Boiler Seminar

Designing Efficient Boiler
Systems for Commercial

Buildings
Jeff Stein, PE
Taylor Engineering
Alameda, CA
PG&E Energy
Center
May 2010
Handouts

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AGENDA

Boiler Classifications
Some Typical Boilers
NOx Regulations and NOx Control
Efficiency Basics
Energy Codes
Boiler Efficiency Standards
Efficiency Part II
Choosing a Condensing Boiler
HW System Design
eQUEST Simulation
Case Study
3
Disclaimer
Manufacturers
literature and data is

used in this presentation for
illustration purposes only.
We do not endorse the data or
recommend any particular products.
Pressure
and Temperature
Fuel
Heat
Exchanger Type
Materials
Draft Type
Burner Type
Chamber Type
Pressure and Temperature

Steam
Low pressure (<15 psig)

Medium pressure (15 to 160 psig)
High pressure (> 160 psig)
Hot Water
Low temperature (<250F and < 160 psi) [MOST COMMERCIAL BOILERS]
Section IV of ASME Code
Medium temperature (250 to 350F)

Section I of AMSE Code
High temperature (>350F)

Fuel
Heat Exchanger Type
Materials
Draft Type
Burner Type
Chamber Type


Fuel

Fuel oil
Natural gas/propane
Electric
Other (coal, wood)
Heat Exchanger Type

Materials
Draft Type
Burner Type
Chamber Type
8


Fuel
Heat Exchanger Type

Water Tube
Straight tube
Bent tube
Fire Tube
Single pass
Multiple pass
Modular / Sectional
Materials
Draft Type
Burner Type
Chamber Type
9
Source: ASHRAE, used with permission


Fuel
Heat Exchanger Type
Materials
Non-Condensing
Carbon Steel
Copper
Cast Iron
Condensing
Stainless Steel
Aluminum
Cast Iron

Draft Type
Burner Type
Chamber Type
10


Fuel
Heat Exchanger Type
Materials
Draft Type

Atmospheric (natural draft)

Forced draft
Induced draft
Burner Type
Chamber Type
11


Fuel
Heat Exchanger Type
Materials
Draft Type
Burner Type
One Stage
High/Low Fire
Modulating
Chamber Type
12


Fuel
Heat Exchanger Type
Materials
Draft Type
Burner Type
Chamber Type
Dry base combustion chamber below water chamber

Wet base combustion chamber surrounded by water
chamber
Wet leg (mud leg)
Dry back
Wet back
13
Some Typical Boilers
Typical Commercial Boilers
COPPER OR STEEL BENT TUBE

BOILER
COPPER FIN-TUBE
BOILER
15
Fire--Tube Boilers
Fire
3 pass wetback
4 pass dryback
HW Only
4 pass wetback
16
Source: Cleaver Brooks, used with permission
Firetube Boilers
Four flue gas passes
Wetback - Water cooled rear

tube sheets
On some boilers a door can be
opened to gain access to second
pass tubes and tube sheet
17
Scotch Marine Firetube Boilers

Scotch marine is most

common type of fire tube.
Large water volume
Can handle load changes
(i.e. less thermal shock)
Slow responding
Good for steam since
volume enables them to
respond to load changes
with relatively little change
in pressure. However, since
the boiler typically holds a
large water mass, it requires
more time to initiate
steaming and more time to
accommodate changes in
steam pressure.
This happens to be a 4 pass
dryback
18
Dryback vs Wetback
Dryback
- turnaround area is
refractory lined
Easier maintenance
Wetback
- turnaround zone is watercooled, eliminating the need for the

refractory lining
Cheaper
Higher maintenance (for steam)
Slightly more efficient
Poorer circulation loose stay bolts?
19
Industrial Water Tube
O Style
A Style
D Style
20
Commercial Water Tube
21
Modular / Copper Fin Tube
Pros
Small foot print

Lower 1st cost
Responsive
Efficient
Light weight
Quiet
Cons
Gas / LP only
Life span
Maintenance
Venting issues
Pumping critical
Short cycling
22
Hot water only Source: Raypack, Lochinvar, used with permission
Cast Iron Sectional Boiler
23
Source: Crown Boilers, used with permission
Thermal Shock
Rapid
changes in temperature (up or

down) cause thermal stresses.
e.g. staging on a cold lag boiler

The
frequency and degree contribute

to failureB
Mini bypasses?
24
Thermal Shock
Tube Attachment
Rolled and
Beaded Tube
Rolled and
Flared Tube
Rolled and
Welded Tube
Tube End
Cooling
Tube End
Cooling
Tube End
Cooling
25
NOx Regulations and NOx

