IOP 1501 Study Guide

#
2010 University of South Africa
All rights reserved
Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria
IOP1501/1/2011^2013
98638394
3B2
BEC3A Style
CONTENTS
ORIENTATION: THE IMPORTANCE OF MODULE
IOP1501
Understanding the dynamic open systems framework
(ix)
(x)
The purpose of this module
(xiii)
The place of this module in your undergraduate studies
(xiv)
Module outcomes
(xiv)
Framework/Content of the module
(xv)
LAYOUT OF THE STUDY GUIDE
(xvi)
Your study material
(xvi)
Recommended learning process

Suggestions for studying
Added value: how you will benefit from studying this module
(xviii)
(xxi)
(xxii)
Mutual expectations
(xxiii)
Conclusion
(xxiv)
PART 1:
Introduction: Schools of
thought in Psychology, and
Industrial and Organisational

Psychology
STUDY TOPIC 1:
Theoretical perspectives in
psychology
STUDY UNIT 1:
Theoretical perspectives in psychology
(based on chapter 1 of Bergh and Theron,

2009)
Introduction and aim
Learning outcomes
Key concepts
1.1
Overview: schools of thought and their implications
1.2
Summary and reflection
Self-evaluation
IOP1501/1
/2011^2013
15
(iii)
Contents
STUDY TOPIC 2:
Fields of study and practice
18
areas in industrial and

organisational psychology
STUDY UNIT 2:
Fields of study and practice areas in industrial
19
and organisational psychology

(based on chapter 2 of Bergh and Theron, 2009)
19
Learning outcomes
19
Key concepts
20
2.1
Overview
20
2.2
Industrial and organisational psychology: an applied field of
21
psychology
2.3
The nature and identity of industrial and organisational
21
psychology
2.4
History and background
24
2.5
Professional training and practice issues
26
2.6
Future challenges for industrial and organisational psychology
26
2.7
27
Self-evaluation
PART 2:
27
Individual behavioural
processes
STUDY TOPIC 3:
STUDY UNIT 3:
The biological basis of behaviour
31
32
33
33
Learning outcomes
33
Key concepts
34
3.1
Overview: genetics
35
3.2
The nervous system
38
3.3
The endocrine system
45
3.4
The muscular system
46
3.5
48
Self-evaluation
STUDY TOPIC 4:
49
Human development across

the life span
STUDY UNIT 4:
Human development across the life span

(iv)
51
52
Contents
52
Learning outcomes
53
Key concepts
53
4.1
Overview: the characteristics of human development
54
4.2
Domains and determinants of human development
55
4.3
Critical development periods
56
4.4
Career transitions and tasks
60
4.5
Future trends in people's career development
62
4.6
63
Self-evaluation
STUDY TOPIC 5:
STUDY UNIT 5:
63
Learning
65
66
Learning
2009)
66
Learning outcomes
66
Key concepts
67
5.1
Overview: what is learning?
67
5.2
The learning process
68
5.3
The adult learner
77
5.4
Learning in the work context
79
5.5
80
Self-evaluation
STUDY TOPIC 6
STUDY UNIT 6:
81
Perception
Perception
83
84

2009)
84
Learning outcomes
84
Key concepts
85
6.1
Overview: basic concepts and different types of perception
85
6.2
Factors influencing perception
88
6.3
Extrasensory perception
89
6.4
Interpersonal perception
90
6.5
93
Self-evaluation
IOP1501/1
93
(v)
Contents
STUDY TOPIC 7:
STUDY UNIT 7:
Cognition
Cognition
96
97

2009)
97
Learning outcomes
97
Key concepts
98
7.1
Overview: the concept of cognition
98
7.2
What is productive thinking?
98
7.3
Language
99
7.4
Memory and forgetfulness
101
7.5
Intelligence, learning potential and emotional intelligence
102
7.6
103
Self-evaluation
STUDY TOPIC 8:
STUDY UNIT 8:
103
Motivation and emotion
106
107

2009)
107
Learning outcomes
107
Key concepts
108
8.1
Overview: What is motivation?
109
8.2
Extrinsic activators of motivation
109
8.3
Intrinsic activators of motivation
8.3.1
Self-actualisation
111
8.3.2 Functional autonomy
113
8.3.3
Expectancy theory
114
8.3.4
Achievement
116
8.3.5
Self-efficacy
116
8.3.6
Attribution
117
8.3.7
Equity
118
8.3.8
Goal-setting
118
8.4
Emotion
119
8.5
Emotional intelligence
120
8.6
120
Self-evaluation
(vi)
111
121
Contents
PART 3:
Social behaviour and

processes
STUDY TOPIC 9:
STUDY UNIT 9:
Attitudes and values
123
124
125

2009)
125
Learning outcomes
125
Key concepts
126
9.1
Overview: nature and functions of attitudes
126
9.2
Attitudinal change
129
9.3
Work-related attitudes
131
9.4
Nature of values
133
9.5
Values as part of personality
133
9.6
Cultural values and diversity in an organisational context
134
9.7
136
Self-evaluation
STUDY TOPIC 10:
137
Prosocial behaviours,
aggression and conflict
STUDY UNIT 10:
Prosocial behaviours, aggression and conflict
139
140

2009)
140
Learning outcomes
140
Key concepts
141
10.1
Overview: definitions of attraction and affiliation
142
10.2
Explanations for interpersonal attraction
143
10.3
Situational determinants of attraction
146
10.4
Overview: what are aggression and workplace aggression?
147
10.5
What are workplace violence, bullying and harassment?
148
10.6
Causes of workplace aggression
149
10.7
Conflict
150
10.8
151
Self-evaluation
IOP1501/1
152
(vii)
Contents
STUDY TOPIC 11:
Group behaviour and other

social processes in
organisations
STUDY UNIT 11:
Group behaviour and other social processes in
154
155
organisations
2009)
(viii)
155
Learning outcomes
155
Key concepts
156
11.1
Overview: definition of groups
156
11.2
Types of groups
158
11.3
The five-stage model of group development
160
11.4
Group structure
161
11.5
Group processes
164
11.6
Group decisionmaking techniques
165
11.7
Facilitation of learning in groups
166
11.8
Organisational culture, socialisation and change
166
11.9
167
Self-evaluation
168
APPENDIX 1: EVALUATE YOUR LEARNING EXPERIENCE
170
ORIENTATION:
THE
IMPORTANCE
MODULE
OF
IOP1501
Welcome to the department and to this module, which, together with the module
IOP1601, forms part of the first-year course in Industrial and Organisational Psychology.
We trust that you will find this module interesting and that through it you will gain a
sound understanding of the scope of industrial and organisational psychology. Our aim is
to acquaint you with the general psychological processes that influence individuals in all
situations, including the work context.
Psychology is the study of human behaviour and processes, and includes aspects such as
perception, cognition, learning, emotion, human development and the biological dimensions of behaviour. Psychology is a young science, as psychology as a discipline has only
been in existence since the late 1800s, when theorists such as William Wundt, William
James and Sigmund Freud separated it from others such as biology, philosophy and
medicine. Seen from another perspective, however, psychology has been in existence
since human beings first inhabited the earth and wanted to know more about one
another.
In contemporary society, scientific psychology and its methods are used to assess and
understand people and their behaviour. Understanding behaviour and related mental
processes enables us to understand our work behaviour as well, for example, by
analysing peoples' behaviour during interviews or their responses to questionnaires.
Many other behavioural and underlying psychological processes, including physiological

reactions, can be observed and measured. In a sense, in psychology you and I are our
own study subjects, because we often find it necessary to analyse our own and other
people's behaviour, or try to understand why we act the way we do. In this regard,
Sigmund Freud, considered by many to be the Einstein or father of psychology, stated
that what he really did in his theorising and observation of people was ``mental detective
work''.
By studying the exciting and stimulating theories, concepts, research and applications in
psychology, you will discover their relevance to industrial and organisational psychology,
and to the world of work. In the process you will also be able to improve and extend
your competencies (knowledge, skills and other attributes) and your understanding of
yourself and others in your living and work environments. We therefore believe that in
studying this module you are embarking on a journey, and en route you will discover and
reflect on your own and other peoples' behaviour.
Apart from acquiring greater personal insight into and understanding of other people's
behaviour, you may also develop in an important area associated with psychology and
psychology learners and professionals, namely interpersonal understanding or empathy.
These psychological competencies, empathy for others and self-knowledge, may be the
most important knowledge you will acquire on your journey through life. We hope that
this module will provide you with some of the resources you will need to help you to
IOP1501/1
(ix)
Orientation
lead a more productive and fulfilling life, possibly also while following a career in a
psychological discipline.
UNDERSTANDING THE DYNAMIC OPEN SYSTEMS

FRAMEWORK
The systems model below provides an orientation to this module.
FIGURE 1.1
Model for studying psychological processes in the work context

ught and Method
of Tho
olog
ols
y
Scho
strial Psychology f ields
Indu
Environment
!
Individual
Inputs
processes
Personality
Social
processes
~ ~
"
!
Organisational
processes
Outputs
!
Work, task
processes
Feedback
Our basic knowledge of general psychological processes derives from the history of
psychology, the various theoretical concepts and their fields of application, of which
industrial and organisational (I-O) psychology is one. Psychological schools of thought,
scientific methods and the fields of application of I-O psychology are important facets of
the study of individuals in the work context. These facets are explained in part 1 of the
study guide.
Schools of thought refer to various theoretical frameworks for human behaviour that
have evolved over the years. These approaches or theories represent attempts by
leading behavioural scientists to understand, explain and predict human behaviour. They
offer students of psychology, and I-O psychology, models and theories that can be used
to explain human behaviour in the work context. These approaches represent the main
(x)
Orientation
paradigms (sets of assumptions or ways of thinking) in psychology; however, in the

course of your studies you may read about other approaches, such as postmodern and
cross-cultural psychology. Postmodern psychology, for example, which is often influenced
by political and other interest groups such as the feminist or gay community, emphasises
among other things the role of social construction in psychology through which proponents assert that many existing representations of people are discriminatory because
they are constructed from biased frames of reference. These approaches also use alternative methodologies of scientific inquiry (research) and assessment of human behaviour,
such as narrative or discourse analysis, to explain human behaviour in a social context.
Many authorities, however, assert that these ``new'' or `àlternative'' approaches are not
new at all, and have a place in the traditional psychological schools of thought.
Fields such as research methodology, personnel psychology, psychological assessment,

organisational psychology, occupational psychology, ergonomics, consumer psychology,
labour relations and employee and organisational wellbeing are specialist fields in I-O
psychology, and will be studied in the second- and third-year courses. The basic
psychological processes that you study in the first year are fundamental to the theory,
concepts and applications in these specialist areas.
Using a systems model, we can explain psychological processes in the work context in
terms of inputs, a transformation process and outputs.
The inputs in this system are everybody and everything in a work organisation contributing to the achievement of organisational goals. These inputs include individual
processes (including all aspects of personality or individual differences), work or task
processes, social processes and organisational processes.
The topics relating to psychological processes in part 2 of this module the biological
basis of behaviour, human development, learning, perception, cognitive processes,
motivation and emotion relate mainly to individual processes. You need to understand
these individual processes in order to grasp and explain basic human behaviour in the
work context. Personality, another important theme in individual processes, is covered in
module IOP1601 or the next module.
If you were to pause for a moment and think about the processes and behaviour you
are using in what you are doing now, or each working day, or when doing a specific
task, you would probably list more or less all the aspects that you will cover in this
module.
The study of work or task processes requires knowledge of the biological basis of
behaviour. This includes genetics, the nervous system and the muscular system, as well
as ergonomic or work design aspects of the work situation. Thus, you need to understand how the biological basis of behaviour influences and determines the ergonomics of
work design.
The study of social processes in the system includes themes such as attitudes and values,
prosocial behaviours, aggression and conflict, and group behaviour. It equips you with
the knowledge that you need to understand individuals' behaviour in relationships and
groups, as well as the behaviour of a group (such as an organisation) as a whole.
Although leadership (chapter 12 of Bergh & Theron, 2009) also reflects social processes,
it does not form part of this module. You will study leadership in your second year of
study in the context of organisational psychology.
IOP1501/1
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Orientation
Group behaviour and social processes in organisations (chapter 11 of Bergh and Theron)
include social processes that influence people's behaviour in organisations. You should
keep these processes in mind, because, along with individual, work, task and social
processes, they influence productivity, work performance, psychological adjustment and
efficiency in the work context. The issue concerning leadership is not included in this
module but will be studied in the second year as part of organisational psychology
The transformation process in an organisation may be visualised as the interaction
between the individual, work or task, and social and organisational processes. It occurs
when individuals start to perform certain work tasks and collaborate in groups or
teams, and when these groups or teams are brought together in organisational structures.
Outputs are the consequences of the interaction of processes in a work organisation.
They include productivity, performance, adjustment and individual and organisational
efficiency. These outputs may in turn form inputs that influence the work organisation
and its environments as dynamic entities, and thus contribute to transformation.
The environment also contributes to the functioning of the work organisation and the
individuals operating in it. Environmental factors may include people's personal environment (eg their home environment); sociocultural environment (eg work values and religious or political convictions); and physical environment (eg safety, security, transport
and climatic factors).
Consider the following case study, which illustrates how the open systems framework
functions within the work context.
CASE STUDY: SABC BEAMING INTO AFRICA AN OPEN SYSTEM?
SABC BEAMING INTO AFRICA AN OPEN SYSTEM?

After a painful period of uncertainty, retrenchments and restructuring, the SABC is well on the
road
to
becoming
successful
national
public
broadcaster
in
harsh
economic
climate.
The
reinvigorated SA Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) has emerged from its period of transformation
ready
to
stand
on
its
own
financial
feet
in
deregulated
broadcasting
environment
rife
with
competition from other local broadcasters.
The transformation, assisted by international consulting group McKinseys, was a painful process
involving large-scale retrenchments, restructuring, an overhaul of the programming line-up and the
adoption of sound business principles.
The
SABC
results,
had
little
operations,
choice
but
controls
to
embrace
and
transformation
future
plans.
to
survive
Government
has
as
regards
made
it
its
financial
clear
in
its
communications that the corporation must stand on its own feet financially. At the same time
it
must
fulfil
its
costly
public
broadcast
mandate
while
readying
itself
for
the
new
era
of
competition. The SABC embarked on its transformation in February 1996 with the re-launch of its
three
terrestrial
television
channels
to
meet
the
various
language
needs
of
its
customers,
scheduling programmes more efficiently and putting the emphasis on ``quality'' in the marketing of
its various programmes.
A new logo was adopted, symbolising the SABC's vision to become an excellent broadcaster with
Africa its target. ``This logo embodies the pillars on which our vision rests to establish ourselves as
the
(xii)
pulse
of
Africa's creative
spirit
through
superbly
produced,
top-quality
programming that
Orientation
meets the needs and wants of our audiences,'' says its charismatic chief executive. The new logo,
bedecked in rainbow colours, symbolises a break with the SABC's political past and its historical
neglect of African issues. ``The broadcasting industry in South Africa is set to experience a shakeup,'' says the chief executive. ``The SABC is moving in the right direction and will be ready to meet
the
challenge
head-on
and
provide
advertisers
with
innovative
media
opportunities,
high-quality
service, competitive pricing structures and a dynamic team of people to meet the demands of
advertisers.''
The
aim
of
these
initiatives
is
not
only
to
rebuild
pride
among
employees
and
customers alike but also to provide team leaders in the company with accountability, responsibility,
and opportunities to release their full potential.
Recognising that it could no longer turn to government for financial bail-out despite the onerous
provisions
of
its
public
broadcast
mandate,
the
SABC
is
now
embarking
on
process
of
commercialisation, a move aimed at restoring its pride so as to ensure its financial viability and
fulfil its aim of becoming the broadcaster of choice on the African continent.
(Adapted from an article by Ciaran Ryan in the
BusinessTimes,
19 March 2006.)
The discussion that follows gives you an idea of how work-related situations can be
understood within the open systems framework.
1.
The following examples taken from the case study illustrate inputs into the organisational system:
individual processes: pride, motivation of employees, self-actualisation
social processes: leadership, team leaders, communication, management style
.
.
organisational processes: change in organisational culture

processes relating to the execution of tasks: recording of performance, mention of operations, controls and future plans
2.
The following examples taken from the case study illustrate environmental factors
that influence the system:
a harsh economic climate, internal local competition and the media
A discussion of how these environmental subsystems influence the organisation may be

useful. For example, if the media were to portray a negative image of the organisation, it
could lose its customer base and viewers might refuse to pay their TV licences. Decisions
made by the organisation's board of directors during their annual general meetings could
also affect the organisation.
THE PURPOSE OF THIS MODULE

The primary purpose of this module is to provide you with the knowledge, skills, applied
competences, values and attitudes needed in the field of psychological processes, which
influence human behaviour in general, as well as in the work context. In our discussions
we will highlight the influence of the various schools of thought and scientific thinking and
examine related concepts in psychology particularly the various biological, developmental and individual psychological processes that influence human behaviour, and the social
processes that characterise the social nature of human and organisational behaviour. The
module will also empower you to become lifelong learners in the world of work and
IOP1501/1
(xiii)
Orientation
provide a mechanism for continued personal growth, enhancing interpersonal work

relationships and employee and organisational effectiveness.
THE PLACE OF THIS MODULE IN YOUR UNDERGRADUATE

STUDIES
The modules making up the undergraduate courses offered by the College of Economic
and Management Sciences provide learners with the knowledge and skills they need to
work and assume certain roles in the community. Those of you who wish to specialise in
I-O psychology in addition to obtaining other business qualifications will need to take a
number of modules that provide you with sufficient knowledge of psychology and the
skills required to understand, evaluate and influence human behaviour in the work
context. In this module, IOP1501, you will acquire knowledge and application skills relating
to the main approaches in psychological thought and methodology which characterise
psychology as a science. However, the main emphasis is on the basic biological, developmental, psychological and social processes that influence the behaviour of individuals
and groups in the work context and in other life roles. In the other module, IOP1601 you
will learn about the role of personality, which is the primary determinant of differences
between individuals and groups in their work behaviours and in other life roles. Many of
the psychological concepts and assumptions that you learn in these modules also form
the building blocks for your further and more advanced studies in I-O psychology.
MODULE
OUTCOMES
You will have mastered the broad learning outcomes for this module if you are able to do the following
after studying the various study topics and themes:
understand
the
general
nature
of
the
fields
of
study
and
application
in
psychology
and
I-O
psychology
explain the different approaches taken by the various schools of thought associated with psychology
in the work context
clarify
the
way
in
which
concepts
concerned
with
the
biological
basis
of
behaviour
and
human
development improve interpersonal work relationships, and employee and organisational effectiveness
identify and apply the various attributes of learning, perception, cognitive processes, motivation and
emotion
indicate and apply factors and methods that pertain to attitudes, values, prosocial behaviours,
aggression and conflict, for the purpose of applying such knowledge to improve interpersonal work
relationships and employee and organisational effectiveness.
As you will see, these broad learning outcomes are specified and reflected in the content, learning
outcomes and assessment activities in the prescribed book and this study guide, and in the questions
and tasks contained in the assignments and the examinations.
We believe that these learning outcomes should also be reflected in the way in which you apply and
evaluate your knowledge and skills in your work and your other life roles and environments, as well as in
your attitudes and values as a responsible adult learner.
(xiv)
Orientation
FRAMEWORK/CONTENTS OF THE MODULE

The following diagram summarises the contents of this module.
MODULE DIAGRAM
ORIENTATION: THE IMPORTANCE OF MODULE IOP1501 [IOP101M]
Part 1:
SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN PSYCHOLOGY, AND
INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Study topic 1:
Theoretical perspectives in
study unit 1, chapter 1 of Bergh and Theron
psychology
Study topic 2:
Fields of study and practice areas in
industrial and organisational psychology
Part 2:
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOURAL PROCESSES
Study topic 3:
Study topic 4:
Study topic 5:
Learning
Study topic 6:
Perception
Study topic 7:
Cognition
Study topic 8:
Part 3:
SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR AND PROCESSES
Study topic 9:
Study topic 10:
Prosocial behaviours, aggression and
conflict
Study topic 11:
Group behaviour and other social
processes in organisations
NOTE:
The two-way arrows between the boxes indicate that the content often overlaps
and may be used in various combinations to explain human behaviour.
IOP1501/1
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Orientation
LAYOUT OF THE STUDY GUIDE

The study guide is divided into three main parts, which correspond to groups of chapters in the prescribed book.
These three parts are:
Part 1: Schools of thought in psychology, and industrial and organisational

psychology
The science and academic discipline of psychology grew from theoretical philosophical
reflection and developed into various theoretical approaches to human behaviour, or
schools of thought, each with its own assumptions. Although these approaches form the
historical basis of the subject, they remain significant in that they direct the development
of psychology as a dynamic applied science. The aim of science is to integrate theory with
methods for explaining and predicting phenomena. This is accomplished through methodology, which systematises theoretical knowledge scientifically by means of descriptions, analyses, comparisons and classifications. In this part of the study guide you will
study the schools of thought, the various fields of I-O psychology and the methodology
of the subject. These aspects are covered in chapters 1 and 2 of Bergh and Theron
(2009), your prescribed book.
Part 2: Individual behavioural processes
Individual processes include hereditary, psychological and environmental factors, which

influence people, directly or indirectly, in the work situation. Knowledge of these
processes helps to explain the behaviour of people both as individuals and as workers.
Biological factors offer quantitative and qualitative parameters of individual development.
Development is the continuous process that reflects people's biological and psychological
functioning. In this part of the study guide you will study topics such as the various
biological bases of behaviour, human development and learning, and how these crystallise in behaviour in the form of perception, cognition and motivation. These topics are
covered in chapters 3 to 8 of Bergh and Theron (2009).
Part 3: Social behaviour and processes
The study of social behaviour has to do with the physical appearance of individuals and
groups, and their thoughts, feelings, attitudes, values, perceptions and conduct which
influence others. Effective cooperation depends largely on the group's social processes
and interpersonal skills. Among the social processes that you will be studying here are
aggression, conflict and group behaviour. Social processes are covered in chapters 9 to
12 of Bergh and Theron (2009), of which chapter 12 is not prescribed for this module.
However, you may find chapter 12 interesting to read; chapter 12, for example, deals
with leadership and entrepreneurial behaviour in organisations, which primarily integrate
work behaviour and processes in a social context.
YOUR STUDY MATERIAL

On registering as a Unisa student, you should have received the following study material:
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Orientation
Tutorial letters
Tutorial Letter IOPALLA 301 for a particular year contains general information about
studying at Unisa. This information is not repeated in other tutorial letters.
Tutorial Letter 101 contains important information about your lecturers, study material and assignments, feedback on certain assignments, and possibly information about
group visits and examinations.
Tutorial Letter 201 (and possibly further tutorial letters) mainly provides feedback on
assignments not dealt with in Tutorial Letter 101, as well as other important information, for example about group visits, final information about the examination and
what to study for the examination.
Study guide
This is the only study guide for IOP1501. The study guide is not a replica of the prescribed
book. Instead, it uses a selection of the study material and various types of learning
activity to make your learning experience more personal, and the learning content more
understandable and applicable. Please note that it was not possible to incorporate all the
prescribed material into the learning activities in the study guide; however, this does not
mean that the material that has been omitted is any less important.
The prescribed book

The prescribed book for this module is
Bergh, ZC & Theron, AL (eds). (2009). Psychology in the work context. (4th ed). Cape
Town: Oxford University Press.
You must use this revised edition, as the content and other features differ from
previous editions. This book may be purchased from the relevant commercial bookstores.
Chapters 1 to 11 of this book (Bergh & Theron, 2009) are prescribed for this module,
IOP1501, and chapters 13 to 22 are prescribed for the second module, IOP1601. The book
offers you the following with regard to your learning experience:
Extensive and updated coverage of important psychological theories, concepts, research and applications is supplied.
The outcomes-based nature of the book is evident through the many work-related
and other types of scenario or case study, examples, illustrations, learning activities,
questions, highlights and ethical issues, which are all used to facilitate your understanding and application of concepts.
Some of these learning aids allow you to become personally involved in the study
material, for example through completing questionnaires and interpreting psychological phenomena.
In some instances certain methods used in psychology are illustrated, which allows
you to see and experience applications in psychology.
Where relevant, the learning content is situated in a South African and African context.
The assessment activities that follow each chapter, consisting of questions and tasks,
give you the opportunity to evaluate your achievement of the learning outcomes.
Various types of information boxes (eg ethical readers and other content boxes)
further explain and emphasise content.
IOP1501/1
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Orientation
A complete index and English and Afrikaans glossaries have been supplied to assist
you in finding meanings of concepts in the prescribed book.
RECOMMENDED LEARNING PROCESS

This module is presented as an NQF level 5 course worth 12 credits and requiring 120
notional hours. This means that you should be able to cover all the learning content in
more or less 120 active study hours, which allows you to plan and schedule your studies
most effectively. The level descriptors for this level indicate what you should be able to
do.
Typically, a learning programme leading to the awarding of a qualification or unit standard at this level aims to develop learners who demonstrate the following:
scope of knowledge
knowledge of the main areas of one or more fields, disciplines or practices, including an understanding of the key
terms, concepts, facts, principles, rules and theories of that
field, discipline or practice
knowledge literacy
an awareness of how knowledge (or a knowledge system)

develops and evolves within the area of study or operation
method and
the ability to select and apply standard methods, proce-
procedure
dures, and/or techniques within the field, discipline or

practice, and to plan and manage an implementation
process within a supported environment
problemsolving
the ability to identify, evaluate and solve defined, routine

and new problems within a familiar context, and to apply
solutions based on relevant evidence and procedures and/or
other forms of explanation appropriate to the field, discipline or practice
ethics and profes-
the ability to take account of and act in accordance with
sional practice
prescribed organisational and professional ethical codes of

conduct, values and practices and to seek guidance on
ethical and professional issues where necessary
accessing, processing
the ability to gather information from a range of sources,
and managing
including oral, written and/or symbolic texts, to select
information
information appropriate to the task, and to apply basic

processes of analysis, synthesis and evaluation to that information
producing and
the ability to communicate information reliably, accurately
communicating
and coherently, using conventions appropriate to the
information
context, either in writing, verbally or in practical demonstration, including an understanding of and respect for
conventions relating to intellectual property, copyright and
plagiarism
(xviii)
Orientation
context and systems
the ability to operate in a range of familiar and new

contexts, demonstrating an understanding of different kinds
of systems, their constituent parts and the relationships
between these parts, and how actions in one area influence
other areas within the same system
management of
the ability to assess one's own and others' performance and
learning
to take appropriate action where necessary; the ability to

take responsibility for one's own learning within a structured learning process and to promote the learning of
others
accountability
the ability to answer for one's own actions, to work effectively with and respect others, and, in a defined context, to
take supervisory responsibility for others and for the
responsible use of resources where appropriate
The skills and tasks mentioned below relate to the NQF level descriptors and are similar
to what we expect from you in the learning outcomes and activities, as well as in the
questions and tasks included in the assignments and examination questions for this
module.
Because Unisa subscribes to an outcomes-based tuition model, our students are

considered adult learners who do not simply learn theory or obtain knowledge passively,
but are able to apply and critically evaluate knowledge. In the learning process, for
example while completing learning activities or assignments, and studying for the
examination and applying knowledge and skills, learners also apply and develop certain
competencies which are valuable in life in general, as well as in the work context. We
would like our learners to have or develop a responsible learning attitude, allowing
them, for example, to study with discipline when completing learning activities and to
use as many learning opportunities and learning methods as possible.
To help you understand, apply and critically evaluate study material better, and hence to
assist you in attaining your learning outcomes, each study unit presents you with a
learning experience that follows the format set out below:
Learning outcomes indicate what you have to know and how you should apply this
knowledge. These learning outcomes are also based on those contained in the prescribed chapters of Bergh and Theron (2009). In the learning outcomes, the learning
activities and the assessment questions we use action words or verbs to tell you what
you should be able to do once you have finished working through the study material.
Here is a list of such action words, although the skills required may be formulated in
other words.
Analyse
Break the material up or recognise the parts and give

these parts; discuss them in detail using specific criteria.
Compare
Indicate similarities and/or differences between two or

more phenomena, approaches, patterns or processes.
Contrast
Indicate the differences between two approaches,

phenomena or patterns.
Criticise
IOP1501/1
Describe or identify the advantages and disadvantages,
(xix)
Orientation
good and bad characteristics or possibilities and limitations, and provide the necessary support for your point
of view.
Define
Give or recognise descriptions of the meaning of a term

(or concept), using other terms.
Describe
Give the characteristics of something. Recognise explanations for a concept or process.
Discuss
Describe, interpret, argue, debate and come to a

conclusion where appropriate.
Distinguish
Give the differences that are characteristic of two or

more things or phenomena and show what makes them
different from each other.
Evaluate
Give a n opinion a b o ut a phenomenon which is

supported by facts and arguments and determine the
value of the phenomenon using certain standards or
criteria.
Explain
Make something clearer by using or recognising illustrations, descriptions, examples and/or comparisons.
Give
Write down or list names, facts, items and so on. Do not

discuss.
Identify
Look for and give the main characteristics.
Illustrate
Recognise and give examples.
Indicate
Recognise and state concepts and other features using a

logical framework.
Interpret
Try to verify an explanation by reasoning about it, and

come to a conclusion.
List
Identify names, places, characteristics, items or facts in a

specific order.
Name
Provide names, places, characteristics, items or facts.
Summarise
Recognise and state the key or central aspects of a given

topic.
Remember, at first-year level you are assessed mainly by means of multiple-choice

questions, which also require most of the abovementioned skills.
To assist you in achieving the learning outcomes and learning the skills they encapsulate,
your study material (prescribed book, study guide and assignments), contains the
following learning aids:
An introductory outline of the study material, often with examples, to give you an
indication of what to expect. You will also find many such examples in Bergh and
Theron.
Learning activities to complete in order to actively confirm and apply the concepts
and assumptions discussed in the prescribed book. You will find similar learning activities in some chapters of the prescribed book.
(xx)
Orientation
Feedback discussions after each activity with which you can compare your own findings and learning experiences.
Questions to help you determine whether you have reached certain outcomes or
have acquired certain skills relating to the key questions.
Self-evaluation exercises in the form of multiple-choice questions to test your learning experiences and insight into the study material, and to accustom you to this type
of question, which will also be set in the examination. These and other types of
question supplement the assessment activities at the end of each of the chapters in
Bergh and Theron.
Answers to self-evaluation exercises/multiple-choice questions at the end of the

study guide. Also note that the questions in your prescribed book, the study guide
and in assignments (as they will be in the examinations) are of a theoretical and an
applied nature.
Icons to indicate the following:
Learning outcomes what you should know and be able to do
Activity to do a task to carry out in order to develop understanding
Self-assessment tasks and questions questions and tasks to demonstrate your knowledge, understanding and application of the acquired knowledge
Feedback feedback on your responses to the activities and self-assessment questions
Learning about learning: A self-evaluation questionnaire appears in the Appendix 1 to

help you reflect on what and how you have learnt. We would like you to return it to us
to help us improve our tuition processes.
SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDYING

In order to achieve the learning outcomes, that is, to acquire knowledge, but also to be
able to apply it, and to evaluate your knowledge and applications and to use and develop
your work and other skills, you will have to utilise various and creative learning methods
and opportunities. You will have to read with concentration, and make an effort to think
about the concepts and ideas and their meanings and how these could be related. Try to
test yourself by summarising, setting theoretical and applied questions, and thinking
critically about what you are learning. Also, think about the implications of knowledge
for people and environments; look for examples and applications in your environments,
in people, the media or in your work, discuss issues with other people, or try to apply
the knowledge for yourself or in your work or other environments.
NOTE: The first-year modules may be your first acquaintance with psychological
concepts and terms. As in any field of study, you will have to become familiar
with psychological terminology and its meanings. If necessary, make your own
IOP1501/1
(xxi)
Orientation
``dictionary'' of concepts in the prescribed book and where to find them

(however, remember to use the subject index of the prescribed book), or use a
good psychology dictionary. Your summary can be in the form of a table, with
one column containing the concept, the next column a word or phrase to indicate the meaning, and a third column the page number/s in the book indicating
where to find the concepts (see our hypothetical example).
Concept
Schools
Meaning
of
thought
Different
and
Page
theoretical
in
prescribed
book
Chapter 1, p 5
methodological
propositions
digms)
the
number
for
(para-
studying
human
being
Try to memorise the concepts you identify, and be careful to limit your glossaries to
about one to two pages per chapter, otherwise your lists will be too long.
Remember the following with regard to your studies:
Refer frequently to Tutorial Letter 101, which contains instructions and information on
assignments and other aspects of your studies.
To study effectively, you should use the prescribed book in conjunction with this study guide, because the study guide will assist you in many ways to understand and
apply the learning content better. In the study guide you will also be referred to specific sections to study.
Complete the suggested activities in the study guide. Remember that these activities
are related to the learning outcomes, assignments and questions, and in the process
to the acquisition or development of certain competencies.
ADDED VALUE: HOW YOU WILL BENEFIT FROM STUDYING

THIS MODULE
Your learning experience of the study material presented in this study guide and your
prescribed book should offer you the following benefits:
We strongly believe that your learning experience will stimulate your interest in I-O
psychology as a professional career field.
You will probably be a more active learner because the activities that you carry out
involve you in the learning experience, which will simplify the content of the prescribed book. Please remember that most of the brief questionnaires and techniques
that you will use to evaluate yourself are intended simply to illustrate the concepts,
assumptions and processes. They are not designed to assess your personality or your
knowledge in depth.
Some of the learning activities and you should try to do all of them demonstrate the application and methods of psychology in the work context and teach you
how to use psychological concepts.
Although the study guide does not deal with all the themes and concepts in the
prescribed book, it does emphasise the principal ones. However, concepts not dealt
with in the study guide are no less important.
(xxii)
Orientation
During your learning experiences you should develop, acquire or sharpen certain
cross-field competencies which will be useful to you in your work and in many other
walks of life. Here are a few examples:
learning skills obtaining and exploring knowledge by using various learning
methods
self-responsibility demonstrating self-management by obtaining and exploring
the information needed to complete tasks
research obtaining, analysing, organising, evaluating and reporting information
problemsolving skills considering information and selecting correct data or
alternatives to solve problems, and developing creative and critical thinking abilities
team behaviours working effectively with others
communication skills using various forms of communication and demonstrating interpersonal sensitivity
technological or environmental literacy using science and technology effectively and critically; promoting the health of others and the environment
developing a broader picture developing a macro vision; recognising interrelationships and the fact that problems do not exist in isolation
citizenship taking responsibility by participating in the life of local, national and
global societies
cultural and aesthetic understanding being sensitive to differences in and
between groups
employment-seeking skills exploring educational and occupational opportunities
entrepreneurship developing creativity and new ideas and opportunities
MUTUAL EXPECTATIONS
You can expect the following from Unisa:
up-to-date and relevant learning material comparable with the best available locally
and internationally.
learning material relevant to the needs of commerce and industry, written on the
basis of regular consultation with important stakeholders outside Unisa.
the opportunity to develop competencies at a designated level (National Qualifications Framework (NQF) level 5). These level descriptors are taken into account in
the learning material and assessment design.
We understand that studying through Unisa may be more challenging than studying at a
residential university. Therefore, where possible, we provide learner support, which may
take the form of lectures or workshops, and we encourage personal contact in the form
of appointments and telephone calls and via the electronic media, such as e-mail.
We will let you know what to expect during assessments, and you will be given feedback
on assignments within one month if you submit them on time.
As a learner studying through the Department of Industrial and Organisational

Psychology, you are expected to do the following:
.
.
Obtain all your learning materials as quickly as possible.

