Fundamental of GIS

GIS: Evolution of Mapping Technology

A map is a picture of a place and gives you better understanding of
that place I.e. map contains information.
Map is a two-dimensional representation of a particular place.
Maps are made for many reasons and therefore they vary in
content and context. Different maps show different information.
Different symbols are used to represent the features on earth onto
a map, which are explained in the legend. The legend in a map tells
what each map shows.

You and Maps Understanding the world better

Some examples:

Aerial
photograph

A picture of the place

You and Maps Understanding the world better

Topographic map

Shaded relief map

You and Maps Understanding the world better

3D map

Road/ Tourist map

GIS Day 2000 NEPAL: Promoting Geographic Literacy Through GIS

Map Scale

Map scale describes the relationship between mapped size and actual size.
It is expressed as a relationship between linear distances on the map and
corresponding ground distances.

Inch-Foot Equivalent
The scale relationship is expressed as "1 inch = x feet" where the map
distance of 1 inch is compared to its corresponding ground distance.

Representative Fraction (RF)

This is a pure fraction that represents the ratio of map distance to ground
distance without specifying any measurement unit. The inch-foot
equivalent of 1" = 100' is represented in RF form as 1:1,200 or 1/1,200

Map scale
Large-scale maps cover small areas, but can
include a higher level of detail than small-scale
maps which depict larger areas at lower detail.
There are no precise definitions of large- or smallscale, but for most map users, the following
general scale categories apply:
Large-scale: 1:2500 or larger
Medium-scale: 1: 2500 to 1: 10000
Small-scale: 1:10000 to 1:50,000
Very Small-scale: smaller than 1: 50000

Map Projection
The globe is the best way to show the relative positions of places, but
they are not portable and practical for large scales.
Due to the three-dimensional shape of the earth, it is not possible to
depict locations and features in the two-dimensional map space directly
and without some distortions.
Map projection is a procedure to transform locations and features from
the three-dimensional surface of the earth onto the two-dimensional
paper in a defined and consistent way.

Plate Carree Projection and Albers Equal Area Projection with Tissot Incatrix

Maps: Analogue and digital

Maps are rigid in analogue format though they convey message by
virtue of symbology.

Maps in hardcopy are impossible to be integrated with other data.

They are measurable but not interactive.

They are always projected.

All these negations are overcome

by GIS

Evolution of GIS..

Roger Tomlin, the father of Canada GIS, is credited for visualizing the
need of computers to perform certain simple but labor-intensive task
associated with Canada Land Inventory.
David Bickmore (1934), the primary GIS innovator discovered GIS
stems from the benefits of automating the map production process.
Ray Boyle invented the free-pencil digitizer and by 1964 Bickmore
and Byole set up the Oxford System for high quality digital
cartography.
Thereafter major mapping agencies from US and other military bodies
began rocky and lengthy process of automation.
During mid 1970s, widespread availability of high capacity hardware
and innovative software mechanism helped to convert analogue map
to digital.
Use of the McHarg proposed representation (on 1969) of geo-spatial
entities in layered form (1989) And use of topology in data US Census Bureau 1990

Chronology and evolution.

Chronology and evolution.

ROOTS OF GIS
GIS deeply rooted by virtue of its capacity of
integrating data from other sources and RS
imagery based on some common criterion and ..
Data storage
GIS

Landscape architect
and environmental planning

Large scale data integration

around common data model

Spatio-temporal Modelling

GIS: A subset of information System

To improve ones ability to make decisions.

Starts from the user feeling of need
Chain of operations
Ends at the fulfill of user need.
Output Products

User Action

User need

GIS

Demand/ Satisfaction

Planning

Data collection

Manipulation
and Analysis

Data Storage

GI for 4Ms
Monitoring

Measurement

Land use/ Land cover

Agriculture
Hydrology

Mapping

GIS

Suitability model
DEM
Utility network
Ground water

Modeling

Contributing Disciplines
Statistics

Photogrammetry

Geography
Remote Sensing
Cartography

GIS

WWW
Surveying

Software Technology
Mathematics

Where is my Land parcel

in this vast terrain?

GIS
G Geographic
the ground

Related to entities on

I Information
Data Interpreted as an
something that gives you insight on the issue
S System
Integration of different
well working parts which themselves may be a
system but are the subsystem of the universal
system in consideration

GIS DEFINED
Architect Geographic
Information System is
defined as a system in
digital environment that
involves on geographic
data input, Spatial
analysis and output

GIS Architecture
GIS : A main system framework composed
of coordinated multiple subsystem.
Data output
Subsystem

Data Acquisition
Subsystem
GIS

Data Storage
Subsystem

Data Analysis /
Manipulation
Subsystem

Terminologies
Entities: Real Object on the ground
Fields: Way of the representation of the entities in the digital
system.
Spatial : Object that has geometry
Aspatial or attribute : A property of the spatial object that
describes
Model : Generalized Computer representation of a given
phenomena
Topologies: Geometrical characteristics of features which do
not changed under transformation and are independent of
coordinated system.

Questions GIS can answer

GIS can be distinguished by listing the types of
questions it can answer.
Location- What is at...?
The first of these questions seeks to find what exists at a
particular location. A location can be described in many
ways, using, for example, place name, postcode, or
geographic reference such as longitude/ latitude or x and y.

Questions GIS can answer

Condition- Where is it...?
The second question is the converse of the first and requires
spatial data to answer. Instead of identifying what exists at a
given location, one may wish to find locations where certain
conditions are satisfied (e.g., a non-forest area of at least
2,000 square metres in size, within 100 metres of a road, and
with soils suitable for supporting buildings).
Condition- Where is it...?

Residential Land Use

4 Bed rooms
Made of local bricks
Assessment < Rs. 500,000

Where are houses located that you might consider buying

Geographic Literacy Through GIS

Questions GIS can answer

Trends- What has changed since...?

The third question might involve both of the first two and
seeks to find the differences within an area over time, for
example, changes in forest cover or the extent of urbanization
over the last ten years.

Questions GIS can answer

Patterns- What spatial pattern exists...?

Patterns - What data are related...?

This question is more
sophisticated. One might ask this
question to determine whether
landslides are mostly occurring
near streams, or to find out which
are the traffic points where the
accidents occur more frequently. It
might be just as important to know
how many anomalies there are that
do not fit the pattern and where
they are located.

What kind of pattern exists for vehicle accidents?

Through GIS

Questions GIS can answer

Modeling- What if...?
What if questions are posed to determine what happens,
for example, if a new road is added to a network or if a toxic
substance seeps into the local groundwater supply.
Answering this type of question requires both geographic and
other information (as well as specific models).

Health centre?
School?
Hotel?
Post office?

 GIS Components

Peoples

Software

Data

GIS
Hardware

Procedures

(MSS/PAN) Digital
Image

Workflow

Existing
Vectors
Database

Radiometric
correction

Geometric correction/ relief

correction

Study of Vector

Image fusion(optional)

Selected Subset

Updated Database

Classification

New Updated
Maps
Overlaying of image data or
fused image and Vectors
Data

Cartographic
Processing

Value added
products

Satellite Image
Map of concerned
area
Verified

Analysis /
Change detection/
Visual Interpretation

Vectorize the changed

(detected) data into
different Layers

Get the detected

data into the
relevant set of data
of Top 25/ 50
vectors after
removing the old
data from the
database.

Field
verification

Note: The final out put is shown in the background-shaded figures.