Cellular Respiration

I. Catabolic reactions (fermentation/ cellular respiration) oxidize food into energy

A. Cellular Respiration (it is the more efficient system) coupled to ATP synthesis through Redox Reactions
1. Reduction (addition of elections) (known as the oxidizing agent)
2. Oxidation (to lose elections) (known as the reducing agent)
B. Electron carriers (NAD+ , FAD) (shuttles for electrons by transferring electrons minimizing energy loss)
1. (path of electrons) Food NAD+/FAD Electron Transport Chain Oxygen

II. Cellular Respiration (Aerobic) creates ATP through oxidative phosphorylation (the addition of inorganic phosphates to ADP)
A. Glycolysis (happens in the cytosol) ; 1 glucose 2 pyruvates
1. Energy Investment: uses 2 ATP and essentially has 2 Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphates at the end
2. Energy Payoff: 4 ATP, 2 NADH (worth 3 ATP each), and 2 pyruvates at the end.
a. Net gain in energy; 2 ATP and 2 NADH
b. Energy storage: 2 pyruvates, 2 NADH, 2 ATP (in order of most to least energy)
c. (NADH and 2 pyruvates actively transported into mitochondria)
B. Citric Acid Cycle (happens in the mitochondrial matrix) using active transport. CO2 is released (all 6 from glucose)
1. Pyruvate oxidation (energy is stripped away) acetyl-CoA
a. Net Results (per pyruvate): 1 CO2, 1 NADH, 1 Acetyl-CoA
i. CO2 is released because of oxidation, stored in NADH ; Coenzyme-A combines with the acetate (2 carbon) Acetyl-CoA
2. Citric Acid Cycle; mitochondrial matrix, Acetyl-CoA is fully oxidized.
a. Net results (per acetyl-CoA)
C. Oxidative Phosphorylation (coupling energy in electron carriers to power the electron transport chain to ultimately make ATP)
1. Electron Transport Chain uses energy from electron carriers to generate the proton motive force (high [H+] in the intermembrane space)
a. NADH NADH Q Reductase ubiquinone cytochrome C reductase cytochrome C cytochrome C oxidase O2 turns into H20.
b. FADH2 succinate dehydrogenase ubiquinone cytochrome C reductase cytochrome C cytochrome C oxidase O2 turns into H20.
2. Chemiosmosis (the facilitated diffusion of H+ through ATP synthase to combine an inorganic phosphate to ADP) creates ATP using the proton motive
force through ATP synthas
a. Converting kinetic energy potential energy (ATP)
D. Net ATP Gain per glucose
1. 36 = 40% efficiency; 1 NADH = 3ATP; 1 FADH2 = 2 ATP.
a. Glycolysis
2 ATP
2 NADH
b. P.O
2 NADH
c. C.A.C
2 ATP
6 NADH
2 FADH2
4 ATP;
30ATP;
4 ATP = 38 2 ATP (for active transport) leaving us with 36

III.

Fermentation/ Anaerobic cell respiration; glycolysis + NAD+ regeneration.

A. Replenishing NAD+ to keep glycolysis going (fast but inefficient)
1. Alcohol (ic) fermentation: pyruvate (releasing CO2) acetaldehyde (releasing NAD+) ethanol
2. Lactic Acid Fermentation: pyruvate (releasing NAD+) lactic acid/ lactate.
a. In humans, occurs in muscle cells. Reconverted to pyruvate by liver cells.

b.
IV. How food is related to cellular respiation
A. Carbs (4 cal/g) glucose cellular respiration
B. Fats (9 cal/g)
1. Glycerol glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate finish cellular respiration.
2. Fatty acids acetyl-CoA Citric acid cycle oxidative phophorylation
C. Proteins (4 cal/g)
1. Amino group is released; Carbon fragments pyruvate; acetyl-CoA; parts of the C.A.C
D. Food can also be used for biosynthesis or stored when in excess
1. phosphofructokinase is key enzyme for feedback inhibition.

Photosynthesis

I. Photosynthesis is carried out by photoautotrophs (focus on plants); mainly in leaves (but anywhere green)
A. Location of photosynthesis
1. In mesophyll (interior part of leaves) contains most of the chloroplasts; stomata (holes in the leaf for gas exchange and transpiration. Usually on the
underside of the leaf)
a. Structure of the chloroplast: outer membrane, inner membrane, intermembrane space, stroma filled with the thylakoids and stacked into grana(um)
B. Overview of photosynthesis
1. 6CO2 + 12H2O + light C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
6CO2 + 6H2O + light C6H12O6 + 6O2 (condensed)
a. Light reactions: make ATP and NADPH for Calvin cycle (in thylakoids)
i. Oxygen is waste product from the splitting of H2O for its electrons.
b. Calvin Cycle: makes sugar; returns ADP and NADP+ to light reactions (in stroma)

i.
II. The Light Reactions
A. Nature of light
1. Light is a type of electromagnetic energy; behaves as a wave and a particle (photons); most important part of the spectrum for life.
a. Shorter wavelength = more energy; blue-violet = most energy. Red/orange = lowest energy.
2. Action vs. Absorption

B. Photosystems embedded in the thylakoid membranes absorb light energy

1. Structure: Reaction center (protein complex that has 2 special chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor); Light harvesting complex
(protein pigments [light receptors] surrounding the reaction center)
a. Pigments light receptors; reflect, transmit, absorb
i. Chlorophyll: absorbs blue/violet and red; reflects/transmits green
a- main, blue green
b- accessory, green yellow
ii. Carotenoids/ Carotenes yellow, orange, red
broadens action spectrum; photoprotection (prevents the leaves from burning and dissipates light as heat)
iii. Pigments absorb light and electrons go from ground to excited.
Excited back to ground state releases energy as heat or fluorescence.
2. Types
a. Photosystem II first, P680
b. Photosystem I second, P700
C. Process of light reations
1. Cyclic (makes ATP only!)
a. Electron route; PSI ferredoxin cytochrome complex plastocyanin PSI
b. Used because ATP is required 9:6 (3:2) in Calvin cycle.
2. Noncyclic: makes ATP and NADPH in a 1:1; produces O2
a. Electron Route: H2O (photolysis) PSII plastoquinone cytochrome complex plastocyanin PSI ferredoxin NADP+ reductase
NADP+ NADPH
3. ATP production
a. H+ pumped from stroma to thylakoid space using energy from electrons; diffuses through ATP synthase

III. Carbon Fixation requires energy (ATP, NADPH) from the light reactions to convert CO2 into sugar
A. The Calvin Cycle (if plants only use this, they are called C3 plants) [every plant does it]
1. Carbon Fixation (incorporation of CO2 into organic molecules); rubisco (can attach CO2 or O2 to Ribulose Bisphosphate)
a. 3-phosphoglycerate is the first stable product.
2. Reduction (adding high energy electrons to 3PG)
a. uses ATP and NADPH in 1:1
3. Regeneration of Ribulose Bisphosphate (to accept the next CO2)
a. Requires ATP only (why cyclic light reaction happens)
B. Hot, Dry conditions lead to photorespiration (doing the opposite of what is wants by breaking off a CO2 and adding oxygen)
1. C4 uses physical separation
a. in mesophyll cells, CO2 is fixed by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (highly specific) oxaloacetate; then is converted into malate.
b. Malate is moved through plasmodesmata to bundle sheath cells; releases CO2 for Calvin Cycle.
2. CAM uses separation of time; happening in one cell.
a. Night: stomata open; COS is trapped in organic molecules.
b. Day: organic molecules releases CO2 for the Calvin cycle.