Read all tutorial letters diligently so that you know what is expected of you and so
that you benefit from feedback on the learning content.
IOP1501/1
(xxiii)
Orientation
Start studying the prescribed material as soon as you have registered, and study according to a regular schedule.
Complete the learning activities in the study guide to gain a better understanding of
the learning content.
Submit compulsory assignments to reach the university on or before the due date,
and complete other assignments for your own preparation.
Make sure that you are aware of the status of your registration, study fees, examination admission and examination dates.
CONCLUSION
We wish you an enjoyable and successful year of study with us, and we hope that you
will enjoy being a partner with us in this learning endeavour. Please remember that
studying through Unisa need not be difficult or lonely if you make use of all the learning
opportunities offered to you.
YOUR LECTURERS
Ms Vasie Naidoo (Course leader)
Prof Rudi Oosthuizen (Subject manager)
(xxiv)
PART 1
Schools of thought in Psychology,

and industrial and organisational
psychology
Industrial and organisational psychology, or I-O psychology, is an applied field of
psychology that has become a training field and area of professional practice in its own
right. Training in I-O psychology can lead to various occupational categories that require
and utilise knowledge of psychology as a foundation. I-O psychology developed from
psychology as an applied field in its study and applications of human behaviour in the
workplace. Through its various subfields and practice areas I-O psychology applies
psychological knowledge in understanding employee behaviour and work environments
to facilitate the best possible quality of work life and work performance.
As a science and academic discipline, psychology has evolved from general philosophical
enquiry or research into a variety of theoretical approaches, each incorporating
assumptions or premises concerning the content of psychological enquiry. These
approaches constitute the historical foundations of psychology, but have significant value
beyond their historical influence in that they give direction to the generation of psychology as a dynamic, evolving science per se, as well as an applied science incorporating the
work context.
One of the objectives of any science is to establish methods for explaining and predicting
phenomena. This is accomplished by research methodology through which theoretical
knowledge is scientifically systematised by means of description, analysis, comparison and
classification. In psychology and its applied fields and areas of practice, however, many
other methods are utilised in people-related applications to facilitate optimal human
functioning in various contexts.
IOP1501/1
STUDY TOPIC 1
Theoretical perspectives in psychology
TINU YDUTS
THEORETICAL
PERSPECTIVES
IN
(BASED
ON
CHAPTER
OF
PSYCHOLOGY
BERGH
AND
THERON
(2009))
INTRODUCTION AND AIM

When reading about various domains, events or experiences relating to human behaviour, or listening to the views of experts and lay people on the subject, you will probably encounter a wide range of opinions. Questions people ask include: Why do people
have such different lifestyles? Why do governments follow different ideologies when
governing their peoples and their resources? Why did my three previous employers
employ people and implement business management styles that differ so vastly from
those I observe in my current company? We attribute this largely to the broad cognitive
constructs or ways of thinking that are applied in different contexts.
The fact that the science of psychology and related fields of study developed via various
schools of thought may answer many such questions. The main psychological schools of
thought are structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism, Gestalt psychology, the psychoanalytic school, humanism or phenomenology and cognitive psychology, and more
recently various applications of postmodernism have also influenced psychology. As an
applied field of psychology, the theory and practices of I-O psychology were and are
part of these developments, although I-O psychology has also developed some new
work-related theories and methods of its own.
The aim in this study topic is to make you aware of the important schools of thought in
psychology, which still influence current psychological thinking and practices in general
and work psychology.
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
After completing this study unit, you should be able to:
.
.
.
.
.
.
identify the main assumptions and methods of seven different schools of thought in psychology
recognise explanations of the central theme in cognitive psychology
explain what metapsychology is
recognise applications of the schools of thought in I-O psychology
state the main theme of postmodernism with regard to psychology
explain what positive psychology entails
IOP1501/1
Study
unit
Study unit 1: contents

Learning outcomes
Key concepts
1.1
Overview: schools of thought and their implications
1.2
Self-evaluation
KEY
CONCEPTS
Important concepts relating to this topic are listed in the box below.
mechanism,
observable
response,
natural
behaviour,
tabula
science,
individual
rasa,
consciousness,
differences,
wholeness
of
introspection,
control,
experience,
adaptation
prediction,
unconscious,
to
conditioning,
the
environment,
stimulus-organism-
phi-phenomenon,
free
association,
eidetic reduction, systems theory, Hawthorne studies, holistic
As we suggested in the orientation, it would be a good idea for you to compile your own glossary of
terms in the form of a table consisting of three columns, with space for each term, its meaning/s and
the number of the page in Bergh and Theron on which the information is to be found. Continue to add to
this list as you progress through the prescribed book, as you may find references to some concepts on
more than one page in your prescribed book. Remember to include these terms, definitions and concepts
in your everyday conversations and answers to activities, as you must be familiar with them and their
applications.
1.1
OVERVIEW: SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT AND THEIR

IMPLICATIONS
The field of psychology has a number of subdisciplines and practice areas aimed at the
study of the different levels and contexts of human thought and behaviour, which include
the theories, assumptions and concepts as proposed by the various paradigms or
schools of thought in psychology. These approaches, which represent broad ways of
thinking in psychology, each with a set of assumptions, no longer exist in their original
form, but have merged into an integrated or metapsychological way of thinking in
psychology. However, certain of the original influences and assumptions are still part of
the theory and practice in current psychological thinking and its applied fields.
This study unit deals with the various psychological schools of thought or perspectives
and how they influence I-O psychology and its fields of application. The nine fundamental theoretical paradigms in psychology are discussed with regard to the contribution
4
Theoretical
perspectives
in
psychology
they have made to the development of psychology, even though they are quite diverse
and even contradict one another in some respects.
In light of the strengths of and sometimes contradictions between the various paradigms,
the field of psychology, and even I-O psychology, is very broad and should be
approached with an open mind.
Psychology is not an absolute science like physics. It involves human behaviour and
human interactions and it is not always predictable to exact levels of certainty. Unlike
some other exact sciences, psychology comprises numerous approaches and theories
that seek to explain human behaviour or provide different perspectives for examining
human behaviour in terms of culture and biology. There is no one particular approach to
psychology that may be viewed as correct or more valuable than the others. In
contemporary or current psychology, specific theoretical frameworks are often applicable; however, a more holistic approach is becoming increasingly popular, and this may
be among the most balanced of the paradigms available for psychology today. It is often
said that all aspects of human functioning, or the total context, must be considered.
ACTIVITY
1.1
From reading what we have just said above, you probably noticed that we used a number of synonyms to
explain the nature of the various schools of thought. List these synonyms in the space below.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
There are many synonyms or related concepts that can be used to explain the idea of a school of
thought or aspects of it. The important thing to remember is that a school of thought is a broad or
encompassing paradigm or way of thinking that may include many related concepts and theories. Some
of the synonyms used in the above discussion are:
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
paradigm
perspective
approach
discipline
subdiscipline
theory
theoretical framework
We will now focus on the various schools of thought with regard to the fields of I-O psychology. We will
IOP1501/1
Study
unit
also refer to the historical development of what we today know as I-O psychology, which will help you to
understand the various schools of thought.
ACTIVITY
1.2
Study section 1.2 (1.2.1 to 1.2.8) in Bergh and Theron (2009), which deals with the various schools of
thought, then complete the following activity, which will help you to identify and understand the basic
framework of each. However, if this exercise is to be of any benefit to you and to provide you with a
summary or mind map for revision purposes, you will need to take a disciplined approach; dedicate
about 15 minutes to this activity, and fill in the blank spaces on your own.
Name
of
school
Prominent
theor-
Main
focus/ideas
Research
methods
ist/s
1.
Structuralism
2.
Functionalism
3.
Behaviourism
4.
Gestalt
5.
Psychoanalysis
6.
Humanism/
Phenomenology
7.
Cognitive
8.
Metapsychology
9.
Postmodernism
10.
Positive
psychol-
ogy
FEEDBACK
You will find all the information you needed to complete the table in section 1.2 of Bergh and Theron
(2009). We have also provided a completed table in appendix A at the end of this study unit. Did you
notice that each school of thought comprises a set of assumptions or central idea, certain theories or
theoretical concepts, and preferences for scientific inquiry or assessment and research?
Theoretical
perspectives
in
psychology
Different people in the past and different people today hold a wide variety of views as to
what psychology is, or what it covers.
In order to fully understand the reasoning behind the various schools of thought, we
suggest that you approach each one in its individual context. Bear in mind that the
assumptions and propositions associated with each school of thought are to be regarded
as true and valid within their context, no matter how unrealistic they may seem to us as
readers.
In order to stress the issue of contextual meaning within each school of thought, let's
compare schools of thought and political parties.
Political parties and schools of thought have the following in common:
Founders
It is possible to identify the most prominent persons who have contributed to the
establishment of a political party or school of thought.
(We associate psychoanalysis with
Freud.)
Reason for formation
It is often possible to identify the main motivation for the establishment of the entity. In
some instances it is to propose a solution to a problem, or alternatively the entity may
have been formed as a result of a paradigm shift or change in the ideology of the entity.
(Functionalism was established as a reaction to structuralism.)
Ideology, manifesto, assumptions
Both a political party and a school of thought have an ideology or a manifesto or

assumptions. The interesting point is that the manifesto adopted by a party serves as a
road map or guidelines which represent a set of ideals, principles, doctrines, myths or
symbols of a social movement, institution, class, or large group that explains how society
should work, and offers a political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order. ( Think
about the basic assumptions of each school of thought and how these contribute to their
explanation of concepts (behaviour or personality or learning).)
Affiliation
Some of these groups follow a certain specified ideology or mode of thinking very
closely (think about the uniqueness of and novel ideas behind the behaviourist and humanist
perspectives), while others may take broad inspiration from a combination of related
ideologies by combining the best ideas from different groups. (Think of cognitive psychol-
ogy as a combination of Gestalt and humanist perspectives, and metapsychology as a

combination of the best of a number of perspectives.)
Evolution
As times change and reality becomes more complex, some groups may continuously
review their initial assumption and put forward a modified version of their ideologies.
(Consider how the development of computer science has influenced the cognitive perspective,
IOP1501/1
Study
unit
which has incorporated the advances in information technology and compared the mind to a
computer, which is an information-processing machine.)
Other similarities
Can you think of other similarities between political parties and schools of thought?
What about the subject of dominance or prominence, or even any possible criticism
levelled against them?
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Nowadays, in psychology, academics and practitioners do not adhere to a single school

of thought, but rather use assumptions where they are relevant. An eclectic approach is
often adopted, with concepts from different schools being combined in broad metaapproaches. I-O psychology is a relevant, independent field with regard to theory and
methods, but it originated from and still is a practical application of psychology.
ACTIVITY
1.3
This activity supplements activity 1.1, and contains brief summaries of the main principles of the various
schools of thought. Your task is to link the summaries in column A with the corresponding schools of
thought in column B.
Column
1.
The
area
of
diagnoses
herself
Human
they
The
into
rather
People
and
are
person
problem
understands,
concerning
processes
that
a.
Gestalt
psychology
what
b.
Structuralism
the
c.
Humanism/
himself/
mediate
response.
merely
become
Column
is
reactive
beings,
determined
by
and
causes
themselves.
emphasis
mind
4.
and
how
mental
stimulus
are
is
solves
the
beings
outside
3.
and
using
between
2.
interest
tend
is
on
than
to
patterns.
the
the
uses
and
elements
organise
their
of
functions
of
experience.
ideas
and
thoughts
Phenomenology
d.
Psychoanalysis
Theoretical
Column
5.
Generally,
that
6.
people
cause
their
it
down
investigating
New
behaviour
meanings
ness,
is
its
these
can
be
construct
they
Emphasis
into
how
meanings
individuals
8.
unaware
of
and
the
many
factors
attach
on
the
to
elements
are
by
e.
Metapsychology
f.
Cognitive
psychology
and
related.
understanding
personal
beliefs
and
how
g.
Functionalism
h.
Postmodernism
what
them.
importance
self-awareness,
emotions.
basic
attained
psychology
Column
elements
their
in
The object of psychology is to analyse consciousness,

breaking
7.
are
perspectives
and
the
of
human
capacity
to
consciousmake
choices, as people create their own way of responding

to
9.
the
Human
world
as
beings
they
are
life.
studied
not
only
in
relation
to
but
also
in
relation
to
physical
their
transcendental
and
through
environment,
their
theology
go
environment,
which
i.
Behaviourism
includes
philosophy.
FEEDBACK
The discussion in section 1.2 in Bergh and Theron (2009) and the exercises in this study unit should
have provided you with ample information for filling in the missing words.
For this exercise you needed some knowledge of the basic assumptions of each school of thought. If you
gave yourself enough time to do this activity, you should have managed it quite well.
The answers to activity 1.3 are as follows: (1) f; (2) i; (3) g; (4) a; (5) d; (6) b; (7) h; (8) c; (9) e.
1.2
SUMMARY AND REFLECTION
In this study unit we focused on the various psychological schools of thought, and
examined examples or applications of each. The main paradigms or schools of thought
are structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism, psychoanalysis, Gestalt psychology,
humanistic or phenomenological psychology, cognitive psychology, metapsychology and
postmodernism. Although psychology in general has a scientific basis, from its theory
and applications it is apparent that it is not an exact science. Since the time of Wundt
and Freud, psychology has grown enormously, but there is an ongoing and increasing
quest for more refined knowledge and methods in order to achieve a better understanding of the human psyche and behaviour.
IOP1501/1
Study
unit
The various psychological schools of thought no longer exist in their original form,
because both psychology and I-O psychology have grown into metapsychological
sciences which, as you know by now, combine a number of different approaches.
As you may have gathered, understanding the development of psychology as a discipline

is vital to a grasp of its role in contemporary life. It is therefore very important to be
informed about the various schools of thought at an introductory level. You will experience the influence of these psychological paradigms throughout your studies in I-O
psychology, and in practice you will be able to make informed choices as to which paradigms to adopt as a specific or general frame of reference.
SELF-EVALUATION
These assessment activities and those at the end of chapter 1 of Bergh and Theron (2009) will help
you to evaluate your learning experience. Make sure that you know why you chose a particular answer.
For each of the terms/statements below, give a description or explanation and identify the school of
thought to which it belongs.
Terms/statement
1.
Deconstructionism
2.
Free
3.
Introspection
4.
Characterised
and
5.
Description/explanation
association
by
dialectics
contextualism
Qualities
of
flexibility
and
change
6.
Standardisation
components
would
lead
7.
Evolution
8.
Emphasis
of
to
of
job
the
task
productivity
theory
on
observable
behaviour
9.
10.
11.
Phi-phenomenon
Eidetic
reduction
Middle-class
subjects
10
of
women
as
research
the
School
of
thought
Theoretical
Terms/statement
12.
perspectives
in
psychology
School
of
thought
Focus is on the person as a

whole
13.
Incorporation
ness
as
an
of
conscious-
explanatory
concept
14.
The
in
role
of
mental
15.
Wholeness
16.
General
17.
Tabula
18.
The
the
unconscious
disorders
of
experience
systems
theory
rasa
human
being
information
as
an
processor
19.
Studies
with
identical
twins
20.
Stimulus-organism-response
FEEDBACK
This
activity
was
intended
to
help
you
understand
and
internalise
some
significant
concepts
and
statements associated with the various schools of thought.
Terms/statement
1.
Deconstructionism
One
of
the
main
postmodern
2.
Free
association
unrestrained
emotions
3.
Introspection
of
feelings
the
Postmodernism
ideas,
of
one's
of
ascertain
thoughts
stimulus
Psychoanalysis
undirected
experience
to
or
thought
feelings.
Self-observation
stimulus
IOP1501/1
logically
and
and
immediate
in
of
thinking.
Spontaneous,
association
trends
School
Structuralism
a
the
that
evokes.
11
Study
unit
Terms/statement
4.
Characterised
and
by
dialectics
contextualism
This
school
engages
ing
in
of
thought
dialogue
different
methods
in
contexts
of
School
of
thought
Metapsychology
regard-
concepts
and
different
human
life
and
experience.
5.
Qualities
of
flexibility
and
change
These
are
qualities
some
that
of
the
Postmodernism
characterise
postmodernism.
6.
Standardisation
components
would
lead
of
to
of
job
the
task
productivity
Taylorism
this
act
panied
as
proposes
should
by
the
would
of
for
lead
Behaviourism
accom-
use
stimulus
that
that
be
money
efficiency
to
better
performance.
7.
Evolution
theory
This
theory
variation
occurs
the
holds
within
randomly
survival
or
that
Functionalism
species
and
that
extinction
of
each organism is determined

by that organism's ability to
adapt
8.
Emphasis
is
on
observable
behaviour
This
to
was
Phi-phenomenon
the
departure
belief
in
basis
for
matter
9.
its
The
environment.
main
for
of
Behaviourism
Watson's
what
provides
the
of
point
the
subject
psychology.
phi-phenomenon
experienced
when
is
an
Gestalt
obser-
ver perceives that two lights

situated
flashing
to
be
and
close
together
alternately
one
forth
light
appear
moving
between
and
back
both
locations.
10.
Eidetic
reduction
This
concept
refers
to
Humanism or phenomenology
decreasing the visual images

that
occur
of
particular
the
12
past.
when
one
thinks
experience
in
Theoretical
Terms/statement
11.
Middle-class
subjects
of
women
as
perspectives
the
research
Freud
worked
class
women
with
in
psychology
School
middle-
his
in
of
thought
Psychoanalysis
research
studies.
12.
Focus is on the person as a
In order to understand what
whole.
holds meaning for individuals

at
given
time,
behavioural
thoughts,
not
acts,
experience,
ie
only
but
feelings
perceptions,
also
and
personal
have
to
be
understood.
13.
Incorporation
ness
as
an
of
conscious-
explanatory
concept.
This
act
mistic
ing
in
of
the
of
role
opti-
human
humanism
study
the
reflects
view
and,
motivation,
of
the
will
strivin
the
takes
into
consideration.
14.
The
in
role
of
mental
the
unconscious
disorders
This
is
this
particular
the
thought
15.
Wholeness
of
experience
The
that
which
is
General
systems
theory
This
or
which
Psychoanalysis
of
Gestalt
meaning
present
in
the
themselves.
theory
focuses
patterns
of
that
circular
are
elements
configura-
have
not
elements
16.
combines
patterns
tions
on
school
focuses.
mind
into
area
on
Cognitive
psychology
interactions
and
constitute living rather than

static
17.
Tabula
rasa
John
systems.
Locke
held
that
the
Behaviourism
organism is a blank slate or

tabula
18.
The
human
information
being
as
an
processor
The
mind
similar
can
rasa.
to
actively
integrate
IOP1501/1
is
seen
as
being
computer,
process
as
Cognitive
psychology
it
and
inputs.
13
Study
unit
Terms/statement
19.
Studies
with
identical
twins
Francis
interest
in
studies,
child
mental
20.
Stimulus-organism-response
Galton
fostered
genetic
deviation,
and
environment.
human
an
described
stimuli
in
or
Behaviourism
behaviour
allows
and
hered-
animal's
being's
objectively
Functionalism
the
ity
Studying
thought
twin
between
the
of
development,
relationship
and
School
it
terms
to
be
of
responses.
Appendix A: Completed table for activity 1.2

Name of school
1.
Structuralism
Founding theorist/s
Wundt
Titchener
2.
Functionalism
James
Darwin
Main focus
.
.
.
.
.
Galton
Behaviourism
Watson
Tolman
.
.
Guthrie
Hull
Skinner
4.
Gestalt
Wertheimer
Koffka
.
.
.
6.
Psychoanalysis
Freud
Humanism/
Husserl
Phenomenology
Frankl
Direct experience
Functioning of the psyche
Tests and question-
Adaptation to environ-
naires
Individual differences
Observable behaviour
Study of observable
Control and prediction of
behaviour by influencing
behaviour
and controlling stimulus-
Stimulus-response rela-
response relationships
tionship
Kohler
5.
Introspection
Structure of the psyche
ment
.
3.
Consciousness
Research methods
.
.
.
.
.
.
Wholeness of experience
Experimentation
Organisation of stimulus
Interpretation of the
field
whole of the individual's
Meaning of the whole
experience
Psychic content
Clinical observation
Unconscious
Free association
Childhood experiences
Wholeness of experience
Reduction of experi-
Free will
ence to essentials, rele-
Meaning of life
vant here-and-now
experiences
14
Theoretical
Name of school
7.
Founding theorist/s
Cognitive
Although no names
psychology
are specifically
mentioned here,
perspectives
Main focus
.
.
.
in
psychology
Research methods
How people ``know''
Analysis of information
Information processing
processing
Input-output processes
various researchers
have worked in this
field see chapter 20.
8.
Metapsychology
Integrative approach
Places human behaviour
Since this is an integra-
and experience in a
tive approach, it can
holistic perspective
draw on the methods

associated with any of
the seven schools
9.
Postmodernism
Interdisciplinary
Searches for new knowl-
Scientific observation
approach
edge by using scientific
and experimentation
methods
SELF-EVALUATION
To
evaluate
your
learning
experience
with
regard
to
this
study
theme,
complete
the
assessment
activities at the end of chapter 1 of Bergh and Theron (2009). To give yourself further practice, also
answer the multiple-choice questions below.
(1)
I am interested primarily in the reasoning that people apply to reach conclusions in their decisionmaking processes. What type of psychologist am I?
(a)
(2)
(3)
cognitive
(b)
behaviourist
(c)
humanist
(d)
psychoanalysis
Which type of psychologist is MOST likely to investigate the principles of learning?
(a)
functionalist
(b)
behaviourist
(c)
humanist
(d)
gestalt
I subscribe to a psychological school of thought whose central notion could be stated as follows:
``Human nature is essentially a blank slate. We are born into the world with no knowledge, and
without having any disposition to do good or evil. What we become depends entirely upon the effect
of the environment. If we control a child's environment we can make him or her become what we
wish.'' Which of the following statements best reflects the school of thought I subscribe to?
(a)
People perceive and think about wholes rather than simply about combinations of separate
elements.
(b)
The ultimate focus should be on the importance of the unconscious mind, not consciousness.
IOP1501/1
15
Study
unit
(c)
The study of mental processes should be rejected in favour of the study of the influence of
environmental factors on behaviour.
(d)
The best way to learn about the brain and its functions is to break the mind down into its
most basic elements.
Question 47
Identify the school of thought associated with each of the following statements:
(4)
The main focus in psychology should be on breaking down mental processes into their most basic
components.
(5)
Rather than breaking down the elements of the mind, the focus should be on how the mind enables
the individual to adapt to his or her environment.
(6)
In order to understand how people behave you have to understand how they think, remember, and
make decisions in their day-to-day lives.
(7)
You can't see the mind, so how can you study it? All that we can see is observable behaviour, and
that is what psychology should study.
(8)
(a)
cognitive
(b)
functionalism
(c)
structuralism
(d)
behaviourism
Which of the following statements best describes the psychoanalytical intervention method of free
association?
(a)
Visual images should be systematically reduced in order to assist the individual to ``see'' the
real issue at stake for what it really is.
(b)
Some factors may come between the direct relationship of the stimulus and the response.
(c)
The organisation or combination of sensory elements comprising a structure may gives rise to
a new perception which is perceived as representing a new meaningful entity.
(d)
The person says anything that comes to mind. You notice that some processes come to the
consciousness much more easily than others, depending on how deeply imbedded in the
consciousness they are.
(9)
Which of the following theories suggests that rather than searching for new knowledge by scientific
observation and experimentation, psychology should focus on the experience of people in their social
and cultural context?
(a)
social constructivism
(b)
postmodernism
(c)
positive psychology
(d)
deconstructionism
(10) According to positive psychology, ... can be regarded as its key concept and ... as the central
aspect of this key concept.
16
(a)
human strength, full life
(b)
virtuous character, happiness
Theoretical
(c)
mental wellness, hope
(d)
optimal experience, flow
perspectives
in
psychology
The correct answers to the questions for self-evaluation are:
1 (a); 2 (b); 3 (c); 4 (c); 5 (b); 6 (a); 7 (d); 8 (d); 9 (a); 10 (d)
Please check your own answers.
IOP1501/1
17
STUDY TOPIC 2
Fields of study and practice areas in

industrial and organisational psychology
18
TINU YDUTS
FIELDS
OF
STUDY
PRACTICE
AND
AREAS
INDUSTRIAL
IN
AND
ORGANISATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
(BASED
ON
CHAPTER
OF
BERGH
AND
THERON
(2009))

If you read job advertisements or hear people talking about jobs, you will encounter job
titles such as industrial psychologist, psychometrist, human resource (HR) practitioner,
personnel or HR manager, organisational development (OD) consultant, training
manager, and tasks, situations and departments involving people and their interests in
the work context. You may wonder what the various psychologists do and what types of
job and career possibilities might open up to you if you engage in this field of study. In this
topic we hope to provide the answers to all your questions.
Our aim in this study unit is to introduce you to the multidisciplinary nature of psychology and industrial psychology and their various areas of study and application. You will be
exposed to information about psychology and I-O psychology that will give you an
introduction not only to the work of specialist psychologists, but also to the other areas
in which psychology can be applied, such as managing and developing employees and
related organisational processes. This introduction to psychology and its related disciplines and applied areas, as well as the other study topics, will also lay the groundwork
for your further studies in I-O psychology.We believe that this topic may start you on a
fascinating journey during which you discover more about I-O psychology as a science, a
field of study and a career. Through the prescribed book by Bergh and Theron (2009),
this study guide, the tutorial letters and assignments, group discussion classes and of
course personal contact with you, we hope to encourage you to develop your interest
in I-O psychology.
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
.
.
.
recognise the various subfields of psychology and I-O psychology

provide an overview of the history of I-O psychology
identify the fields of application or practice areas of I-O psychology
IOP1501/1
19
Study
.
.
.
unit
relate the psychological schools of thought to fields of study in I-O psychology

discuss important historical contributions to I-O psychology
identify training and career opportunities in I-O psychology

Learning outcomes
Key concepts
2.1
Overview
2.2
Industrial psychology: an applied field of psychology
2.3
The nature and identity of industrial and organisational psychology
2.4
History and background
2.5
Professional training and practice issues
2.6
Future challenges for industrial and organisational psychology
2.7
Self-evaluation
KEY
CONCEPTS
industrial
and
neurological,
organisational
health,
psychology;
community,
psychology:
consulting,
career,
clinical,
counselling,
organisational,
educational,
personnel,
research,
consumer;
human
resource management; employment relations; ergonomics; psychological assessment; employee and

organisational wellbeing
the number of the page in Bergh and Theron (2009) on which the information is to be found. Continue to
add to this list as you progress through the prescribed book, as you may find references to some
concepts on more than one page in your prescribed book. Remember to include these terms, definitions
and concepts in your everyday conversations and answers to activities, as you must be familiar with
them and their applications.
2.1
OVERVIEW
Psychology is an extremely broad field. Psychologists deal with an astoundingly diverse

range of issues, and work in a wide range of settings. In this study unit we explore the
20
Fields
of
study
and
practice
areas
in
industrial
and
organisational
psychology
various subfields of psychology, keeping in mind that within each subfield, psychologists
can engage in many different activities. Many conduct research, teach and/or apply
psychological principles in organisations and in private practice in order to solve the reallife problems of individuals and society in work, family, education and health contexts.
2.2
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY: AN APPLIED FIELD OF

PSYCHOLOGY
Industrial psychology, or, as it is currently usually referred to, industrial and organisational
psychology (abbreviated to I-O psychology), is concerned with studying and developing
employee behaviour scientifically in conjunction with the structuring of organisations and
work to improve the productivity and quality of life of people at work. Most of us spend
a very large proportion of our lives at work, and so it is to everyone's advantage if
psychologists study the effect of work on other areas of life and examine the work-nonwork conflicts.
2.3
THE NATURE AND IDENTIT Y OF INDUSTRIAL AND

ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
I-O psychology is certainly a very practical field, but many I-O psychologists also seek
answers to relatively basic research questions. In other words, I-O psychologists want to
produce solutions to problems in the workplace, but they usually also want to develop a
fuller understanding of life at work in order to produce a solid scientific knowledge base.
I-O scientists and practitioners like being in an environment in which there are problems
that need to be solved, but they also like to discover and collect scientific facts about
work and organisational settings that they can apply to problems yet to be faced. There
is a great need for this kind of activity because the world of work is such a fast-moving
target of study that many issues are hard to anticipate.
Traditionally, I-O psychologists have focused on understanding individual behaviour and

work experience in organisational settings in other words, the worker himself or herself
has received the most attention, and this, of course, still continues today. Today more
than ever, however, I-O psychologists explicitly acknowledge the importance of considering the work system as a whole. For example, they conduct research at individual,
group and organisational levels. They also formally investigate the influence of environmental factors such as labour markets, economic conditions and governmental regulations on work. In fact, operating within a systems approach to understand people at
work has allowed I-O psychologists to contribute to cutting-edge issues in the design of
work. In this regard I-O psychologists have contributed to the design and development
of team-based organisations and have developed strategies for designing organisational
structures for work that are flexible enough to allow organisations to survive and thrive
in turbulent times.
ACTIVITY
2.1
Study sections 2.2 to 2.4 in Bergh and Theron (2009), which deal with the subfields of psychology, and
then complete the following activity. This will take 15 minutes of your time, and will help you to identify
IOP1501/1
21
Study
unit
and understand the content and define the boundaries of the various subfields of psychology. Note
that in order for this exercise to be of any benefit to you, you will need to be disciplined and first try and
fill in the blank spaces on your own.
The table below contains descriptions of various subfields of psychology in Column A, with the names of
the subfields in Column B.
Your task is to complete the table by filling in the blank spaces.
Column
Column
1.
a. Neurological psychology
2.
b.
3.
Specialists
facilitating
in
this
area
are
occupational
involved
development
in
studying
across
and
the
Forensic
psychology
c.
life
span, with the emphasis on adult career development.
4.
The
specialists
in
this
field
may
act
as
therapists
d.
for people experiencing normal psychological crises (eg

grief)
or
for
psychiatric
individuals
suffering
from
chronic
disorders.
5.
e.
Consulting
6.
f.
Educational
7.
g.
Community
8.
Psychologists
working
designing
conducting
duals
9.
and
stop
smoking,
unhealthy
habits,
This
of
type
or
in
this
lose
stay
psychologist
field
may
programmes
weight,
manage
physically
helps
engage
to
help
in
psychology
psychology
psychology
h.
indivi-
stress
and
fit.
clients
resolve
i.
range of social and emotional issues that are related

to
general
wellbeing,
such
as
bereavement,
relation-
ships, work, recreation, health and crisis management.
FEEDBACK
The discussion in sections 2.1 to 2.4 in Bergh and Theron (2009) should have provided you with ample
information to fill in the missing words easily. You will find the completed table in appendix A.
I-O psychology is an independent, professional field of study which originated as a practical application
of psychology. The next activity will help you to identify and define the fields of I-O psychology.
22
Fields
of
ACTIVITY
study
and
practice
areas
in
industrial
and
organisational
psychology
2.2
Study section 2.4 in Bergh and Theron (2009). Take a few minutes to give an appropriate definition of
each field.
Field
1.
Research
2.
Personnel
3.
Organisational
4.
Occupational
5.
Ergonomics
6.
Consumer
7.
Labour
8.
Occupational
Definition
methodology
psychology
psychology
psychology
psychology
relations
mental
health
FEEDBACK
The descriptions of the various fields can be found in section 2.4 of Bergh and Theron (2009). These are
the subfields and practice areas of I-O psychology that you will be studying if you intend specialising in
the subject.
ACTIVITY
2.3
(1)
Write down the subfield/s or practice areas in psychology and I-O psychology that interest you.
(2)
Write down the reasons why you are interested in these subfields or areas and why you might
consider them for further studies and a career.
(3)
Think further briefly write down your personal attributes and other factors that you think would
support your choices in (1) and (2) above.
IOP1501/1
23
Study
unit
FEEDBACK
The
three
tasks
above
relate
to
the
central
ideas
in
the
seven
psychological
unifying
themes,
as
discussed in Bergh and Theron (2009). Studying section 2.4 of the Bergh and Theron (2009) would
have
enabled
you
to
make
informed
choices.
These
three
tasks
illustrate
both
reflection
on
your
knowledge of psychological fields of study and practice, and on self-knowledge, that is, whether you are
able to make a fit between yourself and the world of work that I-O psychology may offer you.
2.4
HISTORY AND BACKGROUND
I-O psychology is a relatively recent subfield of psychology. In fact, it did not become a
fully applied field until about the late 1920s. Before this time many authors and
researchers had started to study the improvement of conditions in workplaces. Differential psychology, or the study of individual differences (see module 2), became popular
during World War I and as a result efforts to improve the workplace for employees
were introduced. Differential psychology focused on how people differ, but was not very
successful in helping individual workers to do their jobs better.
The second important influence was that exerted by experimental psychology. This
branch of psychology emphasised control in psychological research, requiring, for
example, that everyone was to be treated similarly, and accordingly laws of similarities
between people were formulated.
A third influence was the scientific management approach, based on the assumption that
there is only `òne best way'' to perform a job. This assumption was based on money
being the primary motivator, but ignored the idea of job satisfaction for other reasons.
The last force or influence that helped I-O psychology become better known was the
human relations movement. The emphasis in this particular movement was on keeping
people happy through motivational strategies along with job efforts to improve job
satisfaction. This led to the Hawthorne Studies, which were the true start of I-O
psychology, in that they emphasised, among other things, the human factor in the
workplace and in work performance. The results of these studies showed that, in
workplaces, the influence of social factors on productive systems must be considered;
for example, including workers in the decisionmaking process may reduce resistance to
change, and individual work behaviour may result from a complex set of factors.
ACTIVITY
2.4
Take 20 minutes to do the following tasks.

