Sivaji Ganesh Diploma

FOOT STEP POWER GENERATION SYSTEM FOR RURAL ENERGY APPLICATIION TO RUN AC &
DC LOADS
Foot Step Power Generation system for rural

energy application to run AC and DC loads
INDEX
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TOPICS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to the project .4

1.2 Project overview..5
CHAPTER 2: PROJECT DESCRIPTION...6
CHAPTER 3: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
3.1 Foot step arrangement.7

3.2 Rack & pinion and chain sprocket arrangement...7
3.3 PMDC generator..10
3.4 Battery...14
3.5 Inverter.15
3.6 Light load...17
CHAPTER 4: HARDWARE COMPONENTS
4.1 Resistors..20
4.2 Capacitors...21
4.3 Diodes..21
4.4 LED22
4.5 Switches and Pushbuttons23
4.6 Power supply..24
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4.6.1 Transformer.
4.6.2 Rectifiers
4.6.3 Capacitor filter.
4.6.4 Voltage regulator..
4.7 Power transistor.
4.8 Tank circuit
CHAPTER 5: ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS
CHAPTER 6: KIT PHOTO REPRESENTATION

CHAPTER 7:
. RESULTS.
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
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1.1.
Introduction to the project
Man has needed and used energy at an increasing rate for his sustenance and
wellbeing ever since he came on the earth a few million years ago. Primitive man required
energy primarily in the form of food. He derived this by eating plants or animals, which he
hunted. With the passage of time, man started to cultivate land for agriculture. He added anew
dimension to the use of energy by domesticating and training animals to work for him. With
further demand for energy, man began to use the wind for sailing ships and for driving
windmills, and the force of falling water to turn water for sailing ships and for driving windmills,
and the force of falling water to turn water wheels. Till this time, it would not be wrong to
say that the sun was supplying all the energy needs of man either directly or indirectly and that
man was using only renewable sources of energy.
Other people have developed piezo-electric (mechanical-to-electrical) surfaces in the

