RESISTIVE BRIDGE BASICS: PART ONE

Abstract: Bridge circuits are a time-honored way to make accurate measurement of

resistance and other analog values. This article covers the basics of bridge circuits and
shows how to use them to make accurate measurements in practical environments. It
details the key concerns of bridge-circuit applications such as noise, offset voltages and
offset voltage drift, common-mode voltage, and excitation voltage. It describes how to
interface bridges to high-resolution, analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) and the
techniques for maximizing ADC capabilities.

Introduction
The Wheatstone bridge was developed in the early days of electronics as a way to
accurately measure the value of resistors without needing an accurate voltage
reference or a high-impedance meter. Although resistive bridges are seldom used for
this original purpose, they are still widely used in sensor applications. This article will
show why bridges are still so popular and discuss some key considerations in
measuring the output of a bridge.
NOTE: This is a two-part article. Part one reviews the basic bridge and focuses on
bridges with low output signals, like those from bonded-wire or bonded-foil strain
gauges. Part two, application note 3545, "Resistive Bridge Basics: Part Two,"
addresses high output bridges like those that use silicon resistors.

Basic Bridge Configurations

Figure 1 is a classic Wheatstone bridge in which the bridge output, Vo, is the differential
voltage between Vo+ and Vo-. When used in a sensor, the value of one or more of the
resistors will change with the intensity of the property being measured. These changes
in resistance cause the output voltage to change. Equation 1 shows the output voltage,
Vo, as a function of the excitation voltage and all the resistors in the bridge.

Figure 1. Diagram of a basic wheatstone bridge.

Vo = Ve(R2/(R1 + R2) - R3/(R3 + R4))

(Eq. 1)
Equation 1 is not elegant, but can be simplified for most bridges in common use. Bridge
outputs are the most sensitive to changes in resistance when Vo+ and Vo- equal 1/2 of
Ve. This condition is easily achieved by using the same nominal value, R, for all four
resistors. Resistance variations caused by the property being measured are accounted
for by a delta R or dR term. Resistors with a dR term are cited as "active" resistors. In
the following four cases, all the resistors have the same nominal value, R. One, two, or
four of the resistors will be active, or have a dR term. In deriving these equations, dR is
assumed to be positive. If the resistance actually decreases, then -dR used. In the
special cases below, the magnitude of dR is the same for all active resistors.

Four Active Elements

In the first case, all four bridge resistors are active. The resistance of R2 and R4
increase with the intensity of the property being measured, while the resistance of R1
and R3 decreases. This case is typical of a load cell using four strain gauges. The
physical orientation of the strain gauges determines whether their value will increase or
decrease when a load is applied. Equation 2 shows that this configuration produces a
simple linear relationship between the output voltage (Vo) and the change in resistance
(dR). This configuration also provides the largest output signal. It is worth noting that the
output is not just a linear function of dR, it is a linear function for dR/R. This is a subtle
but important difference because the change in resistance of most sensing elements is
proportional to their bulk resistance.
Vo = Ve(dR/R) A bridge with four active elements.
(Eq. 2)

One Active Element

The second case is a single active element (Equation 3). This is frequently used when
cost or wiring considerations are more important than the signal's amplitude.
Vo = Ve(dR/(4R + 2dR)) A bridge with one active element.
(Eq. 3)
As might be expected, the bridge with one active element has 1/4 as much output signal
as the bridge with four active elements. Another important characteristic of this
configuration is the nonlinear output caused by the addition of a dR term in the
denominator. This nonlinearity is small and predictable. If necessary, it can be corrected
in software.

Two Active Elements with Opposite Response

The third case, shown in Equation 4, has two active elements with resistances that
change in opposite directions (dR and -dR). Both resistors are placed on the same side
of the bridge (R1 and R2, or R3 and R4). As expected, the sensitivity is twice that of the
bridge with a single active element, and half that of the bridge with four active elements.
The output for this configuration is a linear function of dR and dR/R. There are no dR
terms in the denominator.
Vo = Ve(dR/(2R)) Two active elements with opposite response.
(Eq. 4)
In both the second and third cases above, only half of the bridge is active. The other
half simply provides a reference voltage that is 1/2 of Ve. Consequently, it is not actually

necessary for all four resistors to have the same nominal value. It is only important that
both resistors on the left half of the bridge match and both resistors on the right half of
the bridge match.

Two Identical Active Elements

The fourth case also uses two active elements, but these elements have a like
response-they both increase in value or decrease in value. To be effective, these
resistors must be at diagonals in the bridge (R1 and R3, or R2 and R4). The obvious
advantage to this configuration is that the same type of sensing element can be used in
both locations. The disadvantage is the nonlinear output resulting from the dR term in
the denominator of Equation 5.
Vo = Ve(dR/(2R + dR) Two identical active elements in a voltage-driven bridge. (Eq. 5)
This nonlinearity is predictable, and can be removed with software or eliminated by
driving the bridge with a current source rather than a voltage source. In Equation 6, Ie is
the excitation current. It should be noted that Vo in Equation 6 is only a function of dR,
not the ratio of dR/R as it was in the prior cases.
Vo = Ie(dR/2) Two identical active elements in a current driven bridge
(Eq. 6)
Understanding the four special cases above is useful when working with individual
sensing elements. Many times, however, the sensor has an internal bridge with an
unknown configuration. In these instances, knowing the exact configuration is not really
important. The manufacturer will supply the necessary information, like sensitivity
linearity error, common-mode voltage, etc. But why use a bridge in the first place? This
question is easily answered by looking at the following example.

