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Building Construction

Shallow Foundations
Module-III

Introduction
The foundation can be classified broadly into
two types:
Shallow foundations
Deep foundations

Shallow foundations

Shallow Foundations
When the depth of foundation is less then or
equal to the width of foundation, then it is
termed as shallow foundation. It is also known
as open foundation.
A shallow foundation is placed immediately
below the lowest part of the superstructure.
A footing is a foundation unit constructed in brick
work, stone masonry or concrete below the base
of the wall or column for the purpose of
distributing the structural-load over wide area.

Types
The shallow foundation can be classified
into following types:
Spread footing
Combined footing
Strap footing
Mat or Raft foundation

Spread Footing
Spread Footing:- Spread footings are those which
spread the super-imposed load of wall or column
over larger area. Spread footing support either
column or wall
It may of following kinds
Single footing for column
Stepped footing for a column
Sloped footing for a column
Wall footing without step
Grillage foundation

Spread Footing

Spread Footing

Single Footing for a Column


A spread footing for a single column is either
known as the isolated footing or pad footing.
In this case, the footing may consist of simple
concrete block projecting out from the column
face on all sides.
The base dimensions of the concrete base should
not be less than twice the appropriate lateral
dimensions of the column in that direction.
The thickness of concrete block should at least be
equal to side offset from the column face.

Stepped Footing for a Column


If the column load is more or if the safe bearing
pressure of the soil is less, the base area will be
large.
In such a case, it is necessary to provide masonry
offsets, to achieve larger spread, before the load is
transferred to the concrete base.
The height and width of each offset should be so
proportioned that the rate of spread does not
exceed the permissible value for the masonry.

Slopped Footing for a Column


These are also known as Isolated or Individual column
footings. They have the projections in the concrete base.
Due to the low bending strength, the footing constructed
with brick, stone or plain concrete require considerable
depth to be safe to carry heavy loads.
The depth of plain concrete footing can be reduced much,
by providing reinforcements at its base to take-up tensile
stresses.
RCC column footings may be circular, rectangular, or
square in plan.
The footing is reinforced both-ways by means of mild-steel
ribbed bars placed at right angles to one another at equal
distance apart.

Wall footing without step (Strip footing)


It is also called strip footing, which provides a
continuous longitudinal bearing. Thus, a spread footing
for a continuous wall is called a strip footing
When the wall carries light loads and the safe bearing
pressure is very high, width of the footing may be very
small. In such a case, the wall directly rests on the
concrete base and no masonry offsets are provided.
As a rule, the width of concrete base should not be less
than twice the width of the wall and the thickness
should be at least equal to offset.

Stepped Footing for Wall


When the wall carries heavy loads and the safe bearing pressure of
the soil is not high, the base width required may be much greater.
In such a case, the masonry offsets are provided to achieve larger
spread, before the load is transferred to concrete base.
In case of typical wall footing, the lowest course of bricks will have
twice the width of the wall above the plinth level.
The base width of the wall is achieved by providing 5 cm offset on
both side of the wall. The depth of each course may be 10 to 20 cm.
The depth of concrete bed is normally not less than 15 cm. and its
projection on both side of wall base may be 10 to 15 cm.
In any case, the depth of concrete bed should not be less than its
projection beyond the wall base.
Thus, in case of typical wall footings, if the walls having thickness
t cm, the foundation width is equal to ( 2t + 30) cm. and the depth
of foundation or approximately equal to 3t cm.

Grillage Foundation
A grillage foundation is an isolated footing generally
provided, when heavy structural loads from columns,
piers or steel stanchions are required to be transferred
to a soil having poor or low bearing capacity.
This type of foundation is lighter and more economical,
for which deep excavation is not required and provides
more area at the base; so that intensity of pressure can
be reduced within safe bearing capacity of soil.
It can be broadly divided into two categories,
depending upon the material used:
(a) Steel grillage foundation
(b) Timber grillage foundation

Steel Grillage Foundation


Steel grillage foundation consists of steel joists or beams (Rolled
Steel Joists-RSJ) which are provided in single or double tiers.
In case of double tier grillage, the top tier is laid at right angles to
the bottom tier. The beams of each tier are held in position by 20
mm dia spacer bars with 25 mm. dia-pipe separators. The grillage
beams are embedded in concrete.
A minimum clearance of 8 cm is kept between the beams, so that
concrete can be poured easily and compacted properly. However,
the distance between flanges width; so that filled concrete acts
monolithically with the beams.
A minimum cover of 10 cm is kept on the outer sides of the
external beams as well as above the upper flanges of the top tier.
The depth of concrete below the lower tier should be at least 15
cm.