Control
Bay Area Air Quality Management

District Boiler Regulations
27
Regulation 9, Rule 6 Natural Gas Water

Heaters & Boilers
New boilers up to 2 MMBTU/hr
Device
75K to 400K BTU/hr
(storage and instantaneous)
nanogram NOx / joule

output
Current: 40 (60 ppm)
1/1/2013: 14 (20 ppm)
400K to 2 MM BTU/hr
(storage and instantaneous)
Current: 20 (30 ppm)

1/1/2013: 14 (20 ppm)
28
Regulation 9, Rule 7 Boilers, Steam

Generators, Process Heaters
New and existing boilers
Some exceptions
Input (MM BTU/hr)
Old NOx
Limit
New NOx
Limit
Effective Date
Non-natural gas,
non-LPG heaters
40 ppmv
(10 MM
BTU/hr &
up)
40 ppmv
(1 to <10 MM
BTU/hr)
1/1/2011
(1 to <10
MMBTU/hr)
>2 to 5 (gas-fired)
None
30 ppmv
1/1/2011
>5 to <10 (gas-fired)
None
15 ppmv
10 to <20 (gas-fired)
30 ppmv
15 ppmv
20 to <75 (gas-fired)
30 ppmv
9 ppmv
75 & up (gas-fired)
30 ppmv
5 ppmv
1/1/2012
1/1/2012
29
Units
1
MBH = 1KBtuh = 1,000 Btu/hr

1 MMBtuh = 1,000,000 Btu/hr
1 Boiler HP = 33,475 Btu/hr
E.g. 100 HP = 3 million Btuh

Nominal
capacity
Some manufacturers use input capacity

Others use output capacity
30
NOx Formation
The
majority of NOx produced during

combustion is NO (95%). Once
emitted into the atmosphere, NO
reacts to form NO2. It is NO2 that
reacts with other pollutants to form
ozone.
NOx production affected by:
flame temperature
amount of nitrogen in the fuel
excess air level
combustion air temperature.
31
NOx Control
Post
Combustion Control Methods
Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction

Selective Catalytic Reduction
Combustion
Control Techniques
Low Excess Air Firing

Low Nitrogen Fuel Oil
Burner Modifications to spread out flame
Water/Steam Injection reduces efficiency
Flue Gas Recirculation most effective
32
Flue Gas Recirculation

A
portion of the O2 depleted exhaust

gases are recirculated back into the
combustion zone in order to lower the
flame temperature (from 3,500oF to
2,900oF) and reduce NOx formation.
33
Flue Gas Recirculation
Internal FGR
External FGR
34
Efficiency Basics
Boiler Efficiency (not well known)
36
Efficiency Terms
Combustion
Efficiency
Includes only stack losses

Does the burner completely burn the fuel?
Thermal/Overall
Efficiency
Includes stack losses and jacket losses

how effectively is heat transferred to the
water?
Combustion
Analyzer Gross/Net
Gross efficiency assumes no condensation

Net assumes 100% condensation
37
Combustion Efficiency

Not enough air results in sooting, CO formation,

back-fire, and damage to equipment - maybe even
explosion
Too much air means fuel is being used to heat the
air and results in more energy out the stack.
ROT: 20% excess air ( 4% O2 in stack)
Air/fuel ratio control
Maintains proper air/fuel ratio over entire boiler turndown

range
Excess air trim enhances boiler efficiency
Wide range of control strategies
Single point positioning w/jackshaft
Parallel positioning
Metered cross-limited
38
Air-Fuel Ratio
13.6
Quantity in flue gas
CO2
CO
Highest
Efficiency
operating
region
Oxygen
Hydrocarbons
Excess Fuel
7.4
CO2
02
1 2
Flue Gas Oxygen %
Excess Air
39
Air to Fuel Ratio Affected by

Ambient
temp
Barometric pressure
Other boilers on common exhaust
Hi/Lo or Modulating controls
40
Single Point Positioning
41
Parallel Positioning
42
Energy Codes
Energy Code CA Title 20

For commercial
boilers:
only full load
combustion
efficiency
No part load or
thermal efficiency
44
Previous Energy Code (Title 24)
45
ASHRAE 90.190.1-2007
431.86 Uniform test method for the

measurement of energy efficiency of commercial
packaged boilers.
(a) Scope. This section provides test procedures that must be

followed for measuring, pursuant to EPCA, the steady state
combustion efficiency of a gas-fired or oil-fired commercial
packaged boiler.
Refers to methods in HI BTS-2000
46
Boiler Efficiency
Standards
Boiler Rating Standard
Source: AHRI, used with permission
48
BTS-2000
Full
Load Efficiency Only
No Part Load Ratings!

Inlet
Water Temperature
Non-condensing boilers: 35F to 80F!

