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INTRODUCTION
Work on GIS began in late 1950s, but first GIS software came only in late
1970s from the lab of the ESRI. Canada was the pioneer in the development of GIS as
a result of innovations dating back to early 1960s. Much of the credit for the early
development of GIS goes to Roger Tomilson. Evolution of GIS has transformed and
revolutionized the ways in which planners, engineers, managers etc. conduct the
database management and analysis.
DEFINING GIS
A typical GIS can be understood by the help of various definitions given below:-
However there is another way to describe GIS by listing the type of questions the
technology can (or should be able to) answer. Location, Condition, Trends, patterns,
Modelling, Aspatial questions, Spatial questions. There are five type of questions that
a sophisticated GIS can answer:
Location What is at………….?
The first of these questions seeks to find out what exists at a particular location. A
location can be described in many ways, using, for example place name, post code, or
geographic reference such as longitude/latitude or x/y.
Aspatial Questions
"What's the average number of people working with GIS in each location?" is an
aspatial question - the answer to which does not require the stored value of latitude
and longitude; nor does it describe where the places are in relation with each other.
Spatial Questions
" How many people work with GIS in the major centres of Delhi" OR " Which centres
lie within 10 Kms. of each other? ", OR " What is the shortest route passing through
all these centres". These are spatial questions that can only be answered using latitude
and longitude data and other information such as the radius of earth. Geographic
Information Systems can answer such questions.
Need of GIS?
Many professionals, such as foresters, urban planners, and geologists, have
recognized the importance of spatial dimensions in organising & analysing
information. Whether a discipline is concerned with the very practical aspects of
business, or is concerned with purely academic research, geographic information
system can introduce a perspective, which can provide valuable insights as
For an experienced analyst, GIS is an extension one's own analytical thinking. The
system has no in-built solutions for any spatial problems; it depends upon the analyst.
Spatial Analysis
Database
Software
Hardware
Before the GIS implementation is considered the objectives, both immediate and long
term, have to be considered. Since the effectiveness and efficiency (i.e. benefit against
cost) of the GIS will depend largely on the quality of initial field data captured,
organizational design has to be decided upon to maintain this data continuously. This
initial data capture is most important.
Advantages of GIS
The Geographic Information System has been an effective tool for implementation
and monitoring of municipal infrastructure. The use of GIS has been in vogue
primarily due to the advantage mentioned below:
Planning of project
Make better decisions
Visual Analysis
Improve Organizational Integration
Planning Of Project
Advantage of GIS is often found in detailed planning of project having a large spatial
component, where analysis of the problem is a pre requisite at the start of the project.
Thematic maps generation is possible on one or more than one base maps, example:
the generation of a land use map on the basis of a soil composition, vegetation and
topography. The unique combination of certain features facilitates the creation of such
thematic maps. With the various modules within GIS it is possible to calculate
surface, length, width and distance.
Making Decisions
The adage "better information leads to better decisions" is as true for GIS as it is for
other information systems. A GIS, however, is not an automated decision making
system but a tool to query, analyze, and map data in support of the decision making
process. GIS technology has been used to assist in tasks such as presenting
information at planning inquiries, helping resolve territorial disputes, and siting
pylons in such a way as to minimize visual intrusion.
Visual Analysis
Digital Terrain Modeling (DTM) is an important utility of GIS. Using DTM/3D
modeling, landscape can be better visualized, leading to a better understanding of
certain relations in the landscape. Many relevant calculations, such as (potential) lakes
and water volumes, soil erosion volume (Example: landslides), quantities of earth to
be moved (channels, dams, roads, embankments, land leveling) and hydrological
modeling becomes easier.
Not only in the previously mentioned fields but also in the social sciences GIS can
prove extremely useful. Besides the process of formulating scenarios for an
Environmental Impact Assessment, GIS can be a valuable tool for sociologists to
analyze administrative data such as population distribution, market localization and
other related features.
Improving Organizational Integration
Many organizations that have implemented a GIS have found that one of its main
benefits is improved management of their own organization and resources. Because
GIS has the ability to link data sets together by geography, it facilitates
interdepartmental information sharing and communication. By creating a shared
database one department can benefit from the work of another--data can be collected
once and used many times.
Components of GIS
GIS constitutes of five key components:
Hardware
Software
Data
People
Method
Hardware
It consists of the computer system on which the GIS software will run. The choice of
hardware system range from 300MHz Personal Computers to Super Computers
having capability in Tera FLOPS. The computer forms the backbone of the GIS
hardware, which gets it's input through the Scanner or a digitizer board. Scanner
converts a picture into a digital image for further processing. The output of scanner
can be stored in many formats e.g. TIFF, BMP, JPG etc. A digitizer board is flat
board used for vectorisation of a given map objects. Printers and plotters are the most
common output devices for a GIS hardware setup.
Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display
geographic information. GIS softwares in use are MapInfo, ARC/Info, AutoCAD
Map, etc. The software available can be said to be application specific. When the low
cost GIS work is to be carried out desktop MapInfo is the suitable option. It is easy to
use and supports many GIS feature. If the user intends to carry out extensive analysis
on GIS, ARC/Info is the preferred option. For the people using AutoCAD and willing
to step into GIS, AutoCAD Map is a good option.
Data
Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in-house or purchased from
a commercial data provider. The digital map forms the basic data input for GIS.
