Cannabis (drug)

Marijuana redirects here. For other uses, see Marijuana

(disambiguation).

Bodily effects of

Cannabis

Cannabis, also known as marijuana[7] and by numerous other names,a[] is a preparation of the Cannabis
plant intended for use as a psychoactive drug or
medicine.[8][9] The main psychoactive part of cannabis
is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC); it is one of 483 known
compounds in the plant,[10] including at least 84 other
cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol
(CBN), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV).[11][12]

Eyes:
- Reddening
- Decreased intra-ocular
pressure
Mouth:
- Dryness

Cannabis is often consumed for mental and physical effects, such as heightened mood, relaxation,[13] and an
increase in appetite.[14] Possible side-eects include a
decrease in short-term memory, dry mouth, impaired
motor skills, red eyes,[13] and feelings of paranoia or
anxiety.[15] Onset of eects is within minutes when
smoked and about 30 minutes when eaten.[16] They last
for between two and six hours.[16]

Skin:
- Sensation of
heat or cold
Heart:
- Increased
heart rate

Cannabis is mostly used recreationally or as a medicinal

Muscles:
drug. It may also be used as part of religious or spiritual
- Relaxation
rites. In 2013 between 128 and 232 million people used
cannabis (2.7% to 4.9% of the global population between
the ages of 15 and 65).[17] In 2015 about half of people Main short-term physical eects of cannabis
from the United States have tried marijuana, 12% have
used it in the past year and 7.3% have used it in the past
month.[18] Usage has increased since 2013.[19]
The earliest recorded uses date from the 3rd millennium BC.[20] Since the early 20th century cannabis has
been subject to legal restrictions with the possession, use,
and sale of cannabis preparations containing psychoactive cannabinoids currently illegal in most countries of
the world; the United Nations deems it the most-used illicit drug in the world.[21][22] Medical marijuana refers to
the physician recommended use of cannabis which is taking place in Canada, Belgium, Australia, the Netherlands,
Spain, and 23 U.S. states.[23] Cannabis use as well as support for legalization has been increasing in the United
States in recent years.[24]

1
1.1

Cannabis is used to reduce nausea and vomiting during chemotherapy, to improve appetite in people with
HIV/AIDS, to treat chronic pain, and help with muscle
spasms.[25][26] Its use for other medical applications is insucient for conclusions about safety or ecacy. Shortterm use increases minor adverse eects, but does not
appear to increase major adverse eects.[27] Long-term
eects of cannabis are not clear,[27][28] and there are concerns including memory and cognition problems, risk for
addiction, risk of schizophrenia among young people, and
the risk of children taking it by accident.[25]
The medicinal value of cannabis is disputed. The
American Society of Addiction Medicine dismisses medical use because of concerns about dependence and adverse health eects.[29] The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) states that cannabis is associated with numerous harmful health eects, and that signicant aspects such as content, production, and supply are unregulated. The FDA approves of the prescription of two products (not for smoking) that have pure THC in a small controlled dose as the active substance.[30]

Uses
Medical

Main article: Medical cannabis

1.2

2 ADVERSE EFFECTS

Recreational

Main article: Eects of cannabis

cannabis tea, which contains relatively small concentrations of THC because THC is an oil (lipophilic)
and is only slightly water-soluble (with a solubility
of 2.8 mg per liter).[39] Cannabis tea is made by
rst adding a saturated fat to hot water (e.g. cream
or any milk except skim) with a small amount of
cannabis.[40]

Cannabis has psychoactive and physiological eects

when consumed.[31] The immediate desired eects from
consuming cannabis include relaxation and mild euphoria (the high or stoned feeling), while some imme edibles, where cannabis is added as an ingredient to
diate undesired side-eects include a decrease in shortone of a variety of foods.
term memory, dry mouth, impaired motor skills and reddening of the eyes.[32] Aside from a subjective change
in perception and mood, the most common short-term
physical and neurological eects include increased heart
rate, increased appetite and consumption of food, low- 2 Adverse eects
ered blood pressure, impairment of short-term and working memory,[33][34] psychomotor coordination, and conMain article: Long-term eects of cannabis
centration.
Further information: Cannabis in pregnancy
According to the United States Department of Health and

1.3

Spiritual

Main article: Entheogenic use of cannabis

Cannabis has held sacred status in several religions.

1.4

Available forms

Main article: Cannabis consumption

Cannabis is consumed in many dierent ways:[35]

3
Heroin

Cocaine

Tobacco

D
e
p2
e
n
d
e
n1
c
e

Street methadone
Barbiturates

Alcohol
Cannabis

Benzodiazepines
BuprenorphineAmphetamine
Ketamine

4-MTA
Methylphenidate
GHB
Ecstasy
Solvents
Alkyl nitrites
LSD

Khat

Anabolic steroids

Physical Harm

Cannabis is ranked as one of recreational drugs with a lower

amount of harm.[41]

Human Services, there were 455,000 emergency room

visits associated with cannabis use in 2011. These statisA joint prior to rolling, with a paper handmade lter on the left tics include visits in which the patient was treated for a
condition induced by or related to recent cannabis use.
The drug use must be implicated in the emergency department visit, but does not need to be the direct cause
smoking, which typically involves inhaling vaporof the visit. Most of the illicit drug emergency room visized cannabinoids (smoke) from small pipes,
its involved multiple drugs.[42] In 129,000 cases, cannabis
bongs (portable versions of hookahs with water
was the only implicated drug.[43][44]
chamber), paper-wrapped joints or tobacco-leafA 2013 literature review said that heavy, long term exwrapped blunts, roach clips, and other items.[36]
posure to marijuana may have biologically-based phys vaporizer, which heats any form of cannabis to 165 ical, mental, behavioral and social health consequences
190 C (329374 F),[37] causing the active ingre- and may be associated with diseases of the liver (pardients to evaporate into a vapor without burning the ticularly with co-existing hepatitis C), lungs, heart, and
plant material (the boiling point of THC is 157 C vasculature.[45] It is recommended that cannabis use be
stopped before and during pregnancy.[46]
(315 F) at 760 mmHg pressure).[38]

2.5

Neurological

2.1

Toxicity

THC, the principal psychoactive constituent of the

cannabis plant, has low toxicity, the dose of THC needed
to kill 50% of tested rodents is extremely high. Acute
eects may include anxiety and panic, impaired attention, and memory (while intoxicated), an increased
risk of psychotic symptoms, and possibly and increased
risk of accidents if a person drives a motor vehicle while intoxicated.[47] Psychotic episodes are welldocumented and typically resolve within minutes or
hours. There have been few reports of symptoms lasting longer.[48][49] Cannabis has not been reported to cause
fatal overdose.[50] Studies have shown that cannabis use
causes impairments in memory that persist beyond shortterm intoxication.[51]

2.2

Lungs

There has been a limited amount of studies that have

looked at the eects of smoking cannabis on the respiratory system.[52] Chronic heavy marijuana smoking is
associated with coughing, production of sputum, wheezing, and other symptoms of chronic bronchitis.[47] Regular cannabis use has not been shown to cause signicant abnormalities in lung function.[53] Short-term use of
cannabis is associated with bronchodilation.[54]

2.3

Cancer

3
cannabis could not be made. If cannabis arteritis turns out
to be a distinct clinical entity, it might be the consequence
of vasoconstrictor activity observed from delta-8-THC
and delta-9-THC.[60] Other serious cardiovascular events
including myocardial infarction, stroke, sudden cardiac
death, and cardiomyopathy have been reported to be temporally associated with cannabis use. Research in these
events is complicated because cannabis is often used in
conjunction with tobacco, and drugs such as alcohol and
cocaine.[61] These putative eects can be taken in context
of a wide range of cardiovascular phenomena regulated
by the endocannabinoid system and an overall role of
cannabis in causing decreased peripheral resistance and
increased cardiac output, which potentially could pose a
threat to those with cardiovascular disease.[62]

2.5 Neurological
A 2013 review comparing dierent structural and functional imaging studies showed morphological brain alterations in long-term cannabis users which were found to
possibly correlate to cannabis exposure.[63] A 2010 review found resting blood ow to be lower globally and
in prefrontal areas of the brain in cannabis users, when
compared to non-users. It was also shown that giving THC or cannabis correlated with increased bloodow in these areas, and facilitated activation of the
anterior cingulate cortex and frontal cortex when participants were presented with assignments demanding
use of cognitive capacity.[64] Both reviews noted that
some of the studies that they examined had methodological limitations, for example small sample sizes or
not distinguishing adequately between cannabis and alcohol consumption.[63][64] A 2011 review found that
cannabis use impaired cognitive functions on several levels, ranging from basic coordination to executive function
tasks.[65] A 2013 review found that cannabis users consistently had smaller hippocampi than nonusers, but noted
limitations in the studies analyzed such as small sample
sizes and heterogeneity across studies.[66]

Cannabis smoke contains thousands of organic and inorganic chemical compounds. This tar is chemically similar
to that found in tobacco smoke,[55] and over fty known
carcinogens have been identied in cannabis smoke,[56]
including; nitrosamines, reactive aldehydes, and polycylic
hydrocarbons, including benz[a]pyrene.[57] As of 2015,
there is no consensus regarding whether cannabis smoking is associated with an increased risk of cancer.[58]
Light and moderate use of cannabis is not believed to increase risk of lung or upper airway cancer. Evidence for
causing these cancers is mixed concerning heavy, longterm use. In general there are far lower risks of pulmonary complications for regular cannabis smokers when 2.6 Suicide
compared with those of tobacco.[53] Combustion products are not present when using a vaporizer, consuming It is not[50]clear whether cannabis use aects the rate of
suicide.
THC in pill form, or consuming cannabis foods.

2.4

Cardiovascular

There is serious suspicion among cardiologists, spurring

research but falling short of denitive proof, that cannabis
use has the potential to contribute to cardiovascular
disease.[59] Cannabis is believed to be an aggravating factor in rare cases of arteritis, a serious condition that in
some cases leads to amputation. Because 97% of casereports also smoked tobacco, a formal association with

2.7 Chronic use

Eects of chronic use may include bronchitis, a cannabis
dependence syndrome, and subtle impairments of attention and memory. These decits persist while chronically intoxicated.[47] There is little evidence that cognitive
impairments persist in adult abstinent cannabis users.[67]
Compared to non-smokers, people who smoked cannabis
regularly in adolescence exhibit reduced connectivity in

4 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

specic brain regions associated with memory, learning, alertness, and executive function.[44] A study has
suggested that sustained heavy, daily, adolescent onset
cannabis use over decades is associated with a decline in
IQ by age 38. No eects were found in those who initiated cannabis use later, or in those who ceased use earlier
in adulthood.[68]

2.8

Tolerance and withdrawal

Main article: Cannabis dependence

also expressed in neuroglial cells.[74] THC appears to alter mood and cognition through its agonist actions on
the CB1 receptors, which inhibit a secondary messenger
system (adenylate cyclase) in a dose dependent manner.
These actions can be blocked by the selective CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716A (rimonabant), which has
been shown in clinical trials to be an eective treatment
for smoking cessation, weight loss, and as a means of controlling or reducing metabolic syndrome risk factors.[75]
However, due to the dysphoric eect of CB1 antagonists,
this drug is often discontinued due to these side eects.[76]
Via CB1 activation, THC indirectly increases dopamine
release and produces psychotropic eects. Cannabidiol
also acts as an allosteric modulator of the mu and delta
opioid receptors.[77] THC also potentiates the eects of
the glycine receptors.[78] The role of these interactions in
the marijuana high remains elusive.

Cannabis usually causes no tolerance or withdrawal

symptoms except in heavy users. In a survey of heavy
users 42.4% experienced withdrawal symptoms when
they tried to quit marijuana such as craving, irritability,
boredom, anxiety and sleep disturbances.[69] About 9%
of those who experiment with marijuana eventually become dependent. The rate goes up to 1 in 6 among those
4 Physical and chemical properties
who begin use as adolescents, and one quarter to one-half
of those who use it daily according to a NIDA review.[44]
A 2013 review estimates daily use is associated with a 10- 4.1 Detection in body uids
20% rate of dependence.[25] The highest risk of cannabis
dependence is found in those with a history of poor aca- Main article: Cannabis drug testing
demic achievement, deviant behavior in childhood and
adolescence, rebelliousness, poor parental relationships,
THC and its major (inactive) metabolite, THC-COOH,
or a parental history of drug and alcohol problems.[70]
can be measured in blood, urine, hair, oral uid or sweat
using chromatographic techniques as part of a drug use
testing program or a forensic investigation of a trac or
other criminal oense.[79] The concentrations obtained
3 Pharmacology
from such analyses can often be helpful in distinguishing
active use from passive exposure, elapsed time since use,
3.1 Mechanism of action
and extent or duration of use. These tests cannot, however, distinguish authorized cannabis smoking for mediSee also: Eects of cannabis Biochemical mechanisms cal purposes from unauthorized recreational smoking.[80]
in the brain
Commercial cannabinoid immunoassays, often employed
as the initial screening method when testing physiologiThe high lipid-solubility of cannabinoids results in their cal specimens for marijuana presence, have dierent depersisting in the body for long periods of time.[71] Even grees of cross-reactivity with THC and its metabolites.[81]
after a single administration of THC, detectable levels of Urine contains predominantly THC-COOH, while hair,
THC can be found in the body for weeks or longer (de- oral uid and sweat contain primarily THC.[79] Blood may
pending on the amount administered and the sensitivity contain both substances, with the relative amounts depenof the assessment method).[71] A number of investigators dent on the recency and extent of usage.[79]
have suggested that this is an important factor in mari- The Duquenois-Levine test is commonly used as a
juanas eects, perhaps because cannabinoids may accu- screening test in the eld, but it cannot denitively conmulate in the body, particularly in the lipid membranes rm the presence of cannabis, as a large range of subof neurons.[72]
stances have been shown to give false positives. Despite
Not until the end of the 20th century was the specic
mechanism of action of THC at the neuronal level studied. Researchers have subsequently conrmed that THC
exerts its most prominent eects via its actions on two
types of cannabinoid receptors, the CB1 receptor and
the CB2 receptor, both of which are G-protein coupled
receptors.[73] The CB1 receptor is found primarily in the
brain as well as in some peripheral tissues, and the CB2
receptor is found primarily in peripheral tissues, but is

this, it is common in the United States for prosecutors

to seek plea bargains on the basis of positive D-L tests,
claiming them denitive, or even to seek conviction without the use of gas chromatography conrmation, which
can only be done in the lab.[82] In 2011, researchers at
John Jay College of Criminal Justice reported that dietary zinc supplements can mask the presence of THC
and other drugs in urine.[83] However, a 2013 study conducted by researchers at the University of Utah School of