Condensing boilers: 80F
Outlet
water temperature: 180F

No limits on or corrections for room
or inlet air temperature!
BTS-2000 will over-estimate real
efficiency and capacity
49
Help is on the way: ASHRAE 155P

METHOD OF TESTING FOR RATING

COMMERCIAL SPACE HEATING BOILER
SYSTEMS
PURPOSE: This standard provides procedures
for determining the steady state thermal
efficiency, part load efficiency and idling energy
input rate of individual boilers, and application
seasonal efficiency of commercial space heating
boiler systems
Committee formed in 1994
Coming soon?: public review of steady state test
methods
Future version: equations and software for
calculating application seasonal efficiency
including load profile, control sequences, etc.
50
ASHRAE 155P
Steady State
Tests
Required (R) and Optional (O) Tests
High Return
Water
Temperature
High fire
Intermediate
Return Water
Temperature
High fire
Low Return
Water
Temperature
High fire
Idling Tests
Throughflow Loss Tests
Singlestage
burner
Twostage
burner
Automatic
stepmodulating
burner
180R/ 140
Int fire
O
180 / 140-170
R
Low fire
O
Int fire
R
O
O
Low fire
R*
120
R*/ 80
R*
Int fire
Low fire
120 / 80-110
R*
R*
High temp
180RLWT
Low temp
High temp
140 O
EWT
Low temp
*required for low return water temperature and condensing boilers only.
51
Research for 155P

Cast-iron, single stage, atmospheric burner, 180

HWST, constant flow
52
Source: Hewitt, BSE Magazine, June 2005, used with permission
Same data
53
Forced Draft
54
Condensing at 180 HWST
55
Condensing at 110 HWST
56
Effect of HWST Setpoint
57
Input-Output Relationship at Different Leaving Water Temperatures

Expanded View of High Fire Area
1.000
0.980
0.960
220
0.940
210
200
Input
0.920
190
180
0.900
170
160
0.880
150
140
130
0.860
110
0.840
0.820
0.800
0.8
0.82
0.84
0.86
0.88
0.9
Output
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
58
Modulating Burner
"In
the modulating regime, the

relationship of input (y) to output (x)
is often slightly concave up, due in
part to the tendency of many burners
to have increased excess air at low
fire.
59
ASHRAE 155P - CONCERNS

No
cycling tests at part load

Allowed to retune boiler for each test
Allows 100F room temperature
Does not recognize temperature
compensation (O2 trim control)
Uses electricity site/source multiplier
of 1
WISH LIST:
No retuning
Test at 100%, 40%, 10%, 0% (idling)
60
Efficiency Part II
What Affects Boiler Efficiency

Air/fuel ratio (combustion efficiency)
Turn-down controls
Temperature compensation
HX design
Inlet water temperature
Minimum flow / maximum T
Cycling/draft controls
Pre-purge, post-purge, stack dampers
Vessel losses radiation and convection
room temperature, wind speed

Boiler mass, insulation
Cool down / heat up
Parasitics
Draft fan electric heat?

Other
62
All Boiler are Condensing Boilers, but
63
Source: 2008 ASHRAE Handbook, used with permission
only Some Boilers are Designed to

Condense
Corrosion
resistant
materials
Condensate
drain
Source: Lochinvar, used with permission
64
Science of Condensing Boilers

Natural gas combustion:
90% sensible heat (theoretical maximum

combustion efficiency without condensing)
10% latent heat in water vapor
For condensation to start the HX

surface temperature must be below
the dew point (boiling point) of the
water vapor (135-140F), which
depends on the pressure of the
steam
As the steam is condensed out, the
volume of steam is reduce, its
partial pressure is reduced, and the
dew point drops
The colder the entering water the
more condensing possible
65
Choosing a Condensing
Boiler
Choosing a Condensing Boiler

Minimum flow
Secondary HX
Turndown
Air shut-off
HX material
Flue material
Temperature compensation
Water pressure drop
Max water pressure
NOx
Controls setpoint reset, adjustable deadband
Water volume more is better?
Warranty
67
Some Condensing Boilers (this list is

incomplete and data may not be correct!)
Make
Model
Input
HX material
Flue material
(kBtuh)
Aerco
BMK
SS
AL29-4C
Ajax
Cu
AL29-4C
Bryan
Atlas Series A
(GS
Triple-Flex
Buderus
GB
Burnham
Alpine
cast aluminum
AL29-4C,
sectional
CPVC
328, 441,
CVC, PVC, 588,
80,105,
SS 733,
SS
Cleaver Brooks
Clearfire CFC
SS
De Dietrich
C230 ECO-A
Fulton Pulse
PHW 2000
Gas Master
GMI
sch 40,
combu
SS
Hamilton
EVO
SS
Heat Transfer
ModCon
SS
Hydrotherm
KN
Laars
Rheos
Lochinvar
Intelli-fin
Patterson Kelly
PK Mach
Raypak
Xtherm
RBI
Futera Fusion
750,
Cu finned
SStube
Cat.wIVsecondary
compatible
1000,900,HX4:1
at inlet
1500,
Cu finned
Cat
tube
IV, w
non-specified
secondary
500 to HX4:1
at inlet
Triangle Tube
Prestige Solo
SS
Viessmann
Vitocrossal 300
SS
Weil McLain
Turndown recirc pump