Load-Cell Example
One common example of a resistive bridge is a load cell with four active elements. Four
strain gauges are arranged in a bridge configuration and bonded to a rigid structure that
deforms slightly when a load is applied. As the load is applied, the value of two strain
gauges increases while the value of the other two strain gauges decreases. These
changes in resistance are very small. The full-scale output of a typical load cell is 2mV
per volt of excitation. From Equation 2 we can see that this is equivalent to a full-scale
change in resistance of only 0.2%. If the output of the load cell must be measured to an
accuracy of 12-bits, then changes in resistance of 1/2ppm must be accurately
measured. Measuring 1/2ppm changes directly would require a 21-bit ADC. Besides
needing a very high-resolution ADC, the ADC reference would need to be ultra stable. It
could not change more than 1/2ppm over temperature. These two reasons provide
enough motivation for using a bridge, but there is an even better reason.
The resistors in the load cell respond to more than just the applied load. Thermal
expansion of the structure to which they are bonded and the TCR of the gauge material
itself will cause resistance changes. These unwanted changes in resistance can be as
large, or larger, than the change due to intended strain. If, however, these undesirable
changes occur equally in all the bridge resistors, then their effect is negligible or
nonexistent. An unwanted change of 200ppm, for instance, is equivalent to 10% of full
scale in this example. But in Equation 2, changing R by 200ppm creates less than 1

LSB of difference on a 12-bit measurement. In many cases, the wanted change in

resistance, dR, is directly proportional to the bulk resistance, R. In these cases,
changing R by 200ppm should have no effect because the ratio of dR/R remains the
same. The value of R could double and the output voltage would not be affected
because dR would also double.
The above example shows how using a bridge can ease the task of measuring very
small changes in resistance. The following section covers the major circuit concerns
when measuring a bridge.

Five Key Concerns in Bridge Circuits

There are many considerations when measuring low-output bridges. Five of the most
important concerns are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Excitation voltage
Common-mode voltage
Offset voltage
Offset drift
Noise

Excitation Voltage
Equation 1 shows that the output of any bridge is directly proportional to its supply
voltage. Therefore, the circuit must either hold the supply voltage constant to the same
accuracy as the desired measurement, or it must compensate for changes in the supply
voltage. The simplest way to compensate for supply-voltage changes is to derive the
ADC's reference voltage from the bridge's excitation. In Figure 2 the ADC's reference
voltage comes from a voltage divider placed in parallel with the bridge. This causes
changes in supply voltage to be rejected, because the ADC's voltage resolution will
change along with the bridge's sensitivity.

Figure 2. The reference voltage for the ADC is proportional to Ve. This eliminates gain
errors due to changes in Ve.
An alternate approach uses an additional input channel on the ADC to measure the
bridge's excitation voltage. Software can then compensate for changes in bridge
voltage. Equation 7 shows the corrected output voltage, (Voc), as a function of the
measured output voltage (Vom), the measured excitation voltage (Vem), and the
excitation voltage at the time of calibration (Veo).
Voc = VomVeo/Vem
(Eq. 7)

Common-Mode Voltage
One drawback of the bridge is that the output is a differential signal with a commonmode voltage equal to half the supply voltage. Often this differential signal must be
level-shifted and converted to a ground-referenced signal before going to the ADC. If
this is necessary, pay close attention to the common-mode rejection of the system and
how the common-mode voltage is affected by changes in Ve. Returning to the load cell
example above, consider the effects of a change in Ve, if an instrumentation amplifier is
used to convert the differential signal from the bridge to a single-ended signal. If Ve is
allowed to change by 2%, the common mode-voltage at the bridge's output will change
by 1% of Ve. If the affect of this common-mode shift is limited to 1/4 of the accuracy
spec, then the amplifier must have a common-mode rejection of 98.3dB or better.
(20log[0.01Ve/(0.002Ve/(40964))] = 98.27). This level of performance is certainly
achievable, but is beyond the range of many low-cost or discrete instrumentation
amplifiers.

Offset Voltage
Offsets from both the bridge and the measurement electronics shift the desired signal
up or down. Compensating for these shifts is easy during calibration, as long as the
signal remains within the active range of the electronics. If the differential bridge signal
is being converted to a ground-referenced signal, the offset of the bridge and amplifiers
can easily create a signal that is theoretically below ground. When this happens, it
creates a dead spot. The ADC's output remains railed at zero until the bridge's output
signal becomes positive enough to overcome all the negative offsets in the system. To
prevent this, an intentional positive offset must be designed into the circuit. This offset
ensures that the output will be in the active range, even if the bridge and the electronics
have negative offsets. A lesser problem with offset is the reduction of dynamic range. If
this occurs, then higher quality components or electronic offset adjustments may be
needed. Adjustment of the offset may be done with mechanical pots, digital pots, or
even by connecting resistors to the GPIO bits on the ADC.