24
Fields
(1)
of
study
and
practice
areas
in
industrial
and
organisational
psychology
List the most important contributions to the establishment of I-O psychology as a science and an
applied area.
(2)
List at least five important contributions made by I-O psychology in the South African context.
FEEDBACK
Study section 2.5 in Bergh and Theron (2009), which will give you an idea of how you should have
completed the two tasks in activity 2.4.
In order to complete the above activity, you needed to evaluate the importance of historical events in
psychology by reading section 2.5 in Bergh and Theron (2009). You could have discussed the first
psychological
laboratories
established
by
James
(1875)
and
Wundt
(1879),
emphasising
conscious
experience and the impact of cultural and intellectual influences, Freud's view of the unconscious in
human behaviour (1909) and so on.
ACTIVITY
(1)
2.5
Discuss the history of and background to I-Q psychology with reference to the contributions made
by the following:
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
(2)
Gustav Fechner
Hugo Munsterberg
Taylorism
the Hawthorne experiments
World Wars I and II
development in South Africa
the contribution of institutions, people, associations and events
Discuss some of the challenges and influences I-Q psychology is facing in the new millennium.
FEEDBACK
The discussion in sections 2.5 to 2.7 in Bergh and Theron (2009) provides sufficient information for you
to answer the questions above adequately.
IOP1501/1
25
Study
unit
2.5
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING AND PRACTICE ISSUES
Broadly stated, I-O psychologists are researchers, consultants and lecturers, and very
often a combination of all three. I-O psychologists adopt various titles depending upon
their places of employment, specialisations and interests. They also often work in more
than one organisational setting. For example, many academics do consulting work for
organisations outside their employing institution. A number of I-O psychologists
employed in research organisations or private industry choose to teach in colleges and
universities on a part-time basis.
There is an interesting discussion of the diversified nature of psychology in Bergh and

Theron (2009), who consider research areas and applied and professional areas, and
organise this information according to certain unifying themes with regard to the field of
study and study content. All these areas appear in South Arica in academic syllabi, in
professional and business training and in psychological practices, and many career
opportunities exist in each of these areas of application. Professional psychological training and practice is governed by the Professional Board for Psychology, a section of the
Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA). Professional psychological registration can be obtained after studying psychology or industrial psychology at honours
and masters level, the completion of applicable internships, and the passing of the board's
national entrance examinations.
ACTIVITY
(1)
2.6
Explain how psychology develops into a profession or applied science and list the various study
fields and applied or professional areas in psychology.
(2)
Briefly describe the focus of the professional practice areas in psychology and indicate, on the
basis of to your knowledge and information supplied in Bergh and Theron (2009), possible jobs or
careers in each.
FEEDBACK
The
development
of
psychology
as
profession
and
applied
science
is
explained
under
the
heading
``Professional training and practice issues'' in Bergh and Theron (2009). You will also find a discussion
of the various research areas or subfields in psychology in your prescribed book.
2.6
FUTURE CHALLENGES FOR INDUSTRIAL AND

ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
In this section we examine the challenges facing the field of I-O psychology, both locally
and internationally. A number of concerns are mentioned which highlight the need for
organisations to understand the result of employing people with different personalities
26
Fields
of
study
and
practice
areas
in
industrial
and
organisational
psychology
and needs in a single job type or department. This understanding will benefit the organisation by improving employee retention and minimising stress and turnover while at
the same time making employees more adaptable, productive and future-fit.
I-O psychologists are in the best position to help organisations achieve this outcome
through the involvement of all the parties (employee, employer and the I-O psychologist). Accordingly, I-O psychologists and human resource practitioners should be able to
utilise the insights obtained for the enhancement of career decisionmaking practices in
the South African work context.
2.7
In this study unit you learnt that I-O psychology is the study of people's behaviour in the
workplace. I-O psychologists apply psychological theory, research and methods to assist
workers and organisations by using the interaction of employee attributes and work
processes to predict work behaviour, psychological wellbeing and productivity. The
different subfields and applied areas of psychology and industrial psychology offer interesting areas for study and careers.
SELF-EVALUATION
To
evaluate
your
learning
experience
with
regard
to
this
study
theme,
complete
the
assessment
(1)
The publication that expresses a fundamental understanding important for all students of
psychology and for practising psychologists is called a/an ...
(2)
(a)
social reader.
(b)
business reader.
(c)
professional reader.
(d)
ethical reader.
(e)
daily reader.
I-O psychology can be classified as a scientific discipline because
(a)
it utilises, develops and teaches foundational knowledge, that is, psychological theory about
human behaviour in the work context.
(b)
its foundational knowledge enjoys good support through work-related research to further
knowledge of human behaviour using effective research methodology and other assessment
procedures.
(c)
it utilises many soon-to-be-proven methods to achieve the best fit between employee and the
workplace in order to solve work-related problems and to optimise employee and organisational
performance.
(3)
(d)
a and b
(e)
a, b and c
Psychologists specialising in organisational psychology can be employed in corporate business,
IOP1501/1
27
Study
unit
government, private practice and universities in various types of job. Which of the following are
some of their activities?
(4)
(a)
assessing/researching employee or work-related attitudes
(b)
involvement in organisational change and transformation
(c)
suggesting and being involved in designing and implementing various types of programmes
(d)
a and b
(e)
a, b and c
Psychologists may also be involved in employment, selection, promotion, remuneration, grievance,

retrenchment, dismissal and disciplinary procedures in organisations. What is the name of the field
encompassed by these procedures?
(5)
(a)
research methodology
(b)
personnel psychology
(c)
employment relations
(d)
employee and organisational wellbeing
The field of I-O psychology concerned with studying, assessing and researching psychological
aspects of consumer or customer behaviour is called
(6)
(a)
consumer psychology.
(b)
organisational psychology.
(c)
ergonomics.
(d)
personnel psychology.
The field of industrial and organisational psychology concerned with understanding human
performance in the interaction between employees and their technical work environment or the
human machine systems is called
(a)
(7)
consumer psychology.
(b)
organisational psychology.
(c)
ergonomics.
(d)
personnel psychology.
Which of the following types of test influenced cognitive measurement throughout the world for a
long time?
(8)
(a)
the Binet-Simon test
(b)
the Spearman test
(c)
the Thurstone test of mental abilities
(d)
a and b
The suggestion that a workplace should be seen as a social system and not just a productive
system, and that including workers in the decisionmaking process can reduce resistance to change,
was made by ...
28
(a)
Elton Mayo.
(b)
Taylor.
(c)
the Hawthorne Studies.
(d)
Munsterberg.
Fields
of
study
and
practice
areas
in
industrial
and
organisational
psychology
1 (d); 2 (d); 5 (e); 4 (c); 5 (a); 6 (c); 7( a); 8 (c)
APPENDIX A: COMPLETED TABLE FOR ACTIVITY 2.1
1.
Column A
Column B
These psychologists study both very basic processes (eg how
a. Neurological psychologists
brain cells function) and more observable phenomena (eg

behavioural change as a function of drug use or the biological/genetic roots of psychiatric disorders).
2.
These psychologists are concerned with the applied and
b. Forensic psychologists
clinical facets of the law, such as determining a defendant's

competence to stand trial or whether an accident victim has
suffered physical or neurological damage.
3.
Specialists in this area are involved in studying and facilitating
c. Career psychology
occupational development across the life span, with the

emphasis on adult career development.
4.
The specialists in this field may act as therapists for people
d. Clinical psychology
experiencing normal psychological crises (eg grief ) or for

individuals suffering from chronic psychiatric disorders.
5.
Consultants in this field engage in services which cover most
e. Consulting psychology
aspects of work life (eg assessment, training and development, employee and organisational health, and organisational
change).
6.
These psychologists attempt to understand the basic aspects
f. Educational psychologists
of learning and then develop materials and strategies for

enhancing the learning process.
7.
Psychologists in this field seek to understand everyday
g. Community psychology
behaviour in natural surroundings and factors that contribute

to normal and abnormal behaviour in the settings such as the
home, the community and the workplace.
8.
Psychologists working in this field may engage in designing
h. Health psychology
and conducting programmes to help individuals stop smoking, lose weight, manage stress and unhealthy habits, or stay
physically fit.
9.
This type of psychologist helps clients resolve a range of
i. Counselling psychologists
social and emotional issues that are related to general wellbeing, such as bereavement, relationships, work, recreation,
health and crisis management.
IOP1501/1
29
30
PART 2
Individual behavioural processes

The chapters in this section are all concerned with individual processes in employees that
provide inputs into the work system. Although employees display similar behaviour,
there are important individual differences between them that must be considered in
many work processes. Individual processes include biologically and psychologically inherited attributes, as well as acquired or learnt attributes that affect individuals in the work
situation. Knowledge of these processes contributes to understanding individuals as
human beings and as contributors to economic life. Biological factors provide the quantitative and qualitative perimeters within which individuals develop. Development and
learning in various environments form the ultimate, continuous process through which
individuals' biological and psychological functioning is expressed, influencing their personal growth and goals, and their understanding of information in the environment. These
psychological and behavioural processes include learning, sensation, perception and
cognition, motivation and emotion (and personality), and are all integrated in work
behaviour and the ways in which employees adjust in their workplaces.
IOP1501/1
31
STUDY TOPIC 3
32
TINU YDUTS
THE
BIOLOGICAL
OF
(BASED
ON
CHAPTER
OF
BERGH
BASIS
BEHAVIOUR
AND
THERON
(2009))

The aim of this chapter of the prescribed book is to introduce you to the genetic and
other biological aspects that influence human behaviour in general and work performance in particular.
If you observe close family members you will notice obvious physical similarities, which
you now know are the result of the genetic characteristics inherited from one or both
parents. However, you will also notice obvious physical differences between family
members, which may also result from genetic characteristics in parents. Differences in
behaviour and in psychological make-up are often associated with learning or acquired
patterns of behaviour arising from various environmental factors.
In sport or the work context, too, you will have noticed that people work and achieve
differently as a result of physical attributes. If you think about it, there are few tasks at
work or in other spheres that do not require physical skills or attributes of some sort.
Physical or biological attributes play an important role even with regard to our senses
for example, people differ with regard to their perceptual level of awareness of cold,
heat, stress, noise, pain and so forth, which will influence how people cope and adapt in
their environments. To acquaint you with the biological basis of human behaviour we will
briefly discuss the role of genetics, with special reference to the processes of mitosis and
meiosis, twin studies, sex determination, genotype and phenotype, and multiple determination. We will then discuss the structure (anatomy), function (physiology) and
dysfunction (pathology) of the human nervous system. We will end by discussing the
endocrine and muscular systems.
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
.
.
.
.
.
.
describe the structure and function of the neuron in simple terms

distinguish between mitosis and meiosis, genotype and phenotype
discuss identical twins, sex and multiple determination in simple terms
explain the structure and function of the nervous system in simple terms
describe the abilities of the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex
provide a detailed description of the functions of the endocrine system
IOP1501/1
33
Study
unit
explain the logic behind the divisions of the peripheral nervous system and the autonomic nervous
system, and explain how they work together to regulate the glands and smooth muscles of the body
discuss the role of the components and functions of the muscular system

Learning outcomes
Key concepts
3.1
Overview: genetics
3.2
The nervous system
3.3
The endocrine system
3.4
The muscular system
3.5
Self-evaluation
KEY
CONCEPTS
genetics,
cells,
mitosis,
meiosis,
human
behaviour,
heredity,
nervous
system,
central
nervous
system, neuron, brain, spinal cord, peripheral nervous system, somatic system, autonomic system,
muscles, endocrine system, fatigue, ergonomics, job design, work station design
Before you begin this study unit, scan the content of chapter 3 of Bergh and Theron
(2009) to obtain an overview.
34
The
ACTIVITY
biological
basis
of
behaviour
3.1
Take 10 minutes to list the subthemes you identified while scanning chapter 3 of Bergh and Theron
(2009).
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
The main themes dealt with in chapter 3 of Bergh and Theron (2009) are: neuron anatomy, impulse
conduction,
receptor
function
and
general
cellular
mechanisms
of
action
that
are
necessary
for
complete and scientific understanding of biological function as it relates to behaviour. Also discussed
are the structure and functioning of the nervous system, including the left and right hemispheres of the
brain, the endocrine system, and the components and functions of the muscular system.
Did you include all these? If so, well done you may proceed with the rest of the study unit. However, if
you
left
out
any
of
the
topics
identified
above,
we
recommend
that
you
go
back
and
refamiliarise
yourself with the introduction, as this will help you build a solid foundation on which to add the rest of
the theory.
Note: Also
studies,
remember
as
well
as
to
use
the
summary
applicable
and
assessment
conclusionies
in
activities,
this
chapter
issues
for
which
will
discussion
heip
and
case
facilitate
your
understanding of the contents.
3.1
OVERVIEW: GENETICS
In this chapter, basic issues in quantitative genetic theory and methods are discussed. In
general, genetics has to do with all physiological or biological hereditary attributes. Since
these are ultimately human attributes too, they influence human behaviour. If you took
biology as a school subject, some of the information we will be covering may be familiar
to you. However, we are assuming that this is your first encounter with this topic.
You may be wondering what this section has to do with the working world and the task
of an I-O psychologist, so to show you the practical value of this section, we have set
you an activity.
IOP1501/1
35
Study
unit
ACTIVITY
3.2
Take a few minutes to critically discuss the claim in the following statement. State whether you agree
or disagree with it and why. You will need to provide supporting evidence.
Mitosis serves two important purposes: it keeps the number of chromosomes from doubling with
each successive generation, and it provides genetic diversity in offspring. In this it differs from
meiosis, which is the process of cell division that sustains growth and maintains the organism
throughout its lifetime.
FEEDBACK
The discussion on genetics, in particular section 3.2 (3.2.1 to 3.2.5) in the prescribed book, contains the
information you need to complete this activity.
Hint: Pay careful attention to the relevant concepts and the processes they represent.
ACTIVITY
3.3
(1)
Study section 3.2, which deals with genetics, in Bergh and Theron (2009).
(2)
Make a list of the headings and subheadings, that is, all the biological domains, in the prescribed
chapter. Next to each, write down how that aspect or attribute relates to the world of work, and
hence to the tasks of an I-O psychologist.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
Here are our examples. Yours will probably differ, but from our feedback you should be able to gather
whether or not your own are relevant.
.
.
.
.
cells, the foundation of development

twins
sex determination
dominance and recessiveness
36
The
.
.
.
biological
basis
of
behaviour
genotype and phenotype

multiple determination
sex-linked genes
In answer to question 2, we will discuss each of these aspects of genetics and indicate its relevance to
I-O psychology.
Cells, the foundations of development
Each cell has a specific function which contributes to the smooth functioning of the organism as a
whole. Mitosis, DNA and meiosis relate to the internal functioning of cells the basic components of
the body and to the way in which some human attributes are already fixed biologically at cell level.
Mitosis is the process of sustained growth that maintains the organism throughout its life span.
Physiological maintenance is necessary for optimal human functioning in the work environment. DNA
(genes) regulates the unique pattern of individual attributes that people inherit from their parents.
Meiosis is the process of cell division which ensures that at conception half the chromosomes come
from the father
and
the other half
from
the mother.
In
this
way distinctive human
attributes
are
passed on to the next generation. These biological or physiological attributes eventually contribute to
the individual's structure and physiological functioning, and hence to attributes which will manifest
themselves indirectly in the work environment. Think of the effect of physiological attributes such as
your height, mass, skin colour and hair colour on other people's behaviour in both a social and the work
environment.
Twins
The relevance of twin studies is that they allow us to investigate both similarities and differences
between people. Monozygotic (identical) twins have the same physical composition and appearance,
which
could
influence
behaviour.
Yet
identical
twins
do
differ,
which
underscores
the
uniqueness
of
individuals despite remarkable similarities, especially with regard to personality and behaviour. Nonidentical (dizygotic) twins are alike in some respects (eg development) but do not look the same. Think
of
the
effect
of
appearance,
along
with
other
attributes,
on
interpersonal
relations
in
the
work
situation.
Sex determination
This subject is relevant in the context of employment equity with regard to gender. In most hierarchical
organisations managerial positions are still occupied predominantly by males. Consider the influence of
gender and gender roles in the work context.
Dominance and recessiveness
Here we focus on physical appearance. Think of the colour of people's eyes, hair and skin and how this
influences other people's perceptions. This in its turn relates to the effect of physical appearance on
attitudes and interpersonal relationships, also in the work context.
Genotype and phenotype
Genotype
refers
to
genetic
constitution,
while
phenotype
indicates
manifest
characteristics.
Even
though a person's genetic constitution may include the potential for numeric aptitude, for instance, he
or she may have no interest in numbers and figure work. Such a person (despite having the genetic
potential for it) would never take mathematical subjects at school and so would not develop the skills
necessary
IOP1501/1
for
work
requiring
numeric
ability.
Quite
lot
of
work
is
being
done
to
assess
people's
37
Study
unit
potential rather than concentrating only on existing acquired skills. In a way such an approach involves
considering genotype as well as phenotype.
Multiple determination
Here the emphasis is on the complexity of any field of study that deals with human beings. In the human
sciences, which include I-O psychology, there are rarely simple solutions or answers. People's behaviour
and interactions in the work environment are determined by a combination of personality and cognitive
and other factors, and cannot be explained purely on the basis of isolated characteristics.
Sex-linked genes
See the comments under sex determination. Also consider how gender determines things like the choice
of a career.
This exercise may have been difficult in the sense that it required quite a leap from
physical attributes to their manifestation in behaviour in the work context. The aim was
to show you that even very minor differences at the biological (physical) level have an
influence on individuals and on their interaction with others. Since our focus is primarily
on the work context, our examples refer to that context.
In the next section we look at the functioning of the nervous system.Wherever possible
we will give examples to relate the information to the world of work.
3.2
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Perhaps the most rewarding aspect of exploring the fascinating field of the mind and
human behaviour is the self-knowledge and personal understanding you will gain that
will help you to lead a more productive and self-fulfilling life. Knowledge about yourself
and an understanding of your motivations, emotions, thoughts and behaviours may well
be the most important knowledge you acquire in your life.
The brain is an essential part of the nervous system, which is a complex, highly coordinated network of tissues that communicate via electrochemical signals. Virtually everything we do, from keeping our heart beating to deducing the reasoning behind the hole
in the ozone layer, requires the use of our brain. Within our brain lie our deepest
secrets, our earliest memories, our most amazing capabilities, and the keys to the
mystery of consciousness itself.
Study the section entitled ``The nervous system'' in Bergh and Theron (2009).
The discussion you will encounter in this section contains the names of numerous different structures and theoretical processes. You will need to familiarise yourself with these,
and the only way to master this information is to study it over and over again until the
content makes sense and you remember and understand the structure of the nervous
system.
The nervous system is essentially a two-way biological information highway, and is

responsible for connecting and controlling all the biological processes and movement in
the body. It can also receive information and interpret it via electrical signals which are
38
The
biological
basis
of
behaviour
used in the nervous system. Although the human nervous system comprises various
parts and functions at different levels, it operates as a whole. It is imperative that you
make a conscious effort to learn the terminology and terms associated with the central
nervous system, as this information is the foundation on which your knowledge of I-O
psychology is based. Here is an activity to assist you in this regard.
ACTIVITY
3.4
The human nervous system permits communication that controls our behaviours and bodily functions.
There are two major systems: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The
human nervous system (HNS) consists of the central nervous system (CNS), which is essentially the
processing area, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which detects and sends the electrical
impulses used in the nervous system.
The CNS consists of many nerve cells, known as neurons.
Prepare a summary in either point or table form in which you reflect the structures making up the
HNS in the order in which they are discussed in your prescribed book. After you have studied a
section, complete that section in your table.
FEEDBACK
We
will
give
you
feedback
once
we
have
completed
our
discussion
of
the
HNS,
that
is,
after
the
discussion of the PNS. Remember to keep adding to your table or list of points as you study the
various parts of the CNS.
The neuron
Neurons or nerve cells are the primary units of the nervous system. There are billions of
these self-sufficient, specialised cells in the nervous system; they receive, integrate, and
carry information throughout the body, and are responsible for the activity of the
nervous system. They are specialised so as to carry ``messages'' by means of an electrochemical process, and they form a communication network that coordinates all the
systems of the body and enables them to function. They are able to respond to stimuli
(such as touch, sound, light, and so on), conduct impulses, and communicate with one
another and with other types of cell, such as muscle cells.
ACTIVITY
3.5
Study section 3.3.1 in Bergh and Theron (2009). Supply the term represented by each of the numbers
on the diagram, and in the case of each term, explain the function or involvement of the structure it
designates in impulse conduction. This will clarify the meaning, position and function of the various
IOP1501/1
39
Study
unit
structures of the neuron. Against this background we will then investigate the various functions of the
neuron.
Make
sure
that
you
do
not
simply
copy
directly
from
the
prescribed
book,
but
can
identify
the
structures on your own, as in this way you will really understand the location of the structures and
their respective functions.
FIGURE 3.1
The structure of a neuron
FEEDBACK
Although we do not expect you to draw any of the diagrams provided, you need to be able to explain how
processes take place. For example, we will not ask you to draw and label the neuron, but you need to be
able
to
However,
name
if
the
you
structures
draw
and
label
involved
these
in
impulse
structures
conduction
for
yourself,
and
this
explain
may
the
help
significance
you
of
understand
each.
these
neurological structures and processes better.
This was a fairly easy exercise. The answers are as follows:
Number
1.
Term
Dendrite
Functions
One
of
the
messages
2.
Nucleus
and
extensions
conduct
impulses
of
neuron
toward
the
that
cell
receive
body.
This is an oval, membrane-bound structure found in the soma

or
40
branching
cell
body
of
the
neuron.
The
Number
3.
Term
The
soma
or
cell
sheath
layer
hillock
The
as
site
of
Axon
fatty
an
of
structure
6.
behaviour
Contains the nucleus, which receives impulses from connecting
acts
Axon
of
neurons.
Myelin
5.
basis
Functions
body
4.
biological
cells
segmentally
accelerator
summation
does
not
of
for
form
neural
encasing
of
axon,
which
impulses.
incoming
part
the
information.
your
(This
curriculum.)
The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibres,

through
neurons,
7.
Node
of
Ranvier
8.
Axon
terminal
chemical
muscles
or
messages
are
released
to
other
glands.
A gap between each cell on the myelin sheath along the axon.
small
called
ACTIVITY
which
knob
at
the
end
of
an
axon
that
releases
chemicals
neurotransmitters.
3.6
(1)
Explain how action potential occurs.
(2)
What is the significance of neurotransmitters and receptors in the process of impulse conduction?
FEEDBACK
(1)
Once the stimulation of the neuron reaches a certain threshold, a section of the neural membrane
opens and allows the positively charged ions to rush in and the negative ions to rush out. This
takes only a very short time, but it is enough to create a domino effect which is instrumental in the
successful conduction of the impulse.
(2)
A very detailed discussion is included in the section entitled ``Neurotransmitters'' in section 3.3,
The nervous system, in your prescribed book.
When the synaptic cleft is too large to be jumped, the gap can be crossed using neurotransmitters
located in sacs within the axon terminal (the end of the axon). The sac with the appropriate
neurotransmitters is forced through the membrane into the cleft, releasing the neurotransmitters
into the cleft. The neurotransmitters then make their way to receptor sites on the post-synaptic
neuron, where they stimulate the neuron and the action potential begins again.
IOP1501/1
41
Study
unit
Receptors situated on the post-synaptic neuron are specific, and thus will allow only certain
neurotransmitters in. The system works rather like a lock and key you must have the right key
(neurotransmitter) for the right lock (receptor site).
Summation
Classification of neurons
Study these in detail in the section entitled ``Classification of neurons'' in section 3.3, The
nervous system, in your prescribed book.
Most neurons communicate within the CNS (brain and spinal cord), although some do
receive signals from outside the CNS. There are three major types of neurons: the
information travels from the sensory neurons to the interneurons, and then finally to the
motor neurons.
The central nervous system (CNS)

The CNS is effectively the centre of the nervous system, and consists of the brain and
spinal cord. It is responsible for receiving and interpreting signals from the peripheral
nervous system and also sends out signals to it, either consciously or unconsciously.
The brain
As already mentioned, the brain consists of billions and billions of neurons or nerve cells.
The neurons link the various parts of the nervous system. You will need to name these
parts in order to complete your table of list of points for activity 3.4.
Study section 3.3.2 in Bergh and Theron (2009) to gain an understanding of the different parts of the brain and their functions.
The spinal cord

The spinal cord is situated in the spinal column, which is made up of 31 vertebrae.
Although the spinal column is somewhat flexible, some of the vertebrae in the lower
parts of the spinal column become fused.
ACTIVITY
(1)
3.7
Study sections 3.3.2 to 3.3.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009) to gain an understanding of the
different parts of the brain and their functions.
(2)
Take 10 minutes to complete this task. The table below contains a list of terms numbered from 1 to
15 in the left-hand column. In the opposite column A to O is a list of descriptions, which you need to
match with the terms in the left-hand column. Each description and each term must be used only
once.
42
The
Number
Term
Spinal
cord
Cerebral cortex
Frontal,
tal,
occipital
and
Conducts
motor
and
behaviour.
from
the
central
nervous
system
to
the
glands.
Specialised for linguistic functions, logical thought and analytic

and
mathematical
tasks.
areas
Hypothalamus
Cerebellum
Left
and
information
Contains
nerve
respiration,
behaviour
temporal
cortical
parie-
of
This part of the brain controls functions such as planning and
muscles
basis
Description
perseveration,
biological
hemi-
sphere
Fulfils
state
of
cells
and
that
blood
coordinating
alertness
control
vital
functions
such
as
pressure.
function
and
to
bring
the
entire
body
into
readiness.
This is the outer layer of the brain, which makes up 80% of the
total
capacity
behaviour
data
by
and
of
the
means
permit
human
brain.
It
assigns
of
higher
brain
more
subtle
responses
meaning
processes
which
than
to
interpret
purely
reflex
actions.
Frontal
cortex
Controls
function
Medulla
oblon-
gata
Temporal
cortex
10
as
emotional
responses.
Through
12
Reticular
acti-
vation
system
Limbic
system
Motor
neurons
this
Thalamus
areas
to
have
memory
various
sensory
parts
of
this
impulses
from
system
the
triggers
body
reach
of
association
responsible
balance.
and
in
the
brain,
each
with
its
own
function.
tone
for
coordinating
muscle
activity,
muscle
All sensory input (except the sense of smell) passes through it
An
the
way
almost
to
areas
of
the
instantaneous
cerebral
cortex.
stereotyped
response
following
activities
of
stimulus.
primary
various
brain
organs
excretory
IOP1501/1
of
structure,
Primarily
given
14
appears
brain.
Four
on
13
and
well.
stimulation
specialised
11
perception
Electrical
the
Reflex
visual
area
such
which
as
the
controls
heart,
unconscious
lungs,
digestive
tract
and
system.
43
Study
unit
Number
15
Term
Spinal
Description
cord
Connects
many
of
the
nerves
that
constitute
the
peripheral
nervous system to the brain. It regulates reflex behaviour which

is not controlled by higher brain processes such as volition and
reasoning.
FEEDBACK
We trust that this exercise has helped to familiarise you with the terms and concepts in this section of
the work. The correct answers are: 1I, 2F, 3J, 4N, 5K, 6C, 7A, 8D, 9G, 10M, 11E, 12H, 13B,
14L, 15O.
When you study the structures of the central nervous system, try to
.
.
.
identify each structure by name

state how the structure functions in an ideal state
state how the structure is affected when it is damaged (where applicable)
The peripheral nervous system

The PNS is divided into two major parts: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
The somatic nervous system is connected to voluntary muscles in the body, which,
under the control of the CNS, cause changes in body temperature.
The autonomic nervous system consists of sensory neurons and motor neurons that run
between the central nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is subdivided into
the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.
Imagine that you are working after hours at the office, and that all your colleagues have
gone home, leaving you alone. Suddenly you hear an unfamiliar noise. In these circumstances, you are more likely to experience autonomic arousal. Your heart beats rapidly,
your breathing rate increases and adrenalin is released as the sympathetic nervous
system activates the glands and prepares the body's ability to fight or flee from the
perceived danger.
This bodily reaction all happens without our conscious awareness or control. Responses
are automatic and involuntary, controlled by the autonomic nervous system, which
regulates the activities of the organs and glands to meet varying demands placed upon
the body.
If you were to hear the same noise again and a voice saying, ``Hi, it's me, Phumzile!'', you
would realise that it was just a colleague. At this point the parasympathetic branch of the
autonomic nervous system sends signals for you to relax and ``calms'' the internal organs.
This tendency of the body to adjust to stress and to return to a ``normal'' state is referred
44
The
biological
basis
of
behaviour
to as homeostasis. It is actually an inner balancing mechanism which assists us to balance

between the ``turned on'' excited states triggered by the stimulation from the sympathetic system and the calming functions of the parasympathetic system, which relaxes
the body so we can build up and conserve body energy.
FEEDBACK
We will now summarise the structure of the nervous system, as you were asked to do in activity 3.4. Is
your table similar to ours? It should be, as the names of all the structures you needed to compile your
summary
were
presented
in
bold
and
italics.
Although
you
will
not
be
required
to
reproduce
this
summary in the examination, compiling it has been a worthwhile exercise that will have helped you to
form a picture of which structure is associated with which, and thus made it easy to understand the
logic of the functions.
TABLE 3.1:
The structure of the nervous system
The
Central
The
nervous
system
brain
human
nervous
system
(CNS)
The
spinal
(HSNS)
Peripheral
cord
Somatic
NS
nervous
system
Autonomic
NS
(PNS)
Parasympathetic
Sympathetic
NS
NS
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Cerebral
cortex
(con-
31 verte-brae
Controls
sists of frontal, parie-
cles
tal,
occipital
and
and
mussends
Mediates
sical
phy-
arousal
somatosensory
for
responses
temporal lobes)
input
to
emergency
cerebral hemispheres
brain
to
the
thalamus
or urgent beha-
Mediates a slowing
down
turn
to
mode
or
``re-
normal''
of
func-
tioning
viour
hypothalamus
limbic system
RAS
medulla oblongata
cerebellum
In the next section we discuss the endocrine system and how it is involved in the coordination and
control of bodily functions.
3.3
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
In this section pay careful attention to the structure of the endocrine system and how it
secretes hormones that govern and affect bodily processes. Make sure that you understand why the pituitary gland is regarded as the master gland.
IOP1501/1
45
Study
unit
Although we rarely think about them, the glands making up the endocrine system and
the hormones they produce and release into the bloodstream influence almost every
cell, organ, and function in our bodies. The endocrine system is instrumental in regulating mood, growth and development, tissue function, and metabolism, as well as sexual
function and reproductive processes.
In general, the endocrine system is in charge of body processes that happen slowly, such
as cell growth. Faster processes such as breathing and body movement are monitored
by the nervous system. However, even though the nervous system and endocrine
system are separate systems, they often work together to help the body function
properly.
ACTIVITY
3.8
Is there any significant difference between the functioning of the nervous system and the endocrine
system?
FEEDBACK
This section is discussed in detail in section 3.4 of Bergh and Theron (2009). The nervous system
sends electrical messages (impulses) to control and coordinate the body. The endocrine system has a
similar
job,
synthesises
but
uses
and
secretes,
chemicals
are
to
known
communicate.
as
hormones.
These
chemicals,
Hormones
act
as
which
the
specific
endocrine
messengers
system
and
are
carried by the bloodstream to different cells in the body, which interpret these messages and act on
them.
3.4
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
In everyday situations, including the work situation, various bodily parts perform certain
static and dynamic muscle activities. So, for instance, standing requires continuous
contraction of a whole group of muscles in the legs, hips, back and neck so as to keep
the various parts of the body in the desired position.
ACTIVITY
3.9
(1)
To see how the human muscular system functions, study section 3.5 in Bergh and Theron (2009).
(2)
Take 10 minutes to think about a specific job with which you are familiar. List the physical
requirements for a person who performs the basic tasks of that job. Note how much muscle
activity is involved. Also, make notes of specific physical requirements for people performing this
job.
46
The
biological
basis
of
behaviour
FEEDBACK
Since
each
of
you
will have
chosen
a different
job
we cannot
give
specific feedback, but
here
is
an
example that will give you an idea of what was expected in this activity. Read our feedback and see
whether your example described the muscle activity adequately.
We took the job of electrician as an example. This job requires people to move around premises and
construction sites, so they have to be mobile. Installing wiring requires certain physical movements. On
construction sites electricians may have to walk along beams, so good balance seems to be indicated.
Since an electrician's work activities involve a lot of overall body movement, most of the muscle groups
are used.
The section dealing with work station design applies the material in the preceding sections directly to
the work environment. Simply defined, ergonomics means the science of work. Ergonomics is that part
of I-O psychology that deals specifically with the design of the work environment in accordance with
people's
physiological
attributes
and
functioning.
It
is
matter
of
designing
the
immediate
work
environment to suit their physiological characteristics so as to ensure optimal functioning in their jobs.
Ergonomics is the attempt to improve work, and that is also where making things comfortable and
efficient comes into play. Although ergonomics is commonly thought of in terms of products, it can be
equally useful in the design of services or processes.
Study section 3.5 in Bergh and Theron (2009), which recommends adaptations to work stations and
to the work performed in the workplace. The next time you hear the term `èrgonomics'', you will know
what it means to you.
Consider the two lists in section 3.5.6 of your prescribed book, which recommend adaptations to work
stations
and
to
the
work
performed
there
respectively.
You
will
be
using
these
lists
of
recommendations in the next activity.
ACTIVITY
3.10
Choose a specific job and examine the ergonomic recommendations in section 3.5.6 in chapter 3 of the
prescribed book.
(1)
Take 5 minutes to describe how the work environment may be adapted to facilitate the tasks of
people doing this work and to optimise their functioning.
(2)
Now describe how these people's job activities may be adapted to allow optimal functioning.
(3)
Take 10 more minutes to consider your own work environment. How could you adapt either the work
environment or the job activities to improve your functioning? Think about this and try out a few
changes to see whether they work. Learn to look at different environments in this way and to
introduce the necessary adaptations to optimise functioning.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
IOP1501/1
47
Study
unit
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
Let us take a secretarial job as an example. Look at our proposed adaptations of the work environment
and the job activities and compare them with your answer.
(1)
Adaptation of secretaries' work environment:
.
.
.
.
.
The desks at which the secretaries work should be of a comfortable height.