min flow
max T
1500,
2000,
500
to
20:1
(model
3.5:1
137.6 F
3000
(model
3:1
5:1
210,to
285, 5:1
500
cast aluminum/silicium
Cat. II or 2500
360sectional
to 860 5:1
AL29-4C
IV type4C,
BH 300 AL29
5:1
on
SS flue air 2,000
200 - 8000 "virtually
AL29-4C, PVC
80 to 8000 infinite
5:1
SS, PVC, CPVC

300, 500, 5:1
850
cast ironCat.
sectional
IV AL29-4C
600, 1000,
SS
5:1
2000
Cu
SS
1200,
4:1
finned
1600, HX4:1
Cu finned
AL29-4C
tube w secondary
1500,
at inlet
1700,
cast aluminum
Cat. IV sectional
AL29-4C
300, 450,
SS
5:1
2000
60
to 399
no
optional.
0 GPM
(model
30
GPM
(models
32F
(050),
Comes
Dependen 40 F
with
a
t4.2
onGPM 54F (adjustable u
Recomme
nded.
35 F
not requiredat
none
120 F
no
No
none
81 F
except 5- None
None
26 GPM at 100
>150F
F
Recomme 2.2 GPM 60 F

nded
and (model
Requires
14 GPM79) 45 F
a
pump, (model
Recomme
2 GPM
100 F
nded
Yes. and (KN
15.4 2)
GPM 140 F
(model
Yes. Provided.
90 GPM
80-90 F
Recomme 15 (model 40 F
nded and 47
300)
yes
GPM 40 F
(H7-1005)
Yes. Provided.
It has it's 35 F
own pump
Al29-4C, 316
638,
L-grade
846, SS
3:1? (to be No.
verified by Enrique,
None
rep)
80F
1071,
Ultra Series 3 (UG)
cast aluminum
PVC, CPVC
sectional
80, 105,
5:1
Yes. The 3.5 GPM 50 F
155, 230,
boiler is to (model 80)
68
Some Condensing Boilers

Up-fire water-tube
Down-fire fire-tube
69
Source: Aerco, used with permission
Bryan Triple-Flex
Preheats
combustion air with flue
gases
Source: Bryan Boiler, used with permission, patent pending
70
Buderus SB
Two
return water connections
71
Source: Buderus, used with permission
Minimum Flow
Very low flow may go from turbulent to laminar

at HX wall
Reduced thermal efficiency and higher stack temperature

Flashing to steam can damage heat exchanger
If the total coil flow is below the boiler min flow

then supply water is bypassed to the return,
which raises the return temperature and reduces
efficiency this is more pronounced at low
(condensing) water temperatures
Min flow may be:
Recommendation e.g. to limit cycling

Required primary/secondary e.g. built-in recirculation pump
flow switch
T lockout - e.g. soft lockout at 46F, hard lockout at 72F
72
Condensing boiler manufacturers data

Thermal Efficiency of BMK1.5LN
5% Input
50% Input
100% Input
ANSI Z21.13
BTS2000
100
99.3
98
97.5
97.5
96
95.8
Efficiency, %
95.1
94
93.9
93.2
92.8
92
92
91.4
90.9
90
89.1
88.3
88.5
88
88
87.2
86.6
86.6
86
86
50
70
90
110
130
Return Water Temperature, 20F Rise
150
170
73
Secondary HX

Primary HX is non-condensing
Bypass valve maintains primary HX EWT > 130F
Secondary loop
74
Secondary HXs
Source: Laars, used with permission
75
Secondary HX When Does in Condense?

HWRT Setpt
Load
small
low
big
small
high
big
Actual HWRT Result

no condensing since sec HX is seeing
mostly HWST
low
no condensing
high
condensing but bypass opens, limited
flow to sec loop, starves the load
low
no condensing
high
condensing but bypass opens, limited
flow to sec loop, starves the load
low
no condensing
high
Could end up fixing the

setpoint above condensing and
running 24/7 to avoid starving
the load
76
Turndown The Real Story?