past, but the Crowd Farm has the potential to redefine urban space by adding a sense of fluidity
and encouraging people to activate spaces with their movement. The Crowd Farm floor
is composed of standard parts that are easily replicated but it is expensive to produce at this
stage. This technology would facilitate the future creation of new urban landscapes athletic fields
with a spectator area, music halls, theatres, nightclubs and a large gathering space for
rallies, demonstrations and celebrations, railway stations, bus stands, subways, airports etc. like
capable of harnessing human locomotion for electricity generation.
1.2.
Project overview:
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Proposal for the utilization of waste energy of foot power with human locomotion is very
much relevant and important for highly populated countries like India and China where the
roads, railway stations, bus stands, temples, etc. are all over crowded and millions of people
move around the clock. This whole human/bioenergy being wasted if can be made possible for
utilization it will be great invention and crowd energy farms will be very useful energy sources
in crowded countries. Walking across a "Crowd Farm," floor, then, will be a fun for idle people
who can improve their health by exercising in such farms with earning. The electrical energy
generated at such farms will be useful for nearby applications.
CHAPTER 2: PROJECT DESCRIPTION
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Upper plate
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Rack &Pinion
Generat
or
Lower plate
AC ripple
neutralizer
Unidirectiona
l Current
Controller
Rechargea
ble Battery
Light
INVERTER
CHAPTER 3: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
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3.1 Foot step arrangement
WORKING OF FOOT STEP GENERATOR:
Step1: when force is applied on the plate by virtue on stamping on the plate the force spring gets
compressed
Step2: the rack here moves vertically down
Step3: The pinion meshed with the rack gear results in circular motion of the pinion gear
Step4: for one full compression the pinion Moves 1semicircle
Step5: when the force applied on the plate released the pinion reverses and moves another semicircle
Step6: the generator attached to the pinion hence results in the sinusoidal waveform (for single
Generator)
3.2 Rack And Pinion and chain sprocket arrangement
DESCRIPTION:
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Spring design:
FL=215
O/d=40
W/d=5
Spring constant:
The spring constant k is function of the spring geometry and the spring material's shear
modulus G,a
Where G is found from the material's elastic modulus E and Poisson ratio n,
And D is the mean diameter of the spring (measured from the centers of the wire cross-sections),
The distance between adjacent spring coils (defined as the coil pitch) is found by dividing the
spring free length by the number of active coils,
The rise angle of the spring coils (the angle between the coils and the base of the spring) is found
from the arctangent of the coil-pitch divided by the spring circumference,
The solid height of the spring is found by summing the widths of all the spring coils. The total
number of spring coils is equal to the active coils in the spring interior plus the 2 coils at the
spring ends
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The length of wire needed to make the spring is found from,
Spring Force and Stress:The maximum force the spring can take occurs when the spring is
deformed all the way to its solid height,
The maximum shear stress in the spring associated with the maximum force is given by,
Where W is the Wahl correction factor (accounting for spring curvature stress) and C is the
spring index (essentially an aspect ratio of the spring cross-section),
Spring ResonanceFinally, the lowest resonant frequency (in Hz) of the spring is found from
the simple equation,
Where k is the spring constant from above and M is the spring mass. The spring mass M can be
found by weighing the spring, or by finding the spring volume and multiplying by its material
density,
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We can express the spring's lowest resonance in terms of basic spring geometry if we substitute
for k and M in the equation for fres (and then eliminate Lwire). Doing so gives,
For springs with small rise angles and several active coils we can make the approximation,
If we also allow the approximation,
We can then simplify the resonant frequency formula to a form that can be found in several
reference books,
3.3. PMDC Generator
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GeneratorConstruction:
Simple loop generator is having a single-turn rectangular copper coil rotating about its own axis
in a magnetic field provided by either permanent magnet or electro magnets. In case of without
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commutator the two ends of the coil are joined to slip ringswhich are insulated from each other
and from the central shaft.Two collecting brushes ( of carbon or copper) press against the slip
rings.Their function is to collect the current induced in the coil. In this case the current waveform
we obtain is alternating current ( you can see in fig). In case of with commutator the slip rings
are replaced by split rings.In this case the current is unidirectional.
Components of a generator:
Rotor: In its simplest form, the rotor consists of a single loop of wire made to rotate within a
magnetic field. In practice, the rotor usually consists of several coils of wire wound on an
armature.
Armature: The armature is a cylinder of laminated iron mounted on an axle. The axle is carried
in bearings mounted in the external structure of the generator. Torque is applied to the axle to
make the rotor spin.
Coil: Each coil usually consists of many turns of copper wire wound on the armature. The two
ends of each coil are connected either to two slip rings (AC) or two opposite bars of a split-ring
commutator (DC).
Stator: The stator is the fixed part of the generator that supplies the magnetic field in which the
coils rotate. It may consist of two permanent magnets with opposite poles facing and shaped to
fit around the rotor. Alternatively, the magnetic field may be provided by two electromagnets.
Field electromagnets: Each electromagnet consists of a coil of many turns of copper wire
wound on a soft iron core. The electromagnets are wound, mounted and shaped in such a way
that opposite poles face each other and wrap around the rotor.
Brushes:The brushes are carbon blocks that maintain contact with the ends of the coils via the
slip rings (AC) or the split-ring commutator (DC), and conduct electric current from the coils to
the external circuit.
Working:
The commutator rotates with the loop of wire just as the slip rings do with the rotor of an
AC generator. Each half of the commutator ring is called a commutator segment and is insulated
from the other half. Each end of the rotating loop of wire is connected to a commutator segment.
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Two carbon brushes connected to the outside circuit rest against the rotating commutator. One
brush conducts the current out of the generator, and the other brush feeds it in. The commutator
is designed so that, no matter how the current in the loop alternates, the commutator segment
containing the outward-going current is always against the "out" brush at the proper time. The
armature in a large DC generator has many coils of wire and commutator segments. Because of
the commutator, engineers have found it necessary to have the armature serve as the rotor(the
rotating part of an apparatus) and the field structure as the stator (a stationary portion enclosing
rotating parts)
3.4. Battery
RECHARGEBLE BATTERIES:
A rechargeable battery or storage battery is a group of one or more electrochemical
cells. They are known as secondary cells because their electrochemical reactions are electrically
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reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in many different shapes and sizes, ranging anything
from a button cell to megawatt systems connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network.
Several different combinations of chemicals are commonly used, including: lead-acid, nickel
cadmium(NiCad), nickel metal hydride (Nigh), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion polymer (Liion polymer).
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Fig 2.22: Rechargeable Batteries