Offset Drift of the Electronics

Offset drift and noise are by far the largest problems associated with bridge circuits. In
the load-cell example above, the full-scale output of the bridge is 2mV/V and the desired
accuracy is 12-bit. If the load cell is powered from a 5V supply, then the full-scale output

will be 10mV and the measurement accuracy must be 2.5V or better. Restated simply,
an offset shift of only 2.5V will create an error of 1 LSB at the 12-bit level. This is a
challenging requirement for high-quality conventional op-amps. The OP07, for example,
has a max offset TC of 1.3V/C and a maximum long-term drift of 1.5V per month. To
maintain the very low offset drift needed for bridges, some type of active offset
adjustment is needed. This can be done in hardware, software, or a combination of
both.
Hardware-based offset adjustment: Chopper stabilized or auto-zeroing amplifiers
represent a pure hardware solution. Integrated into the amplifier is a special circuit that
continually samples the input and adjusts to maintain a minimal difference in the voltage
between the input pins. As these adjustments are continual, drift over time and
temperature becomes a function of the correction circuit and not the actual offset of the
amplifier. The MAX4238 and MAX4239 have typical offset drifts of 10nV/C and
50nV/1000 hours.
Software-based offset adjustment: Zero calibration or tare measurements are examples
of offset adjustment through software. The bridge's output is measured with the bridge
in one state, no load on the cell, for example. Then the load is applied to the cell and
another reading taken. The difference in the two readings is only due to the stimulus
applied. Taking the difference in readings removes not only the offset of the electronics,
but also the offset of the bridge. This is an extremely effective technique, but can only
be used when the desired result is based on a change in the bridge's output. If an
absolute reading of the bridge output is needed, this technique cannot be used.
Hardware/software offset adjustment: Adding a two-pole analog switch to the circuit
allows a software calibration to be made in practically any application. In Figure 3, the
switch is used to disconnect one side of the bridge from the amplifier and short the
amplifier inputs together. Leaving the other side of the bridge connected to the input of
the amplifier maintains the common-mode input voltage, thus eliminating any errors that
might be caused by changes in common-mode voltage. Shorting the amplifier input
allows a measurement of the system offset to be made. This reading is then subtracted
from subsequent normal readings to remove the offset of all the electronics.
Unfortunately this technique cannot remove the offset of the bridge.

Figure 3. Adding a switch allows software calibration.

This type of automatic zero calibration is built into many modern ADCs and is extremely
effective at removing ADC offsets. It does not, however, remove the offset of the bridge
or the offset of any electronics between the bridge and the ADC.
A slightly more complicated form of offset correction uses a double-pole, double-throw
switch between the bridge and the electronics (see Figure 4). Toggling the switch from
positions A to position B reverses the polarity of the connection between the bridge and
the amplifier. If the ADC reading taken when the switch is in position B is subtracted
from the ADC reading taken when the switch is in position A, the result is 2VoGain.
There is no offset term. This technique not only eliminates the offset of electronics, but it
also improves the signal-to-noise ratio by a factor of two.

Figure 4. Illustration of adding a double-pole, double-throw switch for enhanced

software calibration.
AC bridge excitation: While not used frequently today, for many years AC excitation of
resistive bridges was a common and effective way to remove DC-offset errors in the
electronics. If the bridge is driven with an AC voltage, the bridge's output will also be an
AC signal. This signal can be capacitively coupled, amplified, level shifted, etc., and the
AC amplitude of the final signal will be independent of the any DC offsets in the
electronics. The amplitude of the AC signal is then measured using standard ACmeasurement techniques. When AC excitation is used, it should be accomplished by
minimizing changes in the common-mode voltage of the bridge. This greatly eases the
common-mode rejection requirements of the circuit.

Noise
As mentioned above, noise is one of the biggest concerns in dealing with low output
bridges. Moreover, the low-frequency nature of many bridge applications means that
"flicker" or 1/F noise must also be considered. A detailed discussion of noise is well
beyond the scope of this article, and there are already many articles written on the
subject. It is sufficient to say here that four sources of noise reduction should be
considered in any good design.
1. Keeping noise out of the system (proper grounding, shielding, and wiring
techniques)

2. Reducing noise generated in the system (architecture, component selection, and

bias levels)
3. Reducing electronic noise (analog filters, common-mode rejection)
4. Software compensation or DSP (algorithms that use multiple measurements to
enhance the wanted signal and reject unwanted signals)
The high-resolution sigma-delta converters developed in recent years greatly simplified
the task of digitizing bridge signals. The next section will show how these converters
address the five noise concerns discussed above.

High-Resolution Sigma-Delta Converters (ADCs)

Today's 24- and 16-bit sigma-delta ADCs with low-noise PGAs are nearly an ideal
solution for measuring resistive bridges in low-speed applications. They address the five
major problems (see discussion above, Figures 2 and following) of trying to digitize the
analog output of a bridge.

