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Chlorofluorocarbons and  But again chlorine monoxide reacts with

the Ozone Layer naturally occurring oxygen atoms to


regenerate the original chlorine radical
The Stratosphere and the Ozone Layer and molecular oxygen.

The Ozone Layer ClO + O → Cl + O2

* A free radical chain reaction is initiated by each CFC that is


• It refers to the ozone within stratosphere, where over 90% of
dissociated, and each chain reaction results in the destruction of
the earth's ozone resides.
thousands of molecules of Ozone.
• Ozone is an irritating, corrosive, colorless gas with a smell
something like burning electrical wiring. CFCs VS HCFCs/HFCs and other Alternatives
• Ozone is easily produced by any high-voltage electrical arc
(spark plugs, Van de Graaff generators, Tesla coils, arc • Why use HCFCs than CFCs?
welders).
• Each molecule of ozone has three oxygen atoms and is Because HCFCs are less-threatening, energy-efficient, low-in-toxicity,
produced when oxygen molecules (O2) are broken up by cost effective and can be used safely.
energetic electrons or high energy radiation.
O + O2 → O3 Hydrogens on HCFCs make them more susceptible to oxidation and
destruction in the lower atmosphere.
• It absorbs 97-99% of the sun's high frequency ultraviolet
light , light which is potentially damaging to life on earth.
HFCs have C – H bonds rather than C-Cl bonds of CFCs
• But worldwide, the ozone layer is thinning as the total
amount of ozone decreases.
• In 1985, the British Antarctic Survey team discovers • What are other Alternatives aside HCFCs/HFCs?
Antarctic Ozone Hole (7.3M square miles), marking the first
evidence of stratospheric Ozone Depletion.
We can also use gaseous hydrocarbons such as butane and propane
• Depletions in the ozone can cause sunburn, skin cancer and
eye disease.
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion Action of the Society on
CFC and its Effects
• The following chemicals affect the Ozone layer:
• In 1976, the United Nations Environmental Programme
(UNEP) calls for an international conference to discuss an
Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs – main factor of Ozone depletion international response to the ozone issue.

Halons - are bromine-containing fluorocarbons that are used in fire • In 1978, U.S. bans non-essential uses of CFCs as propellant
extinguishers, although they may contribute to depletion of the ozone in some aerosols. Canada, Norway and Sweden follow with
layer the similar ban.

Bromomethane or Methyl Bromide (CH3Br) – a pesticide, and an • In 1981, UNEP develops a global convention to protect the
agricultural fumigant but phase-out by many countries. ozone layer.

* In 1975, scientists discover that bromine, used in fire-retarding The Montreal Protocol
halons and agricultural fumigants, is a potent ozone-depleting
substance.
• In September 16, 1987, 24 countries sign the Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
Chlorofluorocarbons
• An international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer
• These are small gaseous molecules containing carbon, by phasing out the production of a number of substances
chlorine and fluorine. believed to be responsible for ozone depletion

• It was first created in 1928 as non-toxic, non-flammable • It undergone many revisions through the years, example is
refrigerants, and were first produced commercially in the in in Copenhagen in November of 1992, laid down the most
1930's by DuPont. stringent CFC phase-out schedule for CFC's for the world to
date; and was signed by over 100 nations representing 95%
• Examples are CFCl3 (Freon 11) and CF2Cl2 (Freon 12) of the world's current CFC consumption.

• These are widely used as: • This protocol laid out a schedule for the phase-out of CFC's
and related halocarbons by the year 2030.
 Dry-cleaning solvents
• In 1988, Sweden was the first country to legislate the
complete phase-out of CFC's, with a scheduled phase-out of
 Refrigerants for freezers, air CFC's in all new goods by 1994.
conditioners, and refrigerators
• In 1990, an amended federal Clean Air Act was signed into
 Propellant in aerosol cans law. This legislation included a section (Title IV) entitled
Stratospheric Ozone Protection
 Foaming agents for plastics
• In 1992, U.S. announces an accelerated CFC phase-out date
• In 1973, scientists detect CFCs in the atmosphere. of December 31, 1995.