Chairs should be comfortable and at the right height for the desks.
There should be sufficient space to permit the secretaries to perform their tasks.
Computers and telephones should be within easy reach.
Other furnishings (shelves, cupboards, cabinets) should be positioned appropriately in the work
space to permit effective functioning.
(2)
Adaptation of secretaries' job activities:
Unnecessary strain should be avoided. They should be able to sit and type comfortably without
placing strain on any part of their bodies.
Physical requirements should be within reasonable limits. Thus they should not be required to
handle excessively heavy objects.
Natural bodily movements should be possible. Look at the positioning of the telephone within the
work space: is it within easy reach? The same applies to other equipment that is in regular use.
Pay attention to posture and energy requirements. Allow for alternating bodily position and
avoid immobility.
We trust that this part of the activity prompted some useful ideas for changes that will improve
functioning in your own home and work environment.
3.5
This study topic introduced you to the importance of behavioural genetics in human
beings, with special emphasis on employees. In other words, you have gained an introductory understanding of how the mainly genetically determined physical, biological,
neurological and physiological domains of human behaviour influence human behaviour
in general and work performance specifically. Biological determination represents the
primary origin or source of individual differences between people, which is easily
demonstrated in the diverse biologically based achievements of individuals. Although we
often take our physical abilities for granted, most job tasks require some form of physical
or biological ability, and often determine how we will manifest our cognitive, social and
emotional behaviour. In this regard, the I-O psychologist needs introductory information
about brain functioning, the nervous system, the endocrine system and the muscular
system in order to understand the physical aspects of human behaviour. Ignoring these
48
The
biological
basis
of
behaviour
aspects may prevent the I-O psychologist from grasping the effects of work-overload
and stress and the effect of unhealthy working conditions. Therefore, if possible, account
should be taken of relevant physical abilities when employees are selected and placed,
and job and workplace designs should emphasise the fit between the physical attributes
of employees and job requirements more than is often the case.
SELF-EVALUATION
To
evaluate
your
learning
experience
with
regard
to
this
study
theme,
complete
the
assessment
(1)
(2)
(3)
When tissue is damaged by injuries such as abrasions or cuts, healing is effected through ...
(a)
medication.
(b)
mitosis.
(c)
meiosis.
(d)
cell formation.
In meiosis, daughter cells have ... chromosomes as/than the mother cell.
(a)
half as many
(b)
twice as many
(c)
just as many
(d)
more
The neuron is the basic unit whose function is to ...
(a)
actively maintain sustained effort by guidance and support.
(b)
plan and set goals that activate relevant responses without carrying out responses itself.
(c)
integrate internal processes by means of its unique function of conducting electrochemical

impulses.
(d)
(4)
(5)
prevent the loss of electrical messages by providing insulation.
The different chemicals that are used as neurotransmitters by various neurons ...
(a)
produce action potentials that travel at different velocities.
(b)
control different aspects of behaviour.
(c)
produce action potentials of different sizes (amplitudes).
(d)
all produce the same effects.
... are responsible for consciousness and the experiencing of vision, hearing, smell, taste,
temperature, pressure and touch.
(6)
(a)
Sensory neurons
(b)
Motor neurons
(c)
Association neurons
(d)
Receptor neurons
Which of the following is known as the executive portion of the brain, as its functions correspond
with those of the chief executive officer of a company?
IOP1501/1
49
Study
unit
(a)
(7)
(9)
the occipital lobe
(b)
the parietal lobe
(c)
the frontal lobe
(d)
the temporal lobe
People assign meaning to behaviour by invoking higher mental processes. This is a function of ...
(a)
(8)
the cerebral cortex.
(b)
the thalamus.
(c)
human nature.
(d)
the temporal lobe.
The primary function of the cerebellum is to ...
(a)
control vital functions such as respiration and blood pressure.
(b)
coordinate functions of sleep and wakefulness.
(c)
coordinate muscle activity, muscle tone and balance.
(d)
control the unconscious activities of bodily organs.
Which one of the following determines numerous behavioural aspects through the direct release of
its own hormones as well as through its effects on other glands?
(a)
master gland
(b)
parathyroid
(c)
voluntary muscles
(d)
pineal gland
(10) A typist who complains of painful wrists probably suffers from overuse of certain bodily elements,
also known as ...
(a)
muscular strain.
(b)
muscle power.
(c)
carpal tunnel syndrome.
(d)
muscle tone.
1 (b); 2 (a); 3 (d); 4 (b); 5 (d); 6 (c); 7 (a); 8 (c); 9 (a); 10 (c)
50
STUDY TOPIC 4
IOP1501/1
51
TINU YDUTS
HUMAN
ACROSS
(BASED
ON
CHAPTER
OF
DEVELOPMENT
THE
BERGH
LIFE
AND
SPAN
THERON
(2009))

You will notice that in life in general, and in the work context in particular, people are
required to fulfil certain tasks and roles which are often associated with age and changes
in a person's physical, intellectual, emotional, social and moral capabilities. It will become
clear, if you observe closely, how children and even adults will not be successful in
assuming certain roles or responsibilities if they are not old enough, or have not matured
sufficiently to do so. You may be aware of people who appear to be `èarly developers''
and able to do more than is expected of them at certain stages, and others who seem to
be slow developers, manifesting obvious deficiencies in developmental tasks. In the work
context too, certain tasks and positions are often associated with certain career stages,
and an employee will be able to fulfil certain job expectations or be promoted only once
certain work-related competencies have developed. I-O psychologists must be knowledgeable about human development and the factors that influence development in
order to assess career development needs and assist in the career development of
employees.
The human individual does not develop in a vacuum. Although development is shaped by
individual characteristics such as genetic predisposition and temperament (as we
discussed in previous study units), it is also formed by a series of interactions with social
environments, including family, peer group, community, and cultural environments. As an
individual grows and changes, he or she also shapes aspects of the social environment,
which in turn continue to mould the individual. Each of these interrelated factors influences the development of various personal attributes, including identity and self concept,
motivation, and moral development.
All the above relate to developmental psychology, also known as human development,
which is the scientific study of systematic psychological changes that occur in human
beings over the course of their life span. It concerns changes in people's physical, intellectual, social, psychological and moral domains of behaviour, which also include changes
related to work and career development. Originally concerned with infants and children,
the field has expanded to include adolescence and adult development, ageing, and the
entire life span.
The aim of this study topic is to introduce you to issues concerning human development
in general, and career development across the life span, especially with regard to the
adult life stages. We will examine social and personality development, paying attention to
the dynamics of the interactions between individuals and their social contexts. We will
use this material in a way that will give you experience in applying developmental
theories to everyday life, and help you build your skills as a critical participant in developmental research.
52
Human
LEARNING
development
across
the
life
span
OUTCOMES
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
define the field of human development

identify the characteristics of human development
list the domains of human development in various career and life stages
explain how genetics and learning factors determine human development
describe how critical periods influence human development
discuss development issues during adolescence and adulthood
discuss development theories with regard to attachment, personality, cognitive and moral
development
.
.
.
reflect on the importance of development domains for working and career development
analyse career transitions, stages and tasks as part of human development
explain how the theories of career transition can be applied in real life

Learning outcomes
Key concepts
4.1
Overview: the characteristics of human development
4.2
Domains and determinants of human development
4.3
Critical development periods
4.4
Career transitions and tasks
4.5
Future trends in people's career development
4.6
Self-evaluation
KEY
CONCEPTS
development, maturation, growth, ageing, maturity, evolution, differentiation, complexity, predictability,
cognitive,
attachments,
physical,
psychosocial,
ego-identity,
career
moral,
genetic,
transitions,
learning,
tasks,
environment,
occupational
critical
identity,
life
periods,
stages,
developmental tasks
IOP1501/1
53
Study
unit
4.1
OVERVIEW: THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN

DEVELOPMENT
When discussing any type of development, most theorists break it down into specific
stages. Typically, these stages are progressive in other words, a person must pass
through one stage before he or she can get to the next. Think about how you learnt to
run; first you had to learn to crawl, then you learnt to walk, and finally you developed
the skills needed to run. Without the first two stages, running would be impossible.
Development in many other physical, cognitive, emotional, social and moral domains of
human functioning shows a similar progression.
Human development refers to the stages and phases that all people pass through in the
normal process of growth and ageing. These developmental stages exert an influence at
various levels and manifest themselves in various ways in the work environment.
This study unit will examine a broad range of topics, including the general nature and
characteristics of human development and various developmental concepts. It will also
expose you to the topics of cognitive development, career orientation and tasks.
Study sections 4.1 and 4.1.1 in Bergh and Theron (2009) and make sure that you can
distinguish between
.
.
.
maturation,
ageing, and
the other concepts which explain aspects of human development.
Why do you think we need to learn about human development in I-O psychology?
Consider this question, and study section 4.1 to 4.1.1 in chapter 4 of the prescribed book
for other reasons.
Four characteristics are identified in the discussion of human development in section 4.2
(4.2.1 to 4.2.4) in Bergh and Theron (2009). Study this section and then do the following
activity.
ACTIVITY
(1)
4.1
Write down the names of the four overlapping main life and career stages identified in section 4.2.1
of Bergh and Theron (2009). Remember that each stage evolves from the previous one(s) and is
54
Human
development
across
the
life
span
linked with the succeeding one(s). Now, for each of the four stages, write down what career you
chose or would choose at that stage. When you were a child, for instance, you might have dreamt
about being a firefighter or a nurse, but over the years you may have come to prefer other
occupations. You may also foresee further changes in your preferences in later years.
(2)
Use the material in sections 4.2.1 to 4.2.4 of the prescribed book to clarify your career choices
during the various stages in the first part of the activity.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
In this activity the important thing was to note how your career choice has changed over time. A young
child may focus only on things that sound adventurous and entail physical activity. A young adult, on
the
other
sufficient
hand,
time
may
for
be
more
social
and
concerned
other
about
leisure-time
social
aspects
activities.
In
and
middle
choose
career
adulthood,
that
aspects
allows
such
as
financial security may feature more prominently, while in late adulthood people may consider changing
to
more
peaceful
career.
At
each
stage,
physical,
motor,
emotional,
social
and
psychological
development will influence one's choice.
4.2
DOMAINS AND DETERMINANTS OF HUMAN

DEVELOPMENT
In this section we focus on the domains of human development and what determines it.
Here, too, the accent is on the work environment, so that we can interpret the theory
in the context of I-O psychology.
Study sections 4.3 and 4.4 of the prescribed book, then complete the following activity.
ACTIVITY
4.2
People's personal career choices are influenced by three domains of development, namely the physical,
cognitive and psychosocial domains. These domains also have implications for the fit between person
and occupation.
(1)
Reread sections 4.3 and 4.4 in the prescribed book. Now choose two divergent occupational
directions and list the physical/biological, cognitive and psychosocial requirements if a person is to
succeed in those occupations.
IOP1501/1
55
Study
(2)
unit
Indicate, with reference to the aspects discussed in section 4.4, whether each of the requirements
that you mentioned in (1) are governed by heredity, the environment and/or learning, or the
interaction between the person and the environment. Note that the ongoing debate on the issue of
environment versus heredity remains unresolved.
(3)
In section 4.4.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009) there is a reference to the influence of historical and
life events, cultural aspects and opportunities on people's personalities and coping. Consider the
South African situation: how do you think our recent history will have influenced personality and
coping? Also consider the current situation and how the changes we are experiencing are likely to
affect the future. You could apply this to your personal circumstances or those of your family and
friends so as to illustrate the effects of historical and life events, cultural aspects and
opportunities on a variety of people.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
This exercise should have shown you that a career choice or the fit between person and occupation is
not straightforward. The differences and similarities between the two occupations that you chose will
have indicated that a suitable career choice requires one to take a number of characteristics into
account. It is difficult to offer specific feedback, as there is a whole range of attributes which affect
people's
effective
functioning
in
given
domain.
Others
may
come
to
mind
as
you
read
on.
Keep
returning to your original lists and adding to them. It will help you in subsequent sections to think of the
requirements for specific occupations that must be satisfied by the people who do that work.
We now turn to critical periods of human development.
4.3
CRITICAL DEVELOPMENT PERIODS
Section 4.5 in Bergh and Theron (2009) deals with critical periods of development.
Notice how critical or sensitive periods are contrasted with optimal periods. How do
these two concepts differ? We use these concepts as a basis throughout our discussion of
the stages of human development, as they affect the individual's behaviour in subsequent
stages as well.
Also explain what is meant by the concept of psychological evolution.
Study section 4.5, and then complete the following activity:
56
Human
ACTIVITY
development
across
the
life
span
4.3
Imagine that you are an I-O psychologist employed by an organisation. Your tasks include looking after
the emotional and psychological wellbeing of workers. You have become aware of some tension among
employees of the organisation, and you decide to deal with the problem proactively by attending to the
staff's
self-development.
The
self-development
course
that
you
envisage
is
aimed
at
aspects
of
childhood developmental stages and at life span development.
As the first step in compiling the self-development course, identify what you consider to be important
aspects of development that may affect subsequent behaviour in the work context. State each aspect,
with an example of behaviour in the work environment that would indicate
inadequate
development with
regard to that aspect.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
This activity should have made you think hard. Below we will provide a few examples to show you what we
had in mind. There are no incorrect answers, but our examples should tell you whether you were on the
right track. We start with the earliest stage of development (the first five or six years) and then
consider Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development. We will not discuss all these stages, but
you can think of examples for each of them.
First five or six years of development
Most theories of human development assert that, generally, infants develop motor abilities in the same
order and at approximately the same age. In this sense, most agree that these abilities are genetically
preprogrammed within all infants. The environment does play a role in the development, with an enriched
environment often reducing the learning time and an impoverished one doing the opposite.
Deficient
formation
cognitive
functioning,
development,
manifested
mixed
certain
at
feelings
of
work.
of
thought
which
types
will
of
Consider,
acceptance
patterns
impair
during
this
effectiveness
dependency
stage
in
behaviour
the
(eg
development
work
towards
for
instance,
the
ambivalent
and
rejection.
Can
you
think
of
environment.
authority
dependency
of
can
somebody
As
for
figures)
behaviour
in
definitely
your
affect
emotional
will
also
characterised
work
situation
be
by
who
displays these ambivalent feelings?
IOP1501/1
57
Study
unit
ACTIVITY
4.4
According to Bowlby and Ainsworth's theory, what would you say is the significance of the primary
caregiver in shaping the child's personality and character?
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
Bowlby
and
Ainsworth's
attachment
theory
explains
infant
behaviour
with
regard
to
important
attachment or caregiver figures during separation and reunion times. It is believed that attachment
behaviours formed in infancy will help shape the attachment relationships people have as adults.
Study section 4.5.1 in Bergh and Theron (2009) for more detail on this topic.
ACTIVITY
4.5
Take 10 minutes to summarise the nature of psychosexual development and indicate how, according to
Freud, unsuccessful progression through each stage will result in a child becoming fixated on that
particular erogenous zone and either overindulging or underindulging once he or she becomes an adult.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
Freud's stages of psychosexual development
Freud's theory, like other stage theories, suggests that if the developmental stages are completed in a
predetermined sequence, the outcome can be successful completion and a healthy personality; if not,
the outcome can be failed completion, leading to an unhealthy personality. This theory is probably the
58
Human
most
controversial,
as
Freud
believed
that
we
develop
development
through
across
stages
the
life
based
span
upon
particular
erogenous zone.
The details in section 4.5.1 in Bergh and Theron (2009) should have helped you to complete the above
activity.
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development
Like
Piaget,
Erikson
maintained
that
children
develop
according
to
predetermined
series
of
developmental stages. Instead of focusing on cognitive development, however, he was interested in how
children socialise and how this affects their sense of self. Erikson's theory of psychosocial development
contains eight distinct stages, each with two possible outcomes, and each building on the successful
completion of earlier stages. According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a
healthy personality and successful interactions with others. Failure to successfully complete a stage
can
result
in
the
reduced
ability
to
complete
further
stages,
and
therefore
more
unhealthy
personality and sense of self.
ACTIVITY
Study
section
4.5.2
in
4.6
Bergh
and
Theron
(2009),
dealing
with
Erikson's
theory
of
psychosocial
development across eight stages, and complete the following activity. Take 15 minutes to briefly write
down the core characteristic of each stage and give details of what both successful and unsuccessful
completion of each stage entails.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
From
your
study
of
section
4.5.2
you
should
have
obtained
the
details
required
to
meet
the
requirements of this activity. In order to gain even more insight into Erikson's stages of psychosocial
development, we will now discuss how behaviour can manifest during each of the eight stages. We will
discuss the first five stages, and we hope that this will enable you to discuss the remaining three
stages adequately. It is to your advantage to actively participate and answer the questions posed.
This discussion is in line with the structure of the examination questions.
Trust versus mistrust (first year)
An example here could be a worker's general attitude towards management. Do you think a feeling of
mistrust dating back to childhood could emerge as a similar attitude towards authority figures and/or
management in the work context? You may know someone like that. If the attitude is fairly pervasive,
you may be able to understand the person better now.
IOP1501/1
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Study
unit
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
If employees in this stage are encouraged and supported to become increasingly independent, they
become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world. According to Erikson's
theory, at this stage, what would the resultant behaviour/s be if employees are constantly criticised,
overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves?
Initiative versus guilt
child
who
fails
to
develop
initiative
because
of
excessive
criticism
grows
up
to
be
an
adult
who
represses potential and even develops psychosomatic ailments to avoid responsibility. Do you perhaps
know somebody who invariably gets a headache or a stomach ache whenever pressure and expectations
get too high? Or who regularly takes sick leave the moment there is a rush at work? Try and think of
examples of such cases in your own environment.
Industry versus inferiority
Can you imagine what the role of parents, teachers and training facilitators is in this stage? What role
do
you
think
actions
such
as
encouragement
and
the
provision
of
rewards
could
play?
How
can
training facilitator use the conditions in this stage to tap the learners' capacity to learn, creating and
eliciting numerous new skills and increasing knowledge, and in that way developing a sense of industry?
What about conditions in which people are discouraged, and live in a restricted environment? What
would the possible resultant behaviour, as suggested by Erikson, be for this stage? What do you think
the outcome of a stressful induction programme for new employees might be?
Identity versus ego or role confusion
Let's take the example of Mr X, a manager, who sees himself as the person who has to make sure that
every
worker
meets
his
or
her
responsibility,
whereas
others
see
him
as
the
kind
of
manager
who
intervenes too directly. Can you see that the role confusion between Mr X's perception of his role and
tasks and those of the workers could give rise to problems? Do you think Mr X might benefit from
further training?
Now do the same with the following three stages on your own.
.
.
.
intimacy versus isolation

generativity versus stagnation
ego-identity versus despair
Keep the different stages in mind when you observe people's behaviour in the work environment. In the
next section we deal with career transitions and tasks, with reference to the identifiable stages.
4.4
CAREER TRANSITIONS AND TASKS
The study of human development is vital to understanding human behaviour with regard
to occupational or career development and to developing work-related competencies.
Increasingly, individuals have to forge their own career paths through a series of organisations. Work is perceived as part of our total life experience, but one that increasingly
affects the wellbeing of our families and communities. The study of occupational development highlights vital connections across the lifework boundary. A career crisis can
60
Human
development
across
the
life
span
have serious ramifications for family members and personal life transitions can disrupt
work performance. Career guidance programmes need to take account of these interactions. In a period of rapid change the challenge is to spread transition awareness and
management skills to employers and the general population.
The life span developmental perspective on careers emphasises continuity, that is, the
progressive dynamic processes of maturation and adaptation.
ACTIVITY
Distinguish
between
life
4.7
stages
(as
discussed
in
section
4.6
(4.6.1
to
4.6.4)
in
Bergh
&
Theron,
(2009)) and developmental tasks.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
Life
stages
are
developmental
the
tasks
predominant
to
capture
states
the
in
the
predictable,
unfolding
socially
process
imposed
of
career
adaptive
development
challenges
within
and
each
stage.
Unlike the stages in Piaget's developmental theory, for example, the sequence of career life stages and
tasks is not fixed and inevitable. Although the career life stages and tasks are linear and predictable,
they do not occur in invariant order. The ages at which and sequence in which people encounter the
tasks of each life stage may vary, depending on individual biosocial development and life situations. For
example, some people will cope successfully with exploratory tasks and enter the establishment stage
in their early 20s; some will continue to explore indefinitely; and others will, in their 30s, return to
exploratory tasks in order to enter a different type of work. According to developmental theory, one set
of
behaviours
will
be
dominant
during
particular
life
stage
for
example,
exploratory
behaviour
will
generally override other behaviours during adolescence.
Success in adapting to each developmental task results in effective functioning as a student, worker or
retiree, and lays the groundwork for mastering the next tasks along the developmental continuum,
according to the assumptions of table 4.2.
Section 4.6 in Bergh and Theron (2009) deals with various stages of people's careers, with special
reference
to
the
views
of
Super
and
Havighurst.
Complete
the
following
activity
and
the
practical
exercise below.
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Study
unit
ACTIVITY
4.8
Start by studying section 4.6 in your prescribed book carefully. Once you have done this, focus on table
4.2, which forms the basis of this activity.
Draw up a table similar to table 4.2 in Bergh and Theron (2009), but leave enough space for additional
notes
of
your
own.
Next
to
each
stage
write
the
name
of
someone
you
know
(a
relative,
friend
or
colleague) who fits that category, and a brief reason for placing that person in that category. Later on,
when you need to know the various stages, to refresh your memory, you simply need to think of those
relatives, friends or colleagues.
FEEDBACK
We trust that you found the exercise interesting, and that the use of familiar faces in this framework
will help you to remember the stages. We also hope that it will alert you to the manifestations of these
stages in your own work environment.
This study unit contains a great deal of information; however, you still need to go through the work in
the prescribed book a few times and to summarise it. As you become more familiar with the material
you will find it easier to spot direct applications to the work context.
4.5
FUTURE TRENDS IN PEOPLE'S CAREER DEVELOPMENT
This section of the chapter deals with the realities of the world of work in the new
millennium, as the boundaries between work and non-work are becoming increasingly
blurred. The world has moved away from the one-life and one-career perspective,
according to which one series of career stages (entry into the world of work, establishing oneself in one's job, mastering and maintaining one's job, retiring from the workplace)
took up the whole of a person's work life.
Pay careful attention to the realities facing the new generation of employees as well as
the career development agents.
Also note how factors such as time scarcity (caused by the competing demands of work,
operational demands, family and study) and increasing cost shorten occupational life
cycles. Further, in the modern era job descriptions overlap to an increasing degree and
careers are less secure. Success in employment now requires that individuals be proactive and flexible. This means that individuals must now be prepared to further their
education and develop new skills in new domains with regard to their career aspirations.
62
Human
4.6
development
across
the
life
span
In this topic we provided a broad perspective on human development, including its

general nature and characteristics, domains or areas of development and influencing
factors, critical periods in human development, as well as a summary of various career
transition stages. Psychologists and human resource workers must have a good grasp of
human development in general, as it will influence career development and work
performance. The way development tasks and work-related attitudes, values and
competencies were acquired is important for the type of work ethic, work commitment
and work engagement employees will offer to employers. Effective career development
is also important for the employee's subjective experiences of work, which will transfer
into positive wellbeing, job satisfaction and effective work performance.
SELF-EVALUATION
To
evaluate
your
learning
experience
with
regard
to
this
study
theme,
complete
the
assessment
(1)
Human development is determined primarily by ...
(a)
(2)
heredity.
(b)
the environment.
(c)
learning.
(d)
All of the above.
Which of the following theorists maintains/maintain that children go through specific stages (which
are completed in a fixed order) as their intellect and ability to see relationships matures.
(a)
(3)
(4)
Freud
(b)
Erikson
(c)
Bowlby and Ainsworth
(d)
Piaget
Piaget's formal operational stage of cognitive development manifests as ...
(a)
learning by doing.
(b)
improved concrete thinking.
(c)
development of concepts of numbers, relationships and reversibility.
(d)
use of abstract thought.
According to Bronfenbrenner's model ...
(a)
environmental factors such as nutrition, toxic substances, medication and pollutants

influence human health and development.
(b)
development is a dynamic process in which the individual and the environment influence each
other's development.
(c)
psychosocial factors are the main elements of a person's development.
(d)
unusual experiences have a lasting impact on a person's development.
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Study
(5)
unit
If people display behaviour characterised by a tendency to overindulge in behaviours such as

smoking, drinking alcohol, eating, or nailbiting, in which one of Freud's developmental stages could
they be said to be fixated?
(a)
(6)
(7)
phallic
(b)
genital
(c)
oral
(d)
anal
Which of the following is not one of the four types of independence described by Hoffman?
(a)
emotional
(b)
practical
(c)
attitudinal
(d)
conflictual
Which of the following concepts was identified by Havighurst as having the potential to lead to
happiness when successful and to possible disapproval by society if unsuccessful?
(8)
(a)
career stages
(b)
self-efficacy
(c)
developmental tasks
(d)
psychosexual stages
When certain experiences in a person's developmental stages are arrested and do not develop
further, evoke anxiety or remain unresolved, they are known in Freudian theory as ...
(9)
(a)
fixations
(b)
neuroses
(c)
regression
(d)
aggression
The theorist who postulated that ego-identity is acquired through resolving conflict in progressive
life phases is ...
(a)
Freud
(b)
Bowlby
(c)
Erikson
(d)
Super
(10) In working life, young adulthood is characterised by ...
(a)
identity formation.
(b)
maintenance of social role.
(c)
a stage of rebellion and search for self-identity.
(d)
access to, and establishment in, a workplace.

1 (d); 2 (d); 3 (d); 4 (b); 5 (c); 6 (b); 7 (c); 8 (a); 9 (c); 10 (d)

64
STUDY TOPIC 5
Learning
IOP1501/1
65
TINU YDUTS
LEARNING
(BASED
ON
CHAPTER
OF
BERGH
AND
THERON
(2009))

Imagine that you are the training and development manager of a South African organisation. Your tasks include identifying the training and development needs of your organisation, compiling and presenting new programmes, updating and adapting existing
ones, and evaluating these programmes. You will have to use many learning principles to
adapt your training content, material and techniques to suit the diverse needs of a
diverse workforce.
This chapter on learning will introduce you to the principles of learning and how those
principles can be used to modify human behaviour. The course emphasises the application of learning theories and principles to solve behavioural problems as they exist in
oneself, one's family, schools, the workplace, and in larger social, economic and political
groups. The activities in this study unit will present you with typical training and development tasks performed by people in training posts. Thus the content will acquaint you
with the practical application of learning theory in the work context. To accomplish this,
you need to understand the various learning theories and principles and be able to use
them effectively to compile training and development programmes.
Thus, the aim of this chapter is to expose you to a wide range of theories, concepts and
methodologies of learning with a view to applying your knowledge in the work and
other contexts.
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
.
.
indicate what you understand by the concept of learning

demonstrate your understanding of the terminology relating to classical and operant conditioning,
cognitive learning and social learning
.
.
distinguish between classical and operant conditioning

apply the principles of classical and instrumental conditioning in the compilation of training
activities
.
.
use social learning theory, which combines behaviourist theory and cognitive theory, in training
understand the nature and effectiveness of various reinforcement schedules and recommend ways
they can be applied in training
.
.
assess the value of punishment as a corrective measure in training

explain the concept `àdult learner'' and recommend training activities suitable for this group of
learners
66
Learning
.
.
.
.
explain various learning principles and use them to develop training activities
distinguish between different training techniques
assess whether transfer or learning has taken place
evaluate training activities

Learning outcomes
Key concepts
5.1
Overview: what is learning?
5.2
The learning process
5.3
The adult learner
5.4
Learning in the work context
5.5
Self-evaluation
KEY
CONCEPTS
classical conditioning, extinction, discrimination, generalisation, higher-order conditioning, spontaneous recovery, operant conditioning, schedules of reinforcement, punishment, cognitive learning,
social learning, the adult learner, learning organisation
5.1
OVERVIEW: WHAT IS LEARNING?
From the day we are born, we begin a process of learning that lasts throughout life. A
vast amount of time and effort is spent on the business of learning, and any teacher or
student will agree that learning is not always a simple matter. The concept ``learning'' is
IOP1501/1
67
Study
unit
significant because it may suggest that people are driving their own development
through relevant experience beyond work-related skills and knowledge and processes.
``Learning'' conveys the idea of change and personal development (and thereby organisational development) with regard to beliefs, values, wisdom, compassion, emotional
maturity, ethics and integrity and, most important of all, helping others to identify, aspire
to, achieve and fulfil their own unique individual personal potential.
From studying sections 5.1 and 5.2 you will notice that the process of learning is primarily
a personal responsibility and act. We place our own personal stamp on how we learn,
what we learn and when we learn, and we all learn according to our own unique
learning style. The act of learning is paradoxical in nature; it is often such a simple act
that we do not question its presence when we go about our daily activities. Learning and
development are natural and progressive events in our existence as learning organisms.
Yet, when we encounter difficulties in learning something, we no longer take the learning process for granted. It is only then that our metacognition, or awareness of how we
learn, becomes heightened. The existence of numerous concepts, definitions, theories
and methodologies of learning confirm the complexity of this process, and can also
provide us with valuable competencies to use in the training field.
5.2
THE LEARNING PROCESS
In order to fully comprehend the details of this section, you will need to study section
5.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009).
The two main approaches to learning refer to conditioning, that is, either classical or
instrumental conditioning. Make sure that you take time to understand these two
concepts, because they form the basis of the entire discussion in this study unit.
You will notice that you have already encountered some of the content in your study of
behaviourism, one of the primary schools of thought in psychology. To double check
whether you still remember the assumptions and core idea of this perspective, complete
the following activity.
ACTIVITY
Take
five
minutes
to
5.1
write
down
at
least
three
assumptions
or
beliefs
that
characterise
the
behaviourist point of view with regard to learning.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
68
Learning
FEEDBACK
Here are three of the many possible assumptions you could have identified.
Observable behaviour rather than unconscious or internal thought processes are the focus of study.
In particular, learning is manifested by a change in behaviour.
The environment shapes one's behaviour; what one learns is determined by the rewards and
influences in the environment, not necessarily by the individual learner.
Responses (or behaviours) are strengthened or weakened by the consequences of behaviour.
Components of classical and operant conditioning

