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Halons - are bromine-containing fluorocarbons that are used in fire • In 1978, U.S. bans non-essential uses of CFCs as propellant
extinguishers, although they may contribute to depletion of the ozone in some aerosols. Canada, Norway and Sweden follow with
layer the similar ban.
Bromomethane or Methyl Bromide (CH3Br) – a pesticide, and an • In 1981, UNEP develops a global convention to protect the
agricultural fumigant but phase-out by many countries. ozone layer.
* In 1975, scientists discover that bromine, used in fire-retarding The Montreal Protocol
halons and agricultural fumigants, is a potent ozone-depleting
substance.
• In September 16, 1987, 24 countries sign the Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
Chlorofluorocarbons
• An international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer
• These are small gaseous molecules containing carbon, by phasing out the production of a number of substances
chlorine and fluorine. believed to be responsible for ozone depletion
• It was first created in 1928 as non-toxic, non-flammable • It undergone many revisions through the years, example is
refrigerants, and were first produced commercially in the in in Copenhagen in November of 1992, laid down the most
1930's by DuPont. stringent CFC phase-out schedule for CFC's for the world to
date; and was signed by over 100 nations representing 95%
• Examples are CFCl3 (Freon 11) and CF2Cl2 (Freon 12) of the world's current CFC consumption.
• These are widely used as: • This protocol laid out a schedule for the phase-out of CFC's
and related halocarbons by the year 2030.
Dry-cleaning solvents
• In 1988, Sweden was the first country to legislate the
complete phase-out of CFC's, with a scheduled phase-out of
Refrigerants for freezers, air CFC's in all new goods by 1994.
conditioners, and refrigerators
• In 1990, an amended federal Clean Air Act was signed into
Propellant in aerosol cans law. This legislation included a section (Title IV) entitled
Stratospheric Ozone Protection
Foaming agents for plastics
• In 1992, U.S. announces an accelerated CFC phase-out date
• In 1973, scientists detect CFCs in the atmosphere. of December 31, 1995.
• In 1974, Mario Molina and F. Sherwood Rowland published a • In 1993, Du Pont announces that it will stop its production of
laboratory study demonstrating the ability of CFC's to CFCs by the end of 1994.
catalytically breakdown Ozone in the presence of high
frequency UV light. • In 1994, U.S. eliminates production and import of halons.
• In 1970, Paul Crutzen, showed that naturally occurring • In 1996, U.S. eliminates production and import of CFCs ,
nitrogen oxides catalytically destroy ozone. carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethane, and
hydrobromofluorocarbons.
• In 1995 the Nobel Prize for Chemistry was awarded to the
three of them for their studies of ozone depletion in the • In 2000, Japan Meteorological Agency reports the hole in the
stratosphere. stratospheric ozone layer over Antarctica is as its largest to
date – more than twice the size of Antarctica.
So why are CFCs harmful?
• In 2002, all developing countries freeze the production of
Because UV light causes CFCs to Methyl Bromide.
dissociate and produce chlorine atoms,
chlorine free radicals. • In 2004, all developed countries reduce consumption of
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) by 35% from baseline
Chain Initiation: CF2Cl2 → CF2Cl + Cl level.
These chlorine atoms react to form • In 2006, the ozone hole is reported to be the biggest ever,
chlorine monoxide and molecular exceeding that of 2000.
oxygen, so a molecule of ozone is
destroyed. • In the year 2060 – 2075, earliest time frame of projected for
the ozone layer to recover.
Chain Propagation: Cl + O3 → ClO + O2
GENERAL ANESTHETICS
• These are groups of relatively nontoxic, nonflammable, - This halogenated hydrocarbon was first synthesised
easily vaporized organic liquid used for this purpose. by C. W. Suckling of Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI)
in 1951 and was first used clinically by M. Johnstone in
• Its effects is called General Anesthesia which is an induction Manchester in 1956.
of a balanced state of unconsciousness, accompanied by the
absence of pain sensation and the paralysis of skeletal
muscle over the entire body.