• In 1974, Mario Molina and F. Sherwood Rowland published a • In 1993, Du Pont announces that it will stop its production of
laboratory study demonstrating the ability of CFC's to CFCs by the end of 1994.
catalytically breakdown Ozone in the presence of high
frequency UV light. • In 1994, U.S. eliminates production and import of halons.

• In 1970, Paul Crutzen, showed that naturally occurring • In 1996, U.S. eliminates production and import of CFCs ,
nitrogen oxides catalytically destroy ozone. carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethane, and
hydrobromofluorocarbons.
• In 1995 the Nobel Prize for Chemistry was awarded to the
three of them for their studies of ozone depletion in the • In 2000, Japan Meteorological Agency reports the hole in the
stratosphere. stratospheric ozone layer over Antarctica is as its largest to
date – more than twice the size of Antarctica.
So why are CFCs harmful?
• In 2002, all developing countries freeze the production of
 Because UV light causes CFCs to Methyl Bromide.
dissociate and produce chlorine atoms,
chlorine free radicals. • In 2004, all developed countries reduce consumption of
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) by 35% from baseline
Chain Initiation: CF2Cl2 → CF2Cl + Cl level.

 These chlorine atoms react to form • In 2006, the ozone hole is reported to be the biggest ever,
chlorine monoxide and molecular exceeding that of 2000.
oxygen, so a molecule of ozone is
destroyed. • In the year 2060 – 2075, earliest time frame of projected for
the ozone layer to recover.
Chain Propagation: Cl + O3 → ClO + O2
GENERAL ANESTHETICS
• These are groups of relatively nontoxic, nonflammable, - This halogenated hydrocarbon was first synthesised
easily vaporized organic liquid used for this purpose. by C. W. Suckling of Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI)
in 1951 and was first used clinically by M. Johnstone in
• Its effects is called General Anesthesia which is an induction Manchester in 1956.
of a balanced state of unconsciousness, accompanied by the
absence of pain sensation and the paralysis of skeletal
muscle over the entire body.

• These are used in persons undergoing a major surgery to


kept them unconscious, without perception of sensations, for
a controlled period of time without danger of death or toxic
side effects. • Enflurane

• Five distinct states during surgery: - less potent, but produces a rapid onset
of anesthesia and possibly a faster
• analgesia, or pain relief recovery

• amnesia, or loss of memory of the - not used in patients with kidney failure
procedure

• loss of consciousness
- Developed by Ross Terrell in 1963, it
was first used clinically in 1966.

• motionlessness
• Isoflurane

• weakening of autonomic responses


- not toxic to the liver but can induce
irregular heart rhythms
• Before giving General Anesthetics:

• Sevoflurane
The medical personnel should know the medical history of the patients
like allergies.
- works quickly and can be administered
* Malignant Hyperthermia - potentially fatal allergic response to
through a mask since it does not irritate
anesthesia
the airway

Consider many factors, including a patient's age, weight, allergies to


- On the other hand, one of the
medications, medical history, and general health when deciding which
breakdown products of sevoflurane can
anesthetic or combination of anesthetics to use.
cause renal damage

Why General Anesthetics can cause unconsciousness or


• Methoxyflurane
Anesthesia?

- was commonly used as an inhalation


• Membranes of our bodies, including those of the nerve cells
anesthatic in the 1960s and early 1970s
in our brains, are largely hydrocarbon in structure, then
anesthetics can pass into our cells rapidly and exit just as
quickly. - As largely been abandoned because of
detrimental effects on the kidneys
• There are, however, several hypotheses that have been
advanced to explain why general anesthesia occurs: INTRAVENOUS ANESTHETICS