Classical and operant conditioning are not new kinds of learning invented by Pavlov and
Thorndike. Conditioning has always existed, but we know more about it because
psychologists have studied and described its forms more carefully. No doubt, since the
beginning of time, educators, animal trainers, parents, bosses and lovers have learnt to
perfect the art of using reinforcement, punishment and changes in the environment quite
effectively to manipulate and manage behaviour.
Classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov was the first to describe classical conditioning, the type of learning in which
a subject comes to respond to a neutral stimulus as he, she or it would to another
stimulus by learning to associate the two stimuli (the so-called stimulus-response or S-R
principle). Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism comes to
display a conditioned response (CR) to a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS), which has
been paired with a biologically significant unconditioned stimulus (US) that evokes an
unconditioned response (UR).
ACTIVITY
5.2
The following terms belong to the terminology associated with classical conditioning. Study the section
on classical conditioning in Bergh and Theron (2009) and use each term correctly in the context of
Pavlov's dog experiment to demonstrate your understanding of the terminology.
neutral stimulus (NS)
unconditioned stimulus (US)
unconditioned reflex (response) (UR)
conditioned stimulus (CS)
conditioned reflex (response) (CR)
discrimination
generalisation
higher-order conditioning
extinction
spontaneous recovery
IOP1501/1
69
Study
unit
FEEDBACK
Components
and
processes
of classical
conditioning
(Pavlov's
Stimulus
Food
Having
noticed
this
Process
(US)
behaviour,
mere
Pavlov
experiment)
wanted
to
see
sight
Result
of
whether
The
external
dog
salivates
when
it
stick
(UR)
stimuli
sees
could
drum-
affect
this
process.
Bell
Pavlov
began
by
ringing
(NS)
bell
Bell
mere
(first-order
sound
conditioning)
(CS)
at
paired
time)
Food
no
the
with
same
food
time
(over
``conditioning''
(US)
salivation
that
The
he
dog
seeing
ing
fed
dog.
salivated
food
the
the
and
sound
on
hear-
of
the
bell.
After
when
while,
the
bell
the
was
dog
that
rung,
even
Bell
initially
salivated
without
(CS)
food
only
being
when
food
was
presented
began
mere
sound
of
bell
The
dog
salivated
the
on
70
to
salivate
present.
eventually
on
sound
its
own
of
hearing
the
(CR).
bell
Learning
When
salivate
random
object
(higher-order
was
introduced
and
paired
with
the
ringing
bell,
the
dog
continued
to
conditioning).
Bell
(CS)
After
the
same
association
as
used
light)
above
was
the
process
(bell
dog
when
+
it
salivated
heard
the
bell
and in the presence of
followed,
the
random
(switching
object
on
the
light).
random
Light
When
the
salivate.
bell
This
was
removed,
indicates
object
bulb
and
that
the
the
Light
(NS)
new
random
stimulus
bulb
can
object
be
(CS)
was
changed
Mere
introduced,
and
that
the
dog
salivation
sight
The
continued
will
previously
stimulus
has
modified
tioned
dog
ing
to
The
tendency
discrimination
another
ringing
for
(initially,
of
the
response
the
bell
dog
to
be
salivated
elicited
by
at
sight
the
one
will
start
when
the
on
stimulus
of
food
to
occur.
neutral
been
condi-
stimulus.
switched
Stimulus
still
The
salivatlight
is
(CR).
and
(US)
not
not
the
(NS)).
Stimulus
The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar
generalisation
to
the
car
Extinction
conditioned
alarm
may
stimulus
elicit
the
to
same
evoke
similar
response
as
responses.
that
of
the
For
example,
bell.
The tendency for the response to the conditioned stimulus (bell or light
switch) to fade away once the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired
with
Spontaneous
recovery
The
the
US
(food).
reappearance,
after
rest
period,
of
an
extinguished
conditioned
response.
IOP1501/1
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Study
unit
Did you notice that all the terms listed above have been explained? See whether you can follow the same
procedure with the example in Zake's case study at the end of chapter 5 of Bergh and Theron (2009).
Pavlov's experiments dramatically demonstrated the way in which the environment controls behaviour.
We are highly responsive to cues in our environment: we see our favourite beverage and cannot avoid
drinking
it;
our
behaviour
towards
our
family
members
is
different
from
our
behaviour
towards
our
bosses; we find that we are able to concentrate and study most effectively in a particular place; we feel
uneasy when we are idle, and so we get back to work. In fact, classical conditioning is involved in almost
everything we do. (Even though brushing your teeth is not the emotional high point of your day, have you
ever noticed how you feel if, for some reason, you forget to brush your teeth, or are prevented from
doing so? Although there are other things you could do to freshen your mouth, you still miss your
toothbrush!) As human beings, we are creatures of habit, and events make more sense when they are in
line with what is known to us.
Operant conditioning
BF Skinner extended Thorndike's laws of learning and developed a vocabulary to assist
us in understanding how we learn through operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is
a type of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences.
Learning or conditioning in operant conditioning involves higher mental processes, as it
depends on the predictive power of the conditioned stimulus rather than mere association of stimuli.
Study the section 5.3.2 entitled `Òperant conditioning'' in Bergh and Theron (2009).
According to Skinner, people learn how to operate, manipulate or even control their
environment to bring about a particular desired response and how to avoid punishment
or negative consequences (the so-called stimulus-organism-response or S-O-R principle). He also argued that people learn from experience that positive or negative
responses are contingent (dependent) upon their behaviour.
The term `òperant conditioning'' is used to describe one type of associative learning in
which there is a contingency (dependence) between the response and the presentation
of the reinforcer. Operant or instrumental conditioning differs from Pavlovian or ``classical
conditioning'', where producing a response has no effect on US presentations.
Whereas classical conditioning forms an association between two stimuli, operant

conditioning forms an association between a behaviour and a consequence. (It is also
called stimulus-response (SR) conditioning because it forms an association between the
subject's response (behaviour) and the stimulus that follows (consequence)).
In this context, `àn event started'' or `àn item presented'' is described as positive, since it
is something that is added to the animal's environment.
Similarly, `àn event ended'' or `àn item taken away'' is described as negative, since it is
something that is subtracted from the animal's environment.
Anything that increases a behaviour (makes it occur more frequently, makes it stronger,
or makes it more likely to occur) is termed a reinforcer. Often, an animal (or person) will
perceive ``starting something good'' or `ènding something bad'' as something worth
72
Learning
pursuing, and will repeat the behaviours that seem to result in these consequences.
These consequences will increase the behaviours that lead to them, so they are reinforcers. These are consequences the person will work to attain, so they strengthen the
behaviour.
Anything that decreases a behaviour (makes it occur less frequently, makes it weaker, or
makes it less likely to occur) is termed a punisher. Often, an animal (or person) will
perceive `ènding something good'' or ``starting something bad'' as something worth
avoiding, and will not repeat the behaviours that seem to cause these consequences.
These consequences will decrease the behaviours that lead to them, so they are
punishers.
Note: These definitions are based on their actual effect on the behaviour in question.
This means that the stimuli must reduce or strengthen the behaviour to be considered a
consequence and be defined as a punisher or reinforcer.
ACTIVITY
5.3
Study the section on operant conditioning in Bergh and Theron (2009) and also the section above in
this study unit, then take 5 minutes to complete the following activity.
(a)
(something
(c)
Punishment
(behaviour
(behaviour
(b)
added)
(something
Reinforcement
removed)
increases)
Something
(c)
added
increases
Something
behaviour
behaviour
(e)
(f)
Something
behaviour
removed
increases
decreases)
added
decreases
Something
removed
decreases
behaviour
Complete the above table by choosing the correct term from the list given below:
(1)
positive
(2)
positive reinforcement
(3)
positive punishment
(4)
negative
(5)
negative reinforcement
(6)
negative punishment
IOP1501/1
73
Study
unit
FEEDBACK
This
was
fairly
easy
exercise.
The
discussion
in
Bergh
and
Theron
(2009)
and
the
information
contained in this study unit should have provided you with enough information for completing the table.
Note: The answers are as follows (a) 1; (b) 2; (c) 3; (d) 4; (e) 5; (f) 6.
Differences and similarities between classical and operant

conditioning
At this stage you should be able to state the differences and similarities between classical
and operant conditioning.
ACTIVITY
5.4
Make a list of as many differences and similarities between classical and instrumental conditioning as
you can think of.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
What did you include in your list? Our thoughts are summarised in the comparison below.
74
Learning
Classical
(1)
(2)
Learning
through
Concerned
with
conditioning
Operant
association
reflex
or
(1)
automatic
(2)
response
(3)
of
Pavlov's
(4)
the
is
presented
presentation
before
of
food
the
CR
reinforcement
Concerned with voluntary behaviour which is

produced
(3)
Reinforcement
(4)
The
occurs
after
the
CR
in
experiment)
Reinforcement
the
through
naturally
Reinforcement
(think
Learning
conditioning
organism
is
not
might
related
to
anything
do
organism
is
instrumental
in
obtaining
reinforcement
Both involve generalisation, extinction and discrimination
Schedules of reinforcement
A whole range of rules can govern the contingency between responses and reinforcement. These rules are referred to as schedules of reinforcement. Most of these schedules
of reinforcement can be divided into schedules in which the contingency depends on the
number of responses and those in which the contingency depends on their timing.
Stimuli are presented in the environment according to schedules that fall into two basic
categories: continuous and intermittent or partial.
Schedules that depend on the number of responses made are called ratio schedules. If
the contingency between responses and reinforcement depends on time, the schedule is
called an interval schedule.
Study section 5.3.2.1 in Bergh and Theron (2009) to gain a thorough understanding of
these schedules. You will find many applications of these schedules in how people work
or achieve, for example, shift work, and how they are rewarded.
Effectiveness of punishment
As indicated, reinforcement can be used to shape and encourage the repetition of
desirable behaviour. Punishment, on the other hand, is normally used to shape and
discourage the repetition of undesirable behaviour.
Study section 5.3.2.2 in Bergh and Theron (2009) to gain a thorough understanding of
the concept of punishment and how it is administered in ways that make it more or less
effective
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Study
unit
COGNITIVE LEARNING
Cognitive theorists emphasise the individual's mental processes. In other words, they are
concerned with cognition the act or process of knowing. The cognitive approach to
learning views learners as active processors of information (a metaphor borrowed from
the computer world) and assigns critical roles to the knowledge and perspective
students bring to their learning. What learners do to enrich information, in the view of
cognitive psychology, determines the level of understanding they ultimately achieve. In
this regard, because we can think and adapt our own environments and reactions,
people can change the association between stimuli and responses in fact, we are not
always slaves to our environments.
ACTIVITY
5.5
Take 10 minutes to list the differences between the cognitive and operant approaches to learning.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
Study section 5.3.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009) to gain a thorough understanding of the concept of
cognitive
learning.
Also,
pay
careful
attention
to
the
nature
of
cognitive
theories.
The
distinction
between operant and cognitive approaches is clearly discussed in this section of your prescribed book.
SOCIAL LEARNING
According to the social learning theory, people learn from each other through processes
such as identification, imitation and modelling. Humans associate certain types of behaviour with specific outcomes by directly or vicariously (indirectly, perhaps onTV or from
books) observing others; therefore, they do not necessarily have to experience the
situation themselves or be rewarded for the new behaviour. In terms of this theory,
reinforcement does not strengthen learning; it is simply a payoff that motivates us to
perform the behaviour that leads to the reward.
Observational learning involves higher-order thinking, not just thoughtless imitation. The
person becomes a controlling factor; we make decisions that direct our lives; our mind
is an active `àgent'' involved in learning and changing ourselves and our environment.
76
Learning
ACTIVITY
Take
10
minutes
to
write
5.6
summary
of
your
understanding
of
the
social
learning
theory.
Your
discussion should include, specify and elaborate on the following topics:
.
.
.
.
.
.
the social learning theory, or observational learning, as it is also known

attention processes
retentional processes
behavioural reproduction processes
motivational processes
learning as reorganisation and reconstruction of experience
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
Study section 5.3.4 in Bergh and Theron (2009) to gain a thorough understanding of the concept of
social learning. The various topics which you had to discuss are also dealt with in detail in this section
of your prescribed book.
5.3
THE ADULT LEARNER
There are a number of important assumptions embedded in andragogic learning principles. These include taking into account learners' self-concepts, experience and motivation when compiling training and development programmes.
ACTIVITY
(1)
5.7
Read section 5.4 in Bergh and Theron (2009) and then answer the following question:
How would you, as a training and development manager, accommodate learners' self-concepts,
experience and motivation in the following situations?
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Study
unit
Situation 1
In an interpersonal development programme for sales staff, participants discuss the problems
they experience with aggressive customers, and ask you how they should deal with these
situations. Although you suspect that they are quite capable of finding their own ways of coping
with interpersonal conflict, they appear to be dependent and tend to deny their own experience and
skills as adult learners. How would you deal with their lack of self-confidence?
Situation 2
In a programme to develop organising skills, managers are encouraged to be more creative when
organising people and tasks. They offer resistance, however, and maintain that there is only one
``right'' way of organising. How would you go about exposing them to new experiences and
information?
Situation 3
Employees in your organisation appear uninterested in diversity workshops, which are offered on a
voluntary basis. They cannot be bothered to attend because they feel that the workshop content
would be of no direct use to them in their work. How would you persuade them of the value of the
programme?
FEEDBACK
How did you respond? Compare your ideas with ours.
Situation 1
It is important to confront adult learners about their dependence on their trainer (which you feel is
keeping them in their comfort zone) by making them responsible for their own learning. One method
would be to use experiential learning, a strategy used mainly to teach interpersonal skills. Thus, the
sales staff in this situation could be given a chance to experiment with different interpersonal styles
and strategies, for example by role playing different situations. One participant could play the role of
the aggressive customer, while a second participant tries to handle the situation in diverse ways to
find out which one works best. Other participants could act as observers and give feedback on how
effective the strategy is. This enables these participants to evaluate their behaviour more objectively. If
they respond by becoming aggressive themselves, for example, the interaction will be terminated and
the problem will remain unsolved. However, if they learn to listen to the customer calmly and attentively,
without being defensive, they are likely to understand the customer's experience and frustration, and
come up with a satisfactory solution.
Situation 2
Facilitators or trainers need to realise that employees will sometimes resist new managerial methods,
and may initially even react emotionally. Change causes anxiety, and they may even feel incompetent.
Thus, when teaching adult learners new methods, trainers should not respond critically to their first
attempts,
but
should
rather
acknowledge
participants'
contributions,
give
positive
feedback
rather
than negative criticism, and suggest alternatives. Participants should be given a chance to digest or
process information, think about it and consider possible applications of this knowledge in their work
78
Learning
situation. To this end, the learning process can alternate between processing, reflection and application
activities.
Situation 3
Since adult learners prefer to attend programmes that are directly applicable to their work, trainers
should make sure that they meet this need. Sometimes, however, there are organisational needs, such
as diversity training, which also have to be satisfied. Your responsibility is therefore not just to develop
programmes, but also to market them. Thus managers should be made to realise that lack of diversity
can impair interpersonal relations in their departments and ultimately harm the organisation as a
whole. The benefits of the programme should be pointed out, as well as skills that participants can learn
from the programme, which will help them to do their work more effectively.
5.4
LEARNING IN THE WORK CONTEXT
The training process in the work context comprises three distinct phases: need analysis
and specifying instructional objectives, a training and development phase, and an
evaluation phase. In each phase the trainer has to perform specific tasks. The first phase
requires a careful study of the organisation and its needs, analysis of learners' current
level of performance and what they should be able to do after completing the training,
and, finally, specification of instructional objectives on the basis of these analyses. In the
second phase trainers should consider relevant learning principles such as learners'
readiness, the practising of acquired skills, provision of opportunities to practise these
skills, feedback to participants and scheduling the training. Transfer of learning has to be
achieved by means of appropriate training techniques. Evaluation would entail setting
criteria to assess performance and deciding on a particular type of evaluation.
ACTIVITY
5.8
Study section 5.5 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then take 10 minutes to do the following activity.
You are a training and development manager and have delegated the task of compiling a marketing
training
programme
for
the
marketing
department
to
one
of
your
subordinates.
In
consultation
session, this person asks you to identify the main tasks for each training phase so that she can make
sure that she carries them out. Your task is to draw up a list for her, showing the main tasks in each of
the three phases of training.
Phase 1
Need analysis
Instructional objectives
Phase 2
Training and development

Considerations
Phase 3
Evaluation
Tasks
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Study
unit
FEEDBACK
Phase
Need
Analysis
tion's
of
Phase
analysis
Instructional
of
objectives
what
and
kind
develop-
ment
could
help
make
marketing
to
more
effective?
analysis:
that
marketing
should
be
perform
of
the
tasks
staff
able
on
learners'
to
taking
learn,
readiness
into
their
intellectual
their
potential.
to
Evaluation
account
ability
Decide
what
methods
and
evaluate
end
of
will
criteria
and
used
to
participants
at
the
of
the
their
be
training.
Take care to select those who

the
training
Consider
The
how
way
the
marketed
(job
Tasks
to
most.
inform
parti-
cipants about the programme.
completion
programme
development
Consider
need
Task
and
Phase
Considerations
organisa-
needs:
training
Training
programme
may
Evaluate
overall
the
success
training
programme.
is
motivate
participants.
descriptions).
Analysis:
and
what
knowledge
potential
possess
they
of
to
Decide how to give learners an

opportunity
participants
and
have
(Rating
skills
do
what
develop
do
and
learn?
the
to
their
skills
on
apply
new
and
knowledge
completion
of
programme.
prospective
participants.)
Specification
of
instructional
objectives
based
on
Consider
how
learning
these
learning
with
tice
distribute
opportunities
schedule
analyses.
to
the
training
periods
and
that
alternate
opportunities
Identify
and
so
for
prac-
breaks.
appropriate
training
techniques.
5.5
Chapter 5 of Bergh and Theron (2009) presents the concept of learning as a process
which depends on experience and leads to long-term changes in behaviour potential.
80
Learning
The main assumption behind all learning psychology is that the effects of the environment, conditioning, reinforcement and so on provide psychologists with the best information from which to understand human behaviour.
The concepts of conditioning and cognitive and social learning have numerous implications for learning in both the classroom and the workplace. For example, when instruction involves teaching new skills, all three of these forms of learning can be instrumental
in attaining the desired behaviour.
Bergh and Theron suggest that adults have some learning characteristics that influence
curriculum choices. They have evolved from being dependent personalities into selfdirected human beings, and their readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to
the developmental tasks of their social (and professional) roles. Their time perspective
changes from one of postponed application to immediacy of application, which shifts
their orientation from one of subject-centredness to one of performance-centredness.
The discussion on the training process acknowledges that adult learners who engage in
training programmes exhibit the typical traits of adult learners. For these learners,
opportunities exist for immediate application of administrative and other skills and for
making meaningful connections between such material and their real-life situations. As
I-O psychologists and training facilitators, we tried to take advantage of the opportunity
for immediate application by requiring you to make continuous connections between the
content of a training course and your daily experiences outside the classroom.
SELF-EVALUATION
To
evaluate
your
learning
experience
with
regard
to
this
study
theme,
complete
the
assessment
(1)
A man who is traumatised by an accident at work becomes anxious and panicky every time he
enters the vicinity of the scene of the accident. This example relates to ...
(a)
instrumental conditioning.
(b)
classical conditioning.
(c)
identification.
(d)
social learning theory.
(2)(5)
Select the missing word from alternatives (a) to (d) below:
A woman who was rigidly disciplined by her teachers during her school days displays fear of strict
supervision at work. Her fear indicates (2) ... between parallel situations. Her childhood experience
of discipline is the (3) ... Strict supervision is the (4) ... and her fear of supervision is the (5) ...
(a)
association
(b)
conditioned stimulus
(c)
conditioned response
(d)
unconditioned stimulus
IOP1501/1
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Study
(6)
unit
A reward schedule according to which workers are rewarded only after producing 20 items is known
as a ...
(7)
(a)
fixed ratio schedule.
(b)
fixed interval schedule.
(c)
variable ratio schedule.
(d)
variable interval schedule.
In general, reinforcers and punishers are more effective if they are delivered ...
(a)
after some delay.
(b)
immediately after the behaviour.
(c)
before the desired behaviour.
(d)
no matter what the organism does.
(8)(11)
Select the answers from (a) to (d) below:
An employee watches his mentor's interpersonal behaviour because the mentor possesses effective
interpersonal skills: (8) ... In interpersonal situations he even considers how his mentor would have
acted and what his mentor would have said: (9) ... Eventually he starts behaving like his mentor,
(10) ..., when he realises that it helps him to handle complex interpersonal situations more
effectively: (11) ...
(a)
motivation process
(b)
behaviour reproduction process
(c)
retention process
(d)
attention process
1 (a); 2 (a); 3 (d); 4 (b); 5 (c); 6 (a); 7 (b); 8 (d); 9 (c); 10 (b); 11 (a)
82
STUDY TOPIC 6
Perception
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83
TINU YDUTS
PERCEPTION
(BASED
ON
CHAPTER
OF
BERGH
AND
THERON
(2009))

Wherever you happen to be at the moment, quickly glance around your environment.
What do you notice? What captures your attention? Do you think someone else in the
same position would have perceived it in the same way that you did? Can you see that
perception is a personal experience? Perception is the process through which we assign
meaning to the world. We never perceive objectively; there is always a subjective
element, as we add meaning drawn from our own experience to what we perceive.
During perception our senses function both separately and jointly, and they are continually receiving and interpreting stimuli from the environment. It is hard to imagine how
somebody else would perceive an identical situation, but it is possible to accept that that
person would perceive things differently from you, even in exactly the same situation.
Consider, for example, a group of workers gathered for a meeting. Even though they
share the same situation and environment, afterwards they will probably give very
different accounts of how they experienced the situation and what they focused on.
The aim of this study unit is to introduce you to various concepts and theories related to
perception and explain the important role perception plays in the field of psychology
and in work. By studying chapter 6 of Bergh and Theron (2009), you will gain a better
idea of how our senses work and how sensory information is organised and interpreted.
The psychologist and the human resources expert must understand human perception
because it applies not only to people's self-perceptions, but also to how employees
process information to execute tasks. It also applies to interpersonal perception, which
may play an important role in work relationships.
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
demonstrate an understanding of the basic concepts associated with perception

compare concepts in psychophysics and indicate how these influence everyday life
compare concepts in visual perception and indicate how these influence everyday life
explain how perception influences the phenomena of size, shape, lightness and colour
discuss the significance of the perceiver, the object and the subject in influencing perception
recognise examples of extrasensory perception
recognise various attribution errors made in interpersonal perception
recognise Gestalt principles/laws with the aid of examples in the work context
84
Perception
.
.
distinguish between prejudice and discrimination

explain how education can be used to reduce prejudice and discrimination among groups

Learning outcomes
Key concepts
6.1
Overview: basic concepts and different types of perception
6.2
Factors influencing perception
6.3
Extrasensory perception
6.4
Interpersonal perception
6.5
Self-evaluation
KEY
CONCEPTS
threshold, signal detection, subliminal perception, sensory adaptation, visual perception, selective
attention,
form
perception,
Gestalt
laws,
pattern
recognition,
depth
perception,
movement,
perceptual constancy, extrasensory perception, illusion, person perception, impression formation,

attribution, perceptual shortcuts, self-fulfilling prophecy, stereotypes, halo effect, contrast effect,
projection, group dynamics effects, prejudice, discrimination
concepts on more than one page in your prescribed book.
6.1
OVERVIEW: BASIC CONCEPTS AND DIFFERENT TYPES OF

PERCEPTION
Let us start by looking at some basic concepts and different kinds of perception.
Study the introduction to chapter 6 of Bergh and Theron (2009) (section 6.1), and
section 6.2. Complete the activity below, which will clarify the meaning of the terms for
you. Against this background, we will explore the different types of perception.
IOP1501/1
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Study
unit
ACTIVITY
(1)
6.1
Whereas ... refers to the process of sensing our environment through touch, taste, sight, sound,
and smell, ... is the way we interpret these sensations, and therefore make sense of everything
around us.
(2)
... is a theory that deals with the relationship between physical stimuli and the way they are
perceived. It relates mind to matter and describes the relationship between the world and the way
it is perceived.
(3)
A ... is the point of intensity at which the weakest detectable stimulus for any given sense can be
detected. Stimuli with intensities below the ... (as (3) is sometimes called) are not detectable.
(4)
Your friend asks you to put out your hand, and on it she places a paperclip. Gradually she adds one
paperclip after the other, and asks you to tell her when you notice any change in the overall weight.
The minimum quantity by which the weight of the paperclips must be modified in order to acquire a
noticeable variation is called ...
(5)
Your ability to notice a stimulus is affected by the intensity of the stimulus (eg how loud a noise
is) and your physical and psychological state (eg how alert you are). For example, when you walk to
your car parked in an empty parking lot late at night all by yourself, you are probably much more
aware of noises because the situation is somewhat threatening (you are primed and listening
carefully for any noise). In this case, you may hear some small noises that you might not otherwise
hear if you were in a different situation that was not as threatening. According to the ..., your
ability to detect signals or noises depends on both the intensity of the stimulus (noise) and your
physical and psychological state.
(6)
Jude's car went in for major repairs recently, and the dealer gave him a rental car to use until the
repairs had been carried out. As soon as he got into the rental car he was overwhelmed by the
smell of cigarette smoke (even though he had asked for a nonsmoking car). After driving the car for
two days, Jude gave his friend Paul a lift. Paul commented on the strong smell of cigarette smoke,
and Jude suddenly realised that he could not detect the smell any longer because he was immersed
in it. Jude had experienced a process of ...
(7)
What conclusion does the prescribed textbook come to concerning the effectiveness of subliminal
messages? (Choose the correct statement/s from the list below.)
(a)
Subliminal messages have a strong influence on behaviour.
(b)
Subliminal messages influence behaviour only when combined with a relaxing stimulus, such as
calming music.
(c)
Subliminal messages are sometimes recommended as a marketing strategy.
(d)
There is no reliable evidence that subliminal instructions have any influence on actual behaviour.
(e)
The use of subliminal messages in marketing may assist with the modification of antisocial
behaviour.
FEEDBACK
You may have been doubtful about the correct definition of some of the terms. Here are the correct
answers.
86
Perception
(1)
sensation; perception
(2)
psychophysics
(3)
threshold; limen
(4)
just-noticeable difference
(5)
signal detection theory
(6)
sensory adaptation
(7)
Alternatives (d) and (e) are correct.
Section 6.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009) mentions selective perception or attention. This
means that we are able to focus on some aspects while ignoring other stimuli or relegating them to the background. For an example from the work environment of how
selective focus of attention operates in practice, let us take the situation of a television
newsreader. Think of a studio where the newsreader is reading the news while various
technicians are busy with their tasks. The newsreader is wearing an earphone which
transmits messages from the technicians. Imagine that while the newsreader is reading
the bulletin, an interesting news item comes through. The studio technicians transmit a
message via the earphone. This means that the newsreader has to focus on reading the
bulletin at the same time as attending to the message transmitted via the earphone, and
allow the activities of the lighting technicians and the camera person, for instance, to
fade into the background.
Now let us look at different types of visual perception. Study sections 6.3.1 to 6.3.6 in
Bergh and Theron (2009), where they deal with the various types of visual perception:
selective attention (6.3.1), form perception (6.3.2), depth and distance perception (6.3.3),
perception of movement (6.3.4), perceptual constancy (6.3.5) and illusions (6.3.6).
We will apply this part of the theory to the fashion industry. One could take examples
from other work environments as well, but the fashion industry is particularly suitable
for illustrating different aspects and types of perception.
ACTIVITY
6.2
Study sections 6.3.1 to 6.3.6 in Bergh and Theron (2009). Take one point from each heading and
subheading and describe how you think it could be applied in the fashion world.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
We will discuss a few examples, which should enable you to evaluate your own. Feel free to consider
applications in other work environments if you wish.
IOP1501/1
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Study
unit
Visual perception
Selective attention
Here
we
look
at
how
person
selectively
attends
to
certain
aspects
of
his/her
environment,
while
keeping other aspects in the background.
Form perception
The
person
perceives
visual
world
that
contains
objects
that
have
distinct
borders
and
shapes
because the mind organises a visual picture into a pattern that has meaning.
Depth and distance perception
Here we consider aspects of both monocular and binocular cues, which can be applied in the fashion
industry.
Perception of movement
When models at a fashion show appear against a moving background, they appear to be moving. This is
known as induced movement.
Perceptual constancy
In terms of our example, the best illustration here is colour constancy. A beautiful red evening gown will
be perceived as red in bright daylight, at dusk and by candlelight. This is colour constancy. Shape
constancy also features in this example. Think of how you could explain the manifestation of shape
constancy in the context of the fashion world.
Illusion
An illusion refers to an apparently inexplicable discrepancy between a visual stimulus and its physical
reality. An illusion is the result of false interpretation of sensory information. There are many ways in
which illusions are created in the fashion world; for instance a black suit or dress can make you look
thinner than one with a gaudy pattern, and vertical lines have a more slimming effect than horizontal
ones.
You may find it interesting to look for similar relevant instances of the various types of perception in
other occupations or work contexts. Remember, vivid examples make it easier to remember information.
Now we turn to external influences on perception.
6.2
FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION
This section deals with learning and other factors that influence perception. Interesting
evidence that perception is learnt comes from experiments in which people were given
spectacles that inverted the images they perceived, either reversing left and right or top
and bottom. After a period (of learning), these people could function perfectly normally
while wearing the spectacles, seeing normally through them. Intriguingly, when they
removed the spectacles, they had to go through a process of reversed learning to see
normally again.
88
Perception
ACTIVITY
6.3
Use figure 6.6 in Bergh and Theron (2009) as your starting point. Now take an example from any work
environment and describe how perception may be influenced by
.
.
.
the perceiver
the object
the situation
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
If you had difficulty thinking of an example, take a situation where an employee is summoned by the
supervisor to explain why a product (a report, a manufactured article, etc) is substandard. Can you see
that, on both sides, perceptions will be influenced by the perceiver, the object and the situation? With
this background you can analyse other situations to determine how the perceiver, the object and the
situation influence perception. Another example would be the differing reactions (perceptions) of the
pedestrian who wants to cross the street quickly long after the figure on the traffic light has started
flashing red, and those of the driver of a motor vehicle who is waiting impatiently at the intersection for
people to finish crossing so that he/she can drive on.
6.3
EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION
Extrasensory perception refers to a ``sixth sense'', a way of knowing without using any of
the five senses. Telepathy and psychokinesis are only two instances of this. Many people
are sceptical about alleged findings in this regard, but there are still researchers who
continue the search for scientific proof of this kind of perception. Can you think of ways
in which extrasensory perception may be useful in the work environment? Some people
would be disbelieving or even disapproving if you were to come up with suggestions in
this regard, yet there are possible applications. Verification of the sixth sense is difficult
because it is a very weak sense and seems unpredictable. Since this is a controversial
area of application, we will not dwell on it here, but merely mention it for your information.
IOP1501/1
89
Study
unit
6.4
INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION
While interacting with other people, we continually perceive them and the environment.
The process of forming impressions of others is universal. Some of our impressions are
based on direct perception, while others are indirect, being based on subjective judgment. The latter kind of impression often leads to inaccurate perceptions because of
aspects such as prejudice.
ACTIVITY
6.4
Study section 6.6.1 in Bergh and Theron (2009) to match the examples in the right-hand column of the
following
table
with
the
appropriate
term
in
the
left-hand
column.
You
will
have
to
study
all
the
definitions in the prescribed book to determine which example fits which term. Indicate your choice by
writing down the letter representing the appropriate example next to the number representing the term.
Stereotypes
A.
An
employee
and
on
accessible,
Contrast
effect
B.
In-group
group
and
out-
C.
dynamics
Effects
of
physical
Projection
Strict
D.
E.
used.
Schema
F.
and
banking
many
is
of
that
than
group
the
at
format
at
the
is
an
very
more
supervisors.
aggressive.
of
friendly,
is
the
bank
banquets,
She
claims
aggressive.
with
events
sequence.
office
accountants
particularly
supervisor
other
state
and
is
this
employees
followed
conversation
and
supervisor
better
prescribed
engineers
one
concludes
party,
have
poor
somebody
human
observes
relations.
A middle-level manager makes this comment: ``Young people come

from
protocol
During
that
in
finds
following
appearance
she
that
grounds
fairer
manager
that
finds
these
diverse
Older
panel
The
of
first
backgrounds
people
and
come
interviewers
two
favourably.
all
these
do
two
not
the
diverse
the
evaluates
candidates
After
have
from
talents
same
eight
people
impress
third
that
can
be
mould.''
the
on
the same
day.
interviewers
candidate
seems
outstanding, although his qualifications for the post are actually

mediocre.
Selective
perception
G.
glamorous
cordially
Primacy
effect
H.
than
is
applicants
put
who
at
are
her
ease
physically
and
less
received
more
attractive.
During the annual merit rating, one supervisor is influenced more

by
worker's
attributes.
90
applicant
negative
attributes
than
by
any
positive
Perception
Halo
effect
I.
Someone who is being evaluated for a teaching post at a school

is
an
and
parents
their
10
Negativity
bias
J.
An
shared
applicant
panel.
and
ex-pupil
Within
of
are
that
school.
quick
to
Some
assess
ex-pupils
the
person
among
on
the
the
staff
basis
of
experience.
for
post
minutes
subsequent
at
one
an
panel
information
organisation
member
does
not
has
carry
is
interviewed
made
much
up
her
weight
by
mind,
in
her
decision.
FEEDBACK
You may have been perplexed by this activity with its practical examples, but it is a useful exercise to
show you how the definitions of terms in the prescribed book apply to real life. The answers are as
follows: 1-D, 2-F, 3-E, 4-G, 5-B, 6-C, 7-I, 8-J, 9-A, 10-H.
In subsection 6.6.2, Bergh and Theron (2009) discuss various aspects of attribution
theory.
Attribution theory deals with how people make causal explanations, in other words,
how they answer questions beginning with ``why?'' The theory deals with the information
they use in making causal inferences, and with what they do with this information in
order to answer causal questions. The theory developed within social psychology as a
means of dealing with questions of social perception. For instance, if a person is aggressively competitive in his/her behaviour, is he/she this kind of person, or is he/she reacting
to situational pressures. If a person fails a test, does he/she have low ability, or is the test
difficult? In both examples, the questions concern the causes of observed behaviour and
the answers of interest are those given by the person on the street. Attribution theory
describes the processes of explaining events and the behavioural and emotional consequences of those explanations.
With regard to types of attribution, we distinguish between distinctiveness of behaviour,
consensus of behaviour and consistency of behaviour.
ACTIVITY
6.5
Study subsections under 6.6.2 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then complete the following tasks:
(1)
Give a work-related example of distinctiveness of behaviour, consensus of behaviour, and