Changes in Excitation Voltage, Ve

Buffered reference voltage inputs simplify the task of building a ratiometric system. A
resistor-divider and a noise-suppression capacitor are the only components needed to
create a reference voltage that tracks Ve. (See figure 2.) In a ratiometric system the
output is insensitive to small variations in Ve, and the need for a high-accuracy voltage
reference is eliminated.
If a ratiometric system is not an option, these multichannel ADCs are an alternate
solution. One ADC channel can be used to measure the output of the bridge and a
second input channel can be used to measure the bridge's excitation voltage. Equation
7 above can then be used to correct for variations in Ve.

Common-Mode Voltage
If the bridge and the ADC are powered by the same supply, then the bridge output will
be a differential signal at 1/2VDD. These input conditions are ideal for most highresolution sigma-delta converters. In addition, their excellent common-mode rejection
(100+ dB) eliminates concerns about small common-mode voltage changes.

Offset Voltage
With voltage resolution in the sub-V range, the bridge output can be connected directly
to the ADC input. Assuming there are no thermocouple effects, the only source of offset
error is the ADC itself. To reduce offset error, most of these converters have internal
switches that allow them to apply zero volts to the input and take a measurement. This
measurement can then be subtracted from subsequent bridge measurements to remove
any offset in the ADC. Many ADCs perform this zero calibration automatically; in other
cases the user must intentionally correct for the ADC offset. This method of offset

correction reduces offset errors to the noise level of the ADC, which can be less than
1VP-P.

Offset Drift
Using zero calibration on the ADC continually or frequently enough that the temperature
cannot change significantly between calibration cycles, effectively eliminates any
changes in offset due to temperature change or long-term drift. It should be noted that
variations in the offset reading can equal the ADC peak-to-peak noise. If the goal is to
detect small changes in the bridge output over a relatively short period of time, it may be
best to turn off the auto calibration feature because this will eliminate one source of
noise.

Noise
Noise is addressed in three ways, the most obvious of which is the internal digital filter.
This filter practically eliminates the effects of high-frequency noise and can also provide
rejection of lower frequency noise picked up from power lines. Normal mode rejection of
power line frequencies is typically better than 100dB. The second form of noise
reduction derives from high common-mode rejection, again typically greater than
100dB. Common-mode rejection reduces unwanted noise picked up by the bridge wires
and reduces the effects of noise in the bridge's excitation voltage. Finally, continual zero
calibration reduces flicker or 1/F noise at frequencies below the calibration update rate.

Inexpensive Tricks
Connecting the bridge's output directly to the input of a high-resolution sigma-delta ADC
is not the solution to every problem. In some applications signal conditioning is needed
to match the bridge's output to the input of the ADC being used. This signal conditioning
falls into one of the three general categories: amplification, level shifting, and
differential-to-single-ended conversion. A good instrumentation amplifier will accomplish
all of these tasks, but may be a expensive and could still be lacking in the concern
about offset drift. The following circuits may provide adequate signal conditioning at a
lower cost than an instrumentation amplifier.

Single Op Amp
If amplification is the only thing needed, then the simple circuit shown in Figure 5 may
work. At first glance it looks like a poor choice, because it is not balanced and places a
load on the bridge. However, loading the bridge (while not desirable) is not necessarily
a problem. Many bridges are low impedance; 350 is quite common. The impedance of
each output will be half of that, or 150. This 150 of resistance lowers the gain slightly
by adding to the resistance of R1. Compensating for this additional resistance is easily
done by choosing a value for R1 that is 150 lower. There will, of course, be some
tolerance in the 150 value and the temperature coefficient of the resistance (TCR) of
the bridge many not precisely match the TCR of R1 and R2. Nonetheless, if R1 is much
larger than 150, these effects will be quite small. A switch for zero calibration has also

been included in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Example of interfacing to a low-impedance bridge.

Differential vs. Instrumentation

For many applications, a differential amplifier can be used in place of an instrumentation
amplifier. This not only lowers the cost, but it also lowers the number of noise sources
and the sources for offset drift. As with the amplifier above, the value and TRC of the
bridge resistors must be taken into account.

Dual Supply
The circuit in Figure 6 is worth mentioning because of its simplicity. The bridge output is
amplified, level shifted, and converted to a ground referenced signal using only two op
amps and two resistors. In addition, this circuit doubles the voltage across the bridge,
which doubles the output signal. There is, however, a disadvantage to this approachit
requires a negative supply and it produces a slightly nonlinear output when using a fully
active bridge. For bridges with active elements on only one side, this linearity error can
be avoided by using the passive side of the bridge in the feedback loop that generates Ve.

Figure 6. Illustration of an alternative circuit for interfacing to a low-impedance bridge.

Conclusions
Resistive bridges are still highly valuable for detecting small changes in resistance and
for rejecting the resistance changes from unwanted sources. Modern analog-to-digital
converters (ADCs) greatly simplify the task of measuring bridges. Adding one of these
ADCs helps address the major concerns of bridge circuits by integrating key features in
the ADC such as: differential inputs, internal amplifiers, automatic zero calibration, high
common-mode rejection, and digital noise filtering.
TUTORIAL 3545

RESISTIVE BRIDGE BASICS: PART TWO

Abstract: Bridge circuits are a very useful way to make accurate measurements of
resistance and other analog values. This article, the continuation from Part One, covers
how to interface bridge circuits implemented with higher signal-output silicon strain
gauges to analog-to-digital converters (ADCs). Featured are sigma-delta ADCs, which
provide a low-cost way to implement a pressure sensor when utilizing silicon strain
gauges.