1. Meyer-Overton theory - suggests that anesthesia occurs when a • Ketamine


sufficient number of molecules of an inhalation anesthetic dissolve in
the lipid cell membrane. - produces a different set of reactions
from other intravenous anesthetics
2. The second theory maintains that protein receptors in the central
nervous system are involved, in that inhalation anesthetics inhibit the - have sensory illusions and vivid dreams
enzyme activity of proteins. during post-operative recovery,
ketamine is not often given to adult
3. A third hypothesis, proposed by Linus Pauling in 1961, suggests that patients
anesthetic molecules interact with water molecules to form clathrates
(hydrated microcrystals), which in turn inhibit receptor function. - useful in anesthetizing children, patients
in shock, and trauma casualties in war
Types of anesthetic agents zones where anesthesia equipment may
be difficult to obtain
There are two major types of anesthetics used for general anesthesia,
• Thiopental (a barbiturate)
• Inhalation anesthetics
• Methohexital
- are sometimes called volatile anesthetics, are compounds
that enter the body through the lungs and are carried by the • Etomidate
blood to body tissues.
• Propofol
- Less often used alone in recent clinical practice; they are
usually used together with intravenous anesthetics. -------

• Intravenous anesthetics Nasal Decongestants, Diet Pills and Stimulants

- giving medications or fluids (solutions) through a needle or All of us have had an adrenalin rush; adrenalin (epinephrine) is
tube inserted into a vein released by the human adrenal gland in times of stress, fear, or
excitement. Adrenalin belongs to a group of compounds sometimes
INHALATION ANESTHETICS referred to as phenylalkylamines; these compounds have a benzene
ring, an alkyl group, and an amine group. A number of these bases are
• Halothane found in the herb ma huang , which has been used medicinally in China
for more than 5000 years.
- Causes unconsciousness but provides little pain relief;
often administered with analgesics

- It may be toxic to the liver in adults.

- has a pleasant smell and is therefore often the


anesthetic of choice when mask induction is used with
children.
• Although an effective antipyretic, still causes severe
stomach irritation in some people. So the search for pain
relievers continued in the late 1800s
• It was hypothesized that the neutralized acid would cause
less gastric irritation
• 1875- Sodium Salicylate was introduced.
SALOL
• A phenol ester of salicylic acid. Introduced in 1886. Its used
lead to greatly decreased incidence of gastric distress.
• Hydrolyzes to sodium salicylate, which previously has been
The physiological effects we experience with adrenalin are common, in used as pain reliever.
varying degrees, to other phenylalkylamines. For example, peyote, • However, simultaneous liberation of phenol led to the danger
used in the religious rituals of Indian tribes in Mexico and legally in of phenol poisoning.
religious ceremonies of the Native American Church in the United • Felix Hoffman- who worked for the Bayer Company,
States, is a Mexican cactus that produces the hallucinogenic drug investigated other derivatives of salicylic acid and tested
acetyl salicylic acid on his father who suffered arthritis.
mescaline. Amphetamine (also called Dexedrine) was introduced in
• This & other tests revealed its excellent medicinal properties
1932 as a nasal decongestant; it was used in World War II to keep front and a decreased frequency of gastric irritation.
line troops alert. Ritalin, a somewhat more complex phenylalkylamine, • ACETYL SALICYLIC ACID, ASPIRIN- was marketed in 1899 by
is used to assist children and adults in coping with diagnosed attention the Bayer Company.
deficit disorder(ADD). • Unfortunately, even aspirin causes stomach distress in some
individuals, and minor, usually clinically unimportant, gastric
or intestinal bleeding. Other products have been introduced
Many over the counter nasal decongestants, both topical and oral,
that do not have these unpleasant side effects.
contain phrnylalkylamines, most commonly ephedrine, phenylephrine
and phenylpropanolamine hydrochloride. • The most familiar of these is ACETAMINOPHEN.
ACETAMINOPHEN
• Essentially equivalent to aspirin in their antipyretic and
These drugs function by contracting the arterioles within the
analgesic properties.
nasal mucous membranes, thereby restricting blood flow to this area. • PHENACITIN
Swelling is reduced, nasal passages are opened, and the ventilation • Has been implicated in Kidney damage, and though it was
and drainage of sinuses are possible. However , prolonged use of once a popular ingredient in APC (aspirin and phenacetin and
decongestants, especially topical sprays, can result in restricted caffeine) tablets, its use has been largely discontinued.
nutrient flow to the area and in reduced waste removal from the • IBUPROFEN
sinuses, leaving the affected tissues swollen and susceptible to • In low strength doses, it is a relative newcomer to the
nonprescription pain reliever market, although it was
infection. Long duration nasal decongestants contain compounds that
available as a prescription for some time.
like xylometazoline hydrochloride, a compound that is structurally • SALICYLAMIDE
related to phenylalkylamines. • Much less effective than aspirin and too weak and unreliable
to be generally useful as a pain reliever alone.
Phenylpropanolamine hydrochloride is also used in diet pills, • Antacids are added to pain relievers to:
often in does similar to oral nasal decongestants. The appetite • raise gastric pH and thus minimize stomach upset and
• to accelerate tablet dissolution
suppressant effect of phenylalkylamines is at work here, but other
• Antacids found in pain relievers or over-the-counter antacid
physiological actions can lead to side effects. As consequence, oral preparations include:
decongestants and diet pills containing phenylalkylamine NaHCO3 (baking soda, bicarbonate, soda)
hydrochloride often have printed cautions to people with heart CaCo3 (calcium carbonate)
problems and diabetes. Mg(OH)2 (milk of magnesia)
Many oral nasal decongestants and allergy preparations Al(OH)3 (aluminum hydoxide)
containing antihistamines. When the body begins to experience an NaAl(OH)2 CO3 (dihydroxylaluminum sodium bicarbonate)
allergic reaction such as to pollen, insect stings, and many other
irritants, histamine is produced. Most symptoms of allergies are
caused by histamine. Antihistamine reduce or eliminate the effects of
histamines. Some histamines are used as sleeping pills and sedatives,
Neurotransmitters
and many that treat allergies can cause drowsiness. Fexofenadine and
loratadine are common prescription antihistamine that do not cause
Among the many relevant phenol derivatives, the catechol
drowsiness because they do not prenetrate to the blood brain barrier. neurotransmitters are some of the most valuable and interesting.