• Five distinct states during surgery: - less potent, but produces a rapid onset
of anesthesia and possibly a faster
• analgesia, or pain relief recovery
• amnesia, or loss of memory of the - not used in patients with kidney failure
procedure
• loss of consciousness
- Developed by Ross Terrell in 1963, it
was first used clinically in 1966.
• motionlessness
• Isoflurane
• Sevoflurane
The medical personnel should know the medical history of the patients
like allergies.
- works quickly and can be administered
* Malignant Hyperthermia - potentially fatal allergic response to
through a mask since it does not irritate
anesthesia
the airway
- giving medications or fluids (solutions) through a needle or All of us have had an adrenalin rush; adrenalin (epinephrine) is
tube inserted into a vein released by the human adrenal gland in times of stress, fear, or
excitement. Adrenalin belongs to a group of compounds sometimes
INHALATION ANESTHETICS referred to as phenylalkylamines; these compounds have a benzene
ring, an alkyl group, and an amine group. A number of these bases are
• Halothane found in the herb ma huang , which has been used medicinally in China
for more than 5000 years.
- Causes unconsciousness but provides little pain relief;
often administered with analgesics
Potassium Dichromate
- a very vivid reddish-orange substance that changes into green as the
ethyl alcohol is oxidized and Cr6+ of the orange red dichromate is
reduced to green Cr3+
Chromium Trioxide(CrO3)
- a dark red/orange brown water-soluble solid. It is stable by itself,
however, it is a strong oxidant when mixed with other substances that
can be oxidized.
- a strong oxidizing agent that is not soluble in most organic solvents
and tends to explode in the presence of organic compounds and
solvents. In water, it forms chromic acid and anhydrides, from which
salts such as sodium dichromate (Na2Cr2O7) and pyridinium dichromate
are commercially available.
Sodium Dichromate ( Na2Cr2O7 )
- the salt is usually handled as its dihydrate (Na2Cr2O7·2H2O)
- poisonous red-orange crystalline compound used as an
oxidizing agent
- Chromium Trioxide and sodium dichromate are common
oxidizing agents which oxidize primary alcohols to
carboxylic acids and secondary alcohol to ketones.
Pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC)
- a reagent that stops the oxidation of primary alcohol at the
aldehyde stage
For a compound to be a dye,it must not only show color,it must also be
able to adhere to a fabric. Auxochrome is a chemical group within a
dye molecule by which the dye is bound to reactive end group in
tissues. The auxochrome enhances the intensity of absorption.
Classification of dyes
DIRECT DYES
Any of a class of coloured,water-soluble compounds that have an
affinity for fiber and are taken up directly,such as the benzidine
derivatives. Direct dyes are usually cheap and easily applied,and they
can yield bright colours. Washfastness is poor but may be improved by
after treatment. Silk and wool,can be colored simply by being dipped in
the dye (the dyes so used are consequently called direct dyes).
MORDANT DYES
Dyes which require a mordant in their application and which upon
combination with the mordant deposit insoluble color on the substrate.
e.g.,dyes with metal chelating groups. Mordants are substances of
organic or inorganic origin which combine with the coloring matter and
are used to fix the same in the production of the color. For the purpose
of this class,such materials as oils and sulfonated oils, soaps, fats and
higher acids,are not generally considered as mordants.
REACTIVE DYES
Fiber reactive dyes are textile dyes which form a covalent bond with
the fibers of the textile,resulting in a long lasting,bright dye.
-clothing colored with reactive dyes will not bleed in washing or
fade.unless exposed to bright light.
INGRAIN DYE
A colourant which is formed in suit in the substrate by the
development and coupling of one or more intermediate compounds.
VAT DYE
Dyes such as indigo,that produces a fast
color by impregnating fiber with a reduced soluble form that is then
oxidized to an
insoluble form. Applied by reducing the dye to a base-soluble
form,applying the dye,the
regenerating the insoluble dye by oxidation in he material,used for
dyeing cotton using Vat or buckets. It can be performed whenever a
liquid,even shade over the entire garment is desired.
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