Tabular data related to the map objects can also be attached to the digital data. A GIS
will integrate spatial data with other data resources and can even use a DBMS, used
by most organization to maintain their data, to manage spatial data.
People
GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain the system to
those who use it to help them perform their everyday work. The people who useGIS
can be broadly classified into two classes. The CAD/GIS operator, whose work is to
vectorise the map objects. The use of this vectorised data to perform query, analysis
or any other work is the responsibility of a GIS engineer/user.
Method
And above all a successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and
business rules, which are the models and operating practices unique to each
organization. There are various techniques used for map creation and further usage for
any project. The map creation can either be automated raster to vector creator or it can
be manually vectorised using the scanned images. The source of these digital maps
can be either map prepared by any survey agency or satellite imagery.
GIS Applications
Computerized mapping and spatial analysis have been developed simultaneously in
several related fields. The present status would not have been achieved without close
interaction between various fields such as utility networks, cadastral mapping,
topographic mapping, thematic cartography, surveying and photogrammetery remote
sensing, image processing, computer science, rural and urban planning, earth science,
and geography.
The GIS technology is rapidly becoming a standard tool for management of natural
resources. The effective use of large spatial data volumes is dependent upon the
existence of an efficient geographic handling and processing system to transform this
data into usable information.
Application of GIS
GIS in agriculture
GIS is used in a variety of agricultural applications such as managing crop
yields, monitoring crop rotation techniques, and projecting soil loss for
individual farms or entire agricultural regions.
GIS in business
A GIS is a tool for managing business information of any kind according to
where it's located. You can keep track of where customers are, site businesses,
target marketing campaigns, optimize sales territories, and model retail
spending patterns. A GIS gives you that extra advantage to make you and your
company more competitive and successful.
A GIS enables you to better understand and evaluate your data by creating graphic
displays using information stored in your database. With a GIS, you can change the
display of your geographic data by changing the symbols, colors, or values in the
database tables.
GIS in forestry
Today, managing forests is becoming a more complex and demanding challenge.
With GIS, foresters can easily see the forest as an ecosystem and manage it
responsibly.
GIS in geology
Geologists use GIS every day in a wide variety of applications. You too can use
GIS to study geologic features, analyze soils and strata, assess seismic
information, or create 3-dimensional displays of geographic features.
GIS in hydrology
You can use GIS to study drainage systems, assess groundwater, and visualize
watersheds, and in many other hydrologic applications.
GIS in mapping
Mapping is an essential function of a GIS. People in a variety of professions are
using GIS to help others understand geographic data. You don't have to be a
skilled cartographer to make maps with a GIS.
GIS in transportation
GIS can be used to help you manage transportation infrastructure or help you
manage your logistical problems. Whether monitoring rail systems and road
conditions or finding the best way to deliver your goods or services, GIS can help
you.
Fundamentals of GIS
Mapping Concepts, Features & Properties
A map represents geographic features or other spatial phenomena by graphically
conveying information about locations and attributes. Locational information
describes the position of particular geographic features on the Earth's surface, as well
as the spatial relationship between features, such as the shortest path from a fire
station to a library, the proximity of competing businesses, and so on. Attribute
information describes characteristics of the geographic features represented, such as
the feature type, its name or number and quantitative information such as its area or
length.
Map Features
Locational information is usually represented by points for features such as wells and
telephone pole locations, lines for features such as streams, pipelines and contour
lines and areas for features such as lakes, counties and census tracts.
Point feature
A point feature represents as single location. It defines a map object too small to show
as a line or area feature. A special symbol of label usually depicts a point location.
Line feature
A line feature is a set of connected, ordered coordinates representing the linear shape
of a map object that may be too narrow to display as an area such as a road or feature
with no width such as a contour line.
Area feature
An area feature is a closed figure whose boundary encloses a homogeneous area, such
as a state country soil type or lake.
Map Characteristics
In addition to feature locations and their attributes, the other technical characteristics
that define maps and their use includes:
Map Scale
Map Accuracy
Map Extent and
Data Base Extent
Scale
To show a portion of the Earth's surface on a map, the scale must be sufficiently
adjusted to cover the objective. Map scale or the extent of reduction is expressed as a
ratio. The unit on the left indicates distance on the map and the number on the right
indicates distance on the ground. The following three statements show the same scale.
Map scale indicates how much the given area has been reduced. For the same size
map, features on a small-scale map (1:1,000,0000) will be smaller than those on a
large-scale map (1:1,200).
A map with less detail is said to be of a smaller scale than one with more detail.
Cartographers often divide scales into three different categories.
Small-scale maps have scales smaller than 1 : 1,000,000 and are used for maps of
wide areas where not much detail is required.
Large-scale maps have scales larger than 1 : 75,000. They are used in applications
where detailed map features are required.
So each scale represents a different tradeoff. With a small-scale map, you'll be able to
show a large area without much detail. On a large-scale map, you'll be able to show a
lot of detail but not for a large area. The small-scale map can show a large area
because it reduces the area so much that the large-scale map can only show a portion
of one street, but in such detail that you can see shapes of the houses.
To convert this statement to a representative fraction, the units of measure on both the
sides being compared must be the same. For this example, both measurements will be
in meters.
To do this:
Then, you can now state the scale as a representative fraction (RF): 0.04:10,000
0.04 / 0.04 = 1 units on the map = 10,000 / 0.04 units on the ground
In digital mapping, the term scale is used to indicate the scale of the materials from
which the map was made. For example, if a digital map is said to have a scale of
1:100,000, it was made from a 1:100,000-scale paper map.