5
Medicine refute the possibility of self-administered zinc in 1993 to 8.8% in 2008.[87] Other studies have found
producing false-negative urine drug tests.[84]
similar increases in potency since cannabis THC content
began to be studied in the late 1970s.[88] It is unclear,
however, whether the increase in THC content has caused
people to consume more THC or if users adjust based on
5 Varieties and strains
the potency of the cannabis. It is likely that the higher
THC content allows people to ingest less tar. At the same
time Cannabidiol (CBD) levels in seized samples have
lowered as users look for a more mind altering high.[89]
Australias National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) states that the buds (owers) of the
female cannabis plant contain the highest concentration
of THC, followed by the leaves. The stalks and seeds have
much lower THC levels.[90] The UN states that leaves
can contain ten times less THC than the buds, and the
stalks one hundred times less THC.[86]
After revisions to cannabis rescheduling in the UK, the
government moved cannabis back from a class C to a
class B drug. A purported reason was the appearance
of high potency cannabis. They believe skunk accounts
for between 70 and 80% of samples seized by police[91]
(despite the fact that skunk can sometimes be incorrectly
mistaken for all types of herbal cannabis).[92][93] Extracts
such as hashish and hash oil typically contain more THC
than high potency cannabis owers.[94]

6 Preparations
Dried ower buds
Types of cannabis

CBD is a 5-HTA receptor agonist, which may also contribute to an anxiolytic eect.[85] This likely means the
high concentrations of CBD found in Cannabis indica
mitigate the anxiogenic eect of THC signicantly.[85]
The eects of sativa are well known for their cerebral
high, hence its daytime use as medical cannabis, while
indica is well known for its sedative eects and preferred
night time use as medical cannabis.[85]

5.1

Kief
Hashish
Tincture
Hash oil
Infusion (dairy butter)
Pipe resin
A forced-air vaporizer. The detachable balloon lls
with vapors

Psychoactive ingredients
6.1 Marijuana

According to the United Nations Oce on Drugs and

Crime (UNODC), the amount of THC present in a
cannabis sample is generally used as a measure of
cannabis potency.[86] The three main forms of cannabis
products are the ower, resin (hashish), and oil (hash oil).
The UNODC states that cannabis often contains 5% THC
content, resin can contain up to 20% THC content,
and that Cannabis oil may contain more than 60% THC
content.[86]

Marijuana consists of the dried owers and subtending

leaves and stems of the female Cannabis plant.[95][96] This
is the most widely consumed form, containing 3% to 20%
THC,[97] with reports of up-to 33% THC.[98] In contrast,
cannabis varieties used to produce industrial hemp contain less than 1% THC and are thus not valued for recreational use.[99]

This is the stock material from which all other prepaA study published in 2010 has shown that the average rations are derived. It is noted that cannabis or its
THC content of seized marijuana increased from 3.4% extracts must be suciently heated or dehydrated to

7 HISTORY

cause decarboxylation of its most abundant cannabinoid, 6.6 Infusions

tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), into psychoactive
THC.[100]
There are many varieties of cannabis infusions owing to
the variety of non-volatile solvents used. The plant material is mixed with the solvent and then pressed and ltered
6.2 Kief
to express the oils of the plant into the solvent. Examples
of solvents used in this process are cocoa butter, dairy
Main article: Kief
butter, cooking oil, glycerine, and skin moisturizers. Depending on the solvent, these may be used in cannabis
[101]
foods
or applied topically.[114]
Kief is a powder, rich in trichomes,
which can be
sifted from the leaves and owers of cannabis plants and
either consumed in powder form or compressed to produce cakes of hashish.[102] The word kif derives from 6.7 Adulterated cannabis
colloquial Arabic kf/kf, meaning pleasure.[103]
Contaminants may be found in hashish obtained from
soap bar"-type sources.[115] The dried owers of
the plant may be contaminated by the plant taking
6.3 Hashish
up heavy metals and other toxins from its growing
environment,[116] or by the addition of glass.[117] In the
Main article: Hashish
Netherlands, chalk has been used to make cannabis appear to be of a higher quality.[118] Increasing the weight
Hashish (also spelled hasheesh, hashisha, or simply hash)
of hashish products in Germany with lead caused lead inis a concentrated resin cake or ball produced from pressed
toxication in at least 29 users.[119]
kief, the detached trichomes and ne material that falls
o cannabis owers and leaves.[104] or from scraping the Despite cannabis being generally perceived as a natural
[120]
in a recent Australian survey[121] one in four
resin from the surface of the plants and rolling it into product,
balls. It varies in color from black to golden brown de- Australians consider cannabis grown indoors under hypending upon purity and variety of cultivar it was ob- droponic conditions to be a greater health risk due to intained from.[105] It can be consumed orally or smoked, creased contamination, added to the plant during cultivaand is also vaporised, or 'vaped'.[106] The term Rosin tion to enhance the plant growth and quality.
Hash refers to a high quality solventless product obtained
through heat and pressure.[107]

6.8 Medical usage

6.4

Tincture

Further information: Medical cannabis

Main article: Tincture of cannabis

Medical marijuana refers to the use of the Cannabis plant

as a physician-recommended herbal therapy as well as
Cannabinoids can be extracted from cannabis plant mat- synthetic THC and cannabinoids. So far, the medical use
ter using high-proof spirits (often grain alcohol) to cre- of cannabis is legal only in a limited number of territories,
ate a tincture, often referred to as green dragon.[108] including Canada, Belgium, Australia, the Netherlands,
Nabiximols is a branded product name from a tincture Spain, and several U.S. states. This usage generally requires a prescription, and distribution is usually done
manufacturing pharmaceutical company.[109]
within a framework dened by local laws. There is evidence supporting the use of cannabis or its derivatives in
6.5 Hash oil
the treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting, neuropathic pain, and multiple sclerosis. Lower
Main article: Hash oil
levels of evidence support its use for AIDS wasting syndrome, epilepsy, rheumatoid arthritis, and glaucoma.[44]
Hash oil is a resinous matrix of cannabinoids obtained
from the Cannabis plant by solvent extraction,[110] formed
into a hardened or viscous mass.[111]

7 History

Hash oil can be the most potent of the main cannabis

products because of its high level of psychoactive
compound per its volume, which can vary depending
on the plants mix of essential oils and psychoactive
compounds.[112] Butane and supercritical carbon dioxide
hash oil have become popular in recent years.[113]

See also: War on Drugs, Legal history of cannabis in the

United States and History of medical cannabis
Cannabis is indigenous to Central and South Asia.[124]
Evidence of the inhalation of cannabis smoke can be
found in the 3rd millennium BCE, as indicated by charred

The Chinese character for hemp ( or m) depicts two plants

under a shelter.[122] Cannabis cultivation dates back at least 3000
years in Taiwan.[123]
Cannabis sativa from Vienna Dioscurides, 512 AD

cannabis seeds found in a ritual brazier at an ancient burial

site in present-day Romania.[125] In 2003, a leather basket
lled with cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was found
next to a 2,500- to 2,800-year-old mummied shaman in
the northwestern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of
China.[126][127] Evidence for the consumption of cannabis
has also been found in Egyptian mummies dated about
950 BC.[128][129]

Science showed that pipes dug up from the garden

of Shakespeare's home in Stratford-upon-Avon contain
traces of cannabis.[138] The chemical analysis was carried out after researchers hypothesized that the noted
weed mentioned in Sonnet 76 and the journey in my
head from Sonnet 27 could be references to cannabis and
the use thereof.[139] Examples of classic literature featuring cannabis include Les paradis articiels by Charles
Cannabis is also known to have been used by the an- Baudelaire and The Hasheesh Eater by Fitz Hugh Ludlow.
cient Hindus of India and Nepal thousands of years ago.
The herb is called ganja (Sanskrit: , IAST: gaj) or John Gregory Bourke described use of mariguan,
ganjika in Sanskrit and other modern Indo-Aryan lan- which he identies as Cannabis indica or Indian hemp,
guages.[130][131] Some scholars suggest that the ancient by Mexican residents of the Rio Grande region of Texas
drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas, was cannabis, al- in 1894. He described its uses for treatment of asthma,
to expedite delivery, to keep away witches, and as a lovethough this theory is disputed.[132]
philtre. He also wrote that many Mexicans added the
Cannabis was also known to the ancient Assyrians, herb to their cigarritos or mescal, often taking a bite of
who discovered its psychoactive properties through the
sugar afterward to intensify the eect. Bourke wrote
Aryans.[133] Using it in some religious ceremonies, they that because it was often used in a mixture with toloachi
called it qunubu (meaning way to produce smoke),
(which he inaccurately describes as Datura stramonium),
a probable origin of the modern word cannabis.[134] mariguan was one of several plants known as "loco weed".
Cannabis was also introduced by the Aryans to the Bourke compared mariguan to hasheesh, which he called
Scythians, Thracians and Dacians, whose shamans (the one of the greatest curses of the East, citing reports
kapnobatai"those who walk on smoke/clouds) burned that users become maniacs and are apt to commit all
cannabis owers to induce a state of trance.[135]
sorts of acts of violence and murder, causing degenerCannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and is found ation of the body and an idiotic appearance, and menin pharmacological cults around the world. Hemp seeds tioned laws against sale of hasheesh in most Eastern
discovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early cer- countries.[140][141][142]
emonial practices like eating by the Scythians occurred Cannabis was criminalized in various countries beginning
during the 5th to 2nd century BCE, conrming previous in the early 20th century. In the United States, the rst
historical reports by Herodotus.[136] It was used by Mus- restrictions for sale of cannabis came in 1906 (in District
lims in various Su orders as early as the Mamluk period, of Columbia).[143] It was outlawed in South Africa in
for example by the Qalandars.[137]
1911, in Jamaica (then a British colony) in 1913, and in
A study published in the South African Journal of the United Kingdom and New Zealand in the 1920s.[144]

8 SOCIETY AND CULTURE

claimed that the act was passed in order to destroy the
US hemp industry,[147][148][149] with the primary involvement of businessmen Andrew Mellon, Randolph Hearst,
and the Du Pont family.[147][149] But the improvements of
the decorticators, machines that separate the bers from
the hemp stem, could not make hemp ber a very cheap
substitute for bers from other sources because it could
not change that basic fact that strong bers are only found
in the bast, the outer part of the stem. Only about 1/3 of
the stem are long and strong bers.[147][150][151][152] The
company DuPont and many industrial historians dispute
a link between nylon and hemp. They argue that the purpose of developing the nylon was to produce a ber that
could be used in thin stockings for females and compete
with silk.[153][154][155]
In New York City, there were more than 19,000 kg
(41,000 lb) of marijuana growing like weeds throughout
the boroughs until 1951, when the White Wing Squad,
headed by the Sanitation Department General Inspector John E. Gleason, was charged with destroying the
many pot farms that had sprouted up across the city. The
Brooklyn Public Library reports: this group was held to
a high moral standard and was prohibited from entering
saloons, using foul language, and neglecting horses. The
Squad found the most weed in Queens but even in Brooklyn dug up millions of dollars worth of the plants, many
as tall as Christmas trees. Gleason oversaw incineration
of the plants in Woodside, Queens.[156]
The United Nations 2012 Global Drug Report stated that
cannabis was the worlds most widely produced, trafcked, and consumed drug in the world in 2010, identifying that between 119 million and 224 million users
existed in the worlds adult (18 or older) population.[157]

8 Society and culture

Cannabis indica uid extract, American Druggists Syndicate,
pre-1937

8.1 Legal status

Canada criminalized cannabis in the Opium and Drug

Act of 1923, before any reports of use of the drug in
Canada. In 1925 a compromise was made at an international conference in The Hague about the International
Opium Convention that banned exportation of Indian
hemp to countries that had prohibited its use, and requiring importing countries to issue certicates approving the importation and stating that the shipment was required exclusively for medical or scientic purposes. It
also required parties to exercise an eective control of
such a nature as to prevent the illicit international trac
in Indian hemp and especially in the resin.[145][146]

Main article: Legality of cannabis

See also: Prohibition of drugs and Drug liberalization
Since the beginning of the 20th century, most countries have enacted laws against the cultivation, possession or transfer of cannabis.[159] These laws have impacted adversely on the cannabis plants cultivation for
non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions
where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis
is legal or licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened the
penalties for possession of small quantities of cannabis, so
that it is punished by conscation and sometimes a ne,
rather than imprisonment, focusing more on those who
trac the drug on the black market.