Rechargeable batteries have lower total cost of use and environmental impact than
disposable batteries. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same sizes as
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disposable types. Rechargeable batteries have higher initial cost, but can be recharged very
cheaply and used many times.
Rechargeable batteries are used for automobile starters, portable consumer devices,
light vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric bicycles, and electric forklifts),
tools,
and uninterruptible
power
supplies.
Emerging
applications
in hybrid
electric
vehicles and electric vehicles are driving the technology to reduce cost and weight and increase
lifetime. Normally, new rechargeable batteries have to be charged before use; newer low selfdischarge batteries hold their charge for many months, and are supplied charged to about 70% of
their rated capacity.
Grid energy storage applications use rechargeable batteries for load leveling, where they store
electric energy for use during peak load periods, and for renewable uses, such as storing power
generated from photovoltaic arrays during the day to be used at night. By charging batteries
during periods of low demand and returning energy to the grid during periods of high electrical
demand, load-leveling helps eliminate the need for expensive peaking power plants and
helps amortize the cost of generators over more hours of operation.
The US National Electrical Manufacturers Association has estimated that U.S.
demand for rechargeable batteries is growing twice as fast as demand for non -rechargeable.
3.5. Inverter
An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating
current (AC); the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of
appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits. Solid-state inverters have no moving
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parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from small switching power supplies in
computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct current applications that transport bulk
power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC power from DC sources such as solar
panels or batteries.
Fig 2.26: Inverter

There are two main types of inverter. The output of a modified sine wave inverter
is similar to a square wave output except that the output goes to zero volts for a time before
switching positive or negative. It is simple and low cost (~$0.10USD/Watt) and is compatible
with most electronic devices, except for sensitive or specialized equipment, for example
certain laser printers. A pure sine wave inverter produces a nearly perfect sine wave output
(<3% total harmonic distortion) that is essentially the same as utility-supplied grid power. Thus it
is compatible with all AC electronic devices. This is the type used in grid-tie inverters. Its design
is more complex, and costs 5 or 10 times more per unit power (~$0.50 to $1.00USD/Watt). [1] The
electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so named because early mechanical
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AC to DC converters were made to work in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to convert DC to
AC. The inverter performs the opposite function of a rectifier.
3.6. Light Loads
A bulb is a short stem with fleshy leaves or leaf bases. The leaves often function
as food storage organs during dormancy .
A bulb's leaf bases generally do not support leaves, but contain food reserves to enable
the plant to survive adverse conditions. The leaf bases may resemble scales, or they may overlap
and surround the center of the bulb as with the onion. A modified stem forms the base of the
bulb, and plant growth occurs from this basal plate. Roots emerge from the underside of the base,
and new stems and leaves from the upper side.
Other types of storage organs (such as corms, rhizomes, and tubers) are sometimes
erroneously referred to as bulbs. The correct term for plants that form 0underground storage
organs,
including
bulbs
as
well
as tubers and corms,
is geophytes.
Some epiphytic orchids (family Orchidaceous) form above-ground storage organs called pseudo
bulbs that superficially resemble bulbs.
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Incandescent
These are the standard bulbs that most people are familiar with. Incandescent bulbs work
by using electricity to heat a tungsten filament in the bulb until it glows. The filament is either in
a vacuum or in a mixture of argon/nitrogen gas. Most of the energy consumed by the bulb is
given off as heat, causing its Lumens per Watt performance to be low. Because of the filament's
high temperature, the tungsten tends to evaporate and collect on the sides of the bulb. The
inherent imperfections in the filament causes it to become thinner unevenly. When a bulb is
turned on, the sudden surge of energy can cause the thin areas to heat up much faster than the
rest of the filament, which in turn causes the filament to break and the bulb to burn out.
Incandescent bulbs produce a steady warm, light that is good for most household applications. A
standard incandescent bulb can last for 700-1000 hours, and can be used with a dimmer. Soft
white bulbs use a special coating inside the glass bulb to better diffuse the light; but the light
color is not changed.
Halogen
Halogen bulbs are a variation of incandescent bulb technology. These bulbs work by
passing electricity through a tungsten filament, which is enclosed in a tube containing halogen
gas. This halogen gas causes a chemical reaction to take place which removes the tungsten from
the wall of the glass and deposits it back onto the filament. This extends the life of the bulb. In
order for the chemical reaction to take place, the filament needs to be hotter than what is needed
for incandescent bulbs. The good news is that a hotter filament produces a brilliant white light
and is more efficient (more lumens per watt).
The bad news is that a hotter filament means that the tungsten is evaporating that much
faster. Therefore a denser, more expensive fill gas (krypton), and a higher pressure, are used to
slow down the evaporation. This means that a thicker, but smaller glass bulb (envelope) is
needed, which translates to a higher cost. Due to the smaller glass envelope (bulb), the halogen
bulb gets much hotter than other bulbs. A 300 watt bulb can reach over 300 degrees C. Therefore
attention must be paid to where halogen bulbs are used, so that they don't accidentally come in
contact with flammable materials, or burn those passing by.
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Care must be taken not to touch the glass part of the bulb with our fingers. The oils from
our fingers will weaken the glass and shorten the bulbs life. Many times this causes the bulb to
burst when the filament finally burns out.
To summarize, the halogen has the advantage of being more efficient (although not by
much) and having longer life than the incandescent bulb. They are relatively small in size and are
dimmable. The disadvantages are that they are more expensive, and burn at a much higher
temperature, which could possibly be a fire hazard in certain areas.
Fluorescent
These bulbs work by passing a current through a tube filled with argon gas and mercury.
This produces ultraviolet radiation that bombards the phosphorous coating causing it to emit
light (see: How Fluorescents Work). Bulb life is very long - 10,000 to 20,000 hours.
Fluorescent bulbs are also very efficient, producing very little heat. A common misconception is
that all fluorescent lamps are neutral or cool in color appearance and do not have very good
color-rendering ability. This is largely due to the fact that historically the "cool white" fluorescent
lamp was the industry standard. It had a very cool color appearance (4200K) and poor CRI
rating. This is simply no longer the case. Regarding color, a wide variety of fluorescent lamps ,
using rare-earth tri-phosphor technology, offer superior color rendition and a wide range of color
temperature choices (from 2700K to 5000K and higher). Fluorescent bulbs are ideal for lighting
large areas where little detail work will be done (e.g. basements, storage lockers, etc.). With the
new type bulbs, and style of fixtures coming out, fluorescents can be used in most places around
the home. Most fluorescent bulb cannot be used with dimmers.
That fluorescent bulb need components called ballasts to provide the right amount of
voltage. There are primarily two types - magnetic and electronic. Electronic ballasts solve some
of the flickering and humming problems associated with magnetic ballast, and are more efficient,
but cost more to purchase. Some ballasts need a starter to work along with it. Starters are sort
of small mechanical timers, needed to cause a stream of electrons to flow across the tube and
ionize the mercury vapor
On tube type fluorescent bulbs, the letter T designates that the bulb is tubular in shape.
The number after it expresses the diameter of the bulb in eighths of an inch.
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CHAPTER 4: HARDWARE COMPONENTS