Introduction
Part one of this topic, application note 3426, "Resistive Bridge Basics: Part One",
discusses why resistive bridges are used, basic bridge configurations, and discusses
bridges with small-output signals like those made from bonded wire or foil strain
gauges. This application note focuses on the high-output silicon strain gauges. This
application note, Part Two, focuses on the high-output silicon strain gauges and their
excellent fit with high-resolution, sigma-delta analog-to-digital converters (ADCs).
Examples of how to calculate the required ADC resolution and the dynamic range for
uncompensated sensors are given. This note shows how the characteristics of ADCs
and silicon strain gauges can be exploited to create simpler ratiometric circuits and a
simplified circuit for applications using current-driven sensors.

Silicon Strain-Gauge Background

The advantage of the silicon strain gauge is its high sensitivity. Strain in silicon causes
its bulk resistance to change. This results in signals an order of magnitude larger than
those from foil or bonded-wire strain gauges, where resistance changes are only due to
the dimensional changes of the resistor. The large signal from silicon strain gauges
allows lower cost electronics to be used with them. The cost and difficulty, however, of
physically mounting and attaching wires to these small brittle devices has limited their
use in bonded strain-gauge applications. Nonetheless, the silicon strain gauge is

optimal in MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical Structures) applications. Using MEMS,

mechanical structures can be created in silicon, and multiple strain gauges can be
manufactured as an integral part of those mechanical structures. Thus, the MEMS
process provides a robust, low-cost solution to the total design problem without the
need to handle individual strain gauges.
The most common example of a MEMS device is the silicon pressure sensor, which first
became popular in the 1970s. These pressure sensors are fabricated using standard
semiconductor processing techniques, plus a special etching step. The special etch
selectively removes silicon from the back side of the wafer to create hundreds of thin
square diaphragms with strong silicon frames surrounding them. On the front side of the
wafer, one strain-sensitive resistor is implanted on each edge of each diaphragm. Metal
traces connect the four resistors around an individual diaphragm to create a fully active
Wheatstone bridge. A diamond saw is then used to free the individual sensors from the
wafer. At this point the sensors are fully functional, but must have pressure ports
attached and wires connected before they are useful. These small sensors are
inexpensive and relatively robust. There is a negative, however. These sensors suffer
from large temperature effects and have a wide tolerance on initial offset and sensitivity.

Pressure Sensor Example

For illustrative purposes, a pressure sensor is used here; the principles involved are
applicable to any system using a similar type of bridge as a sensor. One model for the
output of a raw pressure sensor is seen in Equation 1. The magnitude and range of the
variables in Equation 1 yield a wide range of VOUT values for a given pressure (P).
Variations in VOUT exist between different sensors at the same temperature and for a
single sensor as the temperature varies. To provide a consistent and meaningful output,
each sensor must be calibrated to compensate for part-to-part variations and drift over
temperature. For many years calibration was done with analog circuitry. Modern
electronics, however, are making digital calibration cost competitive with analog, and
the resulting accuracy of digital calibration can be much better. A few analog "tricks" can
be used to simplify digital calibration without sacrificing accuracy.
VOUT = VB (P S0 (1 + S1 (T - T0)) + U0 + U1 (T - T0))
(Eq. 1)
Where VOUT is the output of the bridge, VB is the bridge excitation voltage, P is the
applied pressure, T0 is the reference temperature, S0 is the sensitivity at the T0, S1 is the
temperature coefficient of sensitivity (TCS), U0 is the offset or unbalance of the bridge at
T0 with no pressure applied, and U1 is the offset temperature coefficient (OTC).
Equation 1 uses first-order polynomials to model the sensor. For many applications it
may be necessary to use higher-order polynomials, piecewise linear techniques, or
even piecewise second-order approximations with a lookup table for the coefficients.
Regardless of which model is used, digital calibration requires the ability to digitize VOUT,
VB, and T, as well as a way to determine all the coefficients and perform the necessary
calculations. Equation 2 is Equation 1 rearranged to solve for P. Equation 2 more clearly
shows the information needed for the digital computation, typically by a microcontroller
(C), to output an accurate pressure value.
P = (VOUT/VB - U0 - U1 (T-T0))/(S0 (1 + S1 (T-T0))
(Eq. 2)

Brute-Force Circuit
The brute-force method shown in the Figure 1 circuit uses a single high-resolution ADC
to digitize VOUT (AIN1/AIN2), temperature (AIN3/AIN4), and VB (AIN5/AIN6). These
measurements are then sent to a C where the actual pressure is calculated. The
bridge is powered directly from the same power supply as the ADC, the voltage
reference, and the C. A resistance temperature detector (RTD), denoted Rt in the
schematic, measures temperature; the input MUX on the ADC allows for measurement
of the bridge, the RTD, or the supply voltage. To determine the calibration coefficients,
the entire system (or at least the RTD and bridge) is placed in an oven and
measurements are made at several temperatures as a calibrated pressure source
stresses the bridge. The measurement data is then manipulated by the test system to
determine the calibration coefficients. The resulting coefficients are downloaded to the
C and stored in nonvolatile memory.