In the United States in 1937, the Marihuana Tax Act was

passed, and prohibited the production of hemp in addition to cannabis. The reasons that hemp was also included in this law are disputedseveral scholars have

In some areas where cannabis use has been historically

tolerated, some new restrictions have been put in place,
such as the closing of cannabis coee shops near the
borders of the Netherlands,[160] closing of coee shops

8.2

Economics

Woman selling cannabis and bhang in Guwahati, Assam, India

Cannabis propaganda sheet from 1935

8.2 Economics
8.2.1 Production
Main article: Cannabis cultivation
near secondary schools in the Netherlands and crackdowns on Pusher Street in Christiania, Copenhagen in
It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbal
2004.[161][162]
cannabis that advances in breeding and cultivation techSome jurisdictions use free voluntary treatment pro- niques have increased the potency of cannabis since the
grams and/or mandatory treatment programs for frequent late 1960s and early '70s, when THC was rst discovered
known users. Simple possession can carry long prison and understood. However, potent seedless cannabis such
terms in some countries, particularly in East Asia, where as "Thai sticks" were already available at that time. Sinthe sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison semilla (Spanish for without seed) is the dried, seedor even execution. More recently however, many politi- less inorescences of female cannabis plants. Because
cal parties, non-prot organizations and causes based on THC production drops o once pollination occurs, the
the legalization of medical cannabis and/or legalizing the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are
plant entirely (with some restrictions) have emerged.
eliminated before they shed pollen to prevent pollination.
In December 2012, the U.S. state of Washington be- Advanced cultivation techniques such as hydroponics,
came the rst state to ocially legalize cannabis in a cloning, high-intensity articial lighting, and the sea of
state law (Washington Initiative 502) (but still illegal by green method are frequently employed as a response (in
federal law),[163] with the state of Colorado following part) to prohibition enforcement eorts that make outclose behind (Colorado Amendment 64).[164] On January door cultivation more risky. It is often cited that the av1, 2013, the rst marijuana club for private marijuana erage levels of THC in cannabis sold in United States rose
smoking (no buying or selling, however) was allowed for dramatically between the 1970s and 2000, but such statethe rst time in Colorado.[165] The California Supreme ments are likely skewed because of undue weight given
more expensive and potent, but less prevalent
Court decided in May 2013 that local governments can to much [172]
samples.
ban medical marijuana dispensaries despite a state law
in California that permits the use of cannabis for medi- Skunk refers to several named strains of potent
cal purposes. At least 180 cities across California have cannabis, grown through selective breeding and someenacted bans in recent years.[166]
times hydroponics. It is a cross-breed of Cannabis sativa
In December 2013, Uruguay became the rst country to and C. indica (although other strains of this mix exist
legalize growing, sale and use of cannabis.[167] However, in abundance). Skunk cannabis potency ranges usually
as of August 2014, no cannabis has yet been sold legally from 6% to 15% and rarely as high as 20%. The averlevel in coee shops in the Netherlands is about
in Uruguay. According to the law, the only cannabis that age THC [173]
1819%.
can be sold legally must be grown in the country by no
more than ve licensed growers, and these have yet to
be selected; in fact the call for applications did not go
out until August 1, 2014.[168] In the elections of October 2014, there is a signicant chance that lawmakers
opposed to legal cannabis will come to control the legislature, and the law will be repealed before it has fully
taken eect.[169][170][171]

8.2.2 Price
The price or street value of cannabis varies widely depending on geographic area and potency.[174]
In the United States, cannabis is overall the number four

10

11

value crop, and is number one or two in many states

including California, New York and Florida, averaging
$3,000/lb.[175][176] It is believed to generate an estimated
$36 billion market.[177] The United Nations Oce on
Drugs and Crime claims in its 2008 World Drug Report
that typical U.S. retail prices are $1015 per gram (approximately $280420 per ounce). Street prices in North
America are known to range from about $40 to $400 per
ounce, depending on quality.[178]
The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug
Addiction reports that typical retail prices in Europe for
cannabis varies from 2 to 20 per gram, with a majority of European countries reporting prices in the range
410.[179]
8.2.3

Distribution

SEE ALSO

areas), thus leading to the gateway sequence in those

individuals since they are most likely to experiment with
any drug oered.[181]
An alternative to the gateway hypothesis is the Common
Liability to Addiction theory (CLA). It states that some
individuals are, for various reasons, willing to try multiple recreational substances. The gateway drugs are
merely those that are (usually) available at an earlier age
than the harder drugs. Researchers have noted in an extensive review, Vanyukov et al., that it is dangerous to
present the sequence of events described in gateway theory in causative terms as this hinders both research and
intervention.[191]

9 Research

Marijuana vending machines for selling or dispensing

cannabis are in use in the United States and are planned Further information: Medical cannabis#Research
to be used in Canada.[180]

Further information: Gateway drug theory

Cannabis research is challenging since the plant is illegal in most countries.[192][193][194][195][196] Researchgrade samples of the drug are dicult to obtain for research purposes, unless granted under authority of national governments.

The Gateway Hypothesis states that cannabis use increases the probability of trying harder drugs. The hypothesis has been hotly debated as it is regarded by some
as the primary rationale for the United States prohibition on cannabis use.[181][182] A Pew Research Center poll
found that political opposition to marijuana use was signicantly associated with concerns about health eects
and whether legalization would increase marijuana use
by children.[183]

There are also other diculties in researching the effects of cannabis. Many people who smoke cannabis
also smoke tobacco.[197] This causes confounding factors, where questions arise as to whether the tobacco, the
cannabis, or both that have caused a cancer. Another difculty researchers have is in recruiting people who smoke
cannabis into studies. Because cannabis is an illegal drug
in many countries, people may be reluctant to take part in
research, and if they do agree to take part, they may not
say how much cannabis they actually smoke.[198]

8.3

Gateway drug

Some studies state that while there is no proof for the

gateway hypothesis,[184] young cannabis users should
still be considered as a risk group for intervention
programs.[185] Other ndings indicate that hard drug 10 Footnotes
users are likely to be poly-drug users, and that interventions must address the use of multiple drugs instead of a
[199]
pot,[200] grass,[201] and herb[202] are
single hard drug.[186] Almost two-thirds of the poly drug ^ a: Weed,
other nicknames for marijuana or
users in the 2009/10 Scottish Crime and Justice Survey among the many [203][204]
cannabis
as
a
drug.
[187]
used cannabis.
^ b: Sources for this section and more information can
The gateway eect may appear due to social factors in- be found in the Medical cannabis article
volved in using any illegal drug. Because of the illegal
status of cannabis, its consumers are likely to nd themselves in situations allowing them to acquaint with individuals using or selling other illegal drugs.[188][189] Utilizing this argument some studies have shown that alco11 See also
hol and tobacco may additionally be regarded as gate[190]
however, a more parsimonious explanaway drugs;
tion could be that cannabis is simply more readily avail Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome
able (and at an earlier age) than illegal hard drugs. In turn
alcohol and tobacco are easier to obtain at an earlier point
Nederwiet
than is cannabis (though the reverse may be true in some

11

12

References

[1] Mahmoud A. ElSohly (2007). Marijuana and the

Cannabinoids. Springer. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-59259-9479.
[2] United Nations. World Drug Report 2013 (PDF). The
united Nations. Retrieved 13 December 2014.
[3] Medical Use of Marijuana. Health Canada. Retrieved
12 January 2015.
[4] New Colombia Resources Inc Subsidiary, Sannabis, Produces First Batch of Medical Marijuana Based Products
in Colombia to Fill Back Orders.. prnewswire.com. PR
Newswire. Retrieved 12 January 2015.
[5] Rana Moussaoui (Nov 25, 2013). Lebanon cannabis
trade thrives in shadow of Syrian war. AFP.

[17] Status and Trend Analysis of Illict Drug Markets. World

Drug Report 2015 (pdf). Retrieved 26 June 2015.
[18] Motel, Seth (Apr 14,15). 6 facts about marijuana. Pew
Research Center. Retrieved 26 June 2015. Check date
values in: |date= (help)
[19] http://www.gallup.com/poll/184298/
four-americans-say-tried-marijuana.aspx?utm_source=
Well-Being&utm_medium=newsfeed&utm_campaign=
tiles
[20] Martin Booth (2003). Cannabis: A History. Transworld.
p. 36. ISBN 978-1-4090-8489-1.
[21] Cannabis: Legal Status. Erowid.org. Retrieved 201110-30.
[22] UNODC. World Drug Report 2010. United Nations Publication. p. 198. Retrieved 2010-07-19.

[6] Sanie Lopez Garelli (25 November 2008). Mexico,

Paraguay top pot producers, U.N. report says. CNN International. Retrieved 28 September 2013.

[23] 23 Legal Medical Marijuana States and DC Laws, Fees,

and Possession Limits. ProCon. Retrieved 8 May 2015.

[7] See article on Marijuana as a word.

[24] http://time.com/2929263/marijuana-pot-americans/

[8] Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (6th ed.), Oxford University Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0-19-920687-2

[25] Borgelt LM, Franson KL, Nussbaum AM, Wang GS

(February 2013). The pharmacologic and clinical eects
of medical cannabis. Pharmacotherapy (Review) 33 (2):
195209. doi:10.1002/phar.1187. PMID 23386598.

[9] Editors of the American Heritage Dictionaries (2007).

Spanish Word Histories and Mysteries: English Words That
Come From Spanish. Houghton Miin Harcourt. p. 142.
ISBN 978-0-547-35021-9.
[10] Ethan B Russo (2013). Cannabis and Cannabinoids:
Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential.
Routledge. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-136-61493-4.
[11] El-Alfy, Abir T et al. (Jun 2010). Antidepressantlike eect of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and other
cannabinoids isolated from Cannabis sativa L. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 95 (4): 43442.
doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2010.03.004. PMC 2866040. PMID
20332000.
[12] Fusar-Poli P, Crippa JA, Bhattacharyya S et al. (January
2009). Distinct eects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol
and Cannabidiol on Neural Activation during Emotional
Processing. Archives of General Psychiatry 66 (1): 95
105. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.519. PMID
19124693.

[26] Whiting, PF; Wol, RF; Deshpande, S; Di Nisio, M;

Duy, S; Hernandez, AV; Keurentjes, JC; Lang, S; Misso,
K; Ryder, S; Schmidlkofer, S; Westwood, M; Kleijnen, J (23 June 2015). Cannabinoids for Medical Use:
A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.. JAMA 313
(24): 24562473. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.6358. PMID
26103030.
[27] Wang T, Collet JP, Shapiro S, Ware MA (June 2008).
Adverse eects of medical cannabinoids: a systematic review. CMAJ (Review) 178 (13): 166978.
doi:10.1503/cmaj.071178. PMC 2413308. PMID
18559804.
[28] Jordan K, Sippel C, Schmoll HJ (September 2007).
Guidelines for antiemetic treatment of chemotherapyinduced nausea and vomiting: past, present, and future recommendations. Oncologist (Review) 12 (9):
114350. doi:10.1634/theoncologist.12-9-1143. PMID
17914084.

[13] Marijuana intoxication: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2013-07-12.

[29] State-Level Proposals to Legalize Marijuana. asam.org.

[14] Marijuana: Factsheets: Appetite. Adai.uw.edu. Retrieved 2013-07-12.

[30] The Myth of Medical. Scholastic Inc. 2012. Retrieved

12 January 2015.

[15] Crippa, JA; Zuardi, AW; Martn-Santos, R; Bhattacharyya, S; Atakan, Z; McGuire, P; Fusar-Poli, P (October 2009). Cannabis and anxiety: a critical review of the
evidence.. Human psychopharmacology 24 (7): 51523.
doi:10.1002/hup.1048. PMID 19693792.

[31] Emmanuel S Onaivi; Takayuki Sugiura; Vincenzo Di

Marzo (2005). Endocannabinoids: The Brain and Bodys
Marijuana and Beyond. Taylor & Francis. p. 58. ISBN
978-0-415-30008-7.

[16] Riviello, Ralph J. (2010). Manual of forensic emergency

medicine : a guide for clinicians. Sudbury, Mass.: Jones
and Bartlett Publishers. p. 41. ISBN 9780763744625.

[32] Wayne Hall; Rosalie Liccardo Pacula (2003). Cannabis

Use and Dependence: Public Health and Public Policy.
Cambridge University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-52180024-2.

12

[33] Mathre, Mary Lynn, ed. (1997). Cannabis in Medical Practice: A Legal, Historical, and Pharmacological
Overview of the Therapeutic Use of Marijuana. University of Virginia Medical Center. pp. 144. ISBN 978-07864-8390-7.
[34] Riedel, G.; Davies, S.N. (2005). Cannabinoid function
in learning, memory and plasticity. Handb Exp Pharmacol. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology 168
(168): 446. doi:10.1007/3-540-26573-2_15. ISBN 3540-22565-X. PMID 16596784.
[35] Andrew Golub (2012). The Cultural/Subcultural Contexts
of Marijuana Use at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century.
Routledge. p. 82. ISBN 978-1-136-44627-6.
[36] Allan Tasman; Jerald Kay; Jerey A. Lieberman; Michael
B. First; Mario Maj (2011). Psychiatry. John Wiley &
Sons. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-119-96540-4.
[37] Ed Rosenthal (2002). Ask Ed: Marijuana Gold: Trash
to Stash. Perseus Books Group. p. 15. ISBN 978-1936807-02-4.
[38] Cannabis and Cannabis Extracts: Greater Than the Sum
of Their Parts?" (PDF). Cannabis-med.org. Retrieved
2014-04-07.
[39] Dronabinol in the ChemIDplus database
[40] Dale Gieringer, Ph.D.; Ed Rosenthal (2008). Marijuana
medical handbook: practical guide to therapeutic uses of
marijuana. QUICK AMER Publishing Company. p.
182. ISBN 978-0-932551-86-3.
[41] Nutt, D.; King, L. A.; Saulsbury, W.; Blakemore,
C. (2007). Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse. The
Lancet 369 (9566): 10471053. doi:10.1016/S01406736(07)60464-4. PMID 17382831.
[42] Drug Abuse Warning Network, 2011. National Estimates of Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits
(PDF). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
2011. Retrieved 2015-05-08.
[43] "www.samhsa.gov".
[44] Volkow ND, Baler RD, Compton WM, Weiss SR (2014).
Adverse health eects of marijuana use. N. Engl. J.
Med. 370 (23): 221927. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1402309.
PMID 24897085.
[45] Gordon AJ, Conley JW, Gordon JM (December 2013).
Medical consequences of marijuana use: a review of
current literature. Curr Psychiatry Rep 15 (12): 419.
doi:10.1007/s11920-013-0419-7. PMID 24234874.

12

REFERENCES

[48] Sativex Oral Mucosal Spray Public Assessment Report. Decentralized Procedure. (PDF). United Kingdom
Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency.
p. 93. Retrieved 2015-05-07. There is clear evidence that
recreational cannabis can produce a transient toxic psychosis in larger doses or in susceptible individuals, which
is said to characteristically resolve within a week or so of
absence (Johns 2001). Transient psychotic episodes as
a component of acute intoxication are well-documented
(Hall et al 1994)
[49] D'Souza, DC; Sewell, RA; Ranganathan, M (October
2009). Cannabis and psychosis/schizophrenia: human
studies.. European archives of psychiatry and clinical
neuroscience 259 (7): 41331. PMID 19609589.
[50] Calabria B et al. (May 2010). Does cannabis use increase the risk of death? Systematic review of epidemiological evidence on adverse eects of cannabis use.
Drug Alcohol Rev. 29 (3): 31830. doi:10.1111/j.14653362.2009.00149.x. PMID 20565525.
[51] Lubman, DI; Cheetham, A; Ycel, M (April
2015).
Cannabis and adolescent brain development..
Pharmacology & therapeutics 148: 1
16. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2014.11.009. PMID
25460036.
[52] Stephen Maisto; Mark Galizio; Gerard Connors (2014).
Drug Use and Abuse. Cengage Learning. p. 278. ISBN
978-1-305-17759-8.
[53] Tashkin, DP (June 2013). Eects of marijuana smoking
on the lung.. Annals of the American Thoracic Society 10
(3): 23947. PMID 23802821.
[54] Tetrault, JM; Crothers, K; Moore, BA; Mehra, R;
Concato, J; Fiellin, DA (12 February 2007). Effects of marijuana smoking on pulmonary function
and respiratory complications:
a systematic review.. Archives of internal medicine 167 (3): 2218.
doi:10.1001/archinte.167.3.221. PMID 17296876.
[55] Hashibe, M; Straif, K; Tashkin, DP; Morgenstern,
H; Greenland, S; Zhang, ZF (April 2005). Epidemiologic review of marijuana use and cancer
risk.. Alcohol (Fayetteville, N.Y.) 35 (3): 26575.
doi:10.1016/j.alcohol.2005.04.008. PMID 16054989.
[56] Does smoking cannabis cause cancer?". Cancer Research UK. 2010-09-20. Retrieved 2013-01-09.
[57] Tashkin, Donald (March 1997). Eects of marijuana
on the lung and its immune defenses. UCLA School of
Medicine. Retrieved 2012-06-23.