Steel Grillage Foundation

Method of Construction
The excavation for foundation is done to the desired depth and the
bed is well leveled.
The foundation bed is then covered with a 15 cm. thick rich mix of
concrete, which is well compacted to make it impervious.
The grillage beams are then placed on this bed at specified distance
using separators. The top surface of grillage beams is kept in a
horizontal plane and rich cement grout is filled all around the lower
flanges of the beams to secure them to the concrete bed.
The concrete is then placed between and around the beams.
The second tier of beams is then placed at right angles to the first
tier and the entire space is filled with concrete.
The steel stanchion is then erected on the base plate fixed on the
second tier beams; with the help of side angles and gusset plates.
These connecting elements are also embedded in the concrete so that
the joint becomes rigid.

Timber Grillage Foundation


This type of foundation is provided for heavily loaded
masonry wall or timber columns. This foundation is
specially useful in waterlogged areas, where the bearing
capacity of soil and is very low and where the steel
beams may get corroded due to subsoil water, the
loading on the soil is limited to 50 to 60 KN/ m2 .
The foundation uses timber planks and timber beams in
place of steel joists. No concrete is embedded between
the timber joists. However, the bottom concrete
provided in steel grillage foundation is replaced by
timber platform constructed of timber planks.

Combined Footing
A combined footing is a single footing, which supports two columns. A
combined footing is provided under the following circumstances:
When the columns are very near to each other, so that their footing
overlap.
When the bearing capacity of soil is less, requiring more area under
individual footing.
When the end column is near a property line so that its footing cannot
spread in that direction.
A combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan. The aim
of combined footing is to get uniform pressure distribution under the
footing.
For this, the Centre of gravity (CG) of the footing area should coincide
with the C.G. of the combined loads of the two columns.
If the outer column, near the property line, carries heavier load,
provision of Trapezoidal column becomes essential to bring the C.G. of
footing in line with the C.G. of two column loads.

Combined Footing

Strap Footing
A strap footing consists of two or more footing of individual
columns, connected by a beam, called a strap.
When a column is near or right next to adjacent property limit, a
square or rectangular footing concentrically located under the
column would extended into the adjoining property, which may
not be permissible. In that case, the strap footing may be
provided.
The strap beam, connecting the spread footing of the two
columns, does not remain in contact with soil and thus does not
transfer any pressure to the soil.
The function of the strap beam is to transfer the load of heavily
loaded outer column to the inner one. In doing so, the strap beam
is subjected to bending moment and shear-force and it should be
designed to withstand these.

Strap Footing

Raft Foundation
A Raft or mat is a combined footing, which covers the entire area below the
whole building or structure and supports all the wall and columns.
When the allowable soil pressure is low or the building loads are heavy, the
use of spread footings would cover more than one-half of the area and it
may prove more economical to use mat or raft foundation.
They are also used, where the soil mass contains compressible lenses or the
soil is sufficiently erratic so that the differential settlement would be
difficult to control. The mat or raft tends to bridge over the erratic deposits
and eliminates the differential settlement.
A raft foundation is also needed to reduce settlement on highly
compressible soils, by making the weight of the structure and raft
approximately equal to the weight of the soil excavated.
Raft foundation consists of thick reinforced concrete slab covering the
entire area of the bottom of the building or structure like a floor. The slab is
reinforced with bars running at right angles to each other both near the
bottom and top face of the slab.
Sometimes, it is necessary to carry the excessive column load by an
arrangement of inverted main beams and secondary beams, cast
monolithically with the raft slab.