---------- The nervous system runs on a series of physical and


chemical reactions. Signals are carried from one nerve cell to another
by simple chemical molecules known as neurotransmitters.
ASPRIRIN and other ANALGESICS Epinephrine (adrenalin), norepinephrine, dopamine, and acetylcholine
are but four of the more than 20 known neurotransmitters.
ANALGESICS (pain relievers)
• Among the most important medicinal applications of The first three substances are also called catecholamines
carboxylic acid derivatives. because they are similar to catechol, or o-hydroxyphenol
ASPIRIN (acetyl salicylic acid) The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the
• One of the oldest analgesics, a drug that is amazing for its parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) stimulate almost every organ
continuing and varied usefulness in the body in a complementary fashion. The PNS supplies the
• Salicylic ester of acetic acid stimulation for normal physiological functions, while the SNS provides
• Reduces fever but does not lower normal body temperature the necessary arousal for survival in the “cold, cruel world”.
• Its analgesic properties are effective against pains The PNS is responsible for contraction of the pupils of the
accompanying colds, flu, nervous tension, rheumatism, eyes, normal pulse and blood pressure, constriction of the bronchi,
and arthritis. digestive enzyme-containing secretions in the mouth, and increased
• Continuous small doses over a long periods could decrease gastrointestinal activity. The SNS in an effort to make the body alert
the chances of heart problems. And increase chances of and ready to respond to any outside threat, causes dilation of the
surviving heart attack should one occur. pupils, increased pulse and blood pressure, and relaxation of the
• ASPIRIN bronchi, dry mouth, and decreased gastrointestinal motility.
The prime neurotransmitter in the SNS is norepinephrine. It
• Comes from that of a willow, Salix Spirea. Jesuit Missionaries
is synthesized in an SNS nerve cell and, in response to a nerve
in the middle ages used the bark of this tree for medicinal
impulse, is secreted into the space between two nerve cells, called the
purposes. synapse. The neurotransmitter travels to the other side of the synapse
• 7th century- extracts of willow bark had fever-reducing and combines with a protein known as a receptor on the surface of the
properties. next nerve cell. This triggers the nerve impulse in that cell.
• 1826- salicylic acid was isolated
Β-blockers:
• 1852- salicylic acid had been independently synthesized
• 1874-relatively large scale production had made it available
as medicine