[46] Committee on Obstetric Practice (July 2015).

Committee Opinion No.
637:
Marijuana
ObUse During Pregnancy and Lactation.
stetrics & Gynecology:
126 (1):
234238.
doi:10.1097/01.AOG.0000467192.89321.a6.

[58] Huang, YH; Zhang, ZF; Tashkin, DP; Feng, B; Straif, K;

Hashibe, M (January 2015). An epidemiologic review
of marijuana and cancer: an update.. Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the
American Society of Preventive Oncology 24 (1): 1531.
doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-14-1026. PMID 25587109.

[47] W. Hall, N. Solowij (1998-11-14).

Adverse effects of cannabis. Lancet 352 (9140): 161116.
doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(98)05021-1. PMID 9843121.

[59] A. Riecher-Rssler (2014). Comorbidity of Mental and

Physical Disorders. Karger Medical and Scientic Publishers. p. 88. ISBN 978-3-318-02604-7.

13

[60] Cottencin O. (Dec 2010). Cannabis arteritis: review of the literature. J Addict Med (Review) 4 (4):
1916. doi:10.1097/ADM.0b013e3181beb022. PMID
21769037.
[61] Thomas G (2014-01-01).
Adverse cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and peripheral vascular effects of marijuana inhalation:
what cardiologists
need to know. Am J Cardiol 113 (1): 18790.
doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2013.09.042. PMID 24176069.

[73] Juan Iovanna; Uktam Ismailov (2009). Pancreatology:

From Bench to Bedside. Springer. p. 40. ISBN 978-3642-00152-9.
[74] Wilson, R. & Nicoll, A. (2002). Endocannabinoid signaling in the brain. Science 296 (5568): 678682.
doi:10.1126/science.1063545. PMID 11976437.
[75] Fernandez, J. & Allison, B. (2004). Rimbonabant
Sano-Synthelabo. Current Opinion in Investigational
Drugs (5): 430435.

[62] RT Jones (2002). Cardiovascular system eects of marijuana. J Clin Pharmacol (Review) 42 (11 Suppl): 58S
63S. doi:10.1002/j.1552-4604.2002.tb06004.x. PMID
12412837.

[76] Atta-ur- Rahman; Allen B. Reitz (2005). Frontiers in

Medicinal Chemistry. Bentham Science Publishers. p.
150. ISBN 978-1-60805-205-9.

[63] Batalla, Albert et. al (2013). Structural and Functional

Imaging Studies in Chronic Cannabis Users: A Systematic
Review of Adolescent and Adult Findings. PLoS ONE 8
(2): e55821. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055821. PMID
23390554.

[77] Kathmann, Markus; Flau, Karsten; Redmer, Agnes; Trnkle, Christian; Schlicker, Eberhard (2006). Cannabidiol is an allosteric modulator at mu- and delta-opioid receptors. Naunyn-Schmiedebergs Archives of Pharmacology 372 (5): 354361. doi:10.1007/s00210-006-0033-x.
PMID 16489449.

[64] Martn-Santos, R et.

al (2010).
Neuroimaging
in cannabis use: a systematic review of the literature..
Psychological Medicine 40 (3): 38398.
doi:10.1017/S0033291709990729. PMID 19627647.
[65] Crean, RD; Crane, NA; Mason, BJ (March 2011).
An evidence based review of acute and long-term
eects of cannabis use on executive cognitive functions..
Journal of addiction medicine 5 (1): 1
8.
doi:10.1097/ADM.0b013e31820c23fa.
PMID
21321675.
[66] Rocchetti, M; Crescini, A; Borgwardt, S; Caverzasi, E;
Politi, P; Atakan, Z; Fusar-Poli, P (November 2013).
Is cannabis neurotoxic for the healthy brain? A metaanalytical review of structural brain alterations in nonpsychotic users.. Psychiatry and clinical neurosciences 67
(7): 48392. doi:10.1111/pcn.12085. PMID 24118193.
[67] van Holst, RJ; Schilt, T (March 2011). Drug-related decrease in neuropsychological functions of abstinent drug
users.. Current drug abuse reviews 4 (1): 4256. PMID
21466500.
[68] Hall, W (January 2015). What has research over the past
two decades revealed about the adverse health eects of
recreational cannabis use?". Addiction (Abingdon, England) 110 (1): 1935. PMID 25287883.
[69] http://www.webmd.com/mental-health/addiction/news/
20080507/withdrawal-symptoms-from-smoking-pot
[70] Hall, W; Degenhardt, L (17 October 2009). Adverse
health eects of non-medical cannabis use.. Lancet 374
(9698): 138391. PMID 19837255.
[71] Wayne Hall; Rosalie Liccardo Pacula (2003). Cannabis
Use and Dependence: Public Health and Public Policy.
Cambridge University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-52180024-2.
[72] Leo E. Hollister et al. (March 1986). Health aspects of
cannabis. Pharma Review (38): 120. Archived from
the original on 1986. Retrieved 2011-02-17.

[78] Nadia Hejazi, Chunyi Zhou, Murat Oz, Hui Sun,

Jiang Hong Ye, Li Zhang (March 2006).
"9tetrahydrocannabinol and endogenous cannabinoid anandamide directly potentiate the function of glycine peceptors (PDF). Molecular Pharmacology 69 (3): 9917.
doi:10.1124/mol.105.019174. PMID 16332990.
[79] Donald G. Barceloux (3 February 2012). Medical Toxicology of Drug Abuse: Synthesized Chemicals and Psychoactive Plants. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 910. ISBN
978-1-118-10605-1. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
[80] Randall Clint Baselt (2008). Disposition of Toxic Drugs
and Chemicals in Man. Biomedical Publications. pp.
15131518. ISBN 978-0-9626523-7-0.
[81] Leslie M. Shaw; Tai C. Kwong (2001). The Clinical Toxicology Laboratory: Contemporary Practice of Poisoning
Evaluation. Amer. Assoc. for Clinical Chemistry. p. 51.
ISBN 978-1-890883-53-9.
[82] John Kelly (2010-06-28). Has the most common marijuana test resulted in tens of thousands of wrongful convictions?". AlterNet.
[83] Venkatratnam, Abhishek; Nathan H. Lents (July
2011).
Zinc Reduces the Detection of Cocaine,
Methamphetamine, and THC by ELISA Urine Testing.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology 35 (6): 333340.
doi:10.1093/anatox/35.6.333. PMID 21740689.
[84] Lin, Chia-Ni; Strathmann, Frederick (July 10, 2013).
Elevated Urine Zinc Concentration Reduces the Detection of Methamphetamine, Cocaine, THC and Opiates in
Urine by EMIT (PDF). Journal of Analytical Toxicology.
doi:10.1093/jat/bkt056.
[85] J. E. Joy, S. J. Watson, Jr., and J. A. Benson, Jr. (1999).
Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing The Science Base.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences Press.
ISBN 0-585-05800-8.
[86] Why Does Cannabis Potency Matter?". United Nations
Oce on Drugs and Crime. 2009-06-29.

14

12

REFERENCES

[87] http://home.olemiss.edu/~{}suman/potancy%20paper% [106] Raymond Goldberg (2012). Drugs Across the Spectrum,
202010.pdf?_ga=1.88923355.1710570937.1430820646
7th ed. Cengage Learning. p. 255. ISBN 978-1-13359416-1.
[88] http://www.briancbennett.com/charts/fed-data/
thc-content/thc-content-sinsemilla.htm
[107] Alchimia Blog, Rosin Hash
[89] http://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2014/jan/17/ [108] Leslie L. Iversen (2000). The Science of Marijuana. Oxcannabis-memory-loss-cbd
ford University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-19-515110-7.
[90] Cannabis Potency. National Cannabis Prevention and [109] Jerey A. Cohen; Richard A. Rudick (2011). Multiple
Information Centre. Retrieved 2011-12-13.
Sclerosis Therapeutics. Cambridge University Press. p.
670. ISBN 978-1-139-50237-5.
[91] BBC: Cannabis laws to be strengthened. May 2008 20:55
UK. BBC News. 2008-05-07. Retrieved 2010-09-20. [110] Brown, Alex (2013-05-15). The Amateurs Guide to
Dabs - Alexander Abad-Santos. The Atlantic Wire. Re[92] Di Forti, M; Morgan, C; Dazzan, P; Pariante, C; Montrieved 2014-02-28.
delli, V; Marques, TR; Handley, R; Luzi, S et al.
(2009). High-potency cannabis and the risk of psy- [111] Dabsmarijuanas explosive secret. Cnbc.com. 2014chosis. British Journal of Psychiatry 195 (6): 48891.
02-24. Retrieved 2014-02-28.
doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.109.064220. PMC 2801827. PMID
[112] World Drug Report. United Nations Publications. 2009.
19949195.
p. 98.
[93] Hope, Christopher (2008-02-06). Use of extra strong
'skunk' cannabis soars. The Daily Telegraph (London). [113] Alison Hallett for Wired. Feb. 20, 2013 Hash Oil is Blowing Up Across the U.S. - Literally
[94] Harold Doweiko (2011). Concepts of Chemical Dependency. Cengage Learning. p. 124. ISBN 1-133-17081-1. [114] Elise McDonough; Editors of High Times Magazine
(2012). The Ocial High Times Cannabis Cookbook:
[95] Wayne Hall; Rosalie Liccardo Pacula (2003). Cannabis
More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High.
Use and Dependence: Public Health and Public Policy.
Chronicle Books. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-4521-0133-0.
Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-52180024-2.
[115] Leslie L. Iversen Professor of Pharmacology University of
Oxford (2007). The Science of Marijuana. Oxford Uni[96] United Nations Oce on Drugs and Crime (2009).
versity Press. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-19-979598-7.
Recommended Methods for the Identication and Analysis of Cannabis and Cannabis Products. United Nations [116] Flin Flon Mine Area Marijuana Contamination, MedicalPublications. p. 15. ISBN 978-92-1-148242-3.
marihuana.ca, retrieved 2011-04-20
[97] Patricia A. Adler; Peter Adler; Patrick K. O'Brien (Febru- [117] Warnings over glass in cannabis. BBC News. 2007-02ary 28, 2012). Drugs and the American Dream: An An01. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
thology. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 330. ISBN 978-0-470[118] Electronenmicroscopisch onderzoek van vervuilde wiet67027-9.
monsters (PDF).
[98] Clayton J. Mosher; Scott M. Akins (August 20, 2013).
Drugs and Drug Policy: The Control of Consciousness Al- [119] Busse F, Omidi L, Timper K et al. (April 2008). Lead
teration. SAGE Publications. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-4833poisoning due to adulterated marijuana. N. Engl. J. Med.
2188-2.
358 (15): 16412. doi:10.1056/NEJMc0707784. PMID
18403778.
[99] Hemp Facts. Naihc.org. Retrieved 2013-01-09.
[120] Hall, W.; Nelson, J. (1995). Public perceptions of the
[100] Decarboxylation Does Marijuana Have to be Heated to
health and psychological consequences of cannabis use.
Become Psychoactive?". Cannabisculture.com. 2003-01Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.
02. Retrieved 2012-10-09.
ISBN 978-0-644-42830-9.
[101] Ed Rosenthal (2002). Ask Ed : Marijuana Gold: Trash
[121] StollzNow (2006). Market research report: Australians on
to Stash. QUICK AMER Publishing Company. p. 116.
cannabis. Report prepared for NDARC and Pzer AusISBN 978-0-932551-52-8.
tralia. Sydney: StollzNow Research and Advisory.
[102] Kief. Cannabisculture.com. 2005-03-09. Retrieved
[122] Alison Matthews; Laurence Matthews (2007). Tuttle
2010-01-02.
Learning Chinese Characters: A Revolutionary New Way
to Learn and Remember the 800 Most Basic Chinese Char[103] David Bukszpan (2012). Is That a Word?: From AA to
acters. Tuttle Publishing. p. 336. ISBN 978-0-8048ZZZ, the Weird and Wonderful Language of SCRABBLE.
3816-0.
Chronicle Books. p. 94. ISBN 978-1-4521-0824-7.
[123] Peter G. Staord; Jeremy Bigwood (1992). Psychedelics
Encyclopedia. Ronin Publishing. p. 157. ISBN 978-0[105] Castle/Murray/D'Souza (2004). Marijuana and Madness.
914171-51-5.
Cambridge University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-13950267-2.
[124] Marijuana and the Cannabinoids, ElSohly (p. 8).
[104] Hashish. dictionary.reference.com.

15

[125] Rudgley, Richard (1998). Lost Civilisations of the Stone [143] Statement of Dr. William C. Woodward. Drug library.
Age. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-684-85580-1.
Retrieved 2010-09-20.
[126] Lab work to identify 2,800-year-old mummy of [144]
shaman. Peoples Daily Online. 2006.
[145]
[127] Hong-En Jiang et al. (2006). A new insight into
Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae) utilization from
2500-year-old Yanghai tombs, Xinjiang, China.
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 108 (3): 41422. [146]
doi:10.1016/j.jep.2006.05.034. PMID 16879937.

Debunking the Hemp Conspiracy Theory.

