wff

let be the result of replcaing the sentence symbol An by n for each
n.
(a) Let v be a truth assignment for the set of all sentence symbols;
define u to be the truth assignment for which u(An ) = v(n ).
Show that u() = v( ). Use the induction principle.
(b) Show that if is a tautology, then so is .
(a) Base case: = Ai for some i. Then = i . Then u() = u(Ai ) =
v(i ) = v( ).
Induction hypothesis 1: Let = () where u() = v( ) where is
the result of replacing the sentence symbol An by n for each n.
Inductive step 1: By the induction hypothesis, u() = v( ). Hence
u() = v( ). Since = ( ), u() = v( ).
Induction hypothesis 2: Let = (  ) where  represents , , or
. Then u() = v( ) and u() = v( ).
Inductive step 2: By the induction hypothesis, u(  ) = v(  ).
Since = (  ), u() = v( ). 
(b) Suppose that is a tautology but is not a tautology. Since is not
a tautology, there exists a truth assignment v such that v( ) = F . By
part (a), we can obtain a truth assignment u such that u() = v( ) = F .
Then is not a tautology, which is a contradiction. 
9. (Duality) Let be a wff whose only connective symbols are , and .
Let be the result of interchanging and and replacing each sentence symbol by its negation. Show that is tautologically equivalent
to (). Use the induction principle.
Base case: If = A, = (A). () = (A). So  ().
Inductive step: By the induction hypothesis, let , be such that

 () and  (). Suppose = (). Since  (),

v( ) = v() for any truth assignment v. Hence v( ) = v(()).
= () = ( ) so v( ) = v(). Thus  (). Now suppose
= ( ). Note = . For any truth assignment v,
v( ) = v( )
= v(() ())
by the induction hypothesis
= v(( ))
by De Morgans law
= v().
6

Hence  (). The case for = ( ) is similar. Since s only

connective symbols are , and , we do not consider the cases for and
. 
10. Say that a set 1 of wffs is equivalent to a set 2 of wffs iff for any wff
, we have 1 |= iff 2 |= . A set is independent iff no member
of is tautologically implied by the remaining members in . Show
that the following hold.
(a) A finite set of wffs has an independent equivalent subset.
(b) An infinite set need not have an independent equivalent subset.
(Solution adapted from tutorial solutions for NUS MA4207: Mathematical
Logic, 13/14 Semester 2 by Dilip Raghavan)
(a) We will prove this by induction on the size of . For the base case,
is empty. Then is a subset that is independent and equivalent
(vacuously).
Now we are given a set of wffs of size n. If is independent then we
are done. Otherwise such that \ {} |= . By the induction
hypothesis, there is an independent equivalent subset of \ {}, say
1 . Claim: 1 is an independent equivalent subset of . Proof: 1 is
independent by the induction hypothesis. To prove equivalence, for any
wff , if 1 |= , then |= since 1 . If |= , we consider an
arbitrary truth assignment v such that v() = T for all 1 . For any
, if \ {}, v() = T since 1 is equivalent to \ {}. The
remaining case is = . Since \{} |= and 1 equivalent to \{},
v() = T . Hence v() = T for all . Since |= , v() = T so
1 |= That is, 1 is equivalent to . 
(b) The set {A0 , (A0 A1 ), ((A0 A1 ) A2 ), . . .} is a counterexample. No
set with at least two elements is independent since the earliest member
will be tautologically implied by the later members and no set with one
member is equivalent since the subsequent member is not tautologically
implied by it. 
11. Show that a truth assignment v satisfies the wff
( (A1 A2 ) An )
iff v(Ai ) = F for an even number of is, 1 i n.
7

Let denote the wff given. Fix an arbitrary n. Let the number of is such
that v(Ai = F , 1 i n be k. We will prove the assertion by induction k,
0 k n.
For k = 0, we can prove inductively that v() = T . For k = 1, by
associativivity for , we can reorder the sentence symbols such that v(A1 ) =
F and v(Ai ) = T for all 2 i n. We can then prove inductively that
v() = F .
For k = 2j 1, 0 k n, we reorder the sentence symbols such that
v(Ai ) = F for all 1 i k and v(Ai ) = T for all k +1 i n (the notation
will be slightly different for k = n or k = n 1 but these can be handled in
a similar fashion.) By the induction hypothesis, v(A1 Ak1 ) = T
since k 1 is even. Then v(A1 Ak1 Ak ) = F since v(Ak ) = F .
It can then be proved inductively that v() = F .
For k = 2j, 0 k n, we reorder the sentence symbols such that
v(Ai ) = F for all 1 i k and v(Ai ) = T for all k +1 i n (the notation
will be slightly different for k = n or k = n 1 but these can be handled in
a similar fashion.) By the induction hypothesis, v(A1 Ak1 ) = F
since k 1 is odd. Then v(A1 Ak1 Ak ) = T since v(Ak ) = F .
It can then be proved inductively that v() = T . 
14. Let S be the set of all sentence symbols, and assume that v : S
{F, T } is a truth assignment. Show there is at most one extension v
meeting conditions 0-5 listed at the beginning of the section.
The induction principle can be used to prove the result. Condition 0 will
ensure the validity of the base case while conditions 1-5 are used in the
inductive step. 
15. Of the following three formulas, which tautologically imply which?
(a) (A B)
(b) (((A B) ((B A))))
(c) (((A) B) (A (B)))
By the method of truth tables, all three are tautologically equivalent. 