Figure 1. Circuit directly measures the variables needed to calculate the actual pressure
(excitation voltage, temperature, and bridge output).
Key considerations in designing such a circuit are the dynamic range and ADC
resolution. The minimum requirements will depend on the application and the exact
specifications of the sensor and RTD used. For illustrative purposes, the following
specifications are used.
System specifications

Full-scale pressure: 100psi

Pressure resolution: 0.05psi
Temperature range: -40C to +85C
Power supply: 4.75 to 5.25V

Pressure sensor specifications

S0 (sensitivity): 150 to 300V/V/psi

S1 (temperature coefficient of sensitivity): -2500ppm/C, max
U0 (offset): -3 to +3mV/V
U1 (offset temperature coefficient): -15 to +15V/V/C

RB (input resistance): 4.5k

TCR (temperature coefficient of resistance): 1200ppm/C
RTD: PT100
o Alpha: 3850ppm/C (R/C = 0.385 nominal)
o Value at -40C: 84.27
o Value at 0C: 100
o Value at 85C: 132.80
o For more details on the PT100, see Maxim application note 3450, "Positive
analog feedback compensates PT100 transducer."

Voltage Resolution
The minimum acceptable voltage resolution is based on the smallest response of VOUT to
the minimum detectable pressure change. This condition occurs when using the lowest
sensitivity sensor at the maximum temperature with the lowest supply voltage. Note that
the offset terms in Equation 1 are not factors here because resolution is only dependent
on the response to pressure.
Using Equation 1 and the appropriate assumptions from above:
VOUT min = 4.75V (0.05psi/count 150V/V/psi (1+ (-2500ppm/C) (85C -25C))
30.3V/count
Therefore: minimum ADC resolution = 30V/count

Input Range
Input range is determined by the largest possible input voltage and the smallest, or most
negative, input voltage. The conditions that create the largest value of V OUT in Equation 1
are: maximum pressure (100psi), minimum temperature (-40C), maximum supply
voltage (5.25V), an offset of 3mV/V, offset TC of -15V/V/C, a TCS of -2500ppm/C,
and the highest sensitivity die (300V/V/psi). The most negative signal will be with no
pressure applied (P = 0), the supply voltage at 5.25V, an offset of -3mV/V, at a
temperature of -40C, with an OTC of +15V/V/C.
Again, using Equation 1 and the appropriate assumptions from above:
VOUT max = 5.25V (100psi 300V/V/psi (1+ (-2500ppm/C) (-40C - 25C)) +
3mV/V + (-0.015mV/V/C) (-40C - 25C)) - 204mV
VOUT min = 5.25 (-3mV/V + (0.015mV/V/C (-40C - 25C))) - -21mV
Therefore: ADC input range = -21mV to +204mV

Bits of Resolution
The nominal ADC for this application has an input range of -21mV to +204mV and a
voltage resolution of 30V/count. The total number of counts for this ADC would be
(204mV + 21mV)/(30V/count) = 7500 counts, or slightly less than 13-bits of dynamic
range. A 13-bit converter would meet the requirements of this application, if the sensor's

output range exactly matches the input range of the ADC. As -21mV to +204mV does
not match the input range of common ADCs, either the input signal must be level-shifted
and amplified, or a higher resolution ADC must be utilized. Fortunately modern sigmadelta converters with their high resolution, bipolar inputs, and internal amplifiers, make
the use of a higher resolution ADC practical. These sigma-delta ADCs provide an
economic solution without requiring additional components. This not only reduces board
size, but it also eliminates the drift errors associated with the amplification and levelshifting circuitry that would otherwise be needed.
Typical sigma-delta converters operating from a 5V supply will use a 2.5V reference and
have an input range of 2.5V. To meet the resolution requirements of our pressuresensor application, such an ADC would need a dynamic range of (2.5V - (2.5V))/(30V/count) = 166,667 counts. This is equivalent to 17.35 bits of resolution and
well within the capability of many ADCs, such as the 18-bit MAX1400. If a SAR ADC
were needed, it would be quite expensive to use an 18-bit converter in a 13-bit
application that will yield an 11-bit result. Employing an 18-bit (17-bits plus sign) sigmadelta converter is, however, quite practical , even if the three MSBs are essentially
unused. Besides being affordable, the sigma-delta converter has a high input
impedance and excellent noise rejection.
An alternate approach to an 18-bit ADC uses a lower resolution converter with an
internal amplifier, such as the 16-bit MAX1416. Selecting an internal gain of 8 has the
effect of shifting the ADC reading 3 bits toward the MSB, thereby using all the
converter's bits and reducing the converter requirement to 15 bits. When choosing
between a high-resolution converter without gain, and a lower resolution converter with
gain, be sure to consider the noise specifications at the applicable gain and conversion
rate. The useful resolution of a sigma-delta converter is frequently limited by its noise.