W. W. Willoughby (1925). Opium as an international
problem. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press. Retrieved 2010-09-20.
Opium as an international problem: the Geneva conferences Westel Woodbury Willoughby at Google Books

[128] Parsche, Franz; Nerlich, Andreas (1995). Presence of [147] Laurence Armand French; Magdaleno Manzanrez
drugs in dierent tissues of an egyptian mummy. Frese(2004). Nafta & Neocolonialism: Comparative Criminal,
nius Journal of Analytical Chemistry 352 (3-4): 380384.
Human & Social Justice. University Press of America. p.
doi:10.1007/BF00322236.
129. ISBN 978-0-7618-2890-7.
[129] Balabanova, S.; Parsche, S.; Pirsig, W. (August [148] Mitch Earleywine (2002). Understanding Marijuana: A
1992).
First identication of drugs in Egyptian
New Look at the Scientic Evidence. Oxford University
mummies. Naturwissenschaften 79 (8): 358358.
Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-19-513893-1.
doi:10.1007/BF01140178.
[149] Preston Peet (2004). Under The Inuence: The Disinfor[130] Leary, Timothy (1990). Tarcher & Putnam, ed. Flashmation Guide To Drugs. Consortium. p. 55. ISBN 978backs. New York: GP Putnams Sons. ISBN 0-874771-932857-00-9.
870-0.
[150] Hayo M.G. van der Werf : Hemp facts and hemp ction.
[131] Miller,
Ga (1911).
Encyclopdia Britannica.
Science 34 (883) (11 ed.).
pp.
7612. [151] Dr. Ivan Bcsa, GATE Agricultural Research Institute,
doi:10.1126/science.34.883.761. PMID 17759460.
Kompolt Hungary, Book Review Re-discovery of the
Crop Plant Cannabis Marihuana Hemp (Die Wiederent[132] Rudgley, Richard (1998). Little, Brown et al., eds. The
deckung der Nutzplanze Cannabis Marihuana Hanf)
Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances. ISBN 0-34911127-8.
[152] Sterling Evans (2007). Bound in twine: the history and
ecology of the henequen-wheat complex for Mexico and the
[133] Franck, Mel (1997). Marijuana Growers Guide. Red Eye
American and Canadian Plains, 18801950. Texas A&M
Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-929349-03-2.
University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-58544-596-7.
[134] Rubin, Vera D (1976). Cannabis and Culture. Campus
[153] the history of nylon. caimateriali.org.
Verlag. p. 305. ISBN 3-593-37442-0.
[154] Nylon: A Revolution in Textiles. chemheritage.org.
[135] Cunlie, Barry W (2001). The Oxford Illustrated History
of Prehistoric Europe. Oxford University Press. p. 405. [155] American Chemical Society: THE FIRST NYLON
ISBN 0-19-285441-0.
PLANT. 1995
[136] Walton, Robert P (1938). Marijuana, Americas New [156] Van Luling, Todd (2014-04-17). 8 Things Even New
Drug Problem. JB Lippincott. p. 6.
Yorkers Don't Know About New York City. The Huington Post.
[137] Ibn Taymiyya (2001). Le haschich et l'extase (in French).
Beyrouth: Albouraq. ISBN 2-84161-174-4.
[138] Bard 'used drugs for inspiration'". BBC News. 2001-0301. Retrieved 2009-08-07.

[157] Eliana Dockterman (29 June 2012). Marijuana Now the

Most Popular Drug in the World. Time NewsFeed. Time
Inc. Retrieved 16 March 2013.

[139] Drugs clue to Shakespeares genius. CNN (Turner [158] Mohan J, ed. (June 2014). World Drug Report 2014
(PDF). United Nations Oce on Drugs and Crime. p. 3.
Broadcasting System). 2001-03-01. Retrieved 2009-08Retrieved 18 August 2014.
07.
[140] John G. Bourke (1984-01-05). Popular medicine, cus- [159] David Levinson (2002). Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment. SAGE Publications. p. 572. ISBN 978-0-7619toms, and superstitions of the Rio Grande. Journal of
2258-2.
American folklore 78: 138.
[141] "(Record of marijuan sample submitted by Bourke to [160] Many Dutch coee shops close as liberal policies change,
Exaptica. Expatica.com. 2007-11-27. Retrieved 2010the National Museum, 1892)".
09-20.
[142] Bourke cites an anonymous writer in the Evening Star,
Washington, D. C., January 13, 1894 for additional re- [161] EMCDDA Cannabis reader: Global issues and local exmarks on the use of mariguan and Jamestown weed by
periences, Perspectives on Cannabis controversies, treatinhabitants of the area.
ment and regulation in Europe, 2008, p. 157.

16

12

REFERENCES

[162] 43 Amsterdam coee shops to close door, Radio [179] European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug AddicNetherlands, Friday 21 November 2008
tion (2008). Annual report: the state of the drugs problem
in Europe (PDF). Luxembourg: Oce for Ocial Pub[163] Marijuana goes legal in Washington state amid mixed
lications of the European Communities. p. 38. ISBN
messages. Reuters. Retrieved December 14, 2012.
978-92-9168-324-6.
[164] Alan Duke (2012-11-08). 2 states legalize pot, but don't [180] Blackwell, Tom (2013-10-16). The pot vending ma'break out the Cheetos yet. CNN.com. Retrieved 2013chines rst foreign market? Canada, of course, a seed
01-02.
for the rest of the world". National Post. Retrieved 201312-04.
[165] Marijuana clubs ring in new year in Colorado as legalized
pot smoking begins. Abcnews.go.com. 2013-01-01. Re- [181] RAND study casts doubt on claims that marijuana acts
trieved 2013-01-02.
as gateway to the use of cocaine and heroin. RAND
Corporation. 2002-12-02. Archived from the original on
[166] Horward Mintz (2013-05-06). Medical pot: California
2006-11-04.
Supreme Court allows cities to ban weed dispensaries.
Marin Independent Journal.
[182] Arthur Benavie (University of North Carolina) (2009).
Drugs: Americas Holy War. Routledge. pp. 90. ISBN
[167] Vicky Baker. Marijuana laws around the world: what
978-0-7890-3840-1.
you need to know. the Guardian.
[183] Public Views of Marijuana Legalization, Decriminal[168] Lanzan llamado a interesados en producir y disization, Concerns | Pew Research Center for the People
tribuir marihuana, El Pas [Uruguay], August
and the Press.
1,
2014,
http://www.elpais.com.uy/informacion/
llamado-interesados-producir-distribuir-marihuana.
[184] Clayton J. Mosher; Scott Akins (2007). Drugs and Drug
html
Policy: The Control of Consciousness Alteration. SAGE
Publications. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-7619-3007-5.
[169] Marihuana:
con mayora en contra, la ley
avanza lento, El Pas [Uruguay], July 24, [185] Saitz, Richard (2003-02-18). Is marijuana a gateway
2014,
http://www.elpais.com.uy/informacion/
drug?". Journal Watch 2003 (218): 1.
marihuana-mayoria-contra-ley-avanza.html
[186]
[170] Leonardo Haberkorn (correspondent for the Associated Press in Uruguay), Uruguays budding plan for legal pot faces hurdles, Houston Chronicle, August 1, 2014, http://www.
houstonchronicle.com/news/nation-world/world/article/
Uruguay-s-budding-plan-for-legal-pot-faces-hurdles-5663817.
[187]
php

Degenhardt, Louisa et al. (2007). Who are the

new amphetamine users? A 10-year prospective study
of young Australians. Addiction 102 (8): 1269
79. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.01906.x. PMID
17624977.
3 The Experience of Drug Users. 2009/10 Scottish
Crime and Justice Survey: Drug Use. The Scottish Government. 21 January 2011. Retrieved 5 November 2013.

[171] Uruguays Marijuana Marketplace Program Could Be

Going Up In Smoke, Fox News Latino, August 3, 2014, [188] Morral AR, McCarey DF, Paddock SM (2002).
http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/money/2014/08/03/
Reassessing
the
marijuana
gateway
eect.
uruguay-marijuana-marketplace-program-could-be-going-up-in-smoke/
Addiction 97 (12): 1493504. doi:10.1046/j.13600443.2002.00280.x. PMID 12472629.
[172] Daniel Forbes (2002-11-19). The Myth of Potent Pot.
Slate.com.
[189] Marijuana Policy Project- FAQ. Archived from the
original on 2008-06-22.
[173] World Drug Report 2006. United Nations Oce on
Drugs and Crime. Ch. 2.3.
[190] Torabi MR, Bailey WJ, Majd-Jabbari M (1993).
Cigarette Smoking as a Predictor of Alcohol and Other
[174] Cannabis: Wholesale, street prices and purity levels
Drug Use by Children and Adolescents: Evidence of the
(PDF). UNODC.org. 2005. Retrieved 2013-01-09.
Gateway Drug Eect"". The Journal of School Health 63
(7): 3026. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.1993.tb06150.x.
[175] Report on U.S. Domestic Marijuana Production.
PMID
8246462.
NORML. Retrieved 2010-01-02.
[176] Marijuana Crop Reports. NORML. Retrieved 2010- [191] Vanyukov MM, Tarter RE, Kirillova GP et al. (June
2012). Common liability to addiction and gateway hy01-02.
pothesis": theoretical, empirical and evolutionary perspective. Drug Alcohol Depend (Review). 123 Suppl
[177] Marijuana Called Top U.S. Cash Crop. 2008 ABCNews
1: S317. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.12.018. PMC
Internet Ventures.
3600369. PMID 22261179.
[178] United Nations Oce on Drugs and Crime (2008). World
drug report (PDF). United Nations Publications. p. 264. [192] Marijuana Research. scienticamerican.com. 2004-11ISBN 978-92-1-148229-4.
22. Retrieved 2013-01-15.

17

[193] Laura L. Boles Ponto (May 2006).

Challenges
of marijuana research.
Brain 129 (5): 10813.
doi:10.1093/brain/awl092.
[194] Alok Jha (2012-05-31). Ecstasy and cannabis should
be freely available for study, says David Nutt. The
Guardian. Retrieved 2013-01-15.
[195] Medical Marijuana Policy in the United States. Stanford.edu. 2012-05-15. Retrieved 2013-01-15.
[196] Research into marijuanas medical benets limited; scientists cite challenge of studying an illegal drug. bostonglobe.com. 2012-10-19. Retrieved 2013-01-15.
[197] Peters, Erica N.; Budney, Alan J.; Carroll, Kathleen M. (August 2012). Clinical correlates of cooccurring cannabis and tobacco use: a systematic review.
Addiction 107 (8): 14041417. doi:10.1111/j.13600443.2012.03843.x. PMID 22340422.
[198] Does smoking cannabis cause cancer?".
searchuk.org.

cancerre-

[199] Weed Denition. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 2012-10-09.

[200] Pot Denition. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 2012-10-09.
[201] Grass Denition. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 2012-10-09.
[202] Herb Denition. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 2012-10-09.
[203] Pedro Ruiz, M.D.; Eric C. Strain (2011). Substance
Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook. Lippincott Williams
& Wilkins. p. 214. ISBN 978-1-60547-277-5.
[204] Marijuana Dictionary.