However, a digital map's scale still allows you to make some educated guesses about
its contents because, generally, digital maps retain the same accuracy and
characteristics as their source maps. So it is still true that a large-scale digital map will
usually be more accurate and less general than a small-scale digital map.
Because the display size of a computer-based map is not fixed, users are often
tempted to blow up maps to very large sizes. For example, a 1:100,000-scale map can
easily be plotted at a size of 1:24,000 or even 1:2,000-but it usually is not a good idea
to do so. It encourages the user to make measurements that the underlying data does
not support. You cannot measure positions to the nearest foot if your map is only
accurate to the nearest mile. You will end up looking for information that does not
exist.
Map Resolution
Map resolution refers to how accurately the location and shape of map features can be
depicted for a given map scale. Scale affects resolution. In a larger-scale map, the
resolution of features more closely matches real-world features because the extent of
reduction from ground to map is less. As map scale decrease, the map resolution
diminishes because features must be smoothed and simplified, or not shown at all.
Map Accuracy
Many factors besides resolution, influence how accurately features can be depicted,
including the quality of source data, the map scale, your drafting skill and the width of
lines drawn on the ground. A fine drafting pen will draw line's 1/100 of an inch wide.
Such a line represents a corridor on the ground, which is almost 53 feet wide.
In addition to this, human drafting errors will occur and can be compounded by the
quality of your source maps and materials. A map accurate for one purpose is often
inaccurate for others since accuracy is determined by the needs of the project as much
as it is by the map itself.
The most important issue to remember about map accuracy is that the more accurate
the map, the more it costs in time and money to develop. For example, digital maps
with coordinate accuracy of about 100 feet can be purchased inexpensively. If 1-foot
accuracy is required, a custom survey is often the only way to get it, which drives up
data-acquisition costs by many orders of magnitude and can significantly delay
project implementation - by months or even years.
Therefore, too much accuracy can be as detrimental to the success of a GIS project as
too little. Rather than focusing on the project's benefits, a sponsoring organization
may focus on the costs that result from a level of accuracy not justified for the project.
Project support inevitably erodes when its original objectives are forgotten in a flurry
of cost analyses.
A far better strategy is to start the project with whatever data is readily available and
sufficient to support initial objectives. Once the GIS is up and running, producing
useful results, project scope can be expanded. The quality of its data can be improved
as required.
Even though no maps are entirely accurate, they are still useful for decision-making
and analysis. How ever, it is important to consider map accuracy to ensure that your
data is not used inappropriately.
Any number of factors can cause error. Note these sources can have at cumulative
effect.
f = flattening the round Earth onto a two - dimensional surface (transformation from
spherical to planar geometry)
I = accurately measuring location on Earth (correct project and datum information)
c = cartographic interpretation (correct interpretation of features)
d = drafting error (accuracy in tracing of features and width of drafting pen)
a = analog to digital conversion (digitizing board calibration)
m = media stability (warping and stretching, folding. Wrinkling of map)
p = digitizing processor error (accuracy of cursor placement)
rms = Root Mean Square (registration accuracy of ties)
mp = machine precision (coordinate rounding by computer in storing and
transforming)
u = additional unexplained source error
Map Extent
The aerial extent of map is the area on the Earth's surface represented on the map. It is
the limit of the area covered, usually defined by rectangle just large enough to include
all mapped features. The size of the study area depends on the map scale. The smaller
the scale the larger the area covered.
Database Extent
A critical first step in building a geographic database is defining its extent. The aerial
extent of a database is the limit of the area of interest for your GIS project. This
usually includes the areas directly affected by your organization's responsibility (such
as assigned administrative units) as well as surrounding areas that either influence or
are influenced by relevant activities in the administrative area.
Data Automation
Map features are logically organized into a set of layers or themes of information. A
base map can be organized into layers such as streams, soils, wells or boundaries.
Map data, regardless of how a spatial database will be applied, is collected, automated
and updated as series of adjacent map sheets or aerial photograph. Here each sheet is
mounted on the digitizer and digitized, one sheet at a time. In order to be able to
combine these smaller sheets into larger units or study areas, the co-ordinates of
coverage must be transformed into a single common co-ordinate system. Once in a
common co-ordinate system, attributes are associated with features. Then as needed
map sheets for layer are edge matched and joined into a single coverage for your
study area.
Geographic Information
The geographic information in a digital map provides the position and shape of each
map feature. For example, a road map's geographic information is the location of each
road on the map.
Some systems also support more complex entities, such as regions, circles, ellipses,
arcs, and curves.
Attribute Information
Attribute data describes specific map features but is not inherently graphic. For
example, an attribute associated with a road might be its name or the date it was last
paved. Attributes are often stored in database files kept separately from the graphic
portion of the map. Attributes pertain only to vector maps; they are seldom associated
with raster images.
GIS software packages maintain internal links tying each graphical map entity to its
attribute information. The nature of these links varies widely across systems. In some,
the link is implicit, and the user has no control over it. Other systems have explicit
links that the user can modify. Links in these systems take the form of database keys.
Each map feature has a key value stored with it; the key identifies the specific
database record that contains the feature's attribute information.