A boiler can still cycle at high load if the

controller overshoots
Combustion efficiency may be worse at low

fire due to excess air
Stabilizing the firing rate is harder when the

turndown is greater
Not necessarily reflected in manufacturers data
The greater the turndown the greater the risk

of flame failure with cold inlet air
Flame detector will not make if too rich or too lean

Boiler technicians often limit the turndown to 3:1
77
Air-Fuel Ratio
13.6
Quantity in flue gas
CO2
CO
Highest
Efficiency
operating
region
Oxygen
Hydrocarbons
Excess Fuel
7.4
CO2
02
1 2
Flue Gas Oxygen %
Excess Air
78
Air-Fuel Field Calibration

Recalibration as part of initial start-up is necessary due to

changes in the local altitude, gas BTU content, gas supply
piping and supply regulators, shipping damage, etc.
79
Air-Fuel Calibration
Controllable
minimum
P across air or fuel damper/fan varies

with the square of the flow
P ~ flow2
Small changes in pressure will have big

change in flow
100 % = 4 WC
75 % = 2.2 WC
50 % = 1 WC
25 % = .2 WC
5% = 0.01 WC
80
Water volume
Boilers are getting smaller

(less water)
Reduces cool down losses

makes firing controls more
difficult and increases risk of
flashing to steam
Fire tube boilers claim more

water volume and therefore
better low flow performance
81
Source: Triangle Tube, used with permission
Heating Hot Water

System Design
HW System Design

Zone design
Temperatures supply, T
Coils - rows
Valves - 2-way, zone pumps
Boiler(s) Number, equal/uneven sizing
Piping design primary-only,
primary/secondary
Headered vs Dedicated Pumps
Minimum Flow
Constant flow
3-way valves
Controlled bypass
Sequences
Boiler staging
HWST reset
83
Boiler System Efficiency

Boiler sizing
Boiler staging
Throughflow
Design HWST and T
Controls

HWST reset
HW flow controls (2-way control valves)
Minimum flow controls
Piping losses some beneficial

Leaks
Pumping energy electric heat!
84
Primary Only Dedicated Pumps

Works fine for boilers that can handle condensing on morning warm
up, like atmospheric boilers. Not so good for sealed combustion (e.g.
forced draft copper fin-tube)
85
Primary Only Headered Pumps

More expensive and complicated than dedicated pumps for little benefit
86
Primary Only Mixing Valve for Loop

Reset

Does not allow much reset without condensing

Likely to short cycle
87
Primary Only Mixing Valve in the right

place!
Could result in low boiler flow if loop setpoint is high and load is low
88
Primary/Secondary

Maintains constant flow through boiler but does not prevent condensing on
warm up
Lower throughflow losses if primary pumps cycle with boiler at low load
89
Primary/Secondary with thermostatic

valves

Could require boilers to run 24/7 if they are not oversized

Mixing valve is open when boiler is off and may not be able to open fast
enough when boiler starts to prevent short-cycling
90
Primary Only controlled bypass

Maintains minimum flow but may not prevent short cycling
91
Short Cycling
Efficiency
pre-purge/post-purge
Excessive wear on boiler
components (e.g. heating and
cooling)
Nuisance shutdowns and
unexplained flame failures with flame
programmer fault codes that have no
easily identifiable cause
92
Options to Address Cycling at Low Load

Oversized pipes
Some 3-way coil valves
Controlled bypass
Buffer tank
Primary/sec. with tank in common leg

Primary only with tank in bypass
High turndown
Modular / pony boilers
Boiler lockout at low loads
Bigger deadband
Fuzzy Logic?
.. the controller fires the boiler stages to provide the target

temperature at secondary loop sensor. It continuously samples the
inlet, outlet and target temperatures. Over time, it will learn the system
curve and adjust the firing of the stages to meet the demand in the most
efficient wayX
93
Primary/Secondary With tank in common

leg

Does not allow boiler to see cold return water at low load
How to prevent overfiring with all that mass?
94
Primary Only with tank in bypass

Boiler more likely to see cold return water (e.g. morning warmup)
95
Recommendations
Non-condensing
Condensing
Low mass, forced draft, modulating

Primary/secondary with mixing valves
Some mass in primary circuit and bypass circuit
Primary-Only with 3-way valves far away or
bypass with buffer tank
Both
Multiple or pony boilers

Large deadband on boiler cycling
Commission firing controls to insure turndown
and prevent overshoot
96
Firing Rate Controls

How
is the firing rate adjusted to

maintain setpoint?
Internal Control
PID
P-only
Adjustable parameters
External control
97
Internal Control - PID
98
Internal Control Mystery?
99
Internal Control P-Only
100
Source: Laars, used with permission
Firing Rate External Control