4.1Resistors
Resistors "Resist" the flow of electrical current. The higher the value of resistance
(measured in ohms) the lower the current will be. Resistance is the property of a component
which restricts theflow of electric current. Energy is used up as the voltage across the component
drives the current through it and this energy appears as heat in the component.
Colour Code:
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4.2. Capacitors
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it
takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by
acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass
AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.
Circuit symbol:
Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct wayround, at least
one of their leads will be marked + or -.
Examples:
4.3. Diodes:
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol
shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and
early diodes were actually called valves.
Circuit symbol:
Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labeled a or + for anode
and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for
cathode!). The
cathode is marked by a line painted on the body.
Diodes
labeled with their code in small print; you may need a
magnifying
glass to read this on small signal diodes.

Example:
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4.4. LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED):

The longer lead is the anode (+) and the shorter lead is the cathode (&minus). In the
schematic symbol for an LED (bottom), the anode is on the left and the cathode is on the right.
Light
emitting
diodes
are
elements
for
light
signalization
in
electronics.
They are manufactured in different shapes, colors and sizes. For their low price, low
consumption and simple use, they have almost completely pushed aside other light sourcesbulbs at first place.
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It is important to know that each diode will be immediately destroyed unless its current is
limited. This means that a conductor must be connected in parallel to a diode. In order to
correctly determine value of this conductor, it is necessary to know diodes voltage drop in
forward direction, which depends on what material a diode is made of and what colors it is.
Values typical for the most frequently used diodes are shown in table below: As seen, there are
three main types of LEDs. Standard ones get full brightness at current of 20mA. LowCurrent
diodes get full brightness at ten times lower current while Super Bright diodes produce more
intensive light than Standard ones.
Since the 8052 microcontrollers can provide only low input current and since their pins are
configured as outputs when voltage level on them is equal to 0, direct confectioning to LEDs is carried
out as it is shown on figure (Low current LED, cathode is connected to output pin).
4.5. Switches and Pushbuttons:

A push button switch is used to either close or open an electrical circuit depending on the application.
Push button switches are used in various applications such as industrial equipment control handles,
outdoor controls, mobile communication terminals, and medical equipment, and etc. Push button switches
generally include a push button disposed within housing. The push button may be depressed to cause
movement of the push button relative to the housing for directly or indirectly changing the state of an
electrical contact to open or close the contact. Also included in a pushbutton switch may be an actuator,
driver, or plunger of some type that is situated within a switch housing having at least two contacts in
communication with an electrical circuit within which the switch is incorporated.
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Typical actuators used for contact switches include spring loaded force cap actuators that reciprocate
within a sleeve disposed within the canister. The actuator is typically coupled to the movement of the cap
assembly, such that the actuator translates in a direction that is parallel with the cap. A push button switch
for a data input unit for a mobile communication device such as a cellular phone, a key board for
a personal computer or the like is generally constructed by mounting a cover member directly on a circuit
board. Printed circuit board (PCB) mounted pushbutton switches are an inexpensive means of providing
an operator interface on industrial control products. In such push button switches, a substrate which
includes a plurality of movable sections is formed of a rubber elastomeric. The key top is formed on a top
surface thereof with a figure, a character or the like by printing, to thereby provide a cover member. Push
button switches incorporating lighted displays have been used in a variety of applications. Such switches
are typically comprised of a pushbutton, an opaque legend plate, and a back light to illuminate the legend
plate.
4.6. Block Diagram for Power Supply:
Figure: Power Supply
Description:
4.6.1 Transformer
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A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or
primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying
magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual
induction.
Figure: Transformer Symbol

(or)
Transformer is a device that converts the one form energy to another form of energy like a
transducer.
Figure: Transformer
Basic Principle
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A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties of an iron
core to efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It of course cannot increase power so that if the
voltage is raised, the current is proportionally lowered and vice versa.
Figure: Basic Principle
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Transformer Working
A transformer consists of two coils (often called 'windings') linked by an iron core, as
shown in figure below. There is no electrical connection between the coils; instead they are
linked by a magnetic field created in the core.
Figure: Basic Transformer
Transformers are used to convert electricity from one voltage to another with minimal
loss of power. They only work with AC (alternating current) because they require a changing
magnetic field to be created in their core. Transformers can increase voltage (step-up) as well as
reduce voltage (step-down).
Alternating current flowing in the primary (input) coil creates a continually changing
magnetic field in the iron core. This field also passes through the secondary (output) coil and the
changing strength of the magnetic field induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil. If
the secondary coil is connected to a load the induced voltage will make an induced current flow.
The correct term for the induced voltage is 'induced electromotive force' which is usually
abbreviated to induced e.m.f.
The iron core is laminated to prevent 'eddy currents' flowing in the core. These are
currents produced by the alternating magnetic field inducing a small voltage in the core, just like
that induced in the secondary coil. Eddy currents waste power by needlessly heating up the core
but they are reduced to a negligible amount by laminating the iron because this increases the
electrical resistance of the core without affecting its magnetic properties.
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Transformers have two great advantages over other methods of changing voltage:
1. They provide total electrical isolation between the input and output, so they can be safely
used to reduce the high voltage of the mains supply.
2. Almost no power is wasted in a transformer. They have a high efficiency (power out /
power in) of 95% or more.
Classification of Transformer
Step-Up Transformer
Step-Down Transformer
Step-Down Transformer
Step down transformers are designed to reduce electrical voltage. Their primary voltage
is greater than their secondary voltage. This kind of transformer "steps down" the voltage applied
to it. For instance, a step down transformer is needed to use a 110v product in a country with a
220v supply.
Step down transformers convert electrical voltage from one level or phase configuration
usually down to a lower level. They can include features for electrical isolation, power
distribution, and control and instrumentation applications. Step down transformers typically rely
on the principle of magnetic induction between coils to convert voltage and/or current levels.
Step down transformers are made from two or more coils of insulated wire wound around
a core made of iron. When voltage is applied to one coil (frequently called the primary or input)
it magnetizes the iron core, which induces a voltage in the other coil, (frequently called the
secondary or output). The turns ratio of the two sets of windings determines the amount of
voltage transformation.
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Figure: Step-Down Transformer

