FIFTH E D I T I O N

UNDERSTANDING ARGUMENTS
An Introduction to Informal Logic

Robert J. Fogelin
Dartmouth College

Walter Sinnott-Armstrong
Dartmouth College

DUOC OIA HA ; l 6 l 1|
C A I HOC C

TRUNGTAMTriS

Harcourt Brace College Publishers

Fort Worth

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San Antonio

CONTENTS
PREFACE.

PART O N E

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The Analysis of Argument

Chapter One THE WEB OF LANGUAGE

Language and Argument
Language and Convention
Levels of Language
Linguistic Acts
Speech Acts
Performatives
Kinds of Speech Acts
Making Statements
Speech-Ad Rules
Conversational Acts
Conversational Rules
Conversational Implication
The Pervasiveness of Conversational Implicatimi
Violating Ccmversatianal Rules
Conversational Implication and Rhetorical Devices
Deception
An Overview

Chapter Two

THE LANGUAGE OF ARGUMENT

T h e Basic Structure of Arguments

If . . . T h e n
Arguments in Standard Form
Validity, Truth, and Soundness
Validity
Trudi
Soundness
A Problem and Some Solutions
Assuring
Guarding
Discounting
Argumentative Performatives
Evaluative Language
Persuasive Definitions
Euphemism and Spin Doctoring
Figurative Language

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Chapter Three THE ART OF CLOSE ANALYSIS

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Chapter Four

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DEEP ANALYSIS

Getting Down to Basics

Clarifying Crucial Terms
Dissecting the Argument
Arranging Subarguments
Suppressed Premises
Shared Facts
Linguistic Principles
Other Kinds of Suppressed Premises
The Use of Suppressed Premises
The Method of Reconstruction
Digging Deeper
Advanced Section: Capital Punishment
Conclusion

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Chapter Fine THE FORMAL ANALYSIS OF ARGUMENTS:

PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

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Validity and the Formal Analysis of Arguments

Propositional Logic
Conjunction
Validity for Conjunction
Disjunction
Negation
How Truth-Functional Connectives Work
Testing for Validity
Some Further Connectives
Summary

Conditionals
Truth Tables for Conditionals
Logical Language and Everyday Language
Other Conditionals in Ordinary Language
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions
Problems in Distinguishing Sufficient Conditions from
Necessary Conditions

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THE FORMAL ANALYSIS OF ARGUMENTS:

CATEGORICAL LOGIC
Beyond Propositional Logic
Categorical Propositions
The Four Basic Categorical Forms

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Chapter Six

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Translation into die Basic Categorical Forms

Contradictories
Existential Commitment
Validity for Arguments Containing Categorical Propositions
Immediate Inferences
The Theory of the Syllogism
Venn Diagrams for Syllogisms
The Validity of Syllogisms
Problems in Applying the Theory of the Syllogism
Appendix A: The Classical Theory
The Classical Square of Opposition
Contradictories
Contraries
Subcontraries
Subalterns
The Classical Theory of Immediate Inference
The Classical Theory of Syllogisms
Appendix B: Immediate Inferences with Complementary Classes
Obvcrsion
Contraposition
Appendix C: A System of Rules for Evaluating Syllogisms
Quality
Quantity
Distribution
The Rules
Chapter Seven

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T H E FORMAL ANALYSIS OF ARGUMENTS:

QJJANTIFICATIONAL L O G I C

Combining Two Branches of Logic

The Introduction of Quantifiers
Limited Domains
More-Elaborate A, E, I, and O Propositions
Relations and Multiple Quantifiers
Scope Fallacies
Validity for Arguments with Quantifiers
Rudimentary Quantificational Logic
Instantiations of Quantified Propositions
Universal Instantiation
Existential Generalization
Universal Generalization
Existential Instantiation

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Appfication to Immediate Inferences and Syllogisms

Application to Noncategorical Arguments
Arguments Containing Individual Constants
A General Rule for RQL
The Limits of RQL
Chapter

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INDUCTIVE REASONING

Induction versus Deduction

Inductive Generalizations
Should We Accept the Premises?
Is the Sample Large Enough?
Is the Sample Biased in Other Ways?
Sources of Bias
Prejudice and Stereotypes ..'.
Slanted Questions
Informed Judgmental Heuristics
7 ^ Representative Heuristic
The Availability Heuristic
Is the Situation Sufficiendy Standard to Allow the Use of
Informal Judgmental Heuristics?
Summary
Statistical Syllogisms
Reasoning about Causes
Causal Generalizations
Testing General Causal Conditionals
Sufficient Conditions and Necessary Conditions
The Sufficient-Condition Test
The Necessary-Condition Test
^
Rigorous Testing
Advanced Section: Some Elaborations
Negative

Conditions

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Complex Ccmdihons
Applying These Methods
.Hormality
Background Assumptions
A Detailed Example
Calling Tilings Causes
Concomitant Variation

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Inferences to the Best Ejtplanaaon

Arguments from Analogy

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Chapter Mine TAKING CHANCES

The Language of Probability
A Priori Probability
Some Laws of Probability
Expected Monetary Value
Expected Relative Value
The Gambler's Fallacy
Regression to the Mean
Strange Things Happen
Some Puzzles Concerning Probability
Appendix: Answers to Probability Puzzles

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Chapter Ten FALLACIES

What Is a Fallacy?
Fallacies of Clarity
Vagueness
Heaps
Conceptual Slippery-Slope Arguments
Fairness Slippery-Slope Arguments
Causal Slippery-Slope Arguments
Ambiguity
Fallacies of Ambiguity
Definitions
The Role of Definitions
Fallacies of Relevance
Arguments Ad Hominem
Appeals to Authority
More Fallacies of Relevance
Fallacies of Vacuity
CirciJar Reasoning
Begging the Question
Self-Sealers

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Chapter Eleven OTHER USES OF ARGUMENTS

Refutations
That's Just Like Arguing
Counterexamples
Reductio ad Absurdtmi
Attacking Straw Men
System and Simplicity
Explanations
Excuses

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Content!

P A R T T W O Areas o f A r g u m e n t a t i o n
Chapter Twelve

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LEGAL ARGUMENTS

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Components of Legal Reasoning

Questions of Fact
Questions of Law
Statutes
The Constitution
Precedents
The Law of Discrimination
Plessy V. Ferguson
From Plessy to Brawn
Brown i>. Board of Education
From Brawn to Bakke
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
Summary
Burden of Proof

Chapter Thirteen

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MORAL ARGUMENTS

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The Problem of Abortion

What Is die Problem?
The Conservative Argument
Liberal Responses
Analogical Reasonings in Ethics
Weighing Factors
"A Defense of Abortion." Judith Jarvis Thomson
"Why Abortion Is Immoral," Don Marquis

Chapter Fourteen SciENTmc REASONING

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Standard Science
Conflicting Scientific Interpretations
"Dialogue Concerning the T w o World Systems-Ptolemaic and
Copcmican." Galileo Galilei
What Killed the Dinosaurs?
"An Elxtraterrestrial Impact." Walter Alvarez and Frank Asaro
"A Volcanic Eruption." Vincent E. Courtillot

Chapter Fifteen PHILOSOPHICAL ARGUMENTS

"Computing .Machinery ;iiid Intelligence." A.M. Turing
"Minds. Brains, and Programs," John R. Searle

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