4-20mA
signal = 0 to 100% fire

More risk of tripping overtemperature safety?
101
Boiler Staging

Enable lead boiler if OAT<lockout and at

least a few boiler requests
Enable lag boiler(s) if operating boiler(s)
cannot maintain setpoint
Disable lag boiler(s)
If flow meter: avg. Btuh is less than lower stage

If feedback from boilers: avg. firing rate is below
minimum
If no flow meter: based on low T?
Reset HWST setpoint using trim and

respond (include lockouts and ignores)
102
VFDs on HW Pumps
Not
required by Title 24
Pump energy goes into the water
(VFD losses do not)
Reducing pump energy increases
boiler energy
Not cost effective (VFD, P sensor,
controls, etc.)
payback ~25 years

VFDs
can solve problems with overpressurized valves

103
eQUEST Simulation
Simulation eQUEST (www.doe2.com)
RATED-HWR-T
For the HW-CONDENSING boiler, specifies the return water
temperature at which both the CAPACITY and HEAT-INPUT-RATIO
are defined. The default is 80F
105
Source: eQUEST, used with permission
eQUEST
106
eQUEST
HIR-FT = a curve that modifies the fuel consumption as a function of

the supply temperature and the environmental temperature. There is
no defaultXFor the HW-CONDENSING boiler, this curve is not
used. Instead, the HIR-FPLR curve is used, and uses both the partload ratio and the return water temperature.
107
eQUEST HIR=f(PLR) Curves

eQUEST Boiler Thermal Efficiency as a function of Load Ratio
(with default full load efficiencies)
100%
Unstable!
90%
Thermal Efficiency
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
Condensing High Eff @140EWT

Condensing @140 EWT
Forced Draft
Atmospheric
30%
20%
10%
0%
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 55% 60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100
%
Load
108
eQUEST HIR=f(PLR) Curves at Low EWT

eQUEST Boiler Thermal Efficiency as a function of Load Ratio
(with default full load efficiencies)
Unstable!
100%
90%
Thermal Efficiency
80%
70%
60%
Condensing High Eff @80 EWT
50%
Condensing @ 80 EWT
40%
Forced Draft
Atmospheric
30%
20%
10%
0%
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 55% 60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100
%
Load
109
eQUEST Condensing Boiler Curves vs EWT

EQUEST Standard Efficiency Condensing Boiler Thermal Efficiency vs.
Hot Water Temperature
100%
90%
Thermal Efficiency
80%
70%
~5% Load
60%
~20%Load
50%
~60% Load
40%
100% Load
30%
20%
10%
0%
50
70
90
110
130
150
170
Entering Hot Water Tem perature (F)

110
Hi Eff. Condensing Boiler Curves vs EWT

EQUEST High Efficiency Condensing Boiler Thermal Efficiency vs. Hot
Water Temperature
100%
90%
Thermal Efficiency
80%
70%
60%
~20% Load
50%
~50%Load
40%
~75% Load
30%
100% Load
20%
10%
0%
50
70
90
110
130
150
170
Entering Hot Water Tem perature (F)

111
eQUEST HW Load Sensitivity

With
SAT Reset:
Without
SAT Reset:
112
Calibrating Existing Building Models

Zones: sizing, sequences, min flow, internal loads

Systems: sizing, SAT reset
Plant: sizing, HIR, curves, staging, HWST reset
Monthly data does not tell if you match hourly load profile
113
Case Study
Sonoma State University
115
Sonoma State Issues

Oversized/Inefficient
Thermal Shock
Distribution Losses
Manned Operation

Boiler does not cycle at low fire

Prevent overpressurization / maintain minimum
flow
Required by code so boiler shut off at night
250F HW setpoint based on old HX

design and fear of condensation
Existing local boilers use campus HW?
Campus Expansion new local boilers?
116
Taylor Scope
Evaluate:
LCC Analysis of several options for improving plant

performance and extending plant useful life.
Energy efficiency
Ability to adequately serve the loads
Current condition and remaining useful life of existing
hot water system equipment
Operation and Maintenance issues
E.g. pony boiler LCC analysis

Consider expected future capacity based on planned
campus new construction and retrofits.
Master Plan
implementation schedule for recommended retrofit

measures.
117
Options

Abandon plant?
Pony boilers
Improve Controls

HWST Reset
Range? OA reset? Feedback?
Stack damper?
Eliminate HX at buildings?
Pumps in series with check valve

Bldg pumps could run alone at night
Fix cycling?
Unmanned operation?
Dont shut off at night?
Simulate both ways
Better to use satellite boilers?