Display Information
The display information in a digital-map data set describes how the map is to be
displayed or plotted. Common display information includes feature colours, line
widths and line types (solid, dashed, dotted, single, or double); how the names of
roads and other features are shown on the map; and whether or not lakes, parks, or
other area features are colour coded.
However, many users do not consider the quality of display information when they
evaluate a data set. Yet map display strongly affects the information you and your
audience can obtain from the map - no matter how simple or complex the project. A
technically flawless, but unattractive or hard-to-read map will not achieve the goal of
conveying information easily to the user.
Cartographic Appeal
Clearly, how a map looks - especially if it is being used in a presentation - determines
its effectiveness. Appropriate color choices, linetypes, and so on add the professional
look you want and make the map easier to interpret. Since display information often is
not included in the source data set or is filtered out by conversion software, you may
need to add it yourself or purchase the map from a vendor who does it for you. Map
display information should convey the meaning of its underlying attribute data.
Layering
Most GIS software has a system of layers, which can be used to divide a large map
into manageable pieces. For example, all roads could be on one layer and all
hydrographic features on another. Major layers can be further classified into sub-
layers, such as different types of roads - highways, city streets, and so on. Layer
names are particularly important in CAD-based mapping and GIS programs, which
have excellent tools for handling them.
Some digital maps are layered according to the numeric feature-classification codes
found in their source data sets. For example, a major road might be on the 170-201
layer. However, this type of system is not very useful. A well-thought-out layering
scheme can make any data set much easier to use because it allows the user to control
the features with which you want to work. A good layering standard has layer names
that are mnemonic (suggest their meanings) and hierarchical (have a structured
classification scheme that makes it easy to choose general or specific classes).
For example, a map could have its roads on a layer called RD, its railroads on a layer
called RR, its road bridges on a layer called RD-BRIDGE, and its railroad bridges on
a layer called RR-BRIDGE. This scheme is mnemonic because it is easy to tell a
layer's contents from its name, and it's hierarchical because the user can easily select
all the roads, railroads, bridges, road bridges, or railroad bridges.
Automated Mapping
Computer Aided Mapping has its limitations. Goal of GIS is not only to prepare a
good map but also perform map analysis. Maps are the main source of data for GIS.
GIS, though an accurate mapping tool, requires error management.
1. Topographical maps
2. Thematic maps
Topographical Maps
It is a reference map showing the outline of selected man-made and natural features of
the earth. It often acts as a frame for other features Topography refers to the shape of
surface represented by contours or shading. It also shows lands, railway and other
prominent features.
Thematic maps
Thematic maps are an important source of GIS information. These are tools to
communicate geographical concepts such as Density of population, Climate,
movement of goods and people, land use etc. It has many classifications.
Attribute Data
The attributes refer to the properties of spatial entities. They are often referred to as
non-spatial data since they do not in themselves represent location information.
Spatial data
Geographic position refers to the fact that each feature has a location that must be
specified in a unique way. To specify the position in an absolute way a coordinate
system is used. For small areas, the simplest coordinate system is the regular square
grid. For larger areas, certain approved cartographic projections are commonly used.
Internationally there are many different coordinate systems in use.
Geographic object can be shown by FOUR type of representation viz., points, lines,
areas, and continuous surfaces.
Point Data
Points are the simplest type of spatial data. They are-zero dimensional objects with
only a position in space but no length.
Line Data
Lines (also termed segments or arcs) are one-dimensional spatial objects. Besides
having a position in space, they also have a length.
Area Data
Areas (also termed polygons) are two-dimensional spatial objects with not only a
position in space and a length but also a width (in other words they have an area).
Continuous Surface
Continuous surfaces are three-dimensional spatial objects with not only a position in
space, a length and a width, but also a depth or height (in other words they have a
volume). These spatial objects have not been discussed further because most GIS do
not include real volumetric spatial data.
A 4038 A 30,500
B 7030 B 22,000
C 10777 C 100,000
D 5798 D 24,000
E 5606 E 24,000
Name Population Avg. Housing Cost
A 4038 30,500
B 7030 22,000
C 10777 100,100
D 5798 24,000
E 5606 24,000
Hierarchical Matching
Some types of information, however, are collected in more detail and less frequently
than other types of information. For example, financial and unemployment data
covering a large area are collected quite frequently. On the other hand, population
data are collected in small areas but at less frequent intervals. If the smaller areas nest
(i.e., fit exactly) within the larger ones, then the way to make the data match of the
same area is to use hierarchical matching -- add the data for the small areas together
until the grouped areas match the bigger ones and then match them exactly.
The hierarchical structure illustrated in the chart shows that this city is composed of
several tracts. To obtain meaningful values for the city, the tract values must be added
together.
101 P 60,000
102 Q 45,000
103 R 35,000
104 S 36,000
105 T 57,000
Fuzzy Matching
On many occasions, the boundaries of the smaller areas do not match those of the
larger ones. This occurs often while dealing with environmental data. For example,
crop boundaries, usually defined by field edges, rarely match the boundaries between
the soil types. If you want to determine the most productive soil for a particular crop,
you need to overlay the two sets and compute crop productivity for each and every
soil type. In principle, this is like laying one map over another and noting the
combinations of soil and productivity.
A GIS can carry out all these operations because it uses geography, as a common key
between the data sets. Information is linked only if it relates to the same geographical
area.