13

External links

Wiktionary Appendix of Cannabis Slang

18

14

14
14.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Cannabis (drug) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)?oldid=677919296 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Bryan Derksen, Novalis, Fubar Obfusco, Heron, Leandrod, Stevertigo, D, Bewildebeast, Fred Bauder, Fuzzie, Ronincyberpunk, Gabbe, Ixfd64, 172, AlexR,
Qaz, GTBacchus, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Angela, JWSchmidt, LittleDan, Julesd, Ugen64, Glenn, Bogdangiusca, Cratbro, Deisenbe, Evercat, Beck, Eszett, Nohat, Andrevan, Dino, Random832, Ike9898, Geary, Steinsky, Tpbradbury, Hyacinth, Grendelkhan, Bhuston, LMB,
Ed g2s, Floydian, Moros~enwiki, Samsara, Mackensen, Dbabbitt, Bloodshedder, Pakaran, Jerzy, Aenar, Catskul, Sander123, Gak, Moondyne, Goethean, Altenmann, JosephBarillari, Calmypal, Samrolken, Merovingian, Aaron Pannell, Academic Challenger, Markewilliams,
Premeditated Chaos, Auric, Rhombus, Rebrane, Catbar, Roozbeh, Mushroom, SoLando, Dina, Vacuum, Nagelfar, Alan Liefting, Dave6,
Cedars, Matt Gies, Alerante, Decrypt3, Centrx, Waliy sherpa, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Nat Krause, Nunh-huh, BenFrantzDale, Tom harrison, Meursault2004, Ferkelparade, Orangemike, Peoplesyak, Ich, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Bkonrad, Lode Runner, Alison, Henry Flower, Jfdwol, Guanaco, FrYGuY, LockeShocke, Iota, AlistairMcMillan, Falcon Kirtaran, Tweenk, Boothinator, SWAdair,
AdamJacobMuller, Bobblewik, Wmahan, JE, Barneyboo, Thewikipedian, Chowbok, Kukuman, Utcursch, Uranographer, Calm, CryptoDerk, Sonjaaa, Gzuckier, Antandrus, Alteripse, Lockeownzj00, Drue, Beland, Elembis, Kaldari, Kiteinthewind, Jossi, MacGyverMagic,
Rdsmith4, Kesac, DragonySixtyseven, Sharavanabhava, Cihan, Kevin B12, Daniel11, Gscshoyru, Commodore Sloat, Creidieki, Mrdectol, Neutrality, Joyous!, Jcw69, Imjustmatthew, Goobergunch, Buickid, Tromatic, Neale Monks, Aknorals, Sonett72, Karl Dickman,
Picapica, JavaTenor, ScrollMaker, Laguna72, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, TheObtuseAngleOfDoom, Acsenray, Moxfyre, Shotwell, Il
hamster, Mike Rosoft, Alkivar, Reason~enwiki, Mormegil, Dramenbejs, Freakofnurture, AliveFreeHappy, Monkeyman, Primary0, Jiy,
Mindspillage, Kathar, Discospinster, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Avriette, Inkypaws, Silverweed, Insertwackynamehere, David
Schaich, Nuview, Xezbeth, Paul August, Horsten, Bender235, ESkog, Cyclopia, Jambalaya~enwiki, Mashford, JoeSmack, Violetriga,
Pedant, PsychoDave, Mr. Billion, Livajo, Ben Webber, Mwanner, Chairboy, Aude, Shanes, Tom, Spearhead, RoyBoy, Dennis Brown,
Triona, Bookofjude, Nrbelex, Amerika, Aaronbrick, Mschoel, Jpgordon, Causa sui, Alxndr, PatrikR, Bobo192, Utopianat, Martey,
NetBot, Hurricane111, Smalljim, Clawson, K0hlrabi, Viriditas, Jbrader, Hismattness, Foobaz, Scapermoya, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc,
Wolfrider~enwiki, Irrawaddy, La goutte de pluie, Pgsa, Rje, Zetawoof, James Foster, Krellis, Stephen Bain, NickCatal, Danski14, Alansohn, Gary, Eric Kvaalen, Theaterfreak64, Atlant, Philip Cross, Rd232, Keenan Pepper, Jeltz, PatrickFisher, Andrewpmk, Cjthellama,
Howrealisreal, El stiko, Riana, AzaToth, Yamla, Thoric, Lectonar, Calton, Axl, Hinotori, SlimVirgin, Zekklen, Ciaran H, Apoc2400,
Ransack, Kz9dsr0t387346, Mailer diablo, InShaneee, Phocks, Dark Shikari, Theodore Kloba, Muugokszhiion, Hu, Malo, Yummifruitbat, Katefan0, Bart133, Caesura, NTK, Bootstoots, Snowolf, Miltonhowe, Schaefer, Benna, Wtmitchell, Sudasana, Gdavidp, Keepsleeping, Cburnett, Jakek101, Stephan Leeds, Garzo, Leoadec, Docboat, Evil Monkey, Canar, Omphaloscope, Ilse@, Harej, Amorymeltzer,
Jon Cates, Costoa, Danthemankhan, Wadems, Scott Gall, BlastOButter42, Computerjoe, BDD, Gene Nygaard, Drbreznjev, Axeman89,
Memenen, NuVanDibe, Bookandcoee, Ceyockey, Galaxiaad, RyanGerbil10, Kenyon, Dismas, Squiquifox, Tariqabjotu, Mahanga, Mhazard9, DarTar, Dr Gangrene, Gmaxwell, BadLeprechaun, Louisgag, MickWest, FrancisTyers, Joelpt, Angr, Kelly Martin, Alvis, Jerey O.
Gustafson, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, TigerShark, LOL, Beanluc, Yansa, Sburke, Miaow Miaow, Uncle G, Yuubinbako, Mazca, Astator, ^demon, Urod, JeremyA, Mms, MONGO, Lapsed Pacist, Bdj, Meeso, RadicalHarmony, Bkwillwm, Cbustapeck, Bbatsell, Triddle, Damicatz, Terence, Mangojuice, Bluemoose, Steinbach, Flamingspinach, SCEhardt, Male1979, Laurel Bush, Tmrobertson, Brendanconway, Wayward, Tokek, Abd, Phlebas, Rad Racer, Zpb52, Natrius, Peligroso, MrSomeone, Mandarax, Sin-man, SqueakBox, Monpirri, Angrtre, Ashmoo, DaFuZzMaStA, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, Mrmicrophone, Wnosewor, Cuchullain, Qwertyus, MC
MasterChef, Kbdank71, Xxpor, FreplySpang, The Disco King, Bleaked, ^Syke^, Kane5187, Josh Parris, Search4Lancer, Canderson7,
Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Coemgenus, Ian Page, TitaniumDreads, Ctdunstan, Stuart Hardie, Bob A, Bill37212, Amire80, JHMM13, Tangotango, Wahkeenah, TheRingess, Soakologist, MZMcBride, Tawker, Cwfranson, Heah, Vegaswikian, CancerOfJuly, Stilgar135, Miserlou, Crazynas, HappyCamper, Ligulem, Savethemooses, Moorlock, Zozza~enwiki, Boccobrock, Lairor, Brighterorange, SenorAnderson,
Bhadani, DuKot, Mikm, Eskimo42, Sango123, DirkvdM, Leningrad, Yamamoto Ichiro, MWAK, Magmafox, Titoxd, Johnnyw, SchuminWeb, BradHD, Ground Zero, AED, Dan Guan, Musical Linguist, Doc glasgow, Latka, Godlord2, Nihiltres, GT, Nivix, Chanting Fox,
AJR, Last1in, Kerowyn, Jdm, Skillz187, RexNL, Gurch, Foolishgrunt, Bennie Noakes, Jrtayloriv, Str1977, Ralphael, OrbitOne, R Lee E,
TeaDrinker, NotJackhorkheimer, EronMain, Alphachimp, Diza, BradBeattie, Freepablo, TheSun, BMF81, Esoterica, Spencerk, Butros,
King of Hearts, Atchius, ...adam..., Chobot, Kulindar, DaGizza, Deyyaz, Haldrik, Celebere, Zath42, Nagytibi, Bornhj, Rikoshi, Mhking, JesseGarrett, Gdrbot, Random user 39849958, VolatileChemical, Voodoom, Bgwhite, Hall Monitor, Digitalme, GarconDansLeNoir,
NSR, Scuzzi, WriterHound, Gwernol, Tone, Ivesfreak, Myeager, Quid~enwiki, Raelx, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, ThunderPeel2001,
Radishes, Crotalus horridus, Eraserhead1, Sceptre, Stan2525, Jachin, Dnik, Peter G Werner, Brandmeister (old), Jetheji, RussBot,
FrenchIsAwesome, AcrophobicEagle, Jtkiefer, Backburner001, Severa, Anonymous editor, Garglebutt, Splash, Pigman, Anache, Generalleo, StarkRG, SpuriousQ, Skidoo, Fabricationary, Tsch81, Matt Fitzpatrick, Akamad, Stephenb, Manop, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius,
Ksyrie, Shaddack, Megastar, Theelf29, Rockyhorror42, Kimchi.sg, Varnav, Wimt, Bullzeye, The Hokkaido Crow, Gustavb, Daveswagon,
Alynna Kasmira, Shanel, NawlinWiki, IAMTHEEGGMAN, SEWilcoBot, Wiki alf, Ytcracker, Bachrach44, Kremmy, Jaxl, D-Katana,
Clam0p, Twin Bird, Poison girl, Dilaudid~enwiki, Howcheng, Robchurch, Joelr31, JTBurman, Lexicon, JDoorjam, Irishguy, Nick, Aaron
Brenneman, Anetode, Banes, Trollderella, Dmoss, Dennis!, Matticus78, Esqg, Blu Aardvark, Yoasif, Raven4x4x, Ezeu, Lachie, Furtim,
Tony1, Alex43223, SameerKhan, Syrthiss, DGJM, M2k41, Todfox, DeadEyeArrow, BigRedBall, Asarelah, Klutzy, Cardsplayer4life,
Derek.cashman, Hosterweis, Spark.1.4, Tullie, Thereverendeg, Elkman, DuDudeX1, Ochiwar, Mjsabby, Black Falcon, Louieduvall,
Nlu, User27091, Smaines, Wknight94, MagicOgre, Volantares, Ms2ger, Searchme, Amigan, BazookaJoe, FF2010, Veatch, Jczerwinski, Calcwatch, Johndburger, Djramone, Ali K, Gtdp, Imaninjapirate, Ankles, TheMadBaron, Saranghae honey, Theda, Closedmouth,
Spondoolicks, Ketsuekigata, Arthur Rubin, Pb30, Adpas, Sean Whitton, BorgQueen, Black-Velvet, GraemeL, Haddock420, JoanneB,
Vicarious, Alias Flood, Scoutersig, Jolb, JLaTondre, ArielGold, Tsiaojian lee, Curpsbot-unicodify, Channels, Johnpseudo, Tall Midget,
ASchmoo, Nsevs, Allens, Internaciulo~enwiki, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, Junglecat, RG2, PietrzakL, DearPrudence, John Broughton,
The Way, BigaZon, AssistantX, Drunkmule, Jdufresne, Babij, DVD R W, Kf4bdy, Bibliomaniac15, SaulPerdomo, That Guy, From That
Show!, Quadpus, Sambauers, Luk, Sycthos, Hiddekel, SpLoT, Drippingmintleaves, Vanka5, Crystallina, Sarah, Fightindaman, Anth a
narchy, SmackBot, Amcbride, Bluelip, Ashenai, RedHouse18, Avengerx, Sticky Parkin, Moeron, Bobet, Urania3, Tarret, Benzo, KnowledgeOfSelf, Royalguard11, McGeddon, Skeezix1000, Shoy, Pgk, C.Fred, Od Mishehu, AndyZ, Blue520, Bomac, Edakin, Davewild,
Chairman S., KVDP, Jrockley, Delldot, Jongpil Yun, Jihiro, Antrophica, Arny, Hardyplants, RamsayHank, Athaler, PJM, Timeshifter,
Frymaster, Vilerage, SampsonSimpson, Apartmento, Nil Einne, Swerdnaneb, Nscheey, Edgar181, HalfShadow, Alex earlier account,
LonglivetheDee, Preeeemo, Ga, Flannel, Xaosux, DarkIye, Aksi great, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Portillo, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Betacommand, Oscarthecat, Skizzik, Msignor, Chromo SDR, NickGarvey, SourceLimit, OldsVistaCruiser, Tennekis, Andy M. Wang, Hraefen, Keytool, Schmiteye, Wikicali00, Moskvech, Wigren, KD5TVI, Scaife, Bluebot, PDD, Stevenwagner, Kurykh, Awaggener, Jjalexand,