118
HW Plant History
Originally
designed for 325oF LWT,
160 psi
New boilers installed in 1997
250 LWT / 170 EWT

360 GPM
10:1 turndown (boiler rep says it is more
like 4:1)
119
Campus HW System
120
Current Operating Practice

They run one boiler and its pump as the lead for a month then the
other, never both.
Boiler Isolation valves never closed
Fixed HWST setpoint of 250oF

The boiler is shut off every night at 10pm and restarted at 5am. Off
in summer.
(Trends do not show throughflow?), operator says: only few GPM in lag
(When the boilers/pumps are off at night the HWST and HWRT falls to
about 150-180 by the next morning.)
Manual cycling at low load
Turn off at 220 HWRT / Turn on at 190 HWRT

Apparently the boilers will modulate down to low fire and then stay at low
fire and overheat the water until the safeties trip.
Manual Bypass Control Maintain 80-95 psi on secondary supply

side
Auto bypass on dP failed. Consider using flow meter?

Operators say min flow = 350 GPM (this is also the design flow)
Operators say pipes/valves out in the loop cannot handle more than 95 psi.
121
HW Loads
Mostly
heating, some DHW

Several buildings served by plant
have abandoned campus HW for
DHW and added local boilers.
Some new and existing buildings are
abandoning campus HW
122
Annual Burner Tuning
123
Oversizing Penalty Depends on Idle Loss
Idle loss depends on HWST, pre-purge, etc.

124
Source: T. Butcher, Brookhaven
HWST Reset and HX Selections

Ives
Hall 1965
Person
Art
Theater 1986
Building Renovation 1996
125
126
Allen Bradley Trend Data

Weds 1-5-05
GPM
600
BOILER\2\FLOW_WATER
BOILER\2\TEMP_STACK
BOILER\TEMP_RETURN
BOILER\TEMP_SUPPLY
270
500
250
400
230
300
210
200
100
450 GPM, 50 dT, for 17 hrs = 191 mil Btu

output
avg output: 11,000,000 Btuh (44% loaded)
daily gas data: 197 mil Btu input
97% thermal efficiency! (not system effic)
190
170
0
150
12:0 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:0 11:0 12:0 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:0 11:0 12:0
0 AM AM AM AM AM AM AM AM AM 0
0
0 PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM 0
0
0
AM
AM AM PM
PM PM AM
127
Medium Load Day

400 GPM, 45 dT, for 9 hrs = 80 mil Btu output
(36% loaded)
daily600
gas data: 95 mil Btu input
Thurs 4-21-05
BOILER\1\FLOW_WATER
BOILER\TEMP_RETURN
BOILER\TEMP_SUPPLY
270
GPM
84% thermal efficiency

500
250
400
230
300
210
200
190
100
170
0
150
12:0 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:0 11:0 12:0 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:0 11:0 12:0
0
0
0
AM
AM AM PM
PM PM AM
128
Low Load Day

400 GPM, 20 dT, for 3.2 hrs = 13 mil Btu
output
avg output: -- Btuh (--% loaded)
500
Sun 5-29-05
BOILER\1\FLOW_WATER
BOILER\1\TEMP_STACK
BOILER\TEMP_RETURN
BOILER\TEMP_SUPPLY
270.00
GPM
daily gas data: 26 mil Btu input

50% efficiency
400
250.00
300
230.00
200
210.00
100
190.00
0
170.00
12:0 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:0 11:0 12:0 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:0 11:0 12:0
0
0
0
AM
AM AM PM
PM PM AM
-100
150.00
129
Boiler Load Profile
Hours/year
Boiler Annual Load Profile (extrapolated from 2/1/08 to 4/8/08)

(negative output means boiler losses exceed boiler output)
800
750
700
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
-
50% is half the

output of 1
boiler or about
12 million Btuh
-25% -20% -15% -10% -5%
0%
5%
10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 55% 60%
Percent Output (note: 25% means hours between 20% and 25%)
130
Typical Day
Boiler overfires
then cycles
When boiler is disabled

HWST<HWRT due to
throughflow losses
131
Efficiency calculations
Obvious
errors imply actual

efficiency is even lower
interval
all of feb
all of march
april 1-8
march 4, 5am-12pm
march 4, 6pm-10pm
march 4, 7pm-9pm
march 4, all day
avg output
output (kbtu)
input (kbtu)
efficiency (kbtuh)
pct load
828,325
1,280,968
65%
764,029
1,734,243
44%
296,179
498,164
59%
34,201
22,540
9,866
50,756
45,447
15,387
7,620
71,254
75%
146%
129%
71%
4717
5303
4933
19%
21%
20%
132
Efficiency vs. Load

Boiler-1 Hourly Average Efficiency vs Load
(negative load means boiler losses exceed boiler output)
200%
Efficiency (output/input)
150%
100%
50%
0%
-30%
-20%
-10%
0%
-50%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
-100%
-150%
-200%
Load Ratio (output/capacity)
133
Efficiency vs. HWRT