Why is data linkage so important? Consider a situation where you have two data sets
for a given area, such as yearly income by county and average cost of housing for the
same area. Each data might be analysed and/or mapped individually. Alternatively,
they may be combined. With two data sets, only one valid combination exists. Even if
your data sets may be meaningful for a single query you will still be able to answer
many more questions than if the data sets were kept separate. By bringing them
together, you add value to the database. To do this, you need GIS.
Figure 2
Geographic Analysis
Data integration and conversion are only a part of the input phase of GIS. What is
required next is the ability to interpret and to analyze the collected information
quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, satellite image can assist an agricultural
scientist to project crop yield per hectare for a particular region. For the same region,
the scientist also has the rainfall data for the past six months collected through
weather station observations. The scientists also have a map of the soils for the region
which shows fertility and suitability for agriculture. These point data can be
interpolated and what you get is a thematic map showing isohyets or contour lines of
rainfall.
Presenting Results
One of the most exciting aspects of GIS technology is the variety of different ways in
which the information can be presented once it has been processed by GIS.
Traditional methods of tabulating and graphing data can be supplemented by maps
and three dimensional images. Visual communication is one of the most fascinating
aspects of GIS technology and is available in a diverse range of output options.
Manual Digitization
Manual Digitizing still is the most common method for entering maps into GIS. The
map to be digitized is affixed to a digitizing table, and a pointing device (called the
digitizing cursor or mouse) is used to trace the features of the map. These features can
be boundary lines between mapping units, other linear features (rivers, roads, etc.) or
point features (sampling points, rainfall stations, etc.) The digitizing table
electronically encodes the position of the cursor with the precision of a fraction of a
millimeter. The most common digitizing table uses a fine grid of wires, embedded in
the table. The vertical wires will record the Y-coordinates, and the horizontal ones,
the X-coordinates.
The range of digitized coordinates depends upon the density of the wires (called
digitizing resolution) and the settings of the digitizing software. A digitizing table is
normally a rectangular area in the middle, separated from the outer boundary of the
table by a small rim. Outside of this so-called active area of the digitizing table, no
coordinates are recorded. The lower left corner of the active area will have the
coordinates x = 0 and y = 0. Therefore, make sure that the (part of the) map that you
want to digitize is always fixed within the active area.
Scanning System
The second method of obtaining vector data is with the use of scanners. Scanning (or
scan digitizing) provides a quicker means of data entry than manual digitizing. In
scanning, a digital image of the map is produced by moving an electronic detector
across the map surface. The output of a scanner is a digital raster image, consisting of
a large number of individual cells ordered in rows and columns. For the Conversion to
vector format, two types of raster image can be used.
In the case of Chloropleth maps or thematic maps, such as geological maps, the
individual mapping units can be separated by the scanner according to their different
colours or grey tones. The resulting images will be in colours or grey tone images.
In the case of scanned line maps, such as topographic maps, the result is a black-
and-white image. Black lines are converted to a value of 1, and the white areas in
between lines will obtain a value of 0 in the scanned image. These images, with only
two possibilities (1 or 0) are also called binary images.
The raster image is processed by a computer to improve the image quality and is then
edited and checked by an operator. It is then converted into vector format by special
computer programmes, which are different for colour/grey tone images and binary
images.
Scanning works best with maps that are very clean, simple, relate to one feature only,
and do not contain extraneous information, such as text or graphic symbols. For
example, a contour map should only contain the contour line, without height
indication, drainage network, or infrastructure. In most cases, such maps will not be
available, and should be drawn especially for the purpose of scanning. Scanning and
conversion to vector is therefore, only beneficial in large organizations, where a large
number of complex maps are entered. In most cases, however, manual digitizing will
be the only useful method for entering spatial data in vector format.
Figure 3
Data Conversion
While manipulating and analyzing data, the same format should be used for all data.
This Scanning System implies that, when different layers are to be used
simultaneously, they should all be in vector or all in raster format. Usually the
conversion is from vector to raster, because the biggest part of the analysis is done in
the raster domain. Vector data are transformed to raster data by overlaying a grid with
a user-defined cell size.
Sometimes the data in the raster format are converted into vector format. This is the
case especially if one wants to achieve data reduction because the data storage needed
for raster data is much larger than for vector data.
A digital data file with spatial and attribute data might already exist in some way or
another. There might be a national database or specific databases from ministries,
projects, or companies. In some cases a conversion is necessary before these data can
be downloaded into the desired database.
The commonly used attribute databases are dBase and Oracle. Sometimes spreadsheet
programmes like Lotus, Quattro, or Excel are used, although these cannot be regarded
as real database softwares.
With this approach users can combine simple feature sets representing complex
relationships in the real world. This approach borrows heavily on the concepts of
relational DBMS, and it is typically closely integrated with such systems. This is
fundamental to database organization in GIS.
Centralized control over the database is possible, allowing for better quality
management and operator-defined access to parts of the database;
The access to the data is much easier, due to the use of a user-interface and the user-
views (especially designed formula for entering and consulting the database);
Data redundancy (storage of the same data in more than one place in the database) can
be avoided as much as possible; redundancy or unnecessary duplication of data are an
annoyance, since this makes updating the database much more difficult; one can
easily overlook changing redundant information whenever it occurs; and
The disadvantages relate to the higher cost of purchasing the software, the increased
complexity of management, and the higher risk, as data are centrally managed.