14.1

Text

19

SlimJim, Shaggorama, Rkitko, Rampart, Cews, Persian Poet Gal, Rex Germanus, NCurse, Shoofy, Ksenon, Sirex98, Master of Puppets, BabuBhatt, The Jordan, Liamdaly620, Frecklegirl, IanBailey, Fluri, Mdwh, Hibernian, Victorgrigas, Killerdude494949, Deli nk,
StrangerInParadise, Uthbrian, Pomegranite, Jerome Charles Potts, RasstheLenek, CSWarren, HubHikari, Ctbolt, Colonies Chris, BenChristian, Konstable, Antonrojo, Rlevse, Gracenotes, Lightspeedchick, KojieroSaske, Zachorious, Tekhnoend, Mladilozof, PTPete25, Forponia, Xeryus, Royboycrashfan, Chendy, Zsinj, JAK, Quaque, Punchbright, Kotra, Burstroc, Muboshgu, Can't sleep, clown will eat
me, Trystan Morris-Davies, JoelWhy, Tamfang, Metallurgist, Jinxed, Chelsea99, Zone46, Vulcanstar6, OrphanBot, Onorem, Jennica,
Nixeagle, Tzanc, Adrian ne, Zzz345zzz, JAVIonics, RickyCourtney, AaronTAB, TheKMan, Prmacn, Matchups, TKD, Bp28, Pevarnj,
Pnkrockr, Rsm99833, Addshore, Edivorce, DR04, Jam packed, Adamantios, Grover cleveland, Kashomon, Stevenmitchell, Cyhatch, Nuklear, Khoikhoi, WhereAmI, Jmlk17, Nasty Dick, MartinRobinson, Poppppppp, PetterBudt, Krich, Flyguy649, Bulbous, Reid A., Tinctorius, Mightyxander, E. Sn0 =31337=, Crisericson, Mytwocents, Simonapro, Daqu, Makemi, Nakon, Jackohare, Savidan, Ne0Freedom,
KeithAllen, TedE, MichaelBillington, Andymarczak, RaCha'ar, Dream out loud, Jellysho, Stevenrosson, Dreadstar, RandomP, Wikicrusader, ShaunES, Akriasas, Lcarscad, Executor665, BullRangifer, Cannawrite, Weregerbil, Shortarse hedgewitch, KI, Iridescence, Wisco,
Supersuzanne, Hammer1980, DMacks, Unias, Yom, Wizardman, Ultraexactzz, Powelldinho, Speesiac76, Kouterguine, Sturm, Andeggs,
Philipben, Where, Ligulembot, Springnuts, Pilotguy, Ifrit, Wv235, Mostly Rainy, Thejerm, Richdick96, Hmoul, The undertow, Spinolio, Aaron Horn, Nishkid64, Rory096, Robomaeyhem, AThing, Swatjester, Erowidder, Stewie814, Alakey2010, Valfontis, JzG, Dbtfz,
Kuru, John, AmiDaniel, Cwilli201, WhiteCat, FrozenMan, Scientizzle, Keystonelight, Heimstern, Frank Carmody, Loodog, Gobonobo,
JohnCub, Xth0s, Soumyasch, Xakaxunknownx, Dude9393, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Perfectblue97, Linnell, Blinutne, Coredesat, Accurizer, Minna Sora no Shita, Testerer, NenDaiKi, Bannana, Genedial, Mr. Lefty, Yugi121, Don't fear the reaper, Jordangordanier, PseudoSudo, JWaters, Ckatz, Anguis, FrostyBytes, East lite, ThisMightBeRyan, MarkSutton, Naturrien, Willy turner, Slakr,
Jonty303, Drdevil44, MadnessASAP, MTN~enwiki, Notwist, Johnskate17, Johnandbob, EddieVanZant, Rleidigh, Fatalshot, FadieZ, Mr
Stephen, Nickhuh, Raventales, Meco, Waggers, SandyGeorgia, CharlesMartel, Spydercanopus, Dhp1080, Michael J Swassing, Nageeb,
Midnightblueowl, Truthmissile, Shella, Ryulong, Manifestation, Marcipangris, M855GT, Citicat, 2mr.cokes, C-ray, H, Avant Guard, Galactor213, Vagary, Darry2385, Sifaka, Amitch, Keitei, JimmyEmden, The Real Walrus, Norcal etree, Keahapana, KJS77, Stephen B Streater,
Tawkerbot, DabMachine, Mackan, Novictimnocrime, JYi, Levineps, Alan.ca, Ludwjt5, OnBeyondZebrax, Meraloma, Khan3817, Seqsea,
Dead3y3, Iridescent, WezlyTwin, Stangoldsmith, Bryanw03, MatthewJTague, Dansiman, Maestlin, Cannibus288, Cry baby99, Vanished
user 90345uifj983j4toi234k, Kernow, Debeo Morium, Mindzpore, Dansemacabre, Muro, Theoldanarchist, J Di, Darth Borehd, Ncosmob, LoDown86, SweetNeo85, Noodlez84, Happy-melon, Carlip, RJustin23, Mr Chuckles, Maelor, Buckyboy314, Adambiswanger1,
Regionalsimp, WakiMiko, Oluicsaram2, Ochmanek, Tawkerbot2, Nahteecirp, Runderwo, Cashie, DonChris, Timrem, Flubeca, AbsolutDan, Aristotle1990, Emote, TheHorseCollector, SpeedKing, Ioannes Pragensis, Eastlaw, SleepyDan, CalebNoble, The Haunted Angel, Wanucha~enwiki, Switchercat, Georgejames5168, Shlaapy, Kotzker, Crazyjoeda, Ddcc, Loverman69, Xcentaur, Paddyg, J Milburn,
Maria202, JForget, Ezadarque, Billyshzwei, InvisibleK, Sleeping123, Pzyko drummer77, Phillip J, CmdrObot, NorwegianMarcus, Fuzzycasserole, Kolten27, Wafulz, Dycedarg, Foot Dragoon, Mgumn, Triage, Muneesh, Gahoonisme, Orjanbye, KyraVixen, N3X15, VForVendetta, Spike BH, Curty1123, DeLarge, Runningonbrains, Sadist94, R9tgokunks, Nadyes, The Man13, Kylu, Chuva, Zack3rdbb, Reahad,
Rykard, Steve355, Markbirenbaum, BigMar992, Bensommers, BunkNUGZ, Robmichz, MarsRover, Drmed36, Valju, Shizane, Casper2k3,
ButterApple, Neelix, Zinjixmaggir, BrownUniv13, EvilTacox4, Gandhijr23, Guitarmankev1, Noahs ark, Longshot.222, Tim1988, Lokal
Prol, Karenjc, MrFish, Helios Entity 2, Leakeyjee, JavaDog, Johnjohnston, Irienow, TJDay, Tomfreelance, Jordan Brown, Pstarbuck,
Sopoforic, Cydebot, Kayikcioglu, Atomaton, Cahk, Ubiq, Meighan, Eugene V. Packham, Abeg92, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Supposed, A
D 13, Fnoriegac, Bpg542, Steel, Zeppelin462, Michaelas10, MissMetalmouth, Gogo Dodo, Jkokavec, AtTheAbyss, Albert0, Anthonyhcole, JFreeman, Fastolfe00, JosephO75, Llort, Rajveers2001, Thirstyferret, Amchamp, Beefnut, Torvik, Sappy2yah, Wikipediarules2221,
Elyse420, Luckyherb, Sa.vakilian, Caliga10, Karaas, Tawkerbot4, Gspence, Msnicki, M a s, Flatninthbird, DumbBOT, BoSabres09,
Asenine, Crana, Nickleus, Javsav, Dinnerbone, Gojukebox, Viridae, CanadianConservative, Zer0faults, Skanking, The Lizard Wizard,
Superbeatles, Omicronpersei8, JodyB, G0t rap3, Tedbundy777, Mindrearranger, Lo2u, Hex01A4, Grant M, Bellpepper, Krylonblue83,
Christopher Isar, Independent Journalist, EvocativeIntrigue, Lightabyss, Barnaldo, Rjm656s, Crazyeddy17, Johnblock1988, Barticus88,
123mehe, DaemonLee, Erich Schmidt, Do-nutz@hotmail.com, Djluminus89, Sv23, Mongoosedogg, PetePassword, Wwoody123, LeeG,
Sm0key321, Tsmartman123, Free fool, Dasani, Blowski, Tommybtennis2, CL8~enwiki, Loudsox, Ucanlookitup, Craggyisland, Bendroz,
N5iln, Elementjunky, Mojo Hand, Anupam, D digidy dod, Subvertc, Riico96, Onestorystreet, Rifra~enwiki, Marek69, Aiko, John254,
Smile a While, Tapir Terric, Nofxmn1, SomeStranger, Justinshogg, Bashholt, Tellyaddict, DavidLeeLambert, Budd man, CameoAppearance, Jessedavid, Mark ed, Mokkan88, NigelR, Whooooooknows, GideonF, Guido.scalise, AgentPeppermint, Dgies, CharlotteWebb, The
Fat Man Who Never Came Back, Steveagle06, Cooljuno411, Srose, Doctorjo5, TangentCube, Smokey485, Natalie Erin, Stybn, Tabz1991,
Supran, Mentisto, Ju66l3r, Nightclerk, Wordforge, KrakatoaKatie, The prophet wizard of the crayon cake, Canadian, AntiVandalBot,
RoyalAbidi, Stevo D, Yellowarcher, Majorly, Luna Santin, Miracleezz~enwiki, Derrylwc, AndrewJesseBrown, MrNoblet, Opelio, AntoinePancakes, Travelgoer, Mamed1, Bigtimepeace, EarthPerson, ReverendG, Fru1tbat, Prolog, KP Botany, Doc Tropics, Efyoo, Cnota,
Biggz48, Anonymou$, Stev17, James Epstein, Casual Karma, 17Drew, SmokeyTheCat, Juwelzz, Vic226, Jj137, TimVickers, Daniel Villalobos, Jcrock, Smartse, Caesarcub, Konob16, Hopiakuta, Chuchunezumi, Dinferno, LibLord, Opertinicy, Darklilac, Malcolm, Msmrise,
G Rose, Pixelface, Sktrc9, Fireice, Storkk, Qwerty Binary, Toxic1024, Myanw, Jace1, Neur0X, Maxclarke, Uchohan, Kaini, PresN, Figma,
Canadian-Bacon, Uusitunnus, Black6989, BlueResistance, Markthemac, JAnDbot, Narssarssuaq, Runner253, Leuko, Husond, Jimothytrotter, Poga, Puppybiscuit, Kaobear, Yames Ward, MER-C, BlindEagle, Landismatthew, Kaabi, Janejellyroll, Tonyrocks922, ProfessorSmith,
Greyo, Onelover, Soccerplayur012, Relyk, Xeno, 01001, Hut 8.5, 100110100, Malpertuis, GurchBot, Shawnarocks, SmokeyTheFatCat,
PlazzTT, TV Genius, Osufan900, WildlifeAnalysis, The shirt23, Kerotan, Xact, Baz 95, Psicorps, LittleOldMe, SiobhanHansa, BlueSoxSWJ, Tehjosher, SteveSims, Moni3, Riddleout, Meeples, Bogdanszabo, Kibiusa, Magioladitis, AlexGC, Jaysweet, Ace ventura, Albaloo, Bennybp, VoABot II, MartinDK, AuburnPilot, Magneez, Aseems, Wikidudeman, Davidjk, Destor~enwiki, Heckter18, Rob08,
Theraskalking, Ff1959, Skull-king911, Jbrarrow, Mbc362, Cynadar, Swpb, 42 South, TVGH, Trusko, Sic.sick6, Soulbot, Chondrite,
Jim Douglas, Archophiles, Froid, Mr.troughton, AlanPerry, PureRumble, Marchold, Carn, Carlolsen, Jbav1278, Templetrini, Thernlund, Hiplibrarianship, Animum, DonES, Cgingold, EGGMAN, Cranberryjuice10, Hereispuneet, BizarroGT, POTAJ1, Robotman1974,
Anom8trw8, Terjen, Allstarecho, Lethaniol, Tins128, $yD!, El Rojo, Chllgy, Cpl Syx, Spellmaster, Bugtrio, Cswingle, Vssun, Memotype,
Halogenated, Glen, DerHexer, Matt B., Edward321, Zzzzeta, Fulvius~enwiki, JFeustel, Indianajoes67, Sillywalker, Hbent, TheRanger,
Patstuart, Russianbolero, Vishvax, Hypo Mix, Alexihlo, Rickard Vogelberg, Pikolas, Douglashamit, Mercurialmusic, Mmustafa~enwiki,
Xxcheesexx, Jemijohn, Ineable3000, Neonblak, Leaderofearth, Hdt83, MartinBot, Mmoneypenny, CliC, Houshisama, Mermaid from
the Baltic Sea, Coaster420, Wlwcom9000, Sagabot, General Jazza, John Doe or Jane Doe, Ghostwo, Arjun01, The Architect 01, Poeloq,
Axlq, Gunnerdogg, Jorjepot, Naohiro19, Nikpapag, Osquar F, Rettetast, Roastytoast, Ryanoz, Slyfoxx, Calicheese23, Drudman, Streetcarp89, Doodledoo, MirrorSyndrome, Mschel, R'n'B, Trojanman9393, BigBilly08, CommonsDelinker, Vox Rationis, Nono64, KittyCollier, Bobdude32, Jazza89, Leyo, Kris scoeld, Lilac Soul, Icezizim, SASGW, Freeboson, Artcrp, Ashxox6, Cubetriangle, Duane Elverum,
Ieatscones, J.delanoy, Unconscious, CFCF, Trusilver, Thechezman14, Grim Revenant, Huey45, Eddyjay~enwiki, Rub-a-dub~enwiki, Cere-