consistency of behaviour.
(2)
Think of people whom you know, and the typical attributional errors they make.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
IOP1501/1
91
Study
unit
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
Since this activity, particularly the second part, is subjective and answers will vary from individual to
individual, we cannot give you direct feedback. However, if you have studied the relevant subsection in
the prescribed book carefully, you should have no difficulty finding examples.
Regarding the first part of the activity, it would be helpful if you keep a specific person in mind and then
answer the questions in subsection 6.6.2 in the prescribed book with reference to that person.
The last subsection (6.6.3) is about prejudice and discrimination, both of which are very
topical in South Africa.
Stereotypes are not only harmful in their own right; they also do damage by fostering
prejudice and discrimination. Prejudice is an antipathy based on faulty and inflexible
generalisation. It may be either felt or expressed, and it may be directed at a group or
an individual belonging to that group. According to section 6.6.3 in Bergh and Theron
(2009), prejudice refers to a negative or hostile attitude toward another social group,
usually racially defined. It has three components, namely beliefs, emotions and behavioural disposition. Prejudice can lead to discrimination, which is an unfavourable action,
behaviour, outcome or treatment. The distinction is simple: prejudice is a thought or
attitude; discrimination is the expression of that thought or attitude. However, prejudice
does not automatically lead to discrimination. Prejudice can exist without discrimination,
and discrimination can occur without prejudice.
ACTIVITY
6.6
Study section 6.6.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then complete the following tasks:
You are an I-O psychologist employed by an organisation. You are asked to
(1)
investigate the origin of prejudice, which is prevalent in the organisation
(2)
propose a programme, which you will compile and present, to reduce prejudice in the organisation
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
92
Perception
FEEDBACK
Use the information in the relevant subsection of the prescribed book to help you. Your discussion
should have covered the following three topics:
.
.
.
the nature of prejudice

the development of prejudice
the three cs for the optimal programme for prejudice reduction
6.5
This study unit dealt, first of all, with different types of perception which are essential in
understanding and processing information in work tasks. Deficiencies in perceptual
processes can be detrimental to effective and safe work execution and must be considered in assessing and developing employees. Many external factors influence perception,
while extrasensory perception may well influence human behaviour in subtle ways.
Perceptual processes also influence interpersonal perception, or the way we perceive
and interpret behaviour in interpersonal relationships. Interpersonal perception is particularly important in the work environment, where we have to work with others in
teams and groups.
Sensation and perception allow us to perceive reality in a unique way. Through sensation
we become aware of objects, events and people in the world outside ourselves;
perception tells us what and where these stimuli are and what their implications are.
Together, our sensations and perceptions link our brains to the world and allow us to
form mental representations, constructs or schemas of reality.
Social scientists and human resources practitioners use perceptual psychology and
practices to influence perceptions about work tasks, as well as attitudes such as prejudice and other negative perceptions amongst individuals and groups. Perceptual
phenomena explain variations in people's everyday experiences and the relative accuracy
of their perceptions.
SELF-EVALUATION
To
evaluate
your
learning
experience
with
regard
to
this
study
theme,
complete
the
assessment
1.
Which of the following concepts would be applicable if one were to regard the size of the smallest
difference in the amount of stimulation between stimuli that our senses can detect as being a
constant proportion of the size of the original stimulus value?
(a)
threshold
(b)
Weber's law
IOP1501/1
93
Study
2.
unit
(c)
just-noticeable difference
(d)
sensory adaptation
In Shakespeare's classic of the same name, Macbeth interprets the witches' words as meaning
that he is to be king despite the fact that the ruling king, Duncan, is still alive. He perceives the
words subjectively according to his beliefs and reacts accordingly. Which shortcut does Macbeth
use in forming his impression?
3.
(a)
perceptual interpretation
(b)
selective perception
(c)
perceptual adaptation
(d)
perceptual defence
Which of the following is the principle according to which people are naturally disposed to experience
things in as good a Gestalt as possible?
4.
(a)
Weber's law
(b)
perceptual defence
(c)
attribution theory
(d)
law of Pragnaz
When you look down from your office in a high-rise building, you notice that the cars below in a busy
street may be divided into two groups, namely those travelling up the street and those travelling
down the street. Which of the Gestalt laws is evident in this categorisation?
5.
(a)
law of closure
(b)
law of similarity
(c)
law of proximity
(d)
law of common fate
A manager has observed over a period of time that one particular employee does not keep her filing
up to date. The manager then sets out to explore and compare this employee's behaviour with that
of other people in the same situation. Which of the following factor/s are involved in the manager's
investigation in the above scenario?
(a)
6.
distinctiveness
(b)
consistency
(c)
consensus
(d)
distinctiveness/consensus
When determining distance using cues for size, texture, overlap, shading, height and clarity, which of
the following concepts is applicable?
(a)
7.
94
retinal disparity
(b)
binocular cues
(c)
monocular cues
(d)
convergence
When the first employee to finish a test consistently earns a better rating, this is an example of ...
(a)
the primacy effect.
(b)
stereotyping.
Perception
8.
(c)
projection.
(d)
prejudice.
When consumers perceive features of a particular item as positive and extend this opinion to a
broader brand, this best illustrates the characteristics of which concept?
9.
(a)
negativity bias
(b)
contrast effect
(c)
projection
(d)
halo effect
`Ì did well in the test because I am clever'' is an example of ...

(a)
10.
an external attribution.
(b)
projection.
(c)
actor-observer bias.
(d)
self-serving bias.
The success of reducing prejudice and discrimination increases when which of the following
conditions is met?
(a)
Majority and minority individuals interact.
(b)
Personal relationships are not formed.
(c)
Correct discussions prevail.
(d)
Open discussions prevail.
1 (b); 2 (b); 3 (d); 4 (c); 5 (c); 6 (c); 7 (a); 8 (a); 9 (d); 10 (a)
IOP1501/1
95
STUDY TOPIC 7
Cognition
96
TINU YDUTS
COGNITION
(BASED
ON
CHAPTER
OF
BERGH
AND
THERON
(2009))

Just pause for a moment and try to imagine doing anything without some form of
thinking. This is quite impossible, of course, because trying to imagine, or even doing,
nothing requires cognitive ability. Think about one day in your life, or a single activity,
such as driving your car, and list the cognitive requirements that are necessary to
process and carry out the relevant tasks involved. Cognition is not just intelligence or an
aptitude it is a collection of many abilities that enable us to have knowledge and to carry
out our work. In fact, cognitive attributes are an important part of any job description,
that is, what employees are expected to do in a particular job. Many employers routinely measure general cognitive ability and other aptitudes when assessing prospective
workers. Research has shown that general cognitive ability is a good predictor of
performance in most work environments. Psychologists need to understand the role of
cognitive processes and behaviour in work design, work execution and psychological
assessment, as well as in relation to other aspects such as perception, learning, relationships, attitudes and employee wellbeing.
The aim of this chapter is therefore to give you an understanding of the importance of
cognitive constructs and processes in the development and functioning of human behaviour.
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
.
.
.
.
.
.
formulate a definition of cognition

list the forms of productive thinking
discuss language as a cognitive process
identify the stages of memory
illustrate how memory can be improved and explain why people forget
differentiate between intelligence, learning potential and emotional intelligence

Learning outcomes
Key concepts
IOP1501/1
97
Study
unit
7.1
Overview: the concept of cognition
7.2
What is productive thinking?
7.3
Language
7.4
Memory and forgetfulness
7.5
Intelligence, learning potential and emotional intelligence
7.6
Self-evaluation
KEY
CONCEPTS
cognition,
productive
means-end
analysis,
creativity,
language,
forgetfulness,
thinking,
mental
set,
sensory
intelligence,
concepts,
confirmation
memory,
mental
prototypes,
age,
bias,
schemas,
oversight
short-term
mental
bias,
memory,
retardation,
problemsolving,
hindsight
long-term
genius,
learning
trial
effect,
memory,
potential,
and
error,
reasoning,
rehearsal,
emotional
intelligence
7.1
OVERVIEW: THE CONCEPT OF COGNITION
Cognition is a more formal term for thinking, as it refers to the internal processing and
use of information about the world around us which enables us to cope with the
problems in either our living or work environment. This information is then stored and
organised to capture the essence of the knowledge acquired and experience obtained.
7.2
WHAT IS PRODUCTIVE THINKING?
Thinking is a complex and essential field in the study of human behaviour, because the
ability to think and reason is unique to humans. People have to think in just about all
situations, and we term thinking about new relationships and the organisation of existing
knowledge ``productive thinking''.
Note: when attempting the activities in this study unit, choose an organisation or work
environment that you know well, and apply the questions asked in the activities
to the organisation or work environment you have chosen.
98
Cognition
ACTIVITY
7.1
Study sections 7.2.1 to 7.2.4 in the prescribed book. Now take 15 minutes to explain how each of the
facets and subfacets of productive thinking dealt with there can be useful or manifest themselves in
the work environment or organisation that you have chosen.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
As this activity required you to use your own
insight as regards
the way in which the facets and
subfacets of productive thinking relate to the organisation or work environment you chose, we can only
list the different forms of productive thinking that are applicable such as:
.
.
concept formation and its relation to prototypes and schemas

problemsolving, its strategies (trial and error, algorithm, means-end analysis, analogy) and its
barriers (functional fixedness, mental set)
.
.
decisionmaking, encompassing the role of heuristics, decision frames and escalation of commitment
issues concerning creativity (convergent vs. divergent thinking, stages in the creative process,
differences between creative and uncreative people, how we can foster creativity)
7.3
LANGUAGE
Most people would agree that what truly sets human beings apart from other animal
species is language our ability to use a very rich set of symbols and the rules for
combining them in order to communicate the appropriate information.
ACTIVITY
7.2
Study the section on language (7.3) in the prescribed book and answer the following questions. This
should not take more than 10 minutes.
IOP1501/1
99
Study
(1)
unit
List and discuss two aspects relating to the psychological study of language, which is known as
psycholinguistics.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(2)
In fostering effective communication in the work environment or organisation you have chosen, what
aspects of meaningful conversation would you adopt?
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(3)
How does culture in the work environment or organisation you have chosen influence language and
the thinking patterns of individuals? Give examples to support your answer.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
Compare your answers with ours below.
(1)
The two important aspects of psycholinguistics are syntax and semantics: refer to section 7.3 in
Bergh and Theron (2009) for a more in-depth explanation of each.
(2)
In this question, depending on how the issue of communication is viewed (open vs. closed) in the
work environment or organisation you have chosen, some or all aspects of meaningful conversation
may be adopted: these include quantity, quality, manner and relation.
(3)
Your answer will depend on the kind of cultural diversity that is prevalent in the work environment or
organisation you have chosen. However, here are some possibilities:
(a)
the relationships between the different cultural groupings and how they view certain words,
objects or concepts
100
(b)
their thinking patterns when English is the medium of communication
(c)
how this kind of thinking influences the work practices of the different cultural groupings
Cognition
7.4
MEMORY AND FORGETFULNESS
Like many people, you may be saying to yourself that it is not important to remember
long lists of phone numbers, times of meetings, agenda items, dates of people's birthdays
or people's names because, with the advent of modern technology, you can write things
down in your electronic organiser, or make use of various other electronic devices or
facilities to help you remember these facts. However, without your memory, you would
not be able to walk, talk, read, write or dress yourself. Your memory helps you to find
your way home from your workplace, schedule or record things in your various electronic devices or facilities, and form relationships with your family and friends. If you had
no memory, you would not be able to remember the course content of this module you
are studying, and you would therefore fail the examinations.
Forgetting is simply the inability to recover stored information from the long-term
memory. However, with the help of cues (activating stimuli), certain or all information
can be recovered.
ACTIVITY
7.3
Study the sections entitled ``Promoting memory'' (7.4.2) and ``Forgetting'' (7.4.3) in Bergh and Theron
(2009), and explain how forgetfulness can cause problems in the work environment. Indicate how you
would propose improving memory.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
As your answers will vary according to the specific situation in the work environment or organisation
you have chosen, we can only give you some ideas.
Consider
the
following
issues
relating
to
forgetfulness
and
its
effect
in
creating
work
problems:
interference, motivated forgetting, distortion, false memories and the employee's mood.
You
can
improve
memory
through
organising
information
by
elaborative
rehearsal,
mnemonics,
simplifying information, mood state and by using humour and exaggeration.
IOP1501/1
101
Study
unit
7.5
INTELLIGENCE, LEARNING POTENTIAL AND EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence refers broadly to human beings' universal ability to conduct themselves

effectively and efficiently in different situations by means of, for example, understanding
the acquisition of knowledge, reasoning and memory. Intelligence is usually explained
from functional, structural or pragmatic viewpoints. Extreme levels of intelligence refer
to extreme or extraordinary manifestations of intelligence such as mental retardation or
genius.
The current focus in the dynamic approach to intelligence testing is learning potential,
according to which the assumption is that your cognitive ability can change depending on
the conditions of the environment, thereby measuring the capacity to learn or the ability to adapt or change.
Another recent area of interest is the influence of emotional intelligence, which refers to
the ability to manage emotions and interpersonal relations.
ACTIVITY
7.4
Study sections 7.5 (`Ìntelligence'') and 7.5.2 (Approaches to intelligence) in the prescribed book, and
give a general definition of intelligence and the various approaches to it. Your discussion should indicate
that your organisation has posts and jobs for people at every level of cognitive ability.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
If you are asked to provide a good general definition of intelligence, you could begin by stating that there
is no universally accepted one; many authors, however, see intelligence as a general ability coupled with
specific ability that enables people to familiarise themselves with their environment. It is not a tangible
entity; it can be inherited, and it can be influenced by the environment and a myriad of factors such as
motivation, interests, personality factors and emotional state. The various approaches to intelligence
include functional, structural and pragmatic viewpoints.
102
Cognition
ACTIVITY
7.5
Select an organisation or work environment that you know well.
Study sections 7.1 and 7.2 to 7.4.1 in the prescribed book and explain how each of the facets and
subfacets dealt with there can be useful or manifest themselves in the work environment that you have
chosen.
Now study sections 7.4.2 and 7.4.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009) and explain how forgetfulness can
cause problems in the work environment. Indicate how you propose improving memory.
Finally, take a stance with regard to the usefulness or otherwise of cognitive evaluation in the work
environment. Present your response in the form of a paper to a colleague, friend and/or relative and ask
for feedback on their impressions of it and whether they agree with your chosen stance.
FEEDBACK
This was quite a challenging activity! It not only required you to master a substantial piece of work by
covering
an
entire
chapter
in
single
activity,
but
it
also
gave
you
foretaste
of
how
to
apply
theoretical knowledge in practice. You will also have learnt to form your own opinion on the basis of your
theoretical
knowledge.
We
trust
that
you
presented
your
opinion
and
arguments
clearly
and
professionally. Can you perhaps write down a few ideas about the information and practical applications
that you have gained from this study unit that would be useful to you as an I-O psychologist one day?
7.6
This study topic dealt with cognition, thought and reasoning. You may find it interesting
to do some additional reading on topics such as creativity and decisionmaking that relate
directly to activities in the work environment. Refer to the reading list supplied inTutorial
letter 101. In South Africa the issue of language is particularly important, so we dealt
with that as well. Memory and forgetfulness crop up all the time in ordinary life, so we
dealt with them as aspects of human behaviour. In the working world, intelligence is a
factor in selection, placement, training and promotion, since different positions require
different levels of cognitive ability. The points discussed in this section can be illustrated
very pertinently in the work environment. Against the background of this study topic,
you may find yourself looking at that environment with new eyes.
SELF-EVALUATION
To
evaluate
your
learning
experience
with
regard
to
this
study
theme,
complete
the
assessment
IOP1501/1
103
Study
(1)
(2)
unit
Which one of the following is not a component of thought?
(a)
behaviour
(b)
concepts
(c)
mental imagery
(d)
problemsolving
You have to decide how much to pay a person to paint your house. Your neighbour tells you that he
has paid R200 a day to have his house painted. You consider the amount, add R20 and decide to
pay R220. Which type of heuristic did you utilise to make the decision?
(a)
(3)
(4)
representativeness
(b)
anchoring and adjustment
(c)
illumination deficiency problem
(d)
verification problem
Short-term memory can retain separate pieces of information for ...
(a)
3 to 6 seconds.
(b)
7 to 9 seconds.
(c)
10 to 15 seconds.
(d)
15 to 30 seconds.
By the process of ... short-term memory can retain separate pieces of information that somehow
seem to be related.
(a)
(5)
working memory
(b)
encoding
(c)
chunking
(d)
sensory memory
Ravi remembers the joyous moment when he walked into the bank to finalise a home loan for his new
house. In this example, what type of memory is being illustrated?
(a)
declarative
(b)
episodic
(c)
semantic
(d)
implicit
(6)(9)
Match each of the ways of promoting memory in column A with the corresponding example in
column B.
104
Cognition
COLUMN
(WAYS
6.
Humour
OF
and
PROMOTING
COLUMN
MEMORY)
exaggeration
(CORRESPONDING
(a)
When
introduced
unfamiliar
name
to
EXAMPLE)
person
related
to
with
cat,
an
one
can
associate the person's name by thinking of

the
7.
Simplifying
information
(b)
In
cat.
trying
to
visualise
room,
one
recalls
the facts merely by looking around a room,

seeing
every
window,
cupboard, each
remembering
8.
Mnemonics
(c)
When
trying
lecture
by
remember
animated
his
9.
Elaborative
rehearsal
(d)
fact
to
wall,
in
and
and
sequential
remember
certain
that
door
of which provides
the
lively
a cue for
order.
philosophy
professor,
you
might
lecturer
was
very
while
was
explaining
he
theories.
lecture
on
cognition
according
to
influence
thus
and
making
impact
it
because
the
isolated
facts.
can
scheme
of
on
easier
to
information
be
its
work
organised
effects,
problems,
remember
is
not
learnt
as
(10) If a person's ... exceeds their ... , one can assume that they will have above average intelligence.
(a)
mental age, chronological age
(b)
chronological age, average performance level
(c)
chronological age, mental age
(d)
biological age, chronological age
1 (a); 2 (b); 3 (d); 4 (c); 5 (b); 6 (c); 7 (d); 8 (b); 9 (a); 10 (a)
IOP1501/1
105
STUDY TOPIC 8
106
TINU YDUTS
MOTIVATION
(BASED
ON
CHAPTER
OF
AND
BERGH
AND
EMOTION
THERON
(2009))

An aspect of work life which we often take for granted is the underlying reasons or
rationale for rewarding employees. There are different methods of rewarding or managing good work performance. This also applies to other contexts, such as study and
sport, in which achievements and performance are rewarded. In rewarding effective or
ineffective behaviour, the idea is to identify and respond to the underlying reasons for
performing at a specific level. These issues are at the heart of motivation people's
motives or the reasons why people work (and experience job satisfaction) which is one
of the most important aspects of work-related human behaviour, and also an important
concern for human resource and business managers.
Lack of motivation is a common problem among workers, and is often attributed to failure on the part of management to understand the real needs of employees. It is argued
that if management recognised these needs, this would lead to the initiation of higher
levels of motivational behaviour. There are various reasons for this lack of motivation in
workers, and it is the task of the I-O psychologist to identify and then propose developmental interventions to resolve the problem. This study unit deals with various motivational concepts and related issues that are relevant in organisations.
The aim of this study unit is therefore to explore concepts in motivation, the relationship
between emotion and motivation, and the way in which these aspects influence
employee behaviour.
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
identify purposive behaviour with reference to characteristics and goals

explain how reinforcement, job content and job design are used to enhance motivation processes
analyse the attribute of self-actualisation and indicate its use as a motivational intervention
evaluate Allport's theory in motivational interventions
recognise expectancy theory in motivational interventions
explain how perceptions of self-efficacy influence workers' motivation
identify the dimensions of attribution
recognise equity as a process of comparison in motivational interventions
explain how goal-setting influences motivation
IOP1501/1
107
Study
.
.
unit
identify the effect of emotions on motivation and performance

discuss how emotional intelligence influences motivation

Learning outcomes
Key concepts
8.1
Overview: What is motivation?
8.2
Extrinsic activators of motivation
8.3
Intrinsic activators of motivation
8.3.1 Self-actualisation
8.3.3 Expectancy theory
8.3.4 Achievement
8.3.5 Self-efficacy
8.3.6 Attribution
8.3.7 Equity
8.3.8 Goal-setting
8.4
Emotion
8.5
Emotional intelligence
8.6
Self-evaluation
KEY
CONCEPTS
purposiveness,
motivation,
reinforcement,
self-actualisation
job
content,
needs,
job
functional
design,
extrinsic
autonomy,
and
expectancy,
intrinsic
valence,
activators
of
instrumentality,
self-efficacy, attribution, fairness (equity), goal-setting, emotion process, emotional intelligence
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Motivation
8.1
and
emotion
OVERVIEW: WHAT IS MOTIVATION?
In the introductory section of chapter 8 of Bergh and Theron (2009), motivation is

explained as that which drives and gives direction to human behaviour, or the reasons
why people behave as they do. In module 2 you will also study motivation as a dimension
of personality functioning. There are as many explanations of motivation and its related
concepts as there are theories of motivation, although there is some agreement
regarding the classification of motivational theories and concepts. Motivation for behaviour differs, as everyone has their own unique reasons for behaving in certain ways or
making certain choices. A further complicating factor is that motivation is related to
many other factors, such as personality traits, emotions, attitudes, cognition and
perception, and may be influenced by many factors inside and outside the person.
8.2
EXTRINSIC ACTIVATORS OF MOTIVATION
Extrinsic activators of motivation are outside factors that influence people's motivation.
Usually these external factors are found in the work or personal environment, and can
have adverse physical or psychological effects.
ACTIVITY
8.1
Scenario
The
security
organisational
department
problems.
of
At
your
organisation
consultation
has
session
approached
with
you
management
for
and
help
in
workers
solving
you
their
give
both
groups an opportunity to discuss their problems. The session proceeds as follows:
(i)
The managers of the department immediately launch into accusations, blaming the workers for
being negative and unmotivated and of not showing any loyalty to the organisation. They accuse
the workers of refusing to do anything that falls outside their job descriptions and of reacting with
passive aggression when tasks are delegated to them. They also accuse the workers of making
snide remarks about management, but not being prepared to speak openly to management about
the conflict.
(ii)
The workers respond that they will no longer accept exclusively negative feedback from
management. They maintain that they are continually humiliated by managers, even in front of their
fellow workers, that managers are hostile and they are rarely praised for good work. They mention
that they are forced to work with equipment that is so old that it is beyond repair, yet are
expected to render top quality service. They say that they feel embarrassed to wear their shabby
old uniforms, and furthermore that they take no pride in being associated with their department.
The shop steward reports that a survey was conducted to find out what security officers are paid
in other organisations. The survey revealed a huge discrepancy, indicating that security staff in
your organisation are not remunerated at their market value. The supervisors state that there are
no opportunities for promotion in the organisation and that they have reached their ceiling. This
demotivates them, since they have no real future in the organisation. Most supervisors say that
they would like to be promoted to managerial positions and that management should be developing
them for this work.
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Study sections 8.1 to 8.2.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following questions:
(1)
Management's behaviour as described in paragraph (i) is an example of.
Describe the adverse effect that it has on the workers.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(2)
What would you propose to management as a more effective way of giving workers feedback?
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(3)
Identify the external activators that are adversely affecting the workers' motivation.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(4)
Describe the hygiene factors and absence of motivators in the department in terms of Herzberg's
theory.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(5)
How can job design be used to remedy the lack of opportunities for promotion of supervisors?
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
110
Motivation
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FEEDBACK
(1)
Management's behaviour as described in paragraph (i) is an example of negative motivation. It

provokes hostility and passive aggression, which is somewhat immature behaviour. There is also
avoidance of management in that workers are not prepared to discuss the conflict frankly.
(2)
Management should motivate workers positively by rewarding desirable behaviour. They should also
be conscious of the manner in which they give feedback when workers behave undesirably
constructive guidance and feedback are more effective than criticism. They should also look at the
behaviour without rejecting or humiliating the person. Finally it should be mentioned that when
misbehaviour is pointed out, good behaviour should also be acknowledged.
(3)
Lack of reinforcement, job content and circumstances and job design.
(4)
Hygiene factors: old equipment, shabby uniforms and inadequate salaries.
Motivators: lack of recognition and opportunities for promotion.
(5)
Two techniques for redesigning jobs would be job enlargement and job enrichment. Supervisors' jobs
could be enlarged by including additional tasks of equal complexity to their job descriptions. Thus
supervisors could occasionally perform administrative tasks in addition to their functional duties
to prepare them for managerial positions. This would add variety to their daily work. Another way of
enlarging supervisors' jobs would be to give them more responsibility, for instance that of managing
their own budgets.
8.3
INTRINSIC ACTIVATORS OF MOTIVATION
Intrinsic activators of motivation are psychological processes operating in employees

which influence their motivation. In the next two subsections we deal with two of these
processes: self-actualisation and functional autonomy.
8.3.1 Self-actualisation
Self-actualisation is an inward-directed process through which individuals express and
fulfil themselves. It is a growth process which results in openness to experience and
authenticity.
ACTIVITY
8.2
Scenario (continued)
(iii)
Later in the discussion the employees mention their dissatisfaction at the fact that management
fails to appreciate that they are constantly exposed to danger in their efforts to protect others.
They point out that they chose their occupation because they wanted to serve people. Most of the
employees know that they contribute to the safety and security of other employees, and on the
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whole this is an adequate source of reward and motivation, but they would still like management to
encourage them with occasional praise. Instead, they are made to feel anxious and unhappy by
threats of dismissal.
(iv)
From the discussion it becomes evident that the conflict is not just between managers and
employees, but also among the workers themselves. They are divided into a pro-management and
an anti-management camp. This causes conflict and the inability to form and maintain
relationships. Some workers actually say that they no longer want to work for the organisation
because there is too much competition and antagonism, and because everybody is treated in the
same way instead of being judged according to their performance, which they feel is unfair. They
know that some of their colleagues are not pulling their weight, but point out that there are a
number of others who do more than their share. They want to know from management why they
never receive recognition in front of other people. They also ask management to consult them when
it takes decisions that affect them. For their part, they will try to offer less resistance to changes
in the organisation and to be more open to new experience.
Study section 8.3 as far as 8.3.1 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then complete the following tasks:
(1)
Re-read paragraphs (ii), (iii) and (iv) of the scenario and describe how the employees' motivation is
affected by the lack of fulfilment of the first four levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
Physiological needs
...............................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................
Safety and security

...............................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................
Love and affiliation

...............................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................
Self-esteem
...............................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................
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Motivation
(2)
and
emotion
Indicate the point in paragraph (iv) at which the workers express their desire to fulfil their selfactualisation needs.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(3)
What motivational interventions would you propose on the basis of these findings?
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
(1)
The lack of need fulfilment may be described as follows:
Physiological: workers evidently find it difficult to fulfil all their physiological needs because their
wages are inadequate.
Safety and security: workers feel insecure in their jobs because they are threatened with
dismissal.
Love and affiliation: there is an overall lack of satisfactory interpersonal relations between
workers and management, as well as between the workers themselves. The hostility and conflict
prevent workers from fulfilling their need for love and affiliation.
Self-esteem: Workers are given no recognition for their work. They receive no praise or
encouragement.
(2)
The workers indicate their need for self-actualisation in the last two sentences of paragraph (iv),
where they say that they want to take more responsibility for their own lives and be more open to
new experience, which will stimulate growth and development.
(3)
There seems to be an urgent need to review the staff's wage packets and to pay them marketrelated wages. They also need to be assured that, as far as is feasible, their jobs are secure and
that they are not facing dismissal, but will in fact be given opportunities to grow and develop. Intergroup conflict should be managed and a forum must be created where grievances can be dealt with.
The managers possibly require training in interpersonal skills and conflict management. Finally,
workers should be given both verbal and physical recognition for progress.
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According to Allport's theory of functional autonomy, people's motives are transformed
as they age. Childhood instincts are transformed into functionally autonomous motivational systems over the years.
ACTIVITY
8.3
Study section 8.3.2 in Bergh and Theron (2009) and then answer the following questions:
(1)
Give an example of appropriate functional autonomy from paragraph (iii) of the scenario.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(2)
Give an example of perseverative functional autonomy from paragraph (iii) of the scenario.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
(1)
Most of the workers are motivated by the knowledge that they are making a valuable contribution
to the safety of their fellow employees. They feel a need to be of service to others. They might
originally have chosen their occupation simply as a means of earning a living, but have come to
realise that it has other motivational value as well the satisfaction they derive from being of
service to other people.
(2)
The workers are motivated by the need for recognition, which they express in paragraph (iii).
8.3.3 Expectancy theory