The world of GIS data is complex, by choosing the right data set, you can save
significant amounts of money and, even more importantly, quickly begin your GIS
project.
When most people begin a GIS project, their immediate concern is with purchasing
computer hardware and software. They enter into lengthy discussions with vendors
about the merits of various components and carefully budget for acquisitions. Yet
they often give little thought to the core of the system, the data that goes inside it.
They fail to recognize that the choice of an initial data set has a tremendous influence
on the ultimate success of their GIS project.
Data, the core of any GIS project, must be accurate - but accuracy is not enough.
Having the appropriate level of accuracy is vital. Since an increase in data accuracy
increases acquisition and maintenance costs, data that is too detailed for your needs
can hurt a project just as surely as inaccurate data can. All any GIS project needs is
data accurate enough to accomplish its objectives and no more. For example, you
would not purchase an engineering workstation to run a simple word-processing
application. Similarly, you would not need third-order survey accuracy for a GIS-
based population study whose smallest unit of measurement is a county. Purchasing
such data would be too costly and inappropriate for the project at hand. Even more
critically, collecting overly complex data could be so time-consuming that the GIS
project might lose support within the organization.
Even so, many people argue that, since GIS data can far outlast the hardware and
software on which it runs, no expense should be spared in its creation. Perfection,
however, is relative. Projects and data requirements evolve. Rather than overinvest in
data, invest reasonably in a well-documented, well-understood data foundation that
meets today's needs and provides a path for future enhancements. This approach is a
key to successful GIS project implementation.
*Italicized words can be found in the Glossary at the end of this document except for
words used for emphasis or words italicized for reasons of copyediting convention or
layout.
If you just need a map as a backdrop for other information, your data requirements are
simple. You are building a map for your specific project, and you are primarily
interested in displaying the necessary information, not in the map itself. You do not
need highly accurate measurements of distances or areas or to combine maps from
different sources. Nor do you want to edit or add to the map's basic geographic
information.
An example of simple data requirements is a map for a newspaper story that shows
the location of a fire. Good presentation is important; absolute accuracy is not.
If you have simple data needs, read this paper to get the overall picture of what GIS
data is and how it fits into your project. A project with simple data requirements can
be started with inexpensive maps. Your primary interests will be quality graphic-
display characteristics and finding maps that are easy to use with your software. You
need not be as concerned with technical mapping issues. However, basic knowledge
of concepts such as coordinate systems, absolute accuracy, and file formats will help
you understand your choices and help you make informed decisions when it's time to
add to your system.
If your data requirements are complex, you ought to pay particular attention to the
sections of this paper that discuss data accuracy, coordinate systems, layering, file
formats, and the issues involved in combining data from different sources.
Also keep in mind that projects evolve, and simple data needs expand into complex
ones as your project moves beyond its original objectives. If you understand the
basics of your data set, you will make better decisions as your project grows.
Figure 4
Raster data represents a graphic object as a pattern of dots, whereas vector data
represents the object as a set of lines drawn between specific points. Consider a line
drawn diagonally on a piece of paper. A raster file would represent this image by
subdividing the paper into a matrix of small rectangles-similar to a sheet of graph
paper-called cells (figure 1). Each cell is assigned a position in the data file and given
a value based on the color at that position. White cells could be given the value 0;
black cells, the value 1; grays would fall in-between. This data representation allows
the user to easily reconstruct or visualize the original image.
Figure 5
A vector representation of the same diagonal line would record the position of the line
by simply recording the coordinates of its starting and ending points. Each point
would be expressed as two or three numbers (depending on whether the representation
was 2D or 3D, often referred to as X,Y or X,Y,Z coordinates (figure 2). The first
number, X, is the distance between the point and the left side of the paper; Y, the
distance between the point and the bottom of the paper; Z, the point's elevation above
or below the paper. The vector is formed by joining the measured points.
Some basic properties of raster and vector data are outlined below.
Figure 6
Raster files are often larger than vector files. The raster representation of the
line in the example above required a data value for each cell on the page, whereas the
vector representation only required the positions of two points.
The size of the cells in a raster file is an important factor. Smaller cells improve image
quality because they increase detail. As cell size increases, image definition decreases
or blurs. In the example, the position of the line's edge is defined most clearly if the
cells are very small. However, there is a trade-off: Dividing the cell size in half
increases file size by a factor of four.
Cell size in a raster file is referred to as resolution. For a given resolution value, the
raster cost does not increase with image complexity. That is, any scanner can quickly
make a raster file. It takes no more effort to scan a map of a dense urban area than to
scan a sparse rural one. On the other hand, a vector file requires careful measuring
and recording of each point, so an urban map will be much more time-consuming to
draw than a rural map. The process of making vector maps is not easily automated,
and cost increases with map complexity.
Because raster data is often more repetitive and predictable, it can be compressed
more easily than vector data. Many raster formats, such as TIFF, have compression
options that drastically reduce image sizes, depending upon image complexity and
variability.
Almost every GIS has its own internal file format. These formats are designed for
optimal use inside the software and are often proprietary. They are not designed for
use outside their native systems. Most systems also support transfer file formats.
Transfer formats are designed to bring data in and out of the GIS software, so they are
usually standardized and well documented.
If your data needs are simple, your main concern will be with the internal format that
your GIS software supports. If you have complex data needs, you will want to learn
about a wider range of transfer formats, especially if you want to mix data from
different sources. Transfer formats will be required to import some data sets into your
software.