SALYCLIC ACID Β2-receptor agonists:


• A bifunctional molecule (acid & phenol) from which many
familiar substances are derived.
• Used as a disinfectant in some first aid sprays and
ointments. Its methyl ester, methyl salicylate (oil of
wintergreen) is used for tropical rubs for some muscles.
 Lactic acid – end result of digestion of adhesive
along in the food in which bacteria produced using
sucrose
- causes the corrosion of the mineral deposits
(hydroxyapatite) of the teeth and
destruction of gums

Errors in the Metabolism of Fatty Acids – Lorenzo’s Oil


Low-Calorie Sweeteners
“Lorenzo’s Oil”:
 a 1992 movie that detailed the real-life struggle of the
 Provide sweet taste without calories, or with very few
Odone family
calories.
 the Odone family has a young son suffering from a metabolic
 Most low-calorie sweeteners are not digested by the body
disorder
and provide no calories.
 Lorenzo Odone show symptoms:
 are also called "non-nutritive sweeteners"  Personality disorder
 Glucose not needed for metabolic energy is either stored as:  Loss of coordination and speech
 Glycogen  The young son of Odone family suffered from ALD
 Lipid  Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD)
 Can form on the walls of blood vessels, - an inborn metabolic disorder passed as
eventually leading to atherosclerosis, or an X-linked gene through the women in the family
increase risk of stroke or heart attack. - extremely rare condition – 1 in 45,000
 Therefore, many persons limit intake of fat and in the populations of United States and Europe.
carbohydrates, especially sucrose. - accumulation of very-long-chain fatty
 In order to satisfy “sweet tooth” developed by sugared diets, acids (22-26 carbon range) in the brain and adrenal
various natural and synthetic materials have been or are cortex
being investigated as sugar substitutes or enhancers.  The Odones
Low-calorie Substitutes:  Became self-taught experts, finding a dietary
 Their ability to be absorbed in the intestine is minimal, but supplement of a 4:1 mixture of olive oil that
their capacity for hydrogen-bonding has caused them to be seemed to slow progress of ALD in their son.
associated with unpleasant laxative action of they are  The supplement contains:
consumed in large quantities ▪ Oleic acid – as major component
 Examples of these low-calorie substitutes are: ▪ Triglycerides of erucic acid – 40-50% of
 Sugar alcohols seeds of rapeseeds, mustard, wallflower,
 Mannitol and nasturtium seeds
 Sorbitol  Lorenzo’s Oil – mixture that seems to stabilize low blood
Saccharin concentrations of very-long-chain fatty acids and has
 300 times sweeter than sucrose impeded the development of ALD in some young patients
 Shown to promote cancer in laboratory animals - normal course of affliction is about two years
 Classified as carcinogen: cancer-causing substance from diagnosis to death
 Enhance the carcinogenicity of other substances - for some treated did not have their condition
Aspartame relieved
 200 times sweeter than sucrose  Augusto and Michaela Odone
 A dipeptide composed of 2 amino acids - their devotion and studies indicated some
 Illustrates that a molecule need not be a carbohydrate to be possible avenues of research
sweet - Augusto is the current director of Myelin Project
 L-aspartyl-L-phenylalanyl-methyl ester
Lactose: DRUG DESIGN
 The second unit of lactose, glucose, has its hemiacetal
carbon free and it can therefore open up to the aldose form.  An understanding of the effects of halogenation has been
 is a reducing sugar and will be oxidized by: useful in the important area of drug design
 Fehling’s reagents  In order to be effective a drug must be designed to reach its
 Benedict’s reagents site of action. In many cases, this involves penetration of one
 Tollen’s reagents or more membrane barriers between the site of application
and the receptor location.
 requires: lactase - a special enzyme to break its glycosidic
bond  Because the cell membrane is a lipid bilayer with a nonpolar
- secreted in the intestines of young interior, it tends to resist penetration by molecules that are
mammals not fat soluble; the more lipid soluble a molecule is, the
better it will diffuse across the membrane. Such lipid