Temperature Measurement
If the only reason for measuring temperature is to compensate the pressure sensor,
then the temperature measurement does not need to be accurate, only repeatable with
a unique temperature corresponding to each measured value. This allows a lot of
flexibility and loose design criteria. There are three basic design requirements: avoid
self-heating, have adequate temperature resolution, and stay within the ADC's
measurement range.
Selecting a maximum voltage for Vt that is close to the maximum pressure signal
ensures that the same ADC and internal gain can be used for temperature and pressure
measurement. In this example the maximum input voltage is +204mV. To allow for
resistor tolerances, the maximum temperature voltage can be conservatively selected
as +180mV. Limiting the voltage across Rt to +180mV also eliminates any problems
with self-heating of Rt. Once the maximum voltage has been selected, the value of R1
is calculated to provide this maximum voltage at 85C (Rt = 132.8) when VB = 5.25V.
R1 can be calculated with Equation 3 where Vtmax is the maximum voltage allowed
across Rt. Temperature resolution is then found by dividing the ADC's voltage resolution

by the change in Vt with temperature. Equation 4 summarizes the temperature

resolution calculation. (Note: The calculated minimum voltage resolution is used in this
example, which creates a conservative design. You may wish to use the actual noisefree resolution of the ADC.)
R1 = Rt (VB/Vtmax - 1)
(Eq. 3)
R1 = 132.8 (5.25V/0.18V - 1) 3.7k
TRES = VRES (R1 + Rt)/(VB R1 Rt/C)
(Eq. 4)
Where TRES is the temperature-measurement resolution in C per count of the ADC.
TRES = 30V/count (3700 + 132.8)/(4.75V 3700 0.38/C) 0.07C/count
A 0.07C temperature resolution will be adequate for most applications. If, however,
higher resolution in needed, several options are available: use a higher resolution ADC;
replace the RTD with a thermistor; or utilize the RTD in a bridge circuit so that a higher
gain can be used inside the ADC.
Note that to achieve a useful temperature reading, the software must compensate for
any changes in the supply voltage. An alternate approach connects R1 to V REF instead of
VB. This makes Vt independent of VB, but also increases the load on the voltage
reference.

Brute Force with a Touch of Elegance

Silicon strain gauges and ADCs have some characteristics that allow the circuit in
Figure 1 to be simplified. From Equation 1 it can be seen that the output of the bridge is
directly proportional to the supply voltage (VB). Sensors with this characteristic are
called ratiometric sensors. Equation 5 is a generic equation for all ratiometric sensors
with temperature-dependent errors. Equation 5 can be created by starting with Equation
1 and replacing everything to the right of VB with the general function (p,t), where p is
the intensity of the property being measured and t is the temperature.
VOUT = VB (p,t)
(Eq. 5)
ADCs also have a ratiometric property; their output is directly proportional to the ratio of
the input voltage and the reference voltage. Equation 6 describes a generic ADC's
digital reading (D) in terms of the input signal (Vs), the reference voltage (V REF), the fullscale reading (FS), and the scale factor (K). The scale factor accounts for variations in
architecture, as well as any internal amplification.
D = (Vs/VREF)FS K
(Eq. 6)
The performance of the ADC can be seen by replacing Vs in Equation 6 with the
equivalent of VOUT from Equation 5. The result is Equation 7.
D = (VB/VREF) (p,t) FS K
(Eq. 7)
In Equation 7 the ratio of VB to VREF is important, but their absolute values are not.
Consequently, the voltage reference in the circuit shown in Figure 1 is not needed. The
reference voltage for the ADC can come from a simple resistor-divider that maintains a
constant ratio of VB/VREF. This change not only eliminates the voltage reference, but it
also eliminates the need to measure VB and all the software required to compensate for
changes in VB. This technique works for all ratiometric sensors. The temperature sensor
created by placing R1 in series with Rt is also ratiometric, so the voltage reference is
not needed for temperature measurement either. This circuit is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. An example of a ratiometric circuit. The output of the pressure sensor, the
RTD voltage, and the reference voltage for the ADC are all directly proportional to the
supply voltage. This eliminates the need for an absolute voltage reference and
simplifies the calculations necessary to determine the actual pressure.

Eliminating the RTD

Silicon-based resistors are highly temperature sensitive, a property that can be
exploited by using the bridge resistance as the temperature sensor for the system. This
not only reduces cost, but it also yields better results because it eliminates any
temperature gradient that may have existed between the RTD and the stress-sensitive
bridge. As mentioned previously, absolute accuracy of the temperature measurement is
not important as long as the temperature measurement is repeatable and unique. The
requirement for uniqueness limits this temperature-sensing method to bridges whose
impedance remains constant as pressure is applied. Fortunately, most silicon sensors
use a fully active bridge that meets this requirement.
Figure 3 is a circuit where a temperature-dependent voltage is created by placing a
resistor (R1) in series with the low-voltage side of the bridge. Adding this resistor
reduces the voltage across the bridge and hence its output. This is generally not a large
voltage reduction, but it may be enough to require an increase in gain or a decrease in
the reference voltage. Equation 8 can be used to calculate a conservative value of R1. It
works well when R1 < RB/2, which will be true for most applications.
R1 = (RB VRES)/(VDD TCR TRES - 2.5 VRES)
(Eq. 8)
Where RB is the input resistance of the sensor bridge, VRES is the voltage resolution of
the ADC, VDD is the supply voltage, TCR is the temperature coefficient of resistance of
the sensor bridge, and TRES is the desired temperature resolution.