The two main factors influencing employees' efforts are the value or valence of rewards
and perceived instrumentality.
114
Motivation
ACTIVITY
and
emotion
8.4
Study section 8.3.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following questions:
(1)
How would you describe perceived instrumentality, as manifested by the supervisors in paragraph
(ii) of the scenario?
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(2)
How would you describe the value that supervisors attach to rewards, as manifested in paragraph
(ii) of the scenario?
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(3)
To what extent would these two perceptions affect the effort that supervisors put into their work?
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
(1)
The instrumentality perceived by the supervisors is fairly negative, because they do not think that
good performance will be rewarded with promotion.
(2)
The supervisors nevertheless attach great value to promotion to a managerial position, since most
of them indicate their desire for such promotion.
(3)
Supervisors should display a fair measure of motivation, since they attach value to promotion to a
managerial position. They may get despondent at times because the lack of opportunity for
promotion means that their efforts are not rewarded.
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8.3.4 Achievement
The need to achieve derives from growing expectations to acquire success, goals and
direction.
8.3.5 Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is people's perception that they are more or less in control of events that
affect their lives.
ACTIVITY
8.5
(v)
During the discussion between employees and managers in the security department you notice
that some of the female supervisors are less motivated to achieve managerial positions than their
male counterparts. They seem fairly ambivalent about promotion and express the opinion that
women are rarely promoted to managerial positions in this organisation.
(vi)
Although the workers tended to pass the blame for every problem in the organisation on to
management, the discussion took an interesting turn at one point. One of the employees, Mr
Nzimande, said very little at first, but listened intently. When he finally spoke he pointed out to his
colleagues that they could not simply pass the buck for the department's poor performance to
management. He told them that they were also to blame and that the fact that they did not trust
one another meant that they actually undermined one another. He referred to dishonesty and
reminded a fellow worker that he had not attended the training courses that had been presented
for some years, with the result that this person's skills were substandard. This caused great
anxiety when workers had to operate in hazardous conditions. In Mr Nzimande's view, employees
were refusing to take responsibility for their own performance and development. He encouraged his
colleagues to follow his example and, despite some real problems, qualify themselves better so as
to improve their performance. He pointed out that employees could not expect the same pay if they
did not perform equally well. He asked them to compare their performance with that of their
colleagues. The workers took his words to heart and seemed rather embarrassed and ashamed.
(vii) In the end the group requested that a team development session be held at which managers and
employees could build their motivation by dealing with feelings of anxiety, encouraging one another
through various innovative ideas and by being sensitive to one another's needs.
Finally you, as the consultant, helped the workers look into their sense of rejection and to understand
it. It turned out that they felt rejected not only because of management's behaviour towards them, but
because their offices were set apart from the rest of the department, and as a result they felt isolated
and cut off. They said that this made it impossible to build up a relationship with managers.
Study sections 8.3.4 and 8.3.5 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following question:
How would you account for the fact that female supervisors in the organisation were less motivated to
become managers than their male counterparts were?
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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Motivation
and
emotion
FEEDBACK
Men and women have different perceptions of achievement and self-efficacy. Unlike men, women have low
self-efficacy expectations because of the way they are socialised. Men's socialisation affords more
exposure to achievement in male roles than women's. Women also have fewer role models because most
women pursue traditional female occupations. It also appears that women have higher levels of stress
and anxiety, which affect their self-efficacy. On the whole, women get little parental encouragement to
follow careers other than the traditional female ones.
Female supervisors in a security department may well be influenced by these factors.
8.3.6 Attribution
Attribution refers to the way in which people look for reasons to explain why their
behaviour and the things that happen to them have certain outcomes. They may
perceive the causes as either external or internal factors within themselves. We therefore distinguish between internal and external loci of causality.
ACTIVITY
8.6
Study section 8.3.6 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following questions:
(1)
What locus of causality do most of the workers in this organisation have? Give reasons for your
answer.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(2)
What locus of causality did Mr Nzimande display in paragraph (vi) of the scenario? Give reasons for
your answer.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
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FEEDBACK
(1)
Most employees in this organisation appear to have an external locus of causality, since they
blame their poor performance mainly on causes outside themselves, such as management's
hostility and environmental factors.
(2)
Mr Nzimande, on the other hand, displays an internal locus of causality, as he assumes

responsibility for his own performance and does not look to others for the causes. He encourages
his colleagues to do the same.
8.3.7 Equity
Equity refers to a perception of fair play in the work situation. It implies that employees
compare the ratio between their inputs and outcomes with that of fellow workers.
8.3.8 Goal-setting
Goal-setting involves the individual's personal orientations toward interpreting and acting
in achievement situations.
ACTIVITY
8.7
Study sections 8.3.7 and 8.3.8 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following questions:
(1)
How does Mr Nzimande deal with equity in paragraph (vi) of the scenario? Do you think he perceives
the situation in the organisation as equitable or inequitable?
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(2)
What does he propose that workers should do to change the situation?
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
118
Motivation
and
emotion
FEEDBACK
(1)
Mr Nzimande refers to equity when he suggests that employees should compare their inputoutcome ratio with that of other employees. In his view the organisation is not equitable, because
everybody at a certain level earns the same wage (outcome) even though they do not work equally
hard (input).
(2)
What Mr Nzimande is actually getting at is that some workers in fact earn too much for the input
they make. He suggests that their goal should be to work harder and actively try to improve their
skills.
8.4
EMOTION
Emotions have motivational value and can activate behaviour.
ACTIVITY
8.8
Study sections 8.4.1 to 8.4.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following questions:
(1)
Read the whole scenario and indicate where people display emotion and how it motivates them to
behave in certain ways. Mention both the emotion and the related behaviour.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(2)
How does Mr Nzimande use the relationship between emotion and performance in paragraph (vi) of
the scenario to explain employees' poor performance?
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
(1)
Managers feel anxious and that they lack control because workers' performance is substandard.
This makes them aggressive and hostile.
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Workers feel humiliated and react with passive aggression.
Workers feel embarrassed to be associated with the department and behave antagonistically.
Supervisors feel frustrated and their behaviour is less motivated than it should be.
Workers feel dissatisfied and frustrated because they receive no rewards from management,
Workers are anxious and unhappy because management threatens them and they no longer
Workers feel threatened by all the conflict, hostility and competition and want to get out of
and this demotivates them.
respect management.
the organisation.
Workers feel unfairly treated and start negotiating with management.
Workers do not trust one another and so undermine one another's authority.
Workers feel embarrassed and ashamed after Mr Nzimande's comments, and start
reassessing their behaviour.
(2)
Mr Nzimande points out that the workers are not sufficiently skilled to do their work properly and
do not attend training courses, and that this makes them anxious and impairs their performance.
8.5
ACTIVITY
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
8.9
Study section 8.4.4 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following question:
What emotional intelligence issues did the consultant explore in paragraph (vii) of the scenario to give
workers insight into their sense of rejection?
FEEDBACK
(1)
The consultant explored issues concerning feelings of anxiety, the achievement of goals through
creativity and mastery and being empathetic in social interaction.
8.6
In both everyday situations and work situations almost everyone asks ``why'' questions.
``Why are you using that training intervention?'' asks your supervisor. ``Why do I have to
go to sleep?'' asks the little boy at bedtime. ``Why did you decide to major in industrial
psychology?'' asks a friend. The answers to these ``why'' questions often lie in our motivations and emotions: psychological mechanisms that prompt us to move in one direction
120
Motivation
and
emotion
rather than another. These inner mechanisms can be called many things habits, beliefs,
feelings, wants, instincts, compulsions and drives, which we highlighted in this study topic
but no matter what we call them, they prompt us to take action. Each of these questions
has an answer; there is some motive for engaging in these behaviours. We may define a
motive (or motivation) as a need, want, interest or desire that propels someone (or an
organism) in a certain direction. Emotions, on the other hand, are something we all have,
and yet most of us cannot really explain them. Do people really know why they have
them, when they have them, how to control them, and so on? Like so many other
aspects of our psychological makeup, emotions comprise several components; in this
study unit we discussed them in terms of their cognitive, physiological, and behavioural
components. Motivation and emotion are therefore considered important concepts to
understand in the work setting, as they guide us in the work environment regarding
goal-directed behaviour, self-expression and appraisal of emotional events, leading to
better understanding of the individual's personality.
SELF-EVALUATION
To
evaluate
your
learning
experience
with
regard
to
this
study
theme,
complete
the
assessment
(1)
... is the cardinal factor in instrumental conditioning.
(a)
(2)
Positive motivation
(b)
Reinforcement
(c)
Negative motivation
(d)
Punishment
You have studied very hard for a test, and you are very upset when a friend, who is generally less
hard-working, obtains better marks than you. You are experiencing ...
(a)
(3)
(4)
homeostasis.
(b)
internal locus of causality.
(c)
inequity.
(d)
negative expectancy.
According to Vroom's expectancy theory, an employee will be motivated if ...
(a)
all his/her needs have been satisfied.
(b)
he/she values a specific goal.
(c)
organisational goals create opportunities to satisfy personal goals.
(d)
b and c.
When experiencing an internal locus of causality, the individual feels that ...
(a)
the supervisor is responsible for performance.
(b)
co-workers are responsible for performance.
(c)
he/she is responsible for performance.
(d)
the work-team is responsible for performance.
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(5)
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According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, self-actualisation needs indicate the demand for ...
(a)
(6)
status.
(b)
affiliation.
(c)
growth.
(d)
recognition.
... involves the individual's personal orientation toward interpreting and acting in achievement
situations.
(a)
(7)
Goal-setting
(b)
Attribution
(c)
Equity
(d)
Self-efficacy
When a person is challenged in real life, making ethical decisions in work situations, using his own
strength to defuse anxiety-related issues in his life, working towards his five-year plan in his
marriage, and displaying kindness towards colleagues with problems could be related to the
concept of ...
(a)
attribution.
(b)
emotional intelligence.
(c)
goal-setting.
(d)
expectancy.
1 (b); 2 (c); 3 (d); 4 (c); 5 (c); 6 (a); 7 (b)
122
PART 3
Social behaviour and processes

The chapters in this part are concerned primarily with the social inputs into the functioning of organisations as open systems. The study of social behaviours explains how the
physical presence of individuals and groups, and their thoughts, feelings, attitudes, values,
perceptions and behaviours influence others. The success of human coexistence, in other
words, the coexistence of the various peoples and cultures in the world and in specific
societies and groups, depends mainly on social processes and interpersonal skills that can
accommodate diversity and sociocultural differences. In the work context, the dynamic,
creative, changing and evolving factors in organisations are based largely on the social or
human structures, which are made up of individuals and groups, with all their attributes
and interactions. The various structures and processes in organisations are integrated
through individual and group interactions. The performance of tasks, as well as the
management and leadership processes in organisations, also partly depends on the social
inputs by individuals and groups.
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STUDY TOPIC 9
124
TINU YDUTS
ATTITUDES
(BASED
ON
CHAPTER
OF
AND
BERGH
AND
VALUES
THERON
(2009))

You may have heard people remarking on someone's bad or positive attitude, or saying
that someone will have to change his/her attitude. You may even have heard the informal
expression ``don't give me attitude.'' In the work context, when we experience poor or
good service in a business, we often comment on the attitude of the people who served
us. In fact, much of the climate or culture of a workplace can be attributed to the attitudes employees have about themselves, others and their employer. What we are actually referring to here is a mindset that affects the way in which a person expresses
himself/herself with regard to his/her perceptions, feelings and actions or behaviour
towards something. The management of attitudes, which may be based on people's value
systems, can be a demanding task for I-O psychologists and human resource managers,
and is important in managing job motivation and satisfaction in the workplace. These
experts need to understand what attitudes and values are, how they influence the
behaviour of individuals and groups of employees, and how they can be changed to the
benefit of the organisation.
The focus of this study unit is the nature of attitudes and values as well as attitudes and
values relating to the work situation and their role in personality and society.
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
list the dimensions of the nature and functions of attitudes

explain how attitudinal change can be stimulated and facilitated
explain and evaluate work-related attitudes
recognise the primary values of various occupational groups
evaluate Spranger's six value orientations, which can be used to assess individual values
evaluate Schwarz's theory of values
evaluate Hofstede's cultural values, which can be used to assess power values in your organisation
analyse the cultural values of collectivism in certain contexts
assess the status of various masculine and feminine values
differentiate between the various types of cultural diversity
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Learning outcomes
Key concepts
9.1
Overview: nature and functions of attitudes
9.2
Attitudinal change
9.3
Work-related attitudes
9.4
Nature of values
9.5
Values as part of personality
9.6
Cultural values and diversity in an organisational context
9.7
Self-evaluation
KEY
CONCEPTS
attitudes, values, components of attitudes, central attitudes, peripheral attitudes, beliefs, opinion,
prejudice,
stereotypes,
organisational
discrimination,
commitment,
cultural
self-perception,
values,
cognitive
organisational
dissonance,
values,
job
satisfaction,
communication,
cultural
diversity
9.1
OVERVIEW: NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDES
Attitudes may be divided into their cognitive, emotional (affective) and behavioural
(conative) components. When individuals have an attitude towards somebody, it means
that they think (cognitive aspect) about that person in a particular way, have certain
feelings and emotions for that person (affective aspect), and behave (conative aspect)
towards that person in a specific way. We can illustrate this as follows:
126
Attitudes
ACTIVITY
and
values
9.1
Study sections 9.1 to 9.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then complete the following tasks:
(1)
Identify possible cognitive (ideas, thoughts), emotional and conative (behavioural) components of
the following attitudes:
(a)
(b)
A manager has a negative attitude towards unproductive workers.
Cognitive:
........................................................................................................................................................................
Affective:
........................................................................................................................................................................
Conative:
........................................................................................................................................................................
An employee has a negative attitude towards people who do not voice their thoughts in
meetings.
(c)
Cognitive:
........................................................................................................................................................................
Affective:
........................................................................................................................................................................
Conative:
.........................................................................................................................................................................
An American employee has a negative attitude towards working with people from Eastern
Europe.
(2)
Cognitive:
........................................................................................................................................................................
Affective:
........................................................................................................................................................................
Conative:
.........................................................................................................................................................................
What functions of attitudes does each paragraph of the following scenario reflect?
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Scenario
(i)
You are a human resource manager. A discontented worker who has not been promoted to a much
sought-after position in a specialist department comes to see you to discuss the problem. The
man, who is clearly very upset, tells you that he believes that the other person got the job simply
because he is always in the office and has a good relationship with the boss, whereas his own work
keeps him out in the field, as a result of which he is not as visible a presence in the office.
(ii)
The employee tells you that the boss responds more positively to people who have personalities
similar to his own. Consequently, he only employs people who, like himself, are sociable and make
friends easily.
(iii)
The employee mentions that there is evidence that preference is given to sociable people in the
organisation. He says that two of his colleagues who play golf with the boss also got promoted. He
makes no mention of introverted people who also got promotions.
(iv)
Towards the end of the discussion he says that he is actually more suited for a post that will be
available in another department in the near future and that this post will offer more opportunity
for promotion and better pay. He goes so far as to say that he might have been overqualified for
the other job (the one he didn't get).
(v)
On mature consideration he concludes that by and large he trusts the managers in the
organisation, that they are fine people and that they probably know what they are doing.
FEEDBACK
(1)
(a)
Cognitive:
The manager may think or believe that these people are lazy and unmotivated.
Affective:
The manager may be angry, or feel hostile or even disappointed.
Conative:
(b)
Cognitive:
The manager may react aggressively, or he may ignore them.
The employee may think that they are hiding something or that they are dishonest
(people often think like this).
Affective:
Conative:
(c)
The employee may feel that they are not to be trusted.
The employee may prefer to avoid them.
Cognitive: The employee may think that these people are unintelligent due to poor educational
facilities in that part of the world and that they do not know how to do things
efficiently.
Affective:
The employee may feel superior to them because his country is considered an
economic giant in the world of work.
Conative:
(2)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
128
The employee may behave in a domineering and undemocratic way.
Attitudes determine the meaning of facts and situations.

Attitudes are substantiated by organising facts.
Attitudes select facts.
Attitudes
(iv)
Attitudes are used to defend the self.
(v)
Attitudes express the self and the person's values.
9.2
and
values
ATTITUDINAL CHANGE
Attitudinal change may be the result of changes in an individual's cognition or behaviour,

which means that individuals are active agents in attitudinal change. I-O psychologists
and human resource managers need to understand how individuals go about changing
their own attitudes, as well as how the process can be stimulated or facilitated by
someone else.
ACTIVITY
9.2
(vi)
The employee who consulted you is eventually promoted to a post in another department, but he
experiences cognitive dissonance. On the one hand he is excited about the opportunity, while on the
other he is disappointed at not getting the other job that he had originally wanted.
Study sections 9.4.1.1 and 9.4.1.2 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following questions:
(1)
How could this employee come to understand or deal with his cognitive dissonance better using the
methods proposed by Festinger? Give examples of each strategy for this situation.
Strategy 1: Look for new information
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
Strategy 2: Misinterpretation of information
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
Strategy 3: Find social support
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
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Strategy 4: Play down the importance of the causes of dissonance
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(2)
How could you as a human resource manager help the employee to change his attitude? Who would
be the best person to speak to him, what kinds of messages should be used, and should the person
speak to him individually or as part of a group? Remember, there may be other people who also feel
unfairly treated.
FEEDBACK
(1)
Strategy 1: Look for new information
The employee could find out whether others in a situation similar to his own have been promoted. If
so, it may help him to deal with his bias against management, that is, he may start to see the
selection process in a different light.
Strategy 2: Misinterpretation of information
Misinterpretation of information is not to be encouraged, since the person would actually be

denying the facts. An example would be if he were to persuade himself that he did not get the job
because the people in that department would have felt threatened by him.
Strategy 3: Find social support
The employee may start forming relationships with people in the new department who have had
similar experiences, and will thus feel less rejected and isolated.
Strategy 4: Play down the importance of the causes of cognitive dissonance
The employee may come to realise that the work done by his new department is no less important
than that of the specialist department, and that he can be proud of his department.
(2)
The person who speaks to this employee should have credibility. It should be somebody whom he
trusts, respects and considers honest. The person should also have the facts at his/her fingertips
and be able to answer important questions. With regard to facts, the person should be able to
explain the criteria used for the appointment and explain frankly and honestly to the employee why
he did not meet these criteria. The employee should be convinced that the selection process was
conducted correctly and that the organisation does everything in its power to ensure the validity
and reliability of the process. Finally, the employee should preferably be interviewed on his own, since
the matter is a personal one and other employees with such problems are given private interviews.
This ensures confidentiality.
130
Attitudes
9.3
and
values
WORK-RELATED ATTITUDES
Attitudes that greatly influence employees' performance in the work context are job
satisfaction, job involvement and organisational commitment. The activity that follows
deals with these attitudes. You should understand the concepts and be able to assess
them in individuals and groups of workers.
ACTIVITY
9.3
Study section 9.5 (9.5.1 to 9.5.2) in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then complete the following tasks:
(1)
Compile a questionnaire which will enable you to measure the job satisfaction of people in your
department. Use the factors identified by Robbins as influencing job satisfaction to draw up the
statements or items in the questionnaire. Also decide on a scale according to which employees can
indicate whether or not they agree with the statements.
(2)
Identify a friend or family member whom you know to have high work involvement, and describe that
person's behaviour. What behaviour indicates high work involvement? Analyse the person's attitude
in terms of cognitive, emotional and conative activities. If you get stuck, ask the person to help you.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(3)
What factors affect employees' organisational commitment?
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
(1)
When compiling a questionnaire, you have to decide on a scale according to which participants will
respond to the statements in the questionnaire. This is particularly important if you are doing
quantitative research, that is, when you want to quantify their responses (assign numeric scores
to them) so that you can add them up and obtain a total reflecting the respondent's attitude. In
this example the total will indicate the person's general job satisfaction. Let us say you use a fivepoint scale for participants' responses. The question might read as follows:
To what extent do you agree with each of the following statements?
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Not at all
Totally
The scale gives participants five possible responses to choose from. If they choose 1, this indicates
that they do not agree with the statement at all and that it does not apply to them. If they
choose 5, they agree totally, which indicates that the statement is true for them. If they agree
only partially, they may choose 3 or one of the other options, depending on the extent of their
agreement.
The following are examples of questions that can be set with regard to each of the factors
identified by Robbins:
Mentally challenging
My skills and knowledge are used to the full in my job.

My tasks are varied.
My job allows me to take some decisions myself.
I get regular feedback on my performance.
Equitable rewards
I am remunerated fairly for the work I do.

My organisation has equitable promotion policies and practices.
I am remunerated fairly according to my responsibilities and the requirements of the job.
I am remunerated fairly according to my knowledge and skills.
I am paid a market-related salary.
Working conditions
I work in a safe and comfortable environment.

My work environment is clean. I have modern facilities for my work.
I have adequate equipment.
Working relations
I have a good relationship with my supervisor.

My supervisor is supportive and friendly.
I have good relations with my co-workers.
I have good relations with my bosses.
(2)
People with high job involvement may:
Cognitive:
think
that
their
jobs
are
worthwhile,
that
they
make
an
important
contribution to their organisation and that this earns them status and
recognition
Affective (emotions):
feel proud to be associated with the organisation, be emotionally involved

with their co-workers, feel useful
Conative (behaviour):
sometimes do more than is required of them, work with commitment and

responsibility, defend the organisation's image to others and project a
positive image
(3)
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Employees who share the organisation's values are usually committed. Positive attitudes towards
Attitudes
and
values
the organisation, management and fellow employees, as well as towards the work of the
organisation, would increase their commitment.
9.4
NATURE OF VALUES
The following two ideas illustrate the crux of the concept of values:
A value is an enduring belief that a particular way of behaving is personally or socially preferable to its opposite. Values are also said to be prescriptive rules which
people observe. This implies that all people believe in a particular type of behaviour and prefer it to other types of behaviour, and that these values direct their
day-to-day behaviour because they adhere to them.
ACTIVITY
9.4
Study section 9.6 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then complete the following task on the basis of
the definitions given above:
Describe the ideal values which you believe an I-O psychologist should embrace and manifest.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
I-O psychologists should believe in and respect people's potential to make their own decisions about
their lives. Adopting this humanistic approach, they should believe in people's potential to grow and
develop. In their interactions with others they should be empathic, accept people, and be sincere and
genuine. Thus, when dealing with employees during selection processes, for example, they should respect
the candidates' privacy, treat information as confidential, and be objective.
9.5
VALUES AS PART OF PERSONALITY
In the literature we find six value orientations: theoretical, economic, social, power,
religious and aesthetic. People's behaviour is directed largely by their value orientations.
Usually one can identify a primary orientation.
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ACTIVITY
9.5
Study section 9.7 (9.7.1 to 9.7.6) in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following questions:
(1)
Evaluate which of the six value orientations apply to you. Substantiate your answer and explain why
you think this particular orientation forms part of your value system.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(2)
What type of career would a person with each of the six value orientations be likely to pursue?
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
(1)
You will each have given an individualised answer, but make sure that you are able to describe the
characteristics associated with each of your value orientations.
(2)
Theoretical person:
science, engineering and other technical occupations
Economic person:
entrepreneurship, manufacturing and banking
Social person:
psychology, social work and teaching
Power person:
leadership, management and politics
Religious person:
any occupation, but their religious values will direct their behaviour; priests
and charity workers may fall in this category
Aesthetic person:
not
limited
to
the
arts,
may
also
include
occupations
such
as
nature
conservation
9.6
CULTURAL VALUES AND DIVERISTY IN AN

ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT
South Africa is referred to as the ``rainbow nation'', which describes the rich cultural
diversity of its inhabitants. The population of South Africa is one of the most complex
134
Attitudes
and
values
and diverse in the world. However, in one way or another every country today represents a multicultural society, containing different ethnic, religious and linguistic groups
that have common bonds in terms of heritage, culture, values and way of life. Cultural
values and diversity are here to stay and to grow. This ideology should also be transferred to the world of work, where, unless people respect diversity and build unity
through common bonds, they will not function as a cohesive unit, possibly to the detriment of the organisation and their work environment. In this age of globalisation, cultural
values and diversity in the work setting are further challenged by the spread of democracy and the awareness of human rights and ethics, and the new global networks of
communication that encourage people to debate issues and concerns openly.
Three value systems may be identified in an organisational context: power distance,

individualism versus collectivism, and femininity versus masculinity.
ACTIVITY
9.6
Study section 9.9 (9.9.1 to 9.9.3) in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then complete the following tasks:
(1)
Evaluate the distance of power in your organisation by discussing the issue with members of your
work group. Use the descriptions in table 9.1 in section 9.9 of the prescribed book.
(2)
Write a proposal to management in which you point out the advantages of and advocate collective
values in the organisation.
(3)
Which of the masculine or feminine values are most appropriate in the new South Africa?
FEEDBACK
(1)
Each of you will have given an individual answer, and therefore we cannot give you any guidelines in
this instance.
(2)
Since collective values mean that workers are dependent on the organisation, they may be more
committed if the organisation looks after them properly. Giving workers development opportunities
helps them to prepare for promotion and means that everyone is given the same opportunity, which
makes it possible to achieve equity. If workers are given a chance to use all their skills and abilities,
they may feel more useful. Group interests should be considered when managing workers so that
the majority will benefit from the decisions that are made. Good relationships are essential for
effective functioning. If people have good relationships and trust one another, they will cooperate
effectively. The organisation should also take an interest in workers' families, as this reassures
workers that the organisation cares and looks after their interests, which should increase their
commitment.
(3)
Most of the feminine values in table 9.3 in the prescribed book are being promoted to an increasing
extent in South African organisations.
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ACTIVITY
9.7
Study section 9.10 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following questions:
(1)
In your work or living environment, what kinds of cultural values are exhibited? Try to relate these
values to cultural diversity.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(2)
We find that one of the challenges in dealing with cultural diversity in the work setting is the
introduction of innovation (finding new ideas or new ways of understanding and doing things).
Having said that, what do you think are some of the ethical principles that can guide innovation in
order for us not to compromise our value and belief systems?
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
(1)
Each of you will have supplied a personalised answer, and so we cannot give you any guidelines.
However, with regard to the second part of the question, types of cultural diversity, your
discussion could have included how assimilation and multiculturalism influence the different types
of cultural diversity, such as a minority culture versus mainstream culture, adopting the majority
lifestyle versus forming a new culture, active versus laissez-faire culture or collective versus
individual cultures. The type or types of cultural diversity you choose will depend on the way you
answered the first part of the question.
(2)
Some of the ethical principles guiding innovation include human vulnerability, dignity, justice and the
need to be included. You could have included other principles relevant to your situation.
9.7
We must remember that attitudes and values are part of the individual's intentional
behaviour and that attitudes may be more or less constant or just temporary. Values, on
136
Attitudes
and
values
the other hand, tend to be more constant, as they are intrinsic (inherent). However,
they can change, as culture influences change.
SELF-EVALUATION
To
evaluate
your
learning
experience
with
regard
to
this
study
theme,
complete
the
assessment
(1)
When experiencing cognitive dissonance, an individual will ...
(a)
(2)
consider opinions contrary to his/her own.
(b)
seek information objectively.
(c)
consider all the information objectively.
(d)
change his/her attitude to reduce stress.
Joshua is employed in an accounting firm where the environment is very stressful. However, he stills
experiences job satisfaction, because ...
(3)
(a)
his work is not too difficult.
(b)
his work is mentally challenging.
(c)
his supervisor gives him clear instructions.
(d)
the job task is easy to carry out.
Princess Diana was known as the ``people's princess'' because of various community projects she
initiated. One could therefore say that she was driven by ...
(a)
(4)
(b)
power value.
(c)
social values.
(d)
aesthetic values.
A person who puts pressure on others to recycle used material reflects ...
(a)
(5)
economic values.
(b)
religious values.
(c)
power values.
(d)
aesthetic values.
An organisation that encourages assertiveness and leadership in employees endorses ...
(a)
(6)
religious values.
masculinity.
(b)
collectivism.
(c)
high power distance.
(d)
individualism.
Which of the following values is emphasised in masculine societies?
(a)
solidarity
(b)
ambition
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(c)
cohesion
(d)
negotiation
Research shows that male employees attribute the success of male managers to intelligence and
competence, while they credit the success of female managers to luck and favourable
circumstances. The example given above explains which function of attitudes?
(a)
Attitudes become selected facts.
(b)
Attitudes become substantiated by the organisation of facts.
(c)
Attitudes transmit social beliefs.
(d)
Attitudes determine the meaning of facts and situations.
1 (c); 2 (b); 3 (c); 4 (a); 5 (a); 6 (b); 7 (d)
138
STUDY TOPIC 10
Prosocial behaviours, aggression and conflict
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TINU YDUTS
10
PROSOCIAL
AGGRESSION
(BASED
ON
CHAPTER
10
OF
BEHAVIOURS,
AND
BERGH
CONFLICT
AND
THERON
(2009))

It is important to understand why people form relationships. Positive relationships are an
important ingredient of social structure in organisations and an aspect that concerns I-O
psychologists and human resource managers in workplaces. If psychologists understand
the reasons for interpersonal needs such as power, love and acceptance, they will be
able to identify unsatisfied social needs that may result in relationship problems at work.
This awareness should help human resource workers to understand why some employees are better at working together than others, and how their cooperation and interpersonal relationships can be optimised. Furthermore, in order to maintain good
interpersonal relations, we need to be able to identify and deal with aggression and
conflict. Aggression and conflict form part of our lives. Wherever people come into
contact, the differences between them can lead to conflict and aggression. More
recently, bullying and harassment seem to have crept into the workplace as well. Many
people think of aggression as a physical assault. However, workplace aggression is a
much broader problem, having to do with any situation in which a person is abused,
threatened, intimidated or assaulted at his/her place of employment. Our own behaviour,
and that of other people, gives rise to aggression and conflict and in some instances this
results in bullying. Relationships and behaviour are also helpful for understanding social
relationships in a broader context, such as in a diverse and multicultural country like
South Africa.
The purpose of this study unit is thus to familiarise you with the underlying dynamics of
prosocial behaviour such as attraction and affiliation, as well as aggression and conflict.
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
analyse the definitions of attraction, affiliation, aggression and conflict

analyse the role of attraction, affiliation, aggression and conflict in relationships
evaluate explanations for attraction, affiliation and aggressive behaviour
identify determinants of interpersonal attraction and aggression
distinguish between types of aggression and conflict
recognise instances of workplace bullying and harassment
identify the determinants of workplace aggression
140
Prosocial
.
.
behaviours,
aggression
and
conflict
identify the stages of conflict escalation

distinguish between the different conflict-handling styles

Learning outcomes
Key concepts
10.1
Overview: definitions of attraction and affiliation
10.2
Explanations for interpersonal attraction
10.3
Situational determinants of attraction
10.4
Overview: what are aggression and workplace aggression?
10.5
What are workplace violence, bullying and harassment?
10.6
Causes of workplace aggression
10.7
Conflict
10.8
Self-evaluation
KEY
CONCEPTS
social
competencies,
social
structure,
social
interaction,
interpersonal
attraction,
perception, social exchanges, rewards and costs, social comparison, biological and
dependence,
instrumentality,
attractiveness,
proximity,
social
stereotype,
support,
social
needs,
self-esteem
social
isolation,
social
learning,
anxiety,
cultural
stimulation,
appearance
differences,
anxiety,
physical
affiliation,
psychosocial
appearance
dissimilarity,
aggression,
types
of
and
emotions,
aggression,
workplace violence, bullying, types of workplace bullying, phases of workplace bullying, harassment,
causes of workplace aggression, instincts, imitate, displacing, anger, frustration, deindividuation,
deprivation, punishment, catharsis, types of conflict, incompatibility, functional conflict, conflict
escalation, competing, collaborating, accommodating, compromising, avoidance, managing conflict,
aggression and violence, interpersonal aggression and conflict
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10
10.1 OVERVIEW: DEFINITIONS OF ATTRACTION AND

AFFILIATION
Attraction refers to people's common and positive physical, social and psychological
attributes that attract them to others and create good feelings between them.
Affiliation, on the other hand, refers to the human need to form and maintain various
social relationships with individuals or groups with a view to receiving empathy and
affection and having a sense of belonging.
ACTIVITY
Study
sections
10.1,
10.2
10.1
and
especially
10.3
in
Bergh
and
Theron
(2009),
and
then
complete
the
following tasks:
(1)
Take 15 minutes to analyse the following relationships in your life and indicate which attributes of
the other person, group or organisation attract or repel you. Describe the physical, social and
psychological attributes involved in each instance.
Person,
group
or
organisation
Your
best
Your
mentor
The
you
intimate
Your
The
attributes
Psychological
attributes
with
share
an
relationship
work
group
employs
university
which
(2)
Social
organisation
that
the
attributes
friend
person
whom
Physical
you
you
or
at
study
Consider the information that you included in the table above. How does it help you to understand
these relationships better? Does it explain why you are involved with the person, group or
organisation?
3)
Take 10 more minutes to analyse the following relationships in terms of the degree to which they
satisfy your needs for affiliation (love and acceptance) and power. Note that one can distinguish
between two dimensions of each of these needs. In the case of affiliation, the other party's
behaviour may be predominantly friendly or hostile. In the case of power, the other party's behaviour
may be either dominant or submissive. Evaluate the person's behaviour in each instance and
indicate how satisfying the relationship is to you and what you would like to change about it.
142
Prosocial
Person
Affiliation:
behaviour
or
person's
(friendly
hostile)
behaviours,
Power:
behaviour
or
aggression
person's
(dominant
submissive)
and
conflict
Relationship
tory),
things
to
One
The
of
your
person
whom
you
intimate
(satis-
factory/unsatisfac-
and
the
would
like
change
parents
with
share
an
relationship
Your
best
friend
Your
supervisor
or
boss
(4)
How important is it to you to satisfy your affiliation needs? How do you normally do this in a
relationship? Do you have a strong need for affiliation, and therefore behave in a friendly manner, or
do you have a weak need for affiliation, and therefore behave in a hostile manner because you feel
you do not need others and would prefer to keep them at a distance? Remember, hostility does not
mean overt aggression. Reserved people who do not establish contact with others are also hostile
and keep others at a distance through their behaviour.
FEEDBACK
As this activity required you to use your personal insight, you will each have responded differently.
However, the sections you read in Bergh and Theron (2009) should have helped you in your response.
10.2 EXPLANATIONS FOR INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

There are various explanations for interpersonal attraction. They include social exchange
or cost and reward ratios, social comparison, biological and social dependence, instrumentality and needs, social learning and stimulation. The next activity will help you to
apply these explanations and to understand your attraction to people and the relationships you have with them in your personal and working life. It will also give you ideas
about how to facilitate interpersonal relationships.
ACTIVITY
10.2
Study section 10.4 (10.4.1 to 10.4.3) in Bergh and Theron (2009), then complete the following tasks.
This will take about 25 minutes of your time.
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10
Social exchange or cost and reward ratios.

ratios Evaluate your relationship with your best friend. What
exchanges does the relationship involve? In other words, what do you put into the relationship and
what do you get from it? Compare the rewards and costs of the relationship and indicate how
satisfied you are with the ratio.
Person
Rewards
from
the
relationship
Best
(2)
Costs
of
the
relationship
Satisfaction
the
with
ratio
friend
Social comparison.
comparison Describe your feelings about your colleagues and evaluate how the way you are
treated in the organisation compares with the treatment they receive. How do you feel about those
who receive the same treatment as you do, and how do you feel about those who are treated
better? Be honest about your feelings. Do you sometimes feel jealous of the second group? How
does it explain your attraction or lack of attraction to them?
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(3)
Biological or social dependency.

dependency Identify someone you know whose attraction to people may be
ascribed to dependency. On whom is this person dependent, and for what? What effect does the
person's dependency have on others? Do you think affiliation and attraction needs in people are
instinctive as a result of evolutionary influences?
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
144
Prosocial
behaviours,
aggression
and
conflict
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(4)
Instrumentality of needs.
needs Relationships can be used as instruments to satisfy needs. Identify
relationships in which you satisfy each of the following needs. To what extent does it account for
your attraction to these people and the fact that a relationship was established?
Need
that
is
satisfied
Person
in
your
life
How
it
explains
your
relationship
social
comparison
reduce
ship
an
stimulation
interesting
with
emotional
when
(5)
to
insecurity)
positive
have
(need
you
(need
to
relation-
somebody)
support
are
in
(a
friend
trouble)
getting
attention
praised
and
(being
admired)
Social learning. An employee who displays hostile behaviour towards people experiences a lot of
interpersonal conflict at work. She comes to you, the I-O psychologist, for help with this problem
and asks you to explain why it happens. Use social learning theory to explain the reasons to her.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(6)
Identify someone in your life who has encouraged you to perform better . How did the person do
this, and what effect did it have on you? Indicate how you as an industrial psychologist can advise
supervisors in the organisation on how to encourage and stimulate workers in order to promote
good relations.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
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FEEDBACK
(1)(4)
You will each have provided a unique answer please ensure that it was based on the information
given in Bergh and Theron (2009).
(5)
You could explain to this employee that one party's hostile behaviour usually provokes hostility on
the part of another: if you behave in a hostile manner towards other people, they will usually
respond with hostility. In terms of social learning theory, the employee's hostility could be
attributed to a lack of encouragement and reinforcement of friendly behaviour by parents and
others during childhood. You should also point out that people generally assess others on the
basis of their friendliness or otherwise, and that this evokes positive or negative feelings.
(6)
Supervisors need to stimulate and encourage their subordinates in their work, and thus build good
relations. This can be done through acceptance, empathy and genuineness, by providing feedback
and opportunities for growth and development, by encouraging workers' interest in their field of
expertise, and by acknowledging positive behaviour.
10.3 SITUATIONAL DETERMINANTS OF ATTRACTION

Situational determinants are proximity, exposure, familiarity and external events.
ACTIVITY
10.3
Study section 10.4.4 (10.4.4.1 to 10.4.4.2) in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then indicate which kind of
determinant accounts for the attraction in each of the following situations:
Situation
Two people start their new jobs at an organisation on the same day, and strike
up
friendship.
Situation
People
Situation
Two
in
adjacent
colleagues
offices
who
work
sometimes
and
live
in
become
the
same
good
friends.
neighbourhood
get
along
well
together.
Situation
Mr
Vosloo
colleague
146
wants
whom
to
he
work
met
with
at
the
Ms
Dada,
company's
sophisticated
year-end
and
function.
attractive
Prosocial
behaviours,
aggression
and
conflict
FEEDBACK
(a)
Situation 1:
external events
(b)
Situation 2:
proximity
(c)
Situation 3:
familiarity
(d)
Situation 4:
exposure
10.4 OVERVIEW: WHAT ARE AGGRESSION AND WORKPLACE

