WATER:

STRUCTURE
AND
PROPERTIES

Why do we study water?

Because water is the substance that
makes possible life
Life on Earth began in water and evolved
there for 3 billion years before spreading
onto land.
Even terrestrial organisms are tied to
water.
cells are about 70-95% water.

Nature of water
Polar molecule

two hydrogen atoms form

single polar covalent bonds
with an oxygen atom.
the region around oxygen
has a partial negative charge.
the region near the two hydrogen atoms has a
partial positive charge.

Water
The

slightly negative
regions of one
molecule are attracted
to the slightly positive
regions of nearby
molecules, forming a
hydrogen bond.

Each

water
molecule
can form hydrogen
bonds with up to
four neighbors.

Water
Hydrogen bond is a
weak bond. It is 1/20th as
strong as covalent bonds.
H-bond continually
forms, break ups and reforms
At any instant, a
substantial percentage of
all water molecules are
bonded to their neighbors,
making water more
structured than most other
liquids

It is responsible for many

of the unusual physical
properties of water

Properties of water
1. Water is cohesive.
Water that evaporates from
a leaf is replaced by water
from vessels in the leaf.
Hydrogen bonds cause
water molecules leaving the
veins to tug on molecules
further down.
This upward pull is
transmitted to the roots.
Cohesion among water molecules plays a key role in the
transport of water against gravity in plants.

Properties of water
2. Water exhibits adhesion or attraction to a
solid phase.

Adhesion- attraction
between unlike
molecules
Adhesion is also due
to hydrogen bonding
Adhesion of water to the walls of the vessels helps
counter the downward pull of gravity during water
transport

Properties of water
3. Water exhibits high surface tension
Surface tension a force exerted by water
molecules at the air-water interface resulting from
the cohesion properties of water
As a result of unequal attraction, an air-water
interface minimizes the surface area of water

Some

animals can stand, walk, or run on water without

breaking the surface.

surface tension
Influence the
shape of the surface

Create a pressure
in the rest of the
liquid; at the
evaporative surfaces
of the leaves
generates the
physical forces that
pull water through
the plants vascular
system

Capillarity
Movement of water for a small distance up a
glass capillary tube or within a cell wall, due to
waters cohesion, adhesion and surface tension
The smaller
the tube the
higher the
capillary rise

Properties of water
4. Water has high specific heat
specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat
energy required to raise the temperature of a
substance by a specific amount.
Waters high specific heat is due to hydrogen
bonding. Heat must be absorbed to break
hydrogen bonds and is released when hydrogen
bonds form.

Investment of heat causes relatively little change

to the temperature of water because much of the
energy is used to disrupt hydrogen bonds, not
move molecules faster.

Properties of water
4. Water has high specific heat
The water that dominates the composition of
biological organisms moderates changes in
temperature
better than
if composed
of a liquid with
a lower
specific heat.
Water moderates
temperatures on
earth

 H2O resists changes in temperature

High specific heat
takes a lot to heat it up
takes a lot to cool it down

High thermal conductivity rapidly

conducts heat away from point of
application

Localized overheating in a cell due to the heat

of a biochemical reaction is largely prevented
because the heat is quickly dissipated
throughout the cell

Properties of water
5. Water exhibits high heat of vaporization
Heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat that
a liquid must absorb for it to be converted from
the liquid to the gaseous state at constant
temperature.
Hydrogen bonds must be broken before a water
molecule can evaporate from the liquid.
Evaporative cooling moderates temperature in
lakes and ponds and prevents terrestrial
organisms from overheating.

Properties of water
6. Solid water floats
Water

is unusual because it is less dense as a

solid than as a liquid.

water reaches 0oC, water becomes

locked into a crystalline lattice with each
molecule bonded to the maximum of four
partners.
As ice starts to melt, some of the hydrogen
bonds break and some water molecules can
slip closer together than they can while in the
ice state.
When

Properties of water
Important consequences for life of this
property of water:
allows life to exist under the frozen surface

Properties of water
7. Water is the solvent of life

Many of the solutes of importance to plants are

charged
Water is the medium for movement of molecules
within and between cells
Forms the environment in which most of the
biochemical reactions of the cell occur (oxidation,
reduction,hydrolysis)
Cells are made up of 70-95% water

Water is the solvent of life

Polarity makes H2O a good solvent
polar H2O molecules surround + & ions
solvents dissolve solutes creating solutions

Properties of water
8. Water has a high tensile strength
Tensile strength maximum tension that an
uninterrupted column of any material can withstand
without breaking

the ability to resist a pulling force

TRANSPORT
PROCESSES

Diffusion
Movement of molecules along a concentration
gradient by random thermal agitation
Described by Ficks equation:
Js = -Ds Cs
where Js = rate of transport

x
s = substance

D = diffusion coefficient

C = concentration

gradient

x = distance

DIFFUSION
The net movement of molecules from regions of high
concentration to regions of low concentration through
random thermal motion of individual molecules
at dynamic equilibrium:
1. movement is still taking place from one
area to the other
2. the concentrations in the 2 areas are
equal
Diffusion movement of molecules or ions from
one location to another
-continues even at equilibrium