Figure 3. An example of a ratiometric circuit that uses the output of the bridge for
pressure measurement and the resistance of the bridge for temperature measurement.
Continuing with the previous example and assuming a desired temperature resolution of
0.05C, R1 = (4.5k 30V/count)/(((5V 1200ppm/C 0.05C/count) - 2.5)
30V/count) = 0.6k. This result is valid since R1 is less than half of RB. In this
example, adding R1 will cause a 12% drop in VB. In selecting the converter, however, it
was necessary to round up from 17.35 bits to 18 bits of resolution. This increase in
resolution more than compensates for the reduction in VB.
As temperature increases, the resistance of the bridge rises causing more voltage to be
dropped across it. This change in VB with temperature creates an additional TCS term.
Fortunately this term is positive and the inherent TCS of the sensor is negative, so
placing a resistor in series with the sensor will actually reduce the uncompensated TCS
error. The calibration techniques above are still valid; they just need to compensate a
slightly smaller error.

Current-Driven Bridges
A special class of silicon piezoresistive sensors exists that are referred to as constantcurrent sensors or current-driven sensors. These sensors have been specially
processed so that when they are powered by a current source, the sensitivity is
constant over temperature (TCS 0). It is common for current-driven sensors to have
additional resistors added that eliminate, or significantly reduce the offset error and OTC
error. In essence, analog techniques are being used to calibrate the sensor. This frees
the designer from the expensive task of measuring every part over temperature and
pressure. The absolute accuracy of these sensors over a wide temperature range is
generally not as good as the sensors calibrated digitally. Digital techniques can still be
used to improve the performance of these sensors, and temperature information is
easily obtained by measuring the voltage across the bridge, which will typically increase
at a rate greater than 2000ppm/C. The circuit in Figure 4 shows a current source
powering the bridge. The same voltage reference used to establish a constant current
also supplies the reference voltage for the ADC.

Figure 4. This circuit uses a current driven sensor powered by a conventional current
source.

Eliminating the Current Source

Understanding how current-driven sensors compensate for STC allows the circuit in
Figure 5 to achieve the same results as the circuit in Figure 4 without including a
current source. Current-driven sensors still have an excitation voltage (VB), however, VB
is not fixed by a voltage supply. VB is determined by the bridge's resistance and the
current through the bridge. As mentioned earlier, silicon resistors have a positive
temperature coefficient. This causes VB to increase with temperature when the bridge is
powered from a current source. If the bridge's TCR is equal in magnitude and opposite
in sign to TCS, then VB will increase with temperature at the right rate to compensate for
decreasing sensitivity, and TCS will be near zero over a limited temperature range.

Figure 5. Circuit uses a current-driven sensor, but does not require a current source or a
voltage reference.
An equation for the ADC's output in the circuit in Figure 4 can be obtained by starting
with Equation 7 and replacing VB with IB times RB. This results in Equation 9, where RB is
the input resistance of the bridge and IB is the current through the bridge.
D = (IB RB/VREF) (p,t) FS K
(Eq. 9)

The circuit shown in Figure 5 can provide the same performance as the circuit in Figure
4, but without using a current source or voltage reference. This can be shown by
comparing the output of the two circuits. The output of the ADC in Figure 5 is found by
starting with Equation 7 and substituting the appropriate equations for V B and VREF. This
results in Equation 10.
Repeat of Equation 7: D = (VB/VREF) (p,t) FS K
In the circuit in Figure 5, VB = VDD RB/(R1 + RB)
And VREF = VDD R1/(R1 + RB)
Substituting these into Equation 7 yields Equation 10.
D = (RB/R1) (p,t) FS K
(Eq. 10)
If R1 is selected to equal VREF/IB, then Equations 9 and 10 are identical, which, in turn,
shows that the circuit in Figure 5 provides the same results as the circuit in Figure 4. For
identical results, R1 must equal VREF/IB, but this is not a requirement to achieve proper
temperature compensation. As long as RB is multiplied by a temperature-independent
constant, temperature compensation will be achieved. The value of R1 can be selected
to best fit the system requirements.
When using the circuit in Figure 5, it is important to remember that the ADC's reference
voltage changes with temperature. This makes the ADC unsuitable for monitoring other
system voltages. In fact, if a temperature-sensitive measurement is needed for
additional compensation, it can be obtained by using an additional ADC channel to
measure the supply voltage. Also, when using the circuit in Figure 5, care should also
be taken to ensure that VREF is within the specified range for the ADC.

Conclusion
The relatively large output of silicon piezoresistive strain gauges allows them to
interface directly with low-cost, high-resolution, sigma-delta ADCs. This eliminates the
cost and errors associated with amplification and level-shifting circuits. In addition, the
thermal properties of these strain gauges and ratiometric characteristics of the ADC can
be used to significantly reduce the complexity of highly accurate circuits.