An example of this would be: 100 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary, a ratio of
2 to 1.
Step down transformers can be considered nothing more than a voltage ratio device.
With step down transformers the voltage ratio between primary and secondary will mirror the
"turns ratio" (except for single phase smaller than 1 kva which have compensated secondary). A
practical application of this 2 to 1 turns ratio would be a 480 to 240 voltage step down. Note that
if the input were 440 volts then the output would be 220 volts. The ratio between input and
output voltage will stay constant. Transformers should not be operated at voltages higher than the
nameplate rating, but may be operated at lower voltages than rated. Because of this it is possible
to do some non-standard applications using standard transformers.
Single phase step down transformers 1 KVA and larger may also be reverse connected to
step-down or step-up voltages. (Note: single phase step up or step down transformers sized less
than 1 KVA should not be reverse connected because the secondary windings have additional
turns to overcome a voltage drop when the load is applied. If reverse connected, the output
voltage will be less than desired.)
Step-Up Transformer
A step up transformer has more turns of wire on the secondary coil,which makes a larger induced
voltage in the secondary coil.It is called a step up transformer because the voltage output is larger than the
voltage input.
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Step-up transformer 110v 220v design is one whose secondary voltage is greater than its primary
voltage. This kind of transformer "steps up" the voltage applied to it. For instance, a step up transformer
is needed to use a 220v product in a country with a 110v supply.
A step up transformer 110v 220v converts alternating current (AC) from one voltage to
another voltage. It has no moving parts and works on a magnetic induction principle; it can be
designed to "step-up" or "step-down" voltage. So a step up transformer increases the voltage and
a step down transformer decreases the voltage.
The primary components for voltage transformation are the step up transformer core and
coil. The insulation is placed between the turns of wire to prevent shorting to one another or to
ground. This is typically comprised of Mylar, nomex, Kraft paper, varnish, or other materials. As
a transformer has no moving parts, it will typically have a life expectancy between 20 and 25
years.
Figure: Step-Up Transformer
Applications
Generally these Step-Up Transformers are used in industries applications only.
Types of Transformer
Mains Transformers
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Mains transformers are the most common type. They are designed to reduce the AC
mains supply voltage (230-240V in the UK or 115-120V in some countries) to a safer low
voltage. The standard mains supply voltages are officially 115V and 230V, but 120V and 240V
are the values usually quoted and the difference is of no significance in most cases.
Figure: Main Transformer
To allow for the two supply voltages mains transformers usually have two separate primary coils
(windings) labeled 0-120V and 0-120V. The two coils are connected in series for 240V (figure
2a) and in parallel for 120V (figure 2b). They must be wired the correct way round as shown in
the diagrams because the coils must be connected in the correct sense (direction):
Most mains transformers have two separate secondary coils (e.g. labeled 0-9V, 0-9V) which may
be used separately to give two independent supplies, or connected in series to create a centretapped coil (see below) or one coil with double the voltage.
Some mains transformers have a centre-tap halfway through the secondary coil and they are
labeled 9-0-9V for example. They can be used to produce full-wave rectified DC with just two
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diodes, unlike a standard secondary coil which requires four diodes to produce full-wave
rectified DC.
A mains transformer is specified by:

1. Its secondary (output) voltages Vs.
2. Its maximum power, Pmax, which the transformer can pass, quoted in VA (volt-amp). This
determines the maximum output (secondary) current, Imax...
...where Vs is the secondary voltage. If there are two secondary coils the maximum
power should be halved to give the maximum for each coil.
3. Its construction - it may be PCB-mounting, chassis mounting (with solder tag
connections) or toroidal (a high quality design).
Audio Transformers
Audio transformers are used to convert the moderate voltage, low current output of an audio
amplifier to the low voltage, high current required by a loudspeaker. This use is called
'impedance matching' because it is matching the high impedance output of the amplifier to the
low impedance of the loudspeaker.
Figure: Audio transformer
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Radio Transformers
Radio transformers are used in tuning circuits. They are smaller than mains and audio
transformers and they have adjustable ferrite cores made of iron dust. The ferrite cores can be
adjusted with a non-magnetic plastic tool like a small screwdriver. The whole transformer is
enclosed in an aluminum can which acts as a shield, preventing the transformer radiating too
much electrical noise to other parts of the circuit.
Figure: Radio Transformer
Turns Ratio and Voltage

The ratio of the number of turns on the primary and secondary coils determines the ratio of the
voltages...
...where Vp is the primary (input) voltage, Vs is the secondary (output) voltage, Np is the number
of turns on the primary coil, and Ns is the number of turns on the secondary coil.
Diodes
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Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the
direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early
diodes were actually called valves.
Figure: Diode Symbol