1.3

A Parsing Algorithm

Exercises (Page 33)

2. Give an example of wffs and and expressions and such that
( ) = ( ) but 6= .
8

Let = (A0 A1 ), = A2 , = (A0 and = A1 ) A2 .

3. Carry out the argument for Lemma 13B for the case of the operation
E
The proper initial segments are of the following:
(A) (
(B) (
(C) (0

where 0 is a proper initial segment of ()

(D) (
Cases A and B have the desired property. By applying the inductive hypothesis, 0 has the desired property so case C is settled. For case D, is a wff
so it has an equal number of left and right parenthesis. Hence case D has
the desired property as well. 

First-Order Logic

2.2

Truth and Models

Exercises (Page 99)

1. Show that (a) ; |= iff |= ( ); and (b)  iff |= ( ).
(a) Given ; |= . By definition, for every structure A and every variable
assignment s such that A satisfies every member of and with s,
A also satisfies with s. Now given an arbitrary structure A and an
arbitrary variable assignment s such that A satisfies every member of
with s, either 6|=A [s] or |=A [s]. For the former, |=A ( )[s] by
definition. For the latter, since ; |= , |=A [s] so |=A ( )[s].
Hence |= ( ).
Conversely, given |= ( );, for arbitrary structure A and variable
assignment s such that every member of as well as is satisfied by A
with s, |=A [s] since |=A [s] and |= ( );. Thus ; |= .
(b) Given  . For an arbitrary structure A and variable assignment s,
either |=A [s] or 6|=A [s]. For the former, |= A[s] so |=A ( )[s].
For the latter, 6|= A[s] so |=A ( )[s]. Hence |= ( ). 

2. Show that no one of the following sentences is logically implied by the

other two.
(a) xyz(P xy P yz P xz).
(b) xy(P xy P yx x = y).
(c) xyP xy yxP xy.
First take the structure defined by (N; ) where P is the predicate symbol
denoting the relation. (a) is true by the transitivity of . (b) is true
as well. However, (c) is false as xyP xy is true (as it translates to for
any natural number there is a bigger number) but yxP xy is false (there
exists a biggest natural number).
Next take the structure defined by ({1, 2, 3}; {h1, 1i h1, 2i h2, 1i h2, 2i}).
(a) is true, (c) is true (vacuously) while (b) is false.
Finally, the structure defined by ({1, 2, 3}; {h1, 2i h2, 3i}) is true for (b)
and (c) but false for (a). 
3. Show that
{x( ), x } |= x .
Take an arbitrary structure A and variable assignment s such that
|=A x( )[s] and |=A x [s]. For every d |A|, |=A ( )[s(x|d)]
and |=A [s(x|d)]. Hence |=A [s(x|d)] so |=A x[s].
Hence {x( ), x } |= x . 
4. Show that if x does not occur free in , then |= x .
Take an arbitrary structure A and variable assignment s such that |=A [s].
For every d |A|, the variable assignment s(x|d) agree at all variables except
at (possibly) x. Since x does not occur free in , the two variable assignments
agree at all variables (if any) that occur free in . By Theorem 22A (from
the book), |=A [s(x|d)] so |=A x [s]. Hence , then |= x . 
5. Show that the formula x = y P zf x P zf y (where f is a one-place
function symbol and P is a two-place predicate symbol) is valid.
Suppose the formula is not valid. Then there exists a structure A and variable
assignment s such that 6|=A x = y P zf x P zf y [s].
Hence |=A x = y[s], |=A P zf x[s] and 6|=A P zf y[s]. Hence, s(x) = s(y),
h
s(z), s(f x)i P A and h
s(z), s(f y)i 6 P A .
Since s(x) = s(y), s(f x) = f A (
s(x)) = f A (
s(y)) = s(f y). However, this
contradicts h
s(z), s(f x)i P A and h
s(z), s(f y)i 6 P A . 
10