20

14

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

bral0214, JamesR, Adavidb, Rlsheehan, PHNX, Bogey97, Nixfanrdb123, Fagot4321, Nbauman, Nasmformyzombie, Kosir, BJ Nemeth,
Catmoongirl, Auditri, Courtland 17, Tonytnnt, Xris0, Aaron1339, Andy Fox, Man123123, Pmichaelh, H4xx0r, Nly8nchz, Demessiah,
MatheoDJ, Rankinr, SU Linguist, MartijnStolze, Sk8rsensei16, BeefJeaunt, Lt. penguin, Captain Innity, Dsmizzle, Squeezeweasel, Gzkn,
Acalamari, Zigzagzen, Beansnrice, Hamletg, Amoeba Form, St.daniel, Tehwikinater, Bot-Schafter, Shawn in Montreal, Materia hunter,
Katalaveno, Me-pawel, Tidaress, Renky12, Opeje, DarkFalls, Loves2spoogeOnyou, SpigotMap, Originalhumans, CzarNick, Crakkpot,
GrodytotheMax, Namkop, Kellogg123, Mikael Hggstrm, Tyalorkeshuk, Aadil014, Gurchzilla, DavidVeshkini, Suzumebachi93, Tommy
Hilldiger, Rastaman333, Pyrospirit, Chriswiki, AntiSpamBot, (jarbarf), Wikipedia420, Cymro93, SuzanneKn, Jeronholy, Plasticup,
Loohcsnuf, BenZonaa129, Cowley2000, Dabears238, Joshana, Belovedfreak, F0xfree, Soccereditor, NewEnglandYankee, Gimpz, FretBored, Youtube250, SJP, Odedrim, MKoltnow, Mattythebatty, Malerin, General yuri, Sugarbat, Harris77, Kraftlos, Nicot317, Ljgua124,
Acewolf359, Finnigan86, Robinpartt, Tanaats, Andyanarchy, Shoessss, Birdie013, Angular, Lukeisbest, Cmichael, Yasserario, BrettAllen,
The Right Honourable, Jackaranga, Pradeepbs, Joshua Issac, Cometstyles, The slave to reality, WJBscribe, Benwd, OrganicAtom, Saupher,
YoMomma12345, Bennynoneck, Mleonard85032, ACBest, Donmike10, Jesu Christi, Kunz506, Weede~enwiki, Diletante, Elenseel, SuW,
Savant45, Davosky, Ahoui1000, Use the force, Scott Illini, PeacenLove, Andy Marchbanks, Wuthai, Smartman10, CrazyRob926, Semprus, WLRoss, Ragnorcock, Drumz0rz, Ducttapeandzipties, Steinberger, WallyRankin, Mexicomida, Japadrum, Mrhappyboy, RJASE1,
Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Spellcast, Dr. Kong, Karabeara126, Xnuala, Christopher Mann McKay, Eagle88, Signalhead, Wikieditor06,
Yordanov, MArcane, Templerc, RamzyAbueita, Lights, Migospia, UnicornTapestry, Deor, Shiggity, Thizz1011, Huinyu, Part Deux,
Arenejo, Thedjatclubrock, Murderbike, Rhyswynne, Belbo Casaubon, Science4sail, Kriplozoik~enwiki, Booty23, Bg123ss, Hersfold, Je
G., Indubitably, James Callahan, Victorrocha, Katydidit, IceHorse, Benjiwolf, Vlmastra, Ryan032, QuackGuru, Philip Trueman, Aicchalmers, ClemsonTiger, Fran Rogers, Dickforex, DarkShroom, Fluybun, Koryeh~enwiki, Chiros Sunrider, Db2luw, Chaaalieboy, Afdsafeawt, Celticstoner, DUBJAY04, Eyejuice, Crevox, Rich96, Snake9210, Alan Rockefeller, Metamorphousthe, Gregfadein, Magic17771,
Matthew.cates, Pwnage8, GDonato, Pan88, Miranda, Baxter99999, Ann Stouter, Ridernyc, Canoe420, G man yo, Spacerat3004, Rmncrosby3, JunoBlack, SeattleChronic, Max87~enwiki, Rayof86, Arnon Chan, Derekzak, WeedConnection, Rustiropez, Pen101, IPSOS,
Qxz, Liko81, Mynameiswill, Blevins,tyler, Cunnubisy, Kirkpthompson, Steven J. Anderson, Theanonomous, Sintaku, Buttcrack419, Zimbardo Cookie Experiment, Nvecho, A7a neez, Chic magnet, Schecterguitar70, Samimas, Leafyplant, Ownthink, Popsytm, Booger02,
Old harold, Ilovewikipe, Inventis, Ripepette, Shmags 14, Mikejones77, GeorgeLTirebiter, Zoidy-Poo, Zondi, Mannafredo, Violent.j.11,
Jsteinhoefel, Bob f it, Loco 9ac, StillTrill, Maxbrown9494, BrotherSulayman, Bigoldhippy, Weed52, Onore Baka Sama, Zsw, Pishogue,
Blackbeard42, Theused1062, Cosmos416, Sdrpepper101, Flag125, Chumah, Mkw813, Leecos, SinfulRequiem, Pooper12321, Ismokedro, RadiantRay, BigBurrito69, Wentworth7643, Splisle, Gotchrisnorman, ViresetHonestas, Spiral5800, Suriel1981, Xxxdentionchangerxxxx, HarrisonB, Dr Default, Reptie7, Elmang, Ilikebn30, Johnymac78, Dvmedis, Every name is taken12345, Malick78, Finngall,
Akdjhfhkds 666, Alapoet, Shorty 825, SmileToday, Enviroboy, Bxcarracer, Gaymonkey, Theabzero, Robothefreak, Simon mrozinski,
Jasonmrfy, Squarecloud, T3HKR3W, Stevenkubby, Dickbuttkiss, Phantompie, Mallerd, Skylerbraden1, HowIBecameCivil, Bob19666,
Doonce doonce, Uklondoner, Robotempire, Istillcandream, Brianga, Krystal Johnson, Life, Liberty, Property, Nyghtvzion, LetTheSunshineIn, Twooars, Doc James, Tapman3435, Wingman1331, Agentbikes, Sycodrive, Funeral, Paloma Walker, PoidLover, Mix92master,
Booboobear7, Daveh4h, JamesProngs, Snoocheeboochee, Bonez332, Detiot 21, Poopipoop, Meaneager, Skepticignorant, Tringer, Thenderson1, Steven Weston, Th3 guns1inger2, Qwertyaznman123, Hmwith, Snoma11, Bad Religion2006, Xgllo, Aidepikiw07, Amp rox,
Chalupa678, Martha p, Fanatix, Cosprings, Joshinfrmnt, Bfpage, LorDCallow, Pumpkin420, SieBot, Grason1129, Brandon65936, Johnnobody, Jacksonrm, Davemercer5, Weeliljimmy, PkScary, FarrahGoodli, Themarsarmy, Gerry Wachovsky, NB-NB, Jauerback, Californiacation, Shawnlandden, Krawi, Saltywood, Mrswakka, Gerakibot, Sempreloco64, Dawn Bard, Caltas, MarkBolton, Thewhiteto87,
Darrenm540, Sephiroth storm, REL1870, Peter cohen, Shmelsey, Oneironaur, Sloppyjoe23, Mothmolevna, Roadsworry, Ausie, Hirohisat, Jellyandjam, LookingYourBest, Hiaburi, Grundle2600, Haha2345dem, Nummer29, Gameydude, Keilana, OrlaGleeson, NiteSirk, Kevinb1577, Gandulf~enwiki, Philvsyou, Exert, Alexbrn, Zucchini Marie, MISCHIEF69, Jasgrider, Green6592, Startmeup, Chris
Gottschalk, Leppyman, Mjhildeb, Underdoggum, Ursasapien, Golferlefty, Aruton, Djnathe', Danger Child, Mannyyo, Brimmerite, Chestwagon1222344, Oxymoron83, New wallace, Alvinthekid, Rudyisaho, Thirdeyeopen33, Yerger, WikiFiX03, Lightmouse, KathrynLybarger, Arnobarnard, Int21h, Lilgunner94, Kipahulu, Dr CareBear, Dillard421, Wyatt Blum, Info845, Kdebens, VIPelle, JohnSawyer,
Spartan-James, Karl2620, MrHMcWeed, Dcattell, Metalseadramon, Dala11a, Chillum, Realm of Shadows, Moneyman706, Rjc34, Vanished User 8902317830, Dust Filter, Hello evry1, Moonside, Dabomb87, Bigman122890, MoonlightRosie, GSkrang, Vero29, Aleckz,
Galactic Explorer, Sexydave, Varanwal, Wang King, Albertdgomez, Wylieb0y, Mlswig, MGMario, Escape Orbit, Into The Fray, Steppingaway, Scarfatty, Randy Kryn, The Remedy, Velvetron, Ainlina, Invertzoo, Yoyo24, Faithlessthewonderboy, JedForward, Soporaeternus,
Dunkpunk, Longwonvonhugendong, Kinkyturnip, Revirvlkodlaku, Martarius, FlamingSilmaril, Jjjy1, Doyee5, ClueBot, SummerWithMorons, JarrodLorch, Hofbauer, Abee60, Dominator85, Gforce20, Samostw, Lemnar, LILLUEY15, Whats up Dr. Strangelove, The
Thing That Should Not Be, Sonnycalhoun, Gshurley, Fadesga, Awesomebitch, ImperfectlyInformed, Wysprgr2005, AMD.45H, Supercrazy46, Gregcaletta, Ukabia, Remag Kee, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, DotTanner, Showtime2009, TBustah, Bulletdude, Tokerdesigner,
Redspades, Mike09051, CounterVandalismBot, Leodmacleod, Cpq29gpl, Niceguyedc, Dmb12989, Kurtc07, Blanchardb, Rotational, P.
S. Burton, Sgtlion, Directoryguru, RafaAzevedo, Secret (renamed), Puchiko, SamuelTheGhost, A Baoa Qu, Bryansaccount, Jersey emt,
Panda2DXtreme, Excirial, Pumpmeup, Gnome de plume, Keithbowden, Anon lynx, Gwellesley, GUIB Corrector, Jevers1026, Wikitumnus,
Awelton13421, Joshmaywood, Davo22, Typo420, Hm2pob, Narendra Sisodiya, Twistedillusion93, SpikeToronto, Panoramix303, Ali916,
Siddhi.powers, Compaq George, Ykhwong, Pfh93, Orato123, Growingcannabis, Killdawabbit, Styermeister, Evilguy6, BallinCollin1523,
Mrufrgeson03, Billjets92, NuclearWarfare, Sepeople, Cenarium, Riddles123456, Littlebier8, Drrockso, Gas123, Motoipodnano, Medos2,
Campasu, Ivi4k4v3li, Iohannes Animosus, Balestreri32, Wright0909, Tnxman307, Kcraig07, Psyden, Razorame, Surf Dog, Redthoreau,
DarthTaper, Lolz420lolz, Doghairsticker, Leroyinc, Stepheng3, Another Believer, Chaosdruid, Aprock, Yonskii, Dogma5, GeorgeWwashington, Springbeast, Bjb.butler, Quetzapretzel, Irishlad888, Velvetfog49, X-sheona-x, Final777, NeoandGeo, Versus22, Phxtri, Trigahapykila, Bellroth, Belchre, NJGW, Rlv416, MelonBot, Ramenlover3, Tang23, Freelion, Wnt, Jsce, Marnieglickman, DumZiBoT,
AjitParkash, 02lukedonnelly, Masc versa20, InternetMeme, BarretB, Badmachine, XLinkBot, InMemoriamLuangPu, Pichpich, Jytdog,
Marschner, Imagine Reason, Vanished 45kd09la13, Greenport, Duncan, JS747, Nurishment, Mjpresson, Miguelg, Ost316, Chabit, Little
Mountain 5, Zrs 12, Rreagan007, Mitch Ames, Facts707, WikHead, Jibstarz, Xmitman, Racingsnail123go, Herpatadious Man, EpochFail,
Foreverknowledge, ZooFari, ESO Fan, Sexy gangsta234, RobertoV69, SamK2987, Wyatt915, GDibyendu, Tonyngkh, Ralph pr, Addbot, Ghyslyn, Obuibo Mbstpo,
, Whatwillhappen, JBsupreme, C6541, Murken, Cantaloupe2, Homer saves presidents, Siliconshrew,
DOI bot, Opus88888, DaKiNgAdAbLiNg, Damaband, Zasabi, Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday, Cuaxdon, ContiAWB, Kgendler, Noozgroop, Xaledeib, JRtheDude, NjardarBot, Looie496, AnarchyfortheUK, Ccacsmss, SomeUsr, Glane23, I am sam the man, ChennyMountain, Debresser, LinkFA-Bot, J05HYYY, Frankj1978, Tsange, Pvisi111, Tide rolls, Anxietycello, OlEnglish, Garretttaggs55, Willondon,
Lion Info, Jarble, Ale66, Lucon50, Yobot, Granpu, Gyro Copter, TaBOT-zerem, Rutilus, Legobot II, Specious, Jack5150, Bhpgoos,
TheThomas, Dmarquard, AnomieBOT, Shootbamboo, Arjun G. Menon, Metalhead94, Gtz, Hadrian89, Atroche, M00npirate, Glenfarclas, Treeofrock, Mahmudmasri, Giants27, Citation bot, Kalamkaar, Jasbll333, Debug60, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Simultaneous movement,

14.2

Images

21

Zad68, Jonathan321, Doorzonwoning, Ponticalibus, Jerey Mall, Cactusbin, Anna Frodesiak, Anen87, SamSamSamSamSam, Mlpearc,
Cyphoidbomb, Makeswell, Shaansr, Ble, J04n, JanDeFietser, Littlez22, YoungTesla, LBGcondor, Clark candace, Mikeman4510, Crabjuicer, The Interior, Mayor mt, PauAmma, Psychonaught, Barefootguy, Locobot, Brutaldeluxe, Youmils03, Speaker1994, Moxy, Slowart,
Coolboy223, Ajax151, Editor182, Mattd73uk, Middle 8, AmberUofL, Legobot III, Seisatsu, Sko1221, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Sisyphustkd, Paine Ellsworth, Anarcha, Xmike920, Wings of Daedalus, Fresh B, Goodbye Galaxy, ParaDoxus, Haeinous, Jubaroo69, Icaranious,
Askalan, Commit charge, Slastic, Citation bot 1, Gesalbte, Redrose64, DrilBot, Tristan2020, Pekayer11, Chris814, Abductive, Jonesey95, 01000100 W 01000010, Calmer Waters, Jbob06, A8UDI, Jusses2, Deadtrees, Sucrase, SpaceFlight89, Nijgoykar, JamesGrimshaw,
Herbal Hi, Pismo01, Turian, Bessmorris, Jonnykill, MalcolmX86, Wawawemn, Tim1357, Ueiiue, Bioextra, Mercy11, Trappist the monk,
Chimeraweaver, Jordgette, Melara..., LogAntiLog, What shall i call it?, Cstills3632, Bellampkingsu, Montebello615, Lotje, Catinator, Zakawer, Partiboi, Zachking1, Buggwiki, Hancjona10, Waldo1990, Sneakachu22, Boliviafanclub, Newurbanlier, Stoplookingatmyusername,
Iamzim31, K.S.H.S 2, HeartSpoon, Lildave26, Warlord221, David Hedlund, Theamazingandy, General Helper,
, Cjwilky, FiLtroS,
RjwilmsiBot, Holdensedan, Boogiwiki, Becritical, Ewhalen1, Knoxje, NitricAcidandTHC, EmausBot, Eekerz, An Anonymous Visitor,
Az29, Rbaselt, STATicVapor, Ncsr11, Dewritech, Rideer13, Tommy2010, Dcirovic, Soadfan112, Ornithikos, Darkght, Mojokabobo,
Spencercook8, Hansel 8), The Nut, Ganesh Paudel, Cobaltcigs, SporkBot, Cymru.lass, Jguy, Yowzemz, RastaJah420, Gsarwa, Carmichael,
ChuispastonBot, Michael Bailes, TuYung, ClueBot NG, Somedierentstu, Iamiyouareyou, Joefromrandb, Vjiced, Osterluzei, Pengortm,
Primergrey, Mesoderm, Dewi H, Rezabot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Dragquennom, Devonmax1, John 832, BG19bot, Cheywoodward2, Dinosaurwill, Petrarchan47, WikiTryHardDieHard, Northamerica1000, Jojo11111, Forbes02, IraChestereld, Misterechelon, Exercisephys,
Carlstak, Thenhl15, ProudIrishAspie, MisterMorton, Thomas Westermann, Loriendrew, Bodhisvaha5, Fuse809, Jakebarrington, BattyBot,
TheBaur, Aethersniper, Jeremy112233, Chrisgedwards, Therewillbefact, Mr wiebe, Plutoniumjesus, Jimw338, ChrisGualtieri, Kehkou,
Khazar2, TylerDurden8823, Guywholikesca2+, Soulparadox, Esszet, Lloyddie96, SkyrimWhiterun, Dexbot, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, King
kong96, Warioman86, Cerabot~enwiki, HelicopterLlama, Lugia2453, Michael Heseltin, MrMorphism, Raj Singh, Fort-Henry, Meltingwood, Xwoodsterchinx, SamWest123, Magnolia677, Alfy32, History-Professor-59, Everymorning, Jakec, Precision123, Davidwilliam97,
Clr324, YiFeiBot, , Gubino, Sabatoj, Dominicmgm, DudeWithAFeud, MjolnirPants, Cristodulo, Alayambo, Wdfrocks, Perfect Orange
Sphere, Monkbot, Renamed user 51g7z61hz5af2azs6k6, Vuagunny2608, Jamez42, SailorMoon91, LiphradicusEpicus, ACanadianToker,
Medgirl131, LesVegas, Beren98, Joshy.skandar, Sizeont, Upirama, Non-pupulus-impilium, Preslavnikov, KasparBot, M.P. (MasterPiece),
Hunenmensch, CAPTAIN RAJU and Anonymous: 3605

14.2

Images

File:Bodily_effects_of_cannabis.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Bodily_effects_of_cannabis.svg

License: Public domain Contributors: All used images are in public domain. Original artist: Mikael Hggstrm
File:Cannab2_new.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Cannab2_new.png License: Public domain Contributors:
Cannab2.jpg Original artist: User:Photohound *derivative work:
File:Cannabis_Plant.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Cannabis_Plant.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cannabis Training University
File:Cannabis_leaf.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Cannabis_leaf.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Oren neu dag
File:Cannabissativadior.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Cannabissativadior.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scan aus: Pedanius Dioscurides Der Wiener Dioskurides. Codex medicus Graecus 1 der sterreichischen Nationalbibliothek, Graz: Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt 1999 Band 1 fol. 167 verso. Kommentar von Otto Mazal: S. 70 ISBN 3-201-01699-3
Original artist: Unknown
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Development_of_a_rational_scale_to_assess_the_harm_of_drugs_of_potential_misuse_(physical_harm_and_dependence,
_NA_free_means).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Development_of_a_rational_scale_to_assess_
the_harm_of_drugs_of_potential_misuse_%28physical_harm_and_dependence%2C_NA_free_means%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse. Original artist:
w:de:Benutzer:Dosenfant
File:Drug_bottle_containing_cannabis.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Drug_bottle_containing_
cannabis.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Killerdrug.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Killerdrug.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://drugpolicycentral.com/bot/images/killerdrug.jpg Original artist: Federal Bureau of Narcotics
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Tabletten.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Tabletten.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Unrolled_joint.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Unrolled_joint.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber
File:Woman_selling_Cannabis_and_Bhang_in_Guwahati,_Assam,_India.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/b/b3/Woman_selling_Cannabis_and_Bhang_in_Guwahati%2C_Assam%2C_India.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Subhashish Panigrahi

22

14

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File: -order.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/%E9%BA%BB-order.gif License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors:

ROC:
(Stroke order 14 rules), by the Taiwan Ministry of Education. Book available online (authoritative work). ISBN
957-00-7082-X Original artist: See user in the File history section.

14.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0