AGGRESSION?
First, we need to consider what aggression is. We are all able to sense intuitively when
somebody is behaving aggressively, but defining and measuring aggression accurately are
not so easy. In South Africa aggression is becoming an increasing problem and most
companies are losing millions of rands by not tackling it appropriately. The South African
workplace is a stressful environment. Discrimination is not only part of our history, but is
still very much a problem in the workplace today. There is widespread discrimination
against people living with HIV/AIDS, people with disabilities, and with regard to age and
sexual orientation. Our labour laws will be worthless if we are unable to change the
hearts and minds of workers and employers, and so we need to pay urgent attention to
these problems.
ACTIVITY
10.4
These tasks will take about 20 minutes of your time, but will be worth your while.
(1)
Page through a newspaper, journal article or book and mark every item that deals with aggression
or conflict. Can you identify the underlying reasons for the conflict or aggression? How do you
perceive aggression? List some of the characteristics that will tell you whether or not a person is
aggressive.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(2)
What would you consider to be possible ways of determining aggression? Will external
characteristics alone tell us whether a person is aggressive? Or could one use a questionnaire to
assess how aggressive someone is? Do you think one could establish whether a person is
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aggressive by asking questions in a personal interview? What kind of questions would give you an
idea of a person's levels of aggression and/or behaviour that indicates aggression?
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(3)
Study sections 10.5.1 and 10.5.2 in the prescribed book and see what it says about aggression, and
the different types of aggression. Include what you learn from this section in the prescribed book in
your original list and suggestions.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
(1)(2)
(3)
This activity required you to demonstrate your own insight.
The information in section 10.5.1 of Bergh and Theron (2009) will have shown you that there is
generally no consensus regarding a definition of aggression, which complicates the task of
describing aggression. However, problematic as this is, it is possible to collect data on the subject
and use that to formulate a definition. What is the origin of aggressive behaviour? In the next
section we look at the causes and effects of aggression and how to deal with them.
10.5 WHAT ARE WORKPLACE VIOLENCE, BULLYING AND

HARASSMENT?
Workplace violence is involved in any situation in which a person is abused, threatened,
intimidated or assaulted at his/her place of employment. Workplace bullying is any behaviour that demeans, embarrasses, humiliates, annoys or alarms a person, or a situation
where a person is verbally abused by someone he/she knows. Verbal abuse can include
swearing, insults and the use of condescending language. Harassment, on the other
hand, includes behaviour such as making negative remarks about a person or criticising
them on an ongoing basis; isolating a person by leaving them without social contacts; or
gossiping or spreading false information about that individual or a group of individuals. In
most instances, employees who engage in such actions would be in breach not only of
the common law duties of employees, but also of specific internal disciplinary codes of
conduct.
148
Prosocial
ACTIVITY
Study
sections
10.5.2.2,
behaviours,
aggression
and
conflict
10.5
10.5.2.3
and
10.5.2.4
in
the
prescribed
book
and
complete
and
following
activity.
(1)
Select a work environment or organisation, and try to establish whether a policy on workplace
violence, bullying and harassment exists there. If such a policy exists, discuss the issues included in
it. If there is no such policy, what do you think should be included in one?
(2)
Why do you think that it is the duty of employers to implement a policy on sexual harassment and
HIV/AIDS in the workplace? Substantiate your viewpoints.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
(1)
Issues to include are: definitions of workplace violence, bullying and harassment; distinguishing
between types of violent behaviour (covert vs overt vs dangerous acts); listing and explaining the
types of bullying behaviour as identified by that particular work environment or organisation;
explaining the phases of escalating conflict as regards bullying; and explaining the factors that are
evident when harassment occurs. However, you could also have added other points.
(2)
You will each have responded differently, but you may get ideas from the sections indicated in the
prescribed book.
10.6 CAUSES OF WORKPLACE AGGRESSION

As Bergh and Theron (2009) point out in section 10.6, various determinants can cause
and influence aggression.When aggression is manifested, it needs to be dealt with. This is
discussed in sections 10.6.1 and 10.6.2.
ACTIVITY
10.6
These tasks will take roughly 15 minutes.
(1)
List the causes of aggression mentioned in Bergh and Theron (2009). Now consider your
immediate work or home environment and cite a personal example of each of the causes of
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aggression. State how the aggression manifests itself in that environment as a consequence of
the various causes.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
(2)
Do the same with regard to the personal, social, environmental and situational determinants that
influence aggression and think of manifestations in your work environment. Do you recognise the
behaviour of people whom you know?
(3)
Consider the situation in your life where you experienced the most aggression. Decide what would
have been the best strategy for managing it. Now think back: was that how it was managed? What
do you think would have happened if it had been managed differently?
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
(13)
These tasks required you to provide your own insight after reading the theoretical assumptions
relating to the topic, so you will probably each have given a different answer.
The mere thought of aggression is enough to make some people tense up. Most of us have a natural
aversion to aggression and conflict. If you are familiar with the theoretical basis of aggression, this will
help you not to take aggression personally when you encounter it in real life. By viewing the situation
objectively, almost `àcademically'', you will find it easier to deal with aggression and conflict.
10.7 CONFLICT
Having considered the various aspects of aggression, let us take a look at conflict and
conflict management. Study section 10.7 in Bergh and Theron (2009), then complete the
activity below.
ACTIVITY
(1)
10.7
You are an I-O psychologist at a plant in the telecommunications industry. Over the past years the
plant has suffered heavy financial losses as a result of worker discontent and strikes. Top
150
Prosocial
behaviours,
aggression
and
conflict
management wants to deal with the problems proactively so as to prevent strikes and unrest
among the workforce. You are requested to submit a paper to top management in which you deal
with specific aspects of conflict, with appropriate examples from the industry. You structure your
paper as follows:
Introduction: What is conflict?
Types of conflict
Causes of conflict
The escalation of conflict
The style or styles used to handle conflict
Conflict in industry (employment relations)
Stimulating conflict
Proposals for your organisation
Your talk should not take longer than 15 minutes. (Use your imagination with regard to past
conflict in the organisation and its causes.)
(2)
Write a letter to your organisational newsletter in which you summarise your talk. Address the
letter to the workers so that they can also make use of the information.
FEEDBACK
You will each have responded in an individual and creative way in completing these tasks.
10.8 SUMMARY AND REFLECTION

Attraction and affiliation form the foundation of social relations in the workplace.
Attraction is influenced by situational factors and affects the personal wellbeing of the
individual. We find that the common occurrence of tension and disagreement is an indication of how little people know about how they affect one another and are affected by
one another. Since South Africa become a democracy, many political and social changes
have placed the spotlight on the relationships between its people. Although social
diversity and cultural differences maintain group identity, renewed efforts are needed to
foster affiliation and attraction among people from different groups.
We also learnt more about aggression, workplace violence, bullying, harassment and
conflict. We considered the causes of these phenomena and the factors that influence
them. Awareness of their causes and influences, and of ways to deal with aggression and
conflict, helps us to understand our own aggression and that of other people. It also
helps us to deal with conflict when it arises. Conflict is necessary for the functioning of
organisations. However, the emphasis is now on the management of conflict, which
means that conflict sometimes has to be stimulated. Aggression, on the other hand, is an
inherent part of human nature and helps people to deal with problems in their work
environments. You can put this section of your study to good use: the next time you
observe prosocial behaviour, aggression and conflict around you, refer to this material
and see whether you can link the theory to the events you observe.
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SELF-EVALUATION
To
evaluate
your
learning
experience
with
regard
to
this
study
theme,
complete
the
assessment
(1)
(2)
(3)
Biological and psychosocial dependence is linked to ...
(a)
reward and punishment.
(b)
attachment behaviours.
(c)
dependence on equitable treatment.
(d)
social learning.
Social learning includes ...
(a)
getting to know who your friends are.
(b)
comparing values and attitudes.
(c)
comparing rewards with those received by others.
(d)
awareness of cultural norms.
John has befriended Oscar in order to gain entrance to a professional club. The reason for
affiliation in this case is best explained as ...
(4)
(5)
(a)
social comparison.
(b)
social exchange.
(c)
instrumentality.
(d)
psychological dependence.
Social wellbeing refers to ...
(a)
achieving your personal goals.
(b)
the lack of anxiety in relationships.
(c)
feeling isolated.
(d)
false uniqueness.
The security guard on night duty at an organisation catches a burglar red-handed and uses
physical force and a gun to overpower and apprehend him. This is an instance of ...
(6)
152
(a)
sanctioned aggression.
(b)
antisocial aggression.
(c)
hostile aggression.
(d)
instrumental aggression.
The following is not considered a cause of aggression:
(a)
inherent human nature.
(b)
learnt behaviour.
(c)
response to frustration.
(d)
threshold of conflict management.
Prosocial
(7)
(9)
aggression
and
conflict
The state of diminished self-awareness manifested in mob behaviour is known as ...
(a)
(8)
behaviours,
personal anonymity.
(b)
deindividuation.
(c)
catharsis.
(d)
environmental influence.
A prerequisite for conflict is that ...
(a)
conflict must be experienced.
(b)
people have to be overly aggressive towards one another.
(c)
parties have to be in opposition to each other.
(d)
goals must differ.
Two large chain store groups engage in a public slanging match after the one group used a
comparative advertisement depicting the other's service as inferior. What type of conflict does this
exemplify?
(a)
interpersonal conflict
(b)
conflict between organisations
(c)
organisational conflict
(d)
public conflict
(10) The final stage of conflict as it escalates is marked by ...
(a)
(11)
intention to do damage.
(b)
public attacks.
(c)
destructive deeds.
(d)
loss of control.
The style of conflict management of parties who are high on self-assertion and low on cooperation
is known as the ... approach to conflict management.
(a)
accommodating
(b)
avoidance
(c)
competitive
(d)
cooperative
(12) When an organisation stagnates, it may help to ...
(a)
stimulate conflict.
(b)
manage conflict better.
(c)
use a devil's advocate.
(d)
select managers judiciously.
1 (b); 2 (d); 3 (c); 4 (b); 5 (a); 6 (d); 7 (b); 8 (a); 9 (b); 10 (d); 11 (c); 12 (a)
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STUDY TOPIC 11
Group behaviour and other social processes

in organisations
154
TINU YDUTS
11
GROUP
OTHER
SOCIAL
IN
(BASED
ON
BEHAVIOUR
CHAPTER
11
AND
PROCESSES
ORGANISATIONS
IN
BERGH
AND
THERON
(2009))

Let us consider this topic for a moment! Most people are involved in some form of
group forming or group involvement in their lifetime. Think about your family, work
groups, management groups, sport teams and clubs, church groups, and so forth. In fact,
group association forms part of people's basic social needs. In the workplace as well,
group functioning is an important driving force or energiser. When involved in organisational consultation, one of the important tasks that psychologists have to undertake is
organisational development, which includes developing the behaviour of individuals and
groups, and the organisation as a whole.
The aim of this study topic therefore is to focus on the characteristics, dynamics and
behaviour of groups in organisations and the way in which industrial psychologists can
use their knowledge of groups to optimise group behaviour as an element of organisational development.
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
After completing this study unit you should be able to ...
.
.
.
.
identify the characteristics of groups to which you belong so as to evaluate the group's behaviour
identify various types of group to which people can belong and the goals of these groups
identify and describe the stages of work groups
identify the various group structures in organisations and identify interventions for developing group
structures
.
.
.
.
.
analyse group processes in an organisation and indicate how they can be facilitated
evaluate your own facilitation skills and identify any shortcomings
describe the organisation as a social system
discuss the role and process of organisational change
discuss organisations and social change
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KEY
CONCEPTS
Important concepts from this topic are listed in the following box.
groups,
think,
group
group
dynamics,
shift,
development,
ubuntu,
group
group
processes,
decisionmaking,
tasks,
group
cohesion,
facilitation,
communication,
organisational
group
culture,
organisational socialisation, social change

Learning outcomes
Key concepts
11.1
Overview: definition of groups
11.2
Types of groups
11.3
The five-stage model of group development
11.4
Group structure
11.5
Group processes
11.6
Group decisionmaking techniques
11.7
Facilitation of learning in groups
11.8
Organisational culture, socialisation and change
11.9
Self-evaluation
11.1 OVERVIEW: DEFINITION OF GROUPS

You will immediately realise the importance of groups in our lives from chapter 11, by
reading section 11.1 of Bergh and Theron (2009).
Groups have distinctive features. They create opportunities for interaction and communication during which individuals influence one another. In their endeavour to achieve
certain goals groups have to agree on objectives. Apart from this, groups structure
tasks, roles and rules and members identify and perceive themselves as part of the
group. The next activity gives you an opportunity to analyse these characteristics in
your own work group.
156
Group
ACTIVITY
behaviour
and
other
social
processes
in
organisations
11.1
Study sections 11.1 to 11.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following question:
(1)
Take 10 minutes to analyse the characteristics of groups in your own work group (or another
group) by indicating how each attribute manifests itself in your group.
Group
characteristic
How
does
group
Social
interaction
the
characteristic
manifest
itself
in
the
behaviour
of
behaviour
of
members?
and
influencing
Agree
on
common
objectives
Create tasks, roles and

rules
to
optimise
func-
tioning
Group
fy
members
and
selves
perceive
as
part
identithemof
the
group
FEEDBACK
How do your responses compare with our ideas in the completed table that follows?
Group
characteristic
How
does
group
Social
interaction
influencing
and
the
characteristic
manifest
itself
in
the
members?
With
regard
have
both
to
the
formal
first
and
characteristic,
informal
contact
group
members
formal
usually
contact
in,
for
example, meetings and informal contact in the tearoom. As a rule

they
interact
more
with
each
other
than
with
members
of
other
groups and they influence each other by persuading each other to

try out new ideas, by dominating and even by competing with each
other.
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Group
characteristic
How
does
group
Agree
on
common
They
objectives
the
characteristic
manifest
itself
in
the
behaviour
of
members?
usually
sessions
agree
and
then
on
what
pursue
they
these
want
to
achieve
objectives.
They
during
take
planning
these
objectives to heart and collaborate actively to achieve them. Even

though they may agree about their goals, they do not necessarily
see
eye
Create tasks, roles and
They
rules
different
to
optimise
func-
tioning
as
and
selves
members
identi-
perceive
as
part
themof
on
and
people,
and
showing
fy
eye
organise
those
how
Group
to
of
the
way
share
when
they
mutual
out
authorising
chairperson
will
to
or
achieve
the
work
various
leader,
meet,
as
them.
by
assigning
people
and
well
to
laying
as
more
tasks
assume
down
roles
rules
subtle
to
such
such
ones
as
like
respect.
They recognise their group membership by, for example, referring to

`ùs''
and
``my
group''
in
the
presence
of
nonmembers.
the
group
11.2 TYPES OF GROUPS

The literature distinguishes between formal, informal, command, task, interest and
friendship groups. At some stage in our lives, we all belong to one or more groups. The
next activity gives you a chance to identify the types of group you have belonged to in
the course of your life and to study the differences between them.
ACTIVITY
11.2
Study section 11.4 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following question:
(1)
Identify the basic characteristics of each type of group and give examples of groups you have
belonged to for each category.
Type
of
group
Characteristics
Example
which
Formal
group
Informal
group
Command
158
group
you
of
group
have
to
belonged
Group
Type
of
behaviour
group
and
other
social
processes
Characteristics
in
organisations
Example
which
Task
of
you
group
have
to
belonged
group
Interest
group
Friendship
group
FEEDBACK
Once again, what did you write down, and can you add to our summaries in the following table?
Type
of
group
Characteristics
Example
which
Formal
group
formal
certain
group
pursuing
objectives
in
of
you
group
have
Organisational
to
belonged
groups
the
organisation
Informal
group
group
gather
of
workers
informally,
instance
to
who
Social
club
for
form
social
club
Command
group
The
leaders
charged
or
with
managers
Management
administering
the
organisation
the
management
Supervisor
constitute
group
Heads
of
team
team
departments
or
team
Task
group
team,
group
ment
in
an
which
has
or
depart-
Work
group
organisation
specific
task
to
accomplish
Interest
group
A group of people who do not

necessarily
an
who
of
Friendship
group
work
together
organisational
come
together
common
Friends
who
satisfy
each
and
sense
Trade
union
Circle
of
in
but
because
interest
form
group
other's
emotional
needs
to
friends
social
infor-
mally
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11.3 THE FIVE-STAGE MODEL OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

Theoretically groups pass through five distinct stages: forming, storming, norming,
performing and adjourning or mourning. Each stage is marked by characteristic behaviour. Industrial psychologists can use their knowledge of what stage the group is at to
decide what interventions, reflections or interpretations to make in group process
consultations.
ACTIVITY
(1)
11.3
Study section 11.5.1 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then identify the distinctive behaviour or
characteristics of each stage and the effect of this behaviour on your work group. How do members
of your work group deal with the anxiety that accompanies each stage?
Stage
of
the
model
Characteristics
of
stage
Effect
on
your
work
group
Forming
Storming
Norming
Performing
Adjourning
FEEDBACK
(1)
The characteristics of each stage are explained in Bergh and Theron (2009), so all we do here is to
note a few ideas about the effect of each stage on work groups.
The forming stage is usually marked by anxiety because members do not understand their roles or
cannot identify them. They try to form relationships to make the situation more secure, but some
members try to hang onto their identity because they do not want to be submerged by the group.
They may attack the facilitator with overt aggression to get rid of their anxiety.
During the storming stage

stag
members may come into conflict over who is to take command. If the
conflict gets fierce some members may threaten to leave the group; others may behave
aggressively to fellow members.
The norming stage gives rise to more security because of the rules or norms that are laid down.
Members know what is expected of them, so they feel more secure.
The performing stage is characterised by cooperation and satisfaction. Members usually feel more
at ease and may even be proud of belonging to the group.
160
Group
behaviour
and
other
social
processes
in
organisations
And finally during the adjournment or mourning stage some members may feel sad because the
group is being terminated.
11.4 GROUP STRUCTURE

Various factors determine group structure. You should be familiar with concepts like
formal leadership, roles, norms, conformity, status, size and composition, since they help
you to understand the structure and functioning of groups.
ACTIVITY
Study
section
11.6
(11.6.1
11.4
to
11.6.8)
in
Bergh
and
Theron
(2009),
and
then
answer
the
following
questions:
This
exercise
will
take
about
an
hour
from
your
time.
Analyse
each
of
the
following
situations
and
identify the aspect of group structure that is at issue. Also indicate what intervention you would
suggest to enhance the structure.
Situation 1:
manager
is
having
difficulty
controlling
and
disciplining
employees
because
they
undermine
his
authority. In your interaction with him you discover that he has an overly friendly interpersonal style. As
a result workers do not see him as an authority figure, so they commit all sorts of offences without
worrying about the consequences, since they know that he will always forgive them.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Situation 2:
A female manager believes that she must be no less charismatic than her male peers and behaves
accordingly.
Her
fellow
managers
find
her
behaviour
odd.
They
expect
her
to
do
things
like
pour
everybody's coffee at meetings.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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Situation 3:
A manager convinces himself that he need not feel guilty about not attending his son's rugby match
since he has to work to provide an income for the family.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Situation 4:
A work group in your organisation lacks norms and rules. This causes members to feel unhappy in the
group because they do not know what is expected of them. Some members have actually left the group
on account of this. In addition there is very little cooperation in the group, with the result that no one
really knows what the others are doing and cannot give satisfactory answers to questions about their
fellow members' work. Because of the limited contact the workers do not know each other well and
misunderstandings are common. Members find it difficult to represent the group at meetings, since
they do not know what their fellow members expect of them or what they consider important.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Situation 5:
Group
members
person's
ideas
do
not
could
listen
offer
to
the
solution
suggestions
to
their
of
one
problem.
of
their
They
are
fellow
all
members,
convinced
even
that
an
though
the
alternative
solution should be adopted and are actually aggressive towards this person.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Situation 6:
After the manager of a department had resigned and vacated his office, the department was left
without
manager
for
while.
Employees
found
it
difficult
to
communicate
with
top
management
because they lacked the authority of a head of department. Eventually a new manager, one of the
current employees, was appointed but she did not move into her office
immediately. While she was
absent from work the employees decided to move her furniture into the manager's office.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
162
Group
behaviour
and
other
social
processes
in
organisations
Situation 7:
A project team in your organisation is making no progress. The group consists of 25 members.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Situation 8:
A group of human resource consultants in your department is assigned the task of developing and
presenting a diversity programme. The group consists of two middle-aged white men and a middle-aged
white woman. Employees show resistance to the programme, although the team members are all very
competent people.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
FEEDBACK
We think in the following ways. What can you add?
(a)
Situation 1:
Here we have a formal leader who has difficulty carrying out his duties. His interpersonal style when
dealing with group members could be too friendly, which causes problems when he has to discipline
and control them. It may be necessary to teach him to be more dominant and self-assertive at
times.
(b)
Situation 2:
The female employee in this situation has a role perception that requires her to behave in the same
way as her male colleagues. Her male colleagues have more traditional role expectations of her.
Probably the males find it difficult to cope with the diversity in the group. Their stereotyping could
undermine the female employee's power and status. The group needs to be sensitised to the
effects of discrepant role expectations.
(c)
Situation 3:
This manager is experiencing conflict between his work and family roles and tries to rationalise his
guilt feelings. Possibly he should learn to balance his personal and work roles so that work does not
always come first to the detriment of his responsibilities and authority in his home life.
IOP1501/1
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Study
(d)
unit
11
Situation 4:
The group should be made aware that norms and rules can enhance and optimise group functioning.
They help to ensure the survival of the group and if members know what is expected of them, they
may be less likely to leave the group. Rules about cooperation and coordination would keep members
informed of each other's activities which would make the work environment and everyone's behaviour
more predictable. Norms governing regular contact and gatherings would give members a chance to
get to know each other so that relationships can develop and be maintained. This would reduce
interpersonal conflict. If the group is conscious of its identity and values, members will know what
to do when they have to represent the group.
(e)
Situation 5:
The group members may have focused on conformity to the extent that they will not give this
person a chance to explain the proposal. Although conformity is conducive to security, it can
deprive group members of valuable opportunities for growth and development if members are not
open to alternative views.
(f)
Situation 6:
The group was worried about their status in relation to other groups in the organisation if they
appeared to be without a manager, so they legitimised their new manager through this behaviour.
(g)
Situation 7:
Probably the team is too big. Teams that have to take decisions should preferably have about
seven members.
(h)
Situation 8:
The team's composition shows no diversity and it is unlikely that they will be able to communicate
the idea plausibly to the organisation.
11.5 GROUP PROCESSES

Group dynamics refers to the unconscious motivation of groups. Consultants analyse
these dynamics so as to understand group functioning and internal conflict. Behavioural
patterns that are typical illustrations of group dynamics include dependence, fight or
flight, pairing and oneness. All these behaviours are ways in which group members try
to reduce their anxiety.
ACTIVITY
11.5
Study section 11.7 in Bergh and Theron (2009) and then answer the following question.
Have you ever observed group dynamics, as manifested in behavioural patterns, in your work group? Give
examples. What effect did it have on the group?
164
Group
Behavioural
group
patterns
behaviour
of
and
Examples
other
in
social
your
processes
work
in
group
organisations
and
effects
dynamics
Dependence
Fight
or
flight
Pairing
Other
aspects
like
me-
and
we-ness,
anxiety,
valence,
boundaries,
representation,
authorisation,
leadership, relationship and collectivism also form part of group dynamics (see 11.7.1 in Bergh & Theron,
2009).
FEEDBACK
Your examples will be relevant to your situation.
11.6 GROUP DECISIONMAKING TECHNIQUES

Whenever we interact in groups there will be some measure of censor and pressure on
individual members to conform to the group's opinion. The various group decisionmaking techniques offer some methods for arriving at a solution. The techniques for
group decisionmaking include: brainstorming, the nominal group technique, the Delphi
technique, SWOT analysis and electronic meetings. Each technique has its own advantages and applications.
ACTIVITY
11.6
Study sections 11.8.1 and 11.8.5 in Bergh and Theron (2009) and then answer the following question,
which will take you about 10 minutes.
Evaluate each technique and indicate in what situation you would use it in your work context.
Decisionmaking
Situations
in
which
it
could
be
used
technique
Brainstorming
Nominal
IOP1501/1
group
technique
165
Study
unit
11
Decisionmaking
Situations
in
which
it
could
be
used
technique
Delphi
technique
SWOT
analysis
Electronic
meetings
FEEDBACK
Your examples will be relevant to your situation. The prescribed book should offer sufficient guidance.
11.7 FACILITATION OF LEARNING IN GROUPS

Facilitation may be defined as the creation of opportunities for growth and development
in groups, primarily by utilising the group's energy and resources. Facilitators require
certain personality traits
ACTIVITY
11.7
Evaluate yourself in terms of the personality traits of effective facilitators. Do you think that you meet
the criteria? What could you do to increase your skills?
FEEDBACK
Study section 11.9 in Bergh and Theron (2009) to give you a basis for formulating your answers.
11.8 ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE, SOCIALISATION AND

CHANGE
Organisational culture allows employees in the work setting to realise which behaviours
are acceptable and unacceptable and those behaviours that would be rewarded or
punished and how these behaviours able to guide us to make decisions or solve
166
Group
behaviour
and
other
social
processes
in
organisations
problems. Organisational socialisation brings about further understanding of how all

employees of an organisation share major values and this enables them to make sense of
the organisation's policies and procedures and lastly organisational change brings about
an understanding that work settings constantly change and organisations need to change
and adapt to these changes to prolong their survival in the competitive world of work.
ACTIVITY
11.8
Culture does not pop out of thin air, nor does it fade away. We need to understand the aspects that
influence the formation of a culture and what causes organisations to change.
Conduct an interview with an employee to inquire about his/her understanding of the:
.
.
.
.
.
culture of the organisation

the formation of this culture
how to establish an adaptive culture
the organisation's socialisation process
social change in the organisation
FEEDBACK
Study sections 11.10 to 11.12 (including the subsections) in Bergh and Theron (2009) to give you a basis
for formulating your questions for the interview.
11.9 SUMMARY AND REFLECTION

Knowledge of group behaviour can be applied to any group process in the work situation. It applies to working with teams and improving their performance to attain higher
productivity. A new concept in this field is ``self-directed work teams''. This refers to the
facilitation of learning within the group so that the group can move towards greater
maturity, self-management and productivity. Another applicable concept used in the
South African context is the Zulu word ubuntu, which literally means ``humanness''.
Ubuntu is a social and spiritual philosophy that serves as a framework for African
society. The practice of ubuntu is fundamentally inclusive, involving respect and concern
for all parties concerned (one's family, friends, colleagues, neighbours and the community
at large). Organisations' practising this philosophy take the time to listen to their worker
communities so as to be able to provide the necessary resources to support their
workers' various needs. Thus, armed with the necessary tools for understanding group
behaviour, industrial psychologists can enhance the performance of diverse groups and
improve the cohesion of the groups.
IOP1501/1
167
Study
unit
11
SELF-EVALUATION
To evaluate your learning experience in this study theme, do the assessment activities at the end of
chapter 11 in Bergh and Theron (2009). To give you even more learning opportunity, also answer the
following multiple-choice questions.
(1)
(2)
The purpose of boundary management in groups and organisations is to ...
(a)
emphasise authority and position.
(b)
reduce anxiety.
(c)
improve relationships.
(d)
create a feeling of ``we-ness''.
Why are norms important in a group?
(a)
They give the group an identity based on shared values.
(b)
They guide the behaviour of group members.
(c)
They increase the predictability of group members' behaviour.
(d)
They provide comfort by reducing potential embarrassing moments.
Questions
(3), (4), (5) and (6)
For each of the following statements, select a corresponding decisionmaking technique.
(3)
In order to conduct a thorough study of problems experienced by staff members, Company ABC
invited all of its employees to voice their opinions so that a few vocal group members do not
dominate the discussions.
(4)
During its skills audit Company EFG made use of this decisionmaking technique as a way of
obtaining the opinion of experts without necessarily bringing them together face to face.
(5)
The management of Company KLM believes that they would have a better chance at developing the
competitive advantage if they first identify the fit between the company's strength and upcoming
opportunities.
(6)
Company XYZ value the creativity of its employees. During discussions every idea is written down
and judgments about ideas are saved until later, when the group returns to all of the ideas and
selects those that are most useful.
(a)
(7)
Delphi technique
(b)
Brainstorming
(c)
SWOT analysis
(d)
Nominal technique
You have been appointed as the facilitator of a project team that is responsible for the
development of a new project. You have identified internal disagreement and conflict as major
obstacles to team performance. How would you handle the situation? Would you ...
(a)
teach group members how to deal with disagreement themselves and arrange a meeting where
it can be discussed?
168
Group
behaviour
and
other
social
processes
in
organisations
(b)
give group members a lecture on functional and dysfunctional conflict, and ways to resolve
(c)
assign clear roles to team members to reduce role ambiguity and role conflict?
(d)
identify the individuals who are responsible for the conflict and give them a ``fatherly'' talk when
conflict?
the other members are not present?
(8)
Organisational ... specifically is a process of obtaining knowledge with regards to values, norms and
expected behavioural patterns required by the job so that the employee can identify with the
organisation.
(a)
culture
(b)
socialisation
(c)
change
(d)
adaptiveness
The correct answers to the preceding questions are:
1 (d); 2 (b); 3 (d); 4 (a); 5 (c); 6 (b); 7 (a) and 8 (b).
IOP1501/1
169
APPENDIX
EVALUATE YOUR LEARNING EXPERIENCE

You should now be able to evaluate your learning experience of personality in the work
context as well as how you experienced our presentation of the study material. Please
complete the questionnaire below, cut or tear it out and return it to the address at the
bottom of the page. Because we, like you, are learning, we need your feedback!
Please indicate whether the learning material and the method of presentation were
useful by responding to each statement using the following scale: 1 = not at all; 2 = to a
slight extent; 3 = to a fair extent; and 4 = to a great extent.
Scale
point
The
learning
activities
study
material
was
able
think
am
behaviour
The
to
in
the
share
more
and
learning
certain
The
learning
The
various
sometimes
have
10
had
own
11
to
pace
had
to
some
or
experiences
own
to
my
and
has
helped
showed
work
and
with
easier
other
other
other
for
my
to
to
to
understand
the
people.
individuals'
and
groups'
it,
own
in
can
problemsolving
think
learn
such
and
use
to
create
work/studies.
more
more
individuals
skills,
myself
which
my
and
how
research
for
in
me
organising
responsibility
discovering
me
with
skills,
apply
decisionmaking
basic
evaluating
and
it
or
as
critically
learning,
to
groups
reading
for
and
creatively.
effectively.
presenting
order
skills.
it
in
to
information
learn.
critically,
logically.
instance
grasp
order
by
concepts
working
and
at
my
principles.
The learning experience has helped me to write more concisely, for instance when
making
170
methods
take
made
book.
my
improved
myself
experience
learnt
to
guide
practices.
for
analysing,
study
learning
sensitive
experience
learnt
the
prescribed
my
opportunities
have
in
summaries.
APPENDIX
Scale
12
point
The
learning
have
the
13
methods
experienced
influence
of
have
our
and
the
made
methods
me
various
more
and
applications
sensitive
to
other
of
the
people's
subject
that
behaviour
and
environments.
The learning experience has broadened my view of things, and I now realise that
we
can
and
14
understand
along
have
with
people
many
clearer
in
other
picture
of
various
ways
and
that
people
function
subject
to
influences.
I-O
psychology
as
an
occupational
field.
Comments
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
NOTE: Please complete the questionnaire and forward it to the:

Course Leader IOP1501, Department of Industrial and Organisational
Psychology, Unisa, PO Box 392, Unisa, 0003.
IOP1501/1
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ORIENTATION: THE IMPORTANCE OF MODULE

Understanding the dynamic open systems framework

The purpose of this module

The place of this module in your undergraduate studies

Framework/Content of the module

LAYOUT OF THE STUDY GUIDE

Your study material

Recommended learning process

Industrial and Organisational

Theoretical perspectives in psychology

(based on chapter 1 of Bergh and Theron,

Introduction and aim

Overview: schools of thought and their implications

Summary and reflection

Fields of study and practice

areas in industrial and

Fields of study and practice areas in industrial

and organisational psychology

Introduction and aim

Industrial and organisational psychology: an applied field of

The nature and identity of industrial and organisational

History and background

Professional training and practice issues

Future challenges for industrial and organisational psychology

Summary and reflection

The biological basis of behaviour

The biological basis of behaviour

(based on chapter 3 of Bergh and Theron, 2009)

Introduction and aim

The nervous system

The endocrine system

The muscular system

Summary and reflection

Human development across

Human development across the life span

Introduction and aim

Overview: the characteristics of human development

Domains and determinants of human development

Critical development periods

Career transitions and tasks

Future trends in people's career development

Summary and reflection

Introduction and aim

Overview: what is learning?

The learning process

The adult learner

Learning in the work context

Summary and reflection

(based on chapter 6 of Bergh and Theron,

Introduction and aim

Overview: basic concepts and different types of perception

Factors influencing perception

Summary and reflection

(based on chapter 7 of Bergh and Theron,

Introduction and aim

Overview: the concept of cognition

What is productive thinking?

Memory and forgetfulness

Intelligence, learning potential and emotional intelligence

Summary and reflection