 Lactose intolerance – is when adults cannot digest milk and solubility can sometimes be increased by halogen
milk products - 70-80% of world’s substitution.
adult population has this condition
- bring about gastrointestinal distress due to  Molecule Cortisol
fermentation of undigested lactose by - a corticosteroid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex.
endogenous intestinal bacteria  Biological Functions :
- already fermented milk products like - Helps regulate carbohydrate and protein metabolism and salt
yogurt and cheese are available for those who are balance.
suffering - Inhibit inflammation.
- Lactaid is available as lactase enzyme to treat
milk Measuring Blood Alcohol
- Sweet acidophilus – a bacterium
which is Lactobacillus acidophilus Determining the Level of Alcohol Concentration in the Blood by using a
- added to regular milk Person's Breath
Sucrose: The alcohol is absorbed through the membranes in a person's mouth,
 also called the “table disaccharide”, the everyday table throat, stomach, and intestines. Once absorbed by the body, the
sugar alcohol passes immediately into the bloodstream, where it circulates
 composed of glucose and fructose units joined by glycoside until it is expelled through evaporation in the lungs. Evaporation occurs
bond because alcohol is "volatile" in a solution, meaning that its molecules
 a nonreducing sugar because it will not give a positive do not combine with the liquid that it mixes with. Due to this volatility,
Fehling’s test as the blood passes through the lungs, some of the alcohol passes over
 As a disaccharide, it is Dextrorotatory. Upon hydrolysis by the alveoli (the lungs' air sacs), allowing it to be released by the
acid or enzyme, optical rotation changes to Levorotatory as person's breath. The expulsion of the evaporated alcohol through the
a result of release of fructose, also known as levulose and breath permits the BAC to be accurately measured, since the percent
glucose, or dextrose units. alcohol being expelled contains the same level of alcohol that is
 Inversion – sign optical activity changes from plus to minus contained in the blood. The amount of alcohol in 2,100 ml of expelled
- caused by hydrolysis process and occurs on the breath is exactly equivalent to the amount of alcohol in 1 ml of blood.
optical rotation  Breathalyzer Test
 Invert sugar – mixture of the two monosaccharides - based on the oxidation of ethyl alcohol to acetic acid using potassium
 Invertase – enzyme contained in bees dichromate.
- causes this conversion during - test for estimating alcohol in the blood, whether administered in the
production of honey field by having the subject breathe into a plastic bag or more precisely
- humans has this similar enzyme called in a lab.
sucrase A breathalyzer consists of a collection device, a "straw" attached to a
Sucrose: cylinder. The cylinder contains two vials, which contain a solution of
 Known cause of extensive tooth decay sulfuric acid, potassium dichromate, silver nitrate and water. The
 Plaque – material that sticks to our teeth individual being tested blows into the straw for approximately two to
 Streptococcus multans – bacterial colonies that four seconds. The object is to test the air from deep in the lungs, which
composes plaque will produce the most accurate reading. The expelled air travels into
the vials, where the silver nitrate acts as a catalyst to initiate and
speed up the analysis. The first thing that happens is that the sulfuric
acid removes the alcohol from the air. The sulfuric acid also might
provide the acidic condition needed for this reaction. During this
reaction, the reddish-orange dichromate ion changes color to the green
chromium ion when it reacts with the alcohol; the degree of the color
change is directly related to the level of alcohol in the expelled air. To
determine the amount of alcohol in that air, the reacted mixture is
compared to a vial of unreacted mixture in the photocell system, which
produces an electric current that causes the needle in the meter to
move from its resting place. The operator then rotates a knob to bring
the needle back to the resting place and reads the level of alcohol from
the knob -- the more the operator must turn the knob to return it to
rest, the greater the level of alcohol.