DIFFUSION
Net diffusion direction of greatest number of
molecules

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion

Temperature
an increase results in an
increase in the activity of
molecules; thus, increase
in speed of diffusion

Concentration gradients
The steeper the gradient,
the faster the rate of diffusion

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion

Concentration gradients
influenced by the
distance between
the 2 regions

External Forces
The greater the
force, the faster the
rate of diffusion

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion

Size of molecules
The larger the molecule, the slower is the rate of
diffusion
For gases Grahams law of diffusion states that
the rates of diffusion are inversely proportional to
the square roots of their densities

Size of molecules
r1 (HCl)
r2 (NH3)

= d2 (NH3)
d1 (HCl)

= 17

36

4
6

Solubility in diffusion medium

the more soluble a substance is in the
diffusion medium, the faster it will diffuse
(unless the diffusion medium is
concentrated)

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion

Presence of other molecules
Decreases rate of diffusion because of
additional collisions that occur
Direction of net diffusion is not influenced by the
presence of other types of molecules

Osmosis
movement (net diffusion) of water through
a differentially permeable membrane from
a region of high water concentration to a
region of low water concentration
Special example of net diffusion

The solution with the higher concentration

of solutes is hypertonic.
The solution with the lower concentration
of solutes is hypotonic.
These are comparative terms.
Tap water is hypertonic compared to distilled water
but hypotonic when compared to sea water.

Osmosis
Solutions with equal solute concentrations are
isotonic.
direction of osmosis is determined only by a
difference in total solute concentration.

-The kinds of solutes in the solutions do not

matter
water molecules move at equal rates from one
to the other, with no net osmosis.

Water balance of living cells

Animal cell
in an isotonic environment
experiences no net movement
of water across its plasma
membrane.
Volume of the cell is stable

Water balance of living cells

Animal cell
in a hypertonic environment will loose
water, shrivel, and probably die.

Water balance of living cells

Animal cell

A cell in a hypotonic solution will gain

water, swell, and burst.

Water balance of living cells

Water balance between cell and its environment
is crucial to organisms

cells without walls cannot tolerate too much

uptake or loss of water
Animal cell
Unless it has a special adaptation for to offset
the osmotic uptake or loss of water, an animal cell
fares best in an isotonic environment

Water balance of living cells

Plant cell
have walls that contribute to the cells water
balance.
in a hypotonic solution will swell until the elastic
wall opposes further uptake.

turgid, a healthy state for

most plant
cells.

Water balance of living cells

Plant cell
If a cell and its surroundings are isotonic, there is
no movement of water into the cell and the cell is
flaccid and the plant may wilt.

Water balance of living cells

Plant cell
In a hypertonic solution, a cell wall has no
advantages.
As the plant cell looses water, its volume shrinks.
Eventually, the plasma membrane pulls away
from the wall.
plasmolysis
is usually
lethal.

Plasmolysis
Common examples
1. Burning of plants after spraying with insecticides
2. Excessive addition of chemical fertilizers
3. Salting of meat and fish
4. Jams and jellies
5. Undesirable plants

Osmosis
The movement of water in osmosis cannot be
accurately explained in terms of differences in
concentration
Movement of water through a differentially
permeable membrane from an area of high free
energy to an area of low free energy of water
Free energy-useful or available energy; the
capacity to do work

Osmosis
In the osmometer,
equilibrium was reached
even though the
concentrations on
opposite sides of the
membrane were not
equal

Water potential
Free energy of water is affected by:
-presence of solutes
-external force (hydrostatic pressure, wall
pressure/turgor pressure)
combined effect of these factors are included in
a single measurement called water potential ()
potential in water potential refers to the capacity
to do work when water moves from an area of
higher to an area of lower

Water potential
Measure of the free energy of water/unit
volume (J m-3 )
Express in pressure units
Bars
Atmospheres ( 1 bar= 0.987 atm)
Pounds/square inches ( 1 bar = 14.7 lb/ in2 )
Milimeters of mercury (1 bar = 750 mm Hg)
Pascals = J m-3
Megapascals= Pa/ 106 ( 1MPa=10 bars)

Water potential
w= s + p + m + g

--the reference standard is pure water; water potential

equal to 0 MPa.
s osmotic potential, the amount by which water potential
is reduced as a result of the presence of solutes
--negative values

Osmotic potential
s = -CiRT
s - osmotic potential
C concentration of the solute expressed
as molality (moles solute/ kg H2O)
i- ionization constant
R- gas constant
T- absolute temperature (C + 273)

Water potential
p hydrostatic pressure/ pressure potential
- 0 or positive
--the positive pressure operating in plant cells is
the wall pressure or turgor pressure; in the
osmometer it is the hydrostatic pressure
m matrix potential
-- the component of water potential influenced
by the presence of a matrix (surfaces to
which water molecules are adhered)

Water potential
g : Gravity - causes water to move downwards
unless opposed by an equal and opposite force
g = wgh
w - density of water
g- acceleration due to gravity
h height of water above the reference-state water

wg has value of 0.01MPa m-1 at standard state

generally omitted at cell level

Cell original
condition:
Limp cell, s
(cell) =-10 bars

w (soln) = 0 bars

Cell after
equilibrium
w =?
s = ?
p = ?