Vector Formats
Many GIS applications are based on vector technology, so vector formats are the most
common. They are also the most complex because there are many ways to store
coordinates, attributes, attribute linkages, database structures, and display
information. Some of the most common formats are briefly described below
Common Vector File Formats
Software Internal or
Format Name Developer Comments
Platform Transfer
United States
Digital Line graphs Used to publish
Many Transfer Geological Survey
(DLG) USGS digital maps.
(USGS)
Hewlett-Packard
Used to control HP
Graphic Language Many Internal Hewlett-Packard
plotters.
(HPGL)
MicroStation Design
MicroStation* Internal Bentley Systems, Inc.
Files (DGN)
New US standard
Spatial Data Transfer Many (in the
Transfer US Government for vector and raster
System (SDTS) future)
geographic data.
Topologically Integrated
Used to publish US
Geographic Encoding
Many Transfer US Census Bureau Census Bureau
and Referencing
maps.
(TIGER)
Software Internal or
Format Name Developer Comments
Platform Transfer
Arc Digitized Military
US Defense
Raster Graphics mapping Both
Mapping Agency
(ADRG) systems
Band Interleaved Common remote-
Man Both
by Line (BIL) sensing standard.
Band Interleaved Common remote-
Many Both
by Pixel (BIP) sensing standard.
Band Sequential Common remote-
Many Both
(BSQ) sensing standard.
Digital Elevation United States
USGS standard format digital
Model for Many Transfer Geological Survey
terrain models.
(DEM) (USGS)
PC Paintbrush
PC Paintbrush Both Zsoft Widely used raster format.
Exchange (PCX)
New US standard for both raster
Spatial Data
Many (in the US Federal and vector geographic data;
Transfer Transfer
future) Government raster version still under
Standard (SDTS)
development.
Tagged Image
File Format PageMaker Both Aldus Widely used raster format.
(TIFF)
An Example of Raster and Vector Integration
The organization of database into map layers is not simply for reasons of
organizational clarity, rather it is to provide rapid access to data elements required for
geographic analysis. The objective of geographic analysis is to transform data into
useful information to satisfy the requirements or objectives of decision-makers at all
levels in terms of detail. An important use of the analysis is the possibility of
predicting events in the another location or at another point in time.
ANALYSIS - How?
Before commencing geographic analysis, one needs to assess the problem and
establish an objective. The analysis requires step-by-step procedures to arrive at the
conclusions.
The range of geographical analysis procedures can be subdivided into the following
categories.
Database Query.
Overlay.
Proximity analysis.
Network analysis.
Digital Terrain Model.
Statistical and Tabular Analysis.
Spatial Analysis
It helps us to:
Geographic Analysis
Analysis of problems with some Geographic Aspects.
Nearest Neighbour.
Network distances.
Planar distances.
Plenty of data.
Spatial relationships are important but difficult to measure.
Inherent uncertainty due to scale.
any data sources.
Difficult to make data sources compatible.
Difficult mathematics.
Quantity vs. Quality Questions.
Multiple objectives.
GIS can address some (but not all) of these difficulties.
Network Analysis
Network models are based on interconnecting logical components, of which the most
important are:
This network can be analyzed using GIS.A simple and most apparent network
analysis applications are:
The other obvious applications would be service centre locations based on travel
distance.
Basic forms of network analysis simply extract information from a network. More
complex analysis, process information in the network model to derive new
information. One example of this is the classic shortest-path between two points. The
vector mode is more suited to network analysis than the raster model.
A Road Network
Image
Database Query
The selective display and retrieval of information from a database are among the
fundamental requirements of GIS. The ability to selectively retrieve information from
GIS is an important facility. Database query simply asks to see already stored
information. Basically there are two types of query most general GIS allow: viz.,
Query by attribute,
Query by geometry.
Map features can be retrieved on the basis of attributes, For example, show all the
urban areas having the population density greater than 1,000 per square kilometer,
Many GIS include a sophisticated function of RDBMS known as Standard Query
Language (SQL), to search a GIS database. The attribute database, in general, is
stored in a table (relational database mode.) with a unique code linked to the
geometric data. This database can be searched with specific characteristics. However,
more complex queries can be made with the help of SQL.
GIS can carry out a number of geometric queries. The simplest application, for
example, is to show the attributes of displayed objects by identifying them with a
graphical cursor. There are five forms of primitive geometric query: viz.,
Query by point,
Query by rectangle,
Query by circle,
Query by line,
Query by polygon,
A more complex query still is one that uses both geometric and attributes search
criteria together. Many GIS force the separation of the two different types of query.
However, some GIS, using databases to store both geometric and attribute data, allow
true hybrid spatial queries.
Overlay Operations
The hallmark of GIS is overlay operations. Using these operations, new spatial
elements are created by the overlaying of maps.
There are basically two different types of overlay operations depending upon data
structures:
Raster overlay It is a relatively straightforward operation and often many data sets
can be combined and displayed at once.
Vector overlay The vector overlay, however is far more difficult and complex and
involves more processing.
Logical Operators
The concept of map logic can be applied during overlay. The logical operators are
Boolean functions. There are basically four types of Boolean Operators: viz., OR,
AND, NOT, and XOR.
Conditional operators were already used in the examples given above. The all
evaluate whether a certain condition has been met.