Boiler-1 Hourly Average Efficiency vs HWRT
200%
Efficiency (output/input)
150%
100%
50%
0%
150
-50%
170
190
210
230
250
-100%
-150%
-200%
Hot Water Return Temperature
134
Some Findings
50MMBH
capacity, 12MMBH peak
load
$500,000/yr boiler fuel cost
Average thermal effic: 55%
Pumps are undersized (same GPM
but half the original T)
Per Title 8, Section 778, manned
operation is not required for Lowpressure boilers, High-temperature
water boilers, Miniature boilers, etc.
135
Piping Losses Calculation

50,000 therm/yr
Assumptions:
24,000 gallons
20 degree temp drop from 10pm-5am
Loss rate constant (conservative)
All buildings have flow no dead legs
No useful heat extraction when main HW pumps
off could bldg pumps be extracting heat from
HX?
Deleting the HXs and reducing the HWST

will reduce piping losses
136
Recommendations
Add
Pony Boilers
Reset HWST based on building valve
feedback
Remove building heat exchangers
Fix low fire-cycling
Run 24/7 and serve all buildings
Run Two Pumps with One Existing
Boiler at High Load
Control bypass with flow meter, if no
pony boilers
137
Recommendations
Check valve:
-Prevent plant from pushing water the wrong way through bypass
-Prevents building pump from stealing water from other buildings
138
Gas Meter Data
Btu based on STANDARD Cubic Foot of Gas
60F / 14.73 PSIA / 1000 BTU
Gas meter reads in ACTUAL cubic feet
Standard = Actual x Press. Factor x Temp. Factor x SuperX Factor

Pressure Factor = (Line Pressure + Atmos Pres.) / Base pres.

E.g. At 10 PSIG your factor would be (10 + 14.48)/14.73 = 1.66
Temp Factor = (460 + Base)/(460+Line Temp)

SuperX is really not applicable below 60 PSIG so assume 1
A Corrector measures line temp and pressure and corrects

meter output ($1500)
PG&E put a corrector on gas line to SSU campus (not per
boiler)
139
Improving Existing Boiler Systems
O2 Trim
accounts for boiler room
temperature
Parallel Positioning
separate actuators for gas
and air valves
Flue gas recirculation

Draft control
VSD on combustion fan
Economizer
New burner higher
turndown
HWST reset
Maintenance
PG&E Rebates:
Brush out soot

Chemically remove scale
Tuning
Stack temp should be
50-100F above HWST
140

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Designing Efficient Boiler

Systems for Commercial

You can get a copy of the handouts and related

Double click on the folder, Boiler Seminar

literature and data is

Pressure and Temperature

Low pressure (<15 psig)

Medium temperature (250 to 350F)

High temperature (>350F)

Pressure and Temperature

Heat Exchanger Type

Pressure and Temperature

Source: ASHRAE, used with permission

Pressure and Temperature

Pressure and Temperature

Atmospheric (natural draft)

Pressure and Temperature

Pressure and Temperature

Dry base combustion chamber below water chamber

Source: ASHRAE, used with permission

Some Typical Boilers

Typical Commercial Boilers

COPPER OR STEEL BENT TUBE

Source: ASHRAE, used with permission

Source: Cleaver Brooks, used with permission

Four flue gas passes

Wetback - Water cooled rear

Source: Cleaver Brooks, used with permission

Scotch Marine Firetube Boilers

Scotch marine is most

Source: Cleaver Brooks, used with permission

- turnaround zone is watercooled, eliminating the need for the

Industrial Water Tube

Source: Cleaver Brooks, used with permission

Commercial Water Tube

Source: Cleaver Brooks, used with permission

Modular / Copper Fin Tube

Small foot print

Cast Iron Sectional Boiler

Source: Crown Boilers, used with permission

changes in temperature (up or

e.g. staging on a cold lag boiler

frequency and degree contribute

Source: Cleaver Brooks, used with permission

NOx Regulations and NOx

Bay Area Air Quality Management

Regulation 9, Rule 6 Natural Gas Water

New boilers up to 2 MMBTU/hr

nanogram NOx / joule

Current: 20 (30 ppm)

Regulation 9, Rule 7 Boilers, Steam

New and existing boilers

Input (MM BTU/hr)

>5 to <10 (gas-fired)

MBH = 1KBtuh = 1,000 Btu/hr

E.g. 100 HP = 3 million Btuh

Some manufacturers use input capacity

majority of NOx produced during

Combustion Control Methods

Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction

Low Excess Air Firing

Flue Gas Recirculation

portion of the O2 depleted exhaust

Source: Cleaver Brooks, used with permission