A diode is a device which only allows current to flow through it in one direction. In this
direction, the diode is said to be 'forward-biased' and the only effect on the signal is that there
will be a voltage loss of around 0.7V. In the opposite direction, the diode is said to be 'reversebiased' and no current will flow through it.
4.6.2. Rectifiers:
The purpose of a rectifier is to convert an AC waveform into a DC waveform (OR) Rectifier
converts AC current or voltages into DC current or voltage. There are two different rectification
circuits, known as 'half-wave' and 'full-wave' rectifiers. Both use components called diodes to
convert AC into DC.
The Half-wave Rectifier
The half-wave rectifier is the simplest type of rectifier since it only uses one diode, as shown in
figure.
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Figure: Half Wave Rectifier

Figure 2 shows the AC input waveform to this circuit and the resulting output. As you can see,
when the AC input is positive, the diode is forward-biased and lets the current through. When
the AC input is negative, the diode is reverse-biased and the diode does not let any current
through, meaning the output is 0V. Because there is a 0.7V voltage loss across the diode, the
peak output voltage will be 0.7V less than Vs.

Figure: Half-Wave Rectification
While the output of the half-wave rectifier is DC (it is all positive), it would not be
suitable as a power supply for a circuit. Firstly, the output voltage continually varies between 0V
and Vs-0.7V, and secondly, for half the time there is no output at all.
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The Full-wave Rectifier

The circuit in figure 3 addresses the second of these problems since at no time is the output
voltage 0V. This time four diodes are arranged so that both the positive and negative parts of the
AC waveform are converted to DC. The resulting waveform is shown in figure 4.
Figure: Full-Wave Rectifier
Figure: Full-Wave Rectification

When the AC input is positive, diodes A and B are forward-biased, while diodes C and D are
reverse-biased. When the AC input is negative, the opposite is true - diodes C and D are
forward-biased, while diodes A and B are reverse-biased.
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While the full-wave rectifier is an improvement on the half-wave rectifier, its output still isn't
suitable as a power supply for most circuits since the output voltage still varies between 0V and
Vs-1.4V. So, if you put 12V AC in, you will 10.6V DC out.
4.6.3. Capacitor Filter:
The capacitor-input filter, also called "Pi" filter due to its shape that looks like the
Greek letterpi, is a type of electronic filter. Filter circuits are used to remove unwanted or
undesired frequencies from a signal.
Figure: Capacitor Filter

A typical capacitor input filter consists of a filter capacitor C1, connected across the rectifier
output, an inductor L, in series and another filter capacitor connected across the load.
1. The capacitor C1 offers low reactance to the AC component of the rectifier output while
it offers infinite reactance to the DC component. As a result the capacitor shunts an
appreciable amount of the AC component while the DC component continues its journey
to the inductor L
2. The inductor L offers high reactance to the AC component but it offers almost zero
reactance to the DC component. As a result the DC component flows through the
inductor while the AC component is blocked.
3. The capacitor C2 bypasses the AC component which the inductor had failed to block. As
a result only the DC component appears across the load RL.
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Figure: Centered Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier with a Capacitor Filter
4.6.4. Voltage Regulator:

A voltage regulator is an electricalregulator designed to automatically maintain a constant
voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active electronic
components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC
voltages. There are two types of regulator are they.
Positive Voltage Series (78xx) and
Negative Voltage Series (79xx)
78xx:
78 indicate the positive series and xxindicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7805 produces the
maximum 5V.05indicates the regulator output is 5V.
79xx:
78 indicate the negative series and xxindicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7905 produces the
maximum -5V.05indicates the regulator output is -5V.
These regulators consists the three pins there are
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Pin1: It is used for input pin.

Pin2: This is ground pin for regulator
Pin3: It is used for output pin. Through this pin we get the output.
Figure: Regulator
4.7. POWER TRANSISTOR:
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In electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch

electronic signals. A transistor is made of a solid piece of a semiconductor material, with at least
three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of
the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because
the controlled (output) power can be much larger than the controlling (input) power, the
transistor provides amplification of a signal. The transistor is the fundamental building block of
modern electronic devices, and is used in radio, telephone, computer and other electronic
systems. Some transistors are packaged individually but most are found in integrated circuits.
A transistor is basically two diodes with impurity built into the depletion to both diodes.
A power transistor is just this transistor built to carry more power and dissipate more power as
opposed to a tiny transistor.
4.8. TANK CIRCUIT:
In many ways a parallel resonance circuit is exactly the same as the series resonance
circuit we looked at in the previous tutorial. Both are 3-element networks that contain two
reactive components making them a second-order circuit, both are influenced by variations in the
supply frequency and both have a frequency point where their two reactive components cancel
each other out influencing the characteristics of the circuit. Both circuits have a resonant
frequency point.
The difference this time however, is that a parallel resonance circuit is influenced by the
currents flowing through each parallel branch within the parallel LC tank circuit. A tank circuit
is a parallel combination of L and C that is used in filter networks to either select or reject AC
frequencies. Consider the parallel RLC circuit below.
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A parallel circuit containing a resistance, R, an inductance, L and a capacitance, C will