8 H2SO4 + 3 C2H5OH + 2 K2Cr2O7 3 CH3COOH +


2 Cr2(SO4)3 + 11 H2O + 2 K2SO4
sulfuric acid ethanol potassium dichromate acetic acid
chromium sulfate water potassium sulfate

 Potassium Dichromate
- a very vivid reddish-orange substance that changes into green as the
ethyl alcohol is oxidized and Cr6+ of the orange red dichromate is
reduced to green Cr3+
Chromium Trioxide(CrO3)
- a dark red/orange brown water-soluble solid. It is stable by itself,
however, it is a strong oxidant when mixed with other substances that
can be oxidized.
- a strong oxidizing agent that is not soluble in most organic solvents
and tends to explode in the presence of organic compounds and
solvents. In water, it forms chromic acid and anhydrides, from which
salts such as sodium dichromate (Na2Cr2O7) and pyridinium dichromate
are commercially available.
Sodium Dichromate ( Na2Cr2O7 )
- the salt is usually handled as its dihydrate (Na2Cr2O7·2H2O)
- poisonous red-orange crystalline compound used as an
oxidizing agent
- Chromium Trioxide and sodium dichromate are common
oxidizing agents which oxidize primary alcohols to
carboxylic acids and secondary alcohol to ketones.
Pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC)
- a reagent that stops the oxidation of primary alcohol at the
aldehyde stage

Dye and Dying


Compounds that absorb one or more wavelengths of visible light
appear colored to the human eye. White light possesses all
wavelenghts of visible light. When a beam of white light strikes a
colored surface,certain wavelengths are absorbed and others are
reflected,we see what is reflected.
The compound has a chromophore group ( a chemical group of
selective light absorption resulting in coloration of certain organic
compounds,also called color radical)
There is an extensive network of alternating single and double bonds
(conjugation) of which the chromophore is a part.

For a compound to be a dye,it must not only show color,it must also be
able to adhere to a fabric. Auxochrome is a chemical group within a
dye molecule by which the dye is bound to reactive end group in
tissues. The auxochrome enhances the intensity of absorption.

Classification of dyes
DIRECT DYES
Any of a class of coloured,water-soluble compounds that have an
affinity for fiber and are taken up directly,such as the benzidine
derivatives. Direct dyes are usually cheap and easily applied,and they
can yield bright colours. Washfastness is poor but may be improved by
after treatment. Silk and wool,can be colored simply by being dipped in
the dye (the dyes so used are consequently called direct dyes).
MORDANT DYES
Dyes which require a mordant in their application and which upon
combination with the mordant deposit insoluble color on the substrate.
e.g.,dyes with metal chelating groups. Mordants are substances of
organic or inorganic origin which combine with the coloring matter and
are used to fix the same in the production of the color. For the purpose
of this class,such materials as oils and sulfonated oils, soaps, fats and
higher acids,are not generally considered as mordants.

REACTIVE DYES
Fiber reactive dyes are textile dyes which form a covalent bond with
the fibers of the textile,resulting in a long lasting,bright dye.
-clothing colored with reactive dyes will not bleed in washing or
fade.unless exposed to bright light.

INGRAIN DYE
A colourant which is formed in suit in the substrate by the
development and coupling of one or more intermediate compounds.

VAT DYE
Dyes such as indigo,that produces a fast
color by impregnating fiber with a reduced soluble form that is then
oxidized to an
insoluble form. Applied by reducing the dye to a base-soluble
form,applying the dye,the
regenerating the insoluble dye by oxidation in he material,used for
dyeing cotton using Vat or buckets. It can be performed whenever a
liquid,even shade over the entire garment is desired.

CHEM4(REPORT)
aerbase.ayen/PHOTON
022810

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