8. Assume that is a set of sentences such that for any sentence , either
|= or |= . Assume that A is a model of . Show that for any
sentence , we have |=A iff |= .
If |= , since A is a model of , |=A by definition.
If 6|= , |= by the property of . Since A is a model of , |=A
so 6|=A . 
9. Assume that the language has equality and a two-place predicate symbol P . For each of the following conditions, find a sentence such that
the structure A is a model of iff the condition is met.
(a) |A| has exactly two members.
(b) P A is a function from |A| into |A|.
(c) P A is a permutation of |A|.
(a) xy(x 6= y z(z = x z = y)).
(b) xy(P xy z(P xz z = y)).
(c) xy(P xy z(P xz z = y)) yx(P xy z(P zy z = x)). 
10. Show that
|=A v2 Qv1 v2 JcA K iff

|=A v2 Qcv2

where Q is a two-place predicate symbol and c is a constant symbol.

|=A v2 Qv1 v2 JcA K
iff for all d |A|, |=A Qv1 v2 [s(v2 |d)] where s(v1 ) = cA
iff hcA , di QA for all d A
iff |=A Qcv2 [s(v2 |d)]
iff |=A v2 Qcv2 . 
11. For each of the following relations, give a formula which defines it in
(N; +; ).
(a) {0}.
(b) {1}.
(c) {hm, ni|n is the successor of m in N}.
(d) {hm, ni|m < n in N}.
(a) v2 v2 = v1 + v2 .
11

(b) v2 v2 = v1 v2 .
(c) v1 + 1 = v2 . More formally, we can use (b) to replace the number 1.
(i.e. v3 (v4 v4 = v3 v4 v1 + v3 = v2 .)
(d) Let the successor relationship defined in (c) be denoted by S.
v3 (v4 Sv4 v3 v1 + v3 = v2 ). 
12. Let R be the structure (R; +; ).
(a) Give a formula that defines in R the interval [0, ).
(b) Give a formula that defines in R the set {2}.
(c) Show that any finite union of intervals, the endpoints of which are
algebraic, is definable in R.
(a) v2 v1 = v2 v2 .
(b) 1 can be defined in the same way as in question 11b. Then the following
formula defines {2}: v1 = 1 + 1.
(c) Note that zero and all integers larger than 1 are definable in a manner
similar to question 11a and 12b respectively. The negative numbers can
be defined by v1 + a = 0 where a is a positive integer.
The ordering relation, {hm, ni|m n} can be defined by
v3 v4 (v3 = v4 v4 v1 + v3 = v2 ).
The ordering relation {hm, ni|m < n} can be defined using by
(v1 v2 v1 6= v2 ).
Each algebraic number can be identified as the k-th smallest root of a
polynomial of degree n with integer coefficients where k n. (Note that
such a polynomial is not unique but exists by definition of an algebraic
number) Without loss of generality we may assume there are no roots of
multiplicity greater than 1 in the polynomial.
Let k be the string representing the formula (an vkn +an1 vkn1 +. . .+a0 )
where ai represents the integer coefficients of an n-th degree polynomial
with integer coefficients and vkn is shorthand for multiplying vk n times.
An algebraic number x can then be defined by
v1 . . . vn1 (1 . . . n ) (v1 < . . . < vk1 < x < vk < . . . < vn1 ).
An interval with algebraic endpoints can then be defined using the ordering relations and the algebraic numbers.
A finite union of such intervals can then be defined by disjunctions of
the formulas representing each interval. 

12

13. Prove part (a) of the homomorphism theorem.

We proceed by using the induction principle. h : |A| |B|, s : V |A|,
h s : V |B|. For a constant symbol c, h(
s(c)) = h(cA ) = cB since h is
a homomorphism. h s(c) = cB by definition of the extension of a variable
assignment. For a variable symbol v, h(
s(v)) = h s(v) by the definition of
composition of functions.
Induction hypothesis: suppose h(
s(ti )) = h s(ti ) for 1 i n.
Inductive step: let f be an n-ary function symbol.
h(
s(f
 t1 . . . tn )


= h f A s(t1 ), . . . , s(tn ) by definition of s





= f B h s(t1 ) , . . . , h s(tn ) by definition of h.


B
= f h s(t1 ), . . . , h s(tn ) by the induction hypothesis
= h s(f t1 . . . tn ) by definition of h s. 
15. Show that the addition relation, {hm, n, pi|p = m + n} is not definable
in (N; ).
Let the automorphism h : N N be defined as follows:
h(0) = 0, h(1) = 1, h(2) = 3, h(3) = 2.
By the fundamental theorem of algebra, all other natural numbers n have a
unique prime factorization
Y
n = 2a2 3a3
pap
p prime
p6=2,3

where ai 0. We define
h(n) = 2a3 3a2

pap

p prime
p6=2,3

Note that h is indeed well-defined and onto and is thus an automorphism.

h4, 3, 7i would belong to the addition relation but hh(4), h(3), h(7)i = h9, 2, 7i
does not belong to the addition relation so the relation is not definable. 