produce a parallel resonance (also called anti-resonance) circuit when the resultant current
through the parallel combination is in phase with the supply voltage. At resonance there will be a
large circulating current between the inductor and the capacitor due to the energy of the
oscillations.
A parallelresonantcircuit stores the circuit energy in the magnetic field of the inductor and
the electric field of the capacitor. This energy is constantly being transferred back and forth
between the inductor and the capacitor which results in zero current and energy being drawn
from the supply. This is because the corresponding instantaneous values of IL and IC will always
be equal and opposite and therefore the current drawn from the supply is the vector addition of
these two currents and the current flowing in IR.
In the solution of AC parallel resonance circuits we know that the supply voltage is
common for all branches, so this can be taken as our reference vector. Each parallel branch must
be treated separately as with series circuits so that the total supply current taken by the parallel
circuit is the vector addition of the individual branch currents. Then there are two methods
available to us in the analysis of parallel resonance circuits. We can calculate the current in each
branch and then add together or calculate the admittance of each branch to find the total current.
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CHAPTER:5 ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS
Advantages
Reliable
Economical
Eco-Friendly
Less consumption of Non- renewable energies.
Applications
Foot step generated power can be used for agricultural, home applications, street1lightening.
Foot step power generation can be used in emergency power failure situations.
Metros, Rural Applications etc.,
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CHAPTER:6 KIT PHOTO REPRESENTATION
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CHAPTER:7
I.RESULTS
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II.CONCLUSION
The project FOOT STEP POWER GENERATION FOR RURAL ENERGY

APPLICATION TO RUN A.C. AND D.C. LOADS is successfully tested and implemented
which is the best economical, affordable energy solution to common people. This can be used for
many applications in rural areas where power availability is less or totally absence. As India is a
developing country where energy management is a big challenge for huge population. By using
this project we can drive both AC as well as D.C loads according to the force.
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III.BIBLIOGRAPHY
o www.howstuffworks.com
o www.answers.com
Books referred:
o EMBEDDED SYSTEM BY RAJ KAMAL
o Magazines:
Electronics for you
Electrikindia
www.techno-preneur.net results
www.telegraph.co.uk/.../energy/.../Japan-harnesses-energy-from-foot.
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FOOT STEP POWER GENERATION SYSTEM FOR RURAL ENERGY APPLICATIION TO RUN AC &

Foot Step Power Generation system for rural

1.1 Introduction to the project .4

CHAPTER 2: PROJECT DESCRIPTION...6

CHAPTER 3: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

3.1 Foot step arrangement.7

CHAPTER 4: HARDWARE COMPONENTS

CHAPTER 5: ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 6: KIT PHOTO REPRESENTATION

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Introduction to the project

Other people have developed piezo-electric (mechanical-to-electrical) surfaces in the

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CHAPTER 2: PROJECT DESCRIPTION

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CHAPTER 3: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

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3.1 Foot step arrangement

WORKING OF FOOT STEP GENERATOR:

3.2 Rack And Pinion and chain sprocket arrangement

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The length of wire needed to make the spring is found from,

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If we also allow the approximation,

3.3. PMDC Generator

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Fig 2.22: Rechargeable Batteries

Fig 2.26: Inverter

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3.6. Light Loads

as tubers and corms,

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CHAPTER 4: HARDWARE COMPONENTS

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cathode is marked by a line painted on the body.

labeled with their code in small print; you may need a

glass to read this on small signal diodes.

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4.4. LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED):

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4.5. Switches and Pushbuttons:

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4.6. Block Diagram for Power Supply:

Figure: Power Supply

Figure: Transformer Symbol

Figure: Basic Principle

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Figure: Basic Transformer

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Figure: Step-Down Transformer

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Figure: Step-Up Transformer

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Figure: Main Transformer

A mains transformer is specified by:

Figure: Audio transformer

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Figure: Radio Transformer

Turns Ratio and Voltage

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