Cell orig condition

s = -10 bars
p = 0
w = -10 bars

s = -2 bars
w = -2 bars

solution

Cell after
equilibrium
w =?
s = ?
p = ?

Facilitated diffusion
The passive movement of molecules down its
concentration (uncharged)/electrochemical (ions)
gradient via a transport protein
Types of transport protein
1. Channel protein

simply provide corridors allowing a water or

specific ion to cross the membrane.
Some are gated channels e.g. K+ gates in
guard cell membrane

Facilitated diffusion
1. Channel protein
Involved whenever large quantities of solutes must
cross the membrane rapidly
Very rapid process- ~ 108 ions/sec through each
channel protein

K+, Cl-, Ca+ channels

Facilitated diffusion
2. Transfer /carrier proteins
Selectively bind to a solute on one side of the
membrane and releasing the solute on the other
side
Involves conformational change of the transport
protein
Much slower -100-1000
ions/sec

Transport proteins have

much in common with
enzymes.
They have specific binding
sites for the solute.
While transport proteins do not usually catalyze
chemical reactions, they do catalyze a physical
process, transporting a molecule across a membrane
that would otherwise be relatively impermeable to the
substrate.

Transport proteins can become saturated

How do water molecules actually cross the

membranes?

How do water molecules actually cross the

membranes?
Lipid bilayer

Because water molecules

are so small, they move
relatively freely across the
lipid bilayer of membranes
even though the middle
zone of that bilayer is
hydrophobic
Aquaporins- selective protein
channels
Facilitate water diffusion

Active transport
Pumping of solutes against their gradients
Requires the cell to expend its own metabolic
energy, usually but not always, hydrolysis of
ATP
Active transport is critical for a cell to maintain
its internal concentrations of small
molecules that would otherwise diffuse
across the membrane.

Active transport is performed by specific

proteins embedded in the membranes.

Active transport
Primary active transport-coupled directly to
a source of energy (e.g. ATP hydrolysis,
oxidation-reduction reaction)

pump

Active transport
Electroneutral transport- no net movement
of charge
e.g. H+ /K+ -ATPase in gastric mucosa of
animals
Pumps one H+ out of the cell for every one K+ in

Active transport
Electrogenic transport- ion transport involving
a net movement of charge across the
membrane
Uniport- transport of a single species in one
direction

Active transport
It hydrolyzes ATP and uses the released energy
to pump hydrogen ions (H+) out of the cell.
This creates a proton gradient because the H+
concentration is higher outside the cell than
inside.
It also creates a membrane potential or voltage
because the proton pump moves positive
charges (H+) outside the cell, making the inside
of the cell negative in charge relative to the
outside.

Both the concentration gradient and the

membrane potential are forms of potential
(stored) energy that can be harnessed to perform
cellular work.

These are often used to drive the transport of

many different solutes.

by root cells.

Na+ / K+ -ATPase of animal cells

Active transport
Secondary active transport- uses the
energy stored in electrochemical-potential
gradients to drive the transport of other
substances against their gradient of
electrochemical potentials
2 types:
Symport
antiport

The proton gradient also functions in

cotransport, in which the downhill passage of
one solute (H+) is coupled with the uphill passage
of another, such as NO3- or sucrose.

Summary of transport processes

e.g., O2, CO2,NH3

 Diffusion over short distances is rapid: about

2.5 s in a cell size of 50um
Diffusion over long distances is far too slow
for mass transport:
Average time for a particle to diffuse = L2 /Ds

L2 -distance
Ds diffusion coefficient; depends on identity of the
particle and diffusing medium
Ds -for glucose in water 10-9 m2 s-1

Diffusion over long distance 32 years!

Pressure-driven bulk flow drives long-distance

water transport
Bulk flow:
Concerted movement of groups of molecules en
masse, most often in response to a pressure
gradient.
Independent of solute concentration gradients
So different from diffusion
Common examples of bulk flow: water moving through
a hose, a flowing river and rain falling

Long distance water transport in plants

Relation described by the Poiseuille equation

Volume flow rate = r4 P

8 x
= viscosity of liquid
P/ x = pressure gradient
Sensitive to the radius of the container such as
xylem

 This is the main method for water movement in

Xylem, Cell Walls and in the soil.
Dependent on the radius of the tube that water is
traveling in.
Double radius flow rate increases 16
times!!!!!!!!!!