13

16. Give a sentence having models of size 2n for every positive integer n,
but no finite models of odd size.
Following the suggestion of the book, we let R and B be one-place predicate
function symbol. Let be the formula
 symbols and f be a one-place

x (Rx Bx) (Rx Bx) . This formula asserts that in a given structure
A, all elements in |A| are either red or blue.
Next, let be the formula x(Bx Rf x Rx Bf x). This asserts
that f reverses the color of the elements.
Finally, let be the formula xyf y = x. This asserts that f is a
permutation. (i.e. the range of f = the domain of f .)
Let be the sentence . No finite model of odd size is a model
of as f is a color-reversing permutation. If |A| is odd, it is impossible for
the range of f to be the domain of f . On the other hand, for every positive
integer n, a model of size 2n exists where R and B are equal sized partitions
of |A|. 
17. (a) Consider a language with equality whose only paraameter (aside
from ) is a two-place predicate symbol P . Show that if A is finite
and A B, then A is isomorphic to B.
Once again we follow the suggestion from the book. Let the size of
|A| be n. Let be the formula (v1 6= . . . 6= vn ) and be the formula
vn+1 (v1 6= vn+1 . . . vn 6= vn+1 ). This asserts that there are n and only
n elements in |A|.
Let s be a variable assignment such that s(v1 ) 6= . . . 6= s(vn ). For each
1 i, j n, let i,j be the formula P vi vj if |=A P vi vj [s] and P vi vj if
6|=A P vi vj [s].
^
Now let be the formula i,j and the sentence v1 . . . vn .
i,j

A has exactly n elements and each i,j is satisfied by A with s. Hence

is satisfied by A with s. However, has no free variables so is true in A.
Now given structure B such that A B. Hence is true in B. By ,
there are exactly n elements^
in |B|. Since is true in B, there is a truth
assignment sb such that |=B
i,j [sb ]. Moreover, sb (v1 ) 6= . . . 6= sb (v2 ) since
i,j

alpha is true in B. Each element ai in |A| can be uniquely identified with

s(vi ) and each element bi in |B| can be uniquely identified with sb (vi ) since
s(v1 ) 6= . . . 6= s(vn ) and there are exactly n elements in the universes of A
and B.

14

Consider the function h : |A| |B| defined h(ai ) = sb (vi ). h is welldefined, one-one and onto because of the preceding discussion. h is a homomorphism as i,j is true in both A and B. Thus, A is isomorphic with B.

20. Assume that the language has equality and a two-place predicate symbol P . Consider the two structures (N; <) and (R; <) for the language.
(a) Find a sentence true in one structure and false in the other.
xy (x 6= y x < y) is true in (N; <) but not (R; <).
xyz (x < y x < z < y) is true in (R; <) but not in (N; <). 
27. Assume that the paremeters of the language are and a two-place
predicate symbol P . List all of the non-isomorphic structures of size 2.
|A| = {a, b}.
0 elements in P .
1 element in P : {a,
n a}, {a, b}. o n
o n
o n
o
2 elements in P : {a, a}, {b, b} , {a, a}, {a, b} , {a, a}, {b, a} , {a, b}, {b, a} .
n
o n
o
3 elements in P : {a, a}, {a, b}, {b, a} , {a, a}, {a, b}, {b, b} .
4 elements in P . 
28. For each of the 4 structures, give a sentence true in that structure and
false in the other three:
(R; ).
(R ; ) where R is the set of non-zero reals.
(N; +).
(P; + ) where P is the set of positive integers.
(0 a = 000 ): xy x y = x is true in (R; ).
(Existence of inverse element): xy x y = 1 is true in (R ; ).
Remark: 1 can be defined by the formula v z v = v.
(Existence of identity element and 0+0=0): x (y x y = y x x = x) is
true in (N; +).
(Non-existence of identity element): xy x y = y is true in (P; + ). 

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References
[1] Enderton, H. B., A Mathematical Introduction to Logic (2nd Edition), Hardcourt/Academic Press, 2001.
[2] Raghavan, D. National University of Singapore (NUS) MA4207: Mathematical Logic, 2013/2014 Semester 2.

About me
I am currently (2014) reading my Masters (coursework) in Mathematics at
the National University of Singapore (NUS), having earlier graduated with
a degree in chemical engineering.
My interests include graph theory, combinatorics and teaching.
There are bound to be flaws (typo or conceptual) and I will be very happy
to hear about them at kelvinsjk@gmail.com.

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