= eq 'equal' operator
<> ne 'non-equal' operator
< lt 'less than' operator
<= le 'less than or equal' operator
> gt 'greater than' operator
>= ge 'greater than or equal' operator
Many systems now can handle both vector and raster data. The vector maps can be
easily draped on to the raster maps.
Raster Overlay
Raster Overlay
Buffer Operation
Using these operations, the characteristics of an area surrounding in a specified
location are evaluated. This kind of analysis is called proximity analysis and is used
whenever analysis is required to identify surrounding geographic features. The buffer
operation will generate polygon feature types irrespective of geographic features and
delineates spatial proximity. For example, what are the effects on urban areas if the
Conditional operators were already used in the examples given above. The all
evaluate whether a certain condition has been met.
= eq 'equal' operator
<> ne 'non-equal' operator
< lt 'less than' operator
<= le 'less than or equal' operator
> gt 'greater than' operator
>= ge 'greater than or equal' operator
Many systems now can handle both vector and raster data. The vector maps can be
easily draped on to the raster maps.
Raster Overlay
Raster Overlay
Buffer Operation
Using these operations, the characteristics of an area surrounding in a specified
location are evaluated. This kind of analysis is called proximity analysis and is used
whenever analysis is required to identify surrounding geographic features. The buffer
operation will generate polygon feature types irrespective of geographic features and
delineates spatial proximity. For example, what are the effects on urban areas if the
road is expanded by a hundred meters to delineate a five-kilometer buffer zone around
the national park to protect it from grazing.
Using Buffer
Using Buffer
as an isoline map,
as an isometric model.
Isolines join points of equal value on a surface. The shading defines bands, including
all heights, between the isolines.
Isometric models can be shown in three-dimensional models. These models show the
terrain in perspective so that the apparent height is proportional to the value of the
point. Visualisation techniques are used to project the model from the given eyepoint.
Spatial Analysis - a Process
Maps are flat, but the surfaces they represent are curved. Transforming, three-
dimensional space onto a two dimensional map is called "projection". This process
inevitably distorts at least one of the following properties:
Shape,
Area,
Distance,
Direction, and often more.
It is known that a globe is a true representation of the earth, which is divided into
various sectors by the lines of latitudes and longitudes. This network is called
'graticule'. A map projection denotes the preparation of the graticule on a flat surface.
Classification
Potentially there exits an unlimited number of map projections possessing one
property or the other. The natures of these properties are so complex that they often
possess one or more common properties. There is no projection, which can be
grouped, in a single class. Moreover, if one attempts to obtain a rational classification
of map projection, it will be rather difficult to achieve it. There can be as many
classifications as many bases.
1. Preservation of area,
2. Preservation of shape,
3. Preservation of bearing i.e. direction and distance.
It is, however, very difficult to make such a projection even for a small country, in
which all the above qualities may be well preserved. Any one quality may be
thoroughly achieved by a certain map projection only at the cost of others.
According to the quality they preserve, projections may be classified into three
groups :-
1. Cylinder and
2. Cone.
Cylindrical Projection
When the graticule is prepared on the surface of a hollow cylinder it is called
Cylindrical Projection.
Limitations:
The scale is true only along the equator. The exaggeration of the parallel scale as well
as the meridian scale would be very greatly increasing away from the equator. The
poles can't be shown, because their distances from the equator becomes infinite.
Limitations :
The scale along the equator is true. The meridian scale is correct everywhere because
the parallels are drawn at their true distances. Latitudinal scale increases away from
the equator. This leads to great distortion in shape and exaggeration of area in high
latitudes.
Conical Projection
A cone may be imagined to touch the globe of a convenient size along any circle
(other than a great circle) but the most useful case will be the normal one in which the
apex of the cone will lie vertically above the pole on the earth's axis produced and the
surface of the cone will be tangent to the sphere along some parallel of latitude. It is
called 'standard parallel'.
If the selected parallel (SP) is nearer the pole the vertex of the cone will be closer to it
and subsequently the angle at the apex will be increasing proportionately. When the
pole itself becomes the selected parallel, the angle of the apex will become 180
degrees, and the surface of the cone will be similar to the tangent plane of Zenithal
Projection.
On the other hand, when the selected parallel is nearer to the equator, the vertex of the
cone will be moving farther away from the pole. in case equator is the selected
parallel, the vertex will be at an infinite distance, and the cone will become a cylinder.
Thus the Cylindrical and Zenithal Projections may be regarded as special cases of
Conical Projections.
Properties
Conics are true along some parallel somewhere between the equator and the
pole and the distortion increases away from this standard.
Good for Temperate Zone areas
Zenithal Projection
In Zenithal Projection a flat paper is supposed to touch the globe at one point and the
light may be kept at another point so as to reflect or project the lines of latitude and
longitude on the plane. Here the globe is viewed from a point vertically above it, so
these are called Zenithal Projections. They are also called 'azimuthal' because the
bearings are all true from the central point.
In respect of the plane's position touching the globe, Zenithal Projection is of three
main classes :-
1. Normal or Equatorial Zenithal (where the plane touches the globe at equator),
2. Polar Zenithal (where the plane touches the globe at pole),
3. Oblique Zenithal (where the plane touches the globe at any other point).
According to the location of the view point Zenithal Projection is of three types :-
Properties
Azimuthals are true only at their centre point, but generally distortion is worst
at the edge of the map.
Good for polar areas.