Raft Foundation

Foundations in Black Cotton Soils


Construction of buildings on black cotton soil or expansive
soils is very much dangerous due to its volumetric changes
with the change of atmospheric conditions
When the black cotton soil becomes wet, it will swell
excessively and when becomes dry, it will shrink
excessively. Thus, the black cotton soil is highly sensitive to
water.
Due to the presence of fine clay particles, the black cotton
soil will swell, when it comes in contact with water.
The differential settlement of the building, caused by the
movement of the ground due to the alternate swelling and
shrinkage, results in formation of cracks. The cracks thus
formed are sometimes 15 to 20 cm wide and 2.5 to 4.0 cm
deep.

Precautions for foundations in black


cotton soils
The various precautions are taken during foundation construction in
black cotton soils:
The foundation should be taken to such a depths, where the cracks cease to
extend. The minimum depth of foundation should be at least 1.50 m.
If the depth of black cotton soil does not exceed 1.5 m, the entire layer of
black cotton soil may be removed and the foundations should be laid on
hard bed.
The foundation concrete or masonry work should not be in direct contact
with the black cotton soil. This can be done by making wider and deeper
trenches for foundation and filling the sand or moorum on either sides and
below the foundation.
The bed of the foundation trench should be made firm or hard by ramming
it well and 30 cm. layer of moorum should be spread in 15 cm. layer over
it, which is well watered and rammed and then foundation concrete should
be provided.
The construction in black cotton soil should be carried out during dry
season.
The external walls should be provided with plinth protection at ground
level, so that moisture does not enter in foundation during monsoon.

Type of Foundation in Black Cotton soils


Strip foundation: The strip foundation for walls and the pad
foundation for columns may be provided for medium loads.
When the soil is expansive and having little swelling pressure, a
60 cm. thick layer of cohesion less soil is provided below the
foundation concrete and around the footing and also below the
flooring. When the soil swells, the sand layer would expand, but
there will be no discontinuity in the soil support.
Where the swelling pressures are relatively high the alternative
layers of moorum and sand are provided, which acts as a spring
and can compress or expand along with the sub-soil movements.
When the soil is soft and having poor bearing capacity, a 30 cm
thick layer of ballasts and moorum should be provided and
rammed and then 30 cm thick layer of coarse sand may be
placed.

Strip foundation

Pier Foundation
For the walls carrying heavy loads, the pier
foundation with arches may be provided. The
piers are dug at regular interval and filled with
concrete, which are connected by concrete or
masonry arch and the wall may be constructed
over it.
The arches are constructed with a gap above the
ground level which may permit the movement of
soil during swelling and shrinkage.

Pier Foundation

Under-Reamed Pile Foundation


The pile foundation are provided in expansive soils
such as black cotton soil, filled up ground and soils
having poor bearing capacity.
Under-reamed pile are bored cast-in-situ concrete piles
of shallow depth (1 to 6m) having bulb shaped
enlargement near the base.
In this type of foundation, the structure is anchored to
the ground at depth, where ground movement due to
change in moisture content is negligible.
The piles are connected by a rigid capping beam,
suitably reinforced, over which the wall is constructed.

Under-Reamed Pile Foundation

Causes of Failure of Foundations


Unequal settlement in subsoil:
Unequal settlement of foundation may lead to cracks in
the structural components, which results into the failure
of the structure.
The unequal settlement of foundation may be due to
reasons such as;
The nature of the soil may not be uniform over the
entire site of the building.
The loading conditions may not be uniform.
The pressure on the soil may exceeds the safe-bearing
capacity of the soil.

Unequal settlement in subsoil

Causes of Failure of Foundations


The various remedial measures are taken to
prevent unequal settlement of sub-soil
The nature of soil and loading conditions should
be uniform over the entire site of the building.
The pressure on the soil should not exceed the
safe bearing capacity of soil.
Material used in construction should be durable,
so as to avoid danger of disintegration of the
foundations.
As far as possible, eccentric loading should be
avoided.

Unequal Settlement of Masonry


The mortar used in the masonry may shrink or
compress, when excessive load comes over it before
setting, which results into unequal settlement, which
results into unequal settlement of masonry.
The various measures adopted are as follows:
The mortar should provide easy workability and should
not be too lean or too stiff.
The masonry should be constructed to the same level
throughout the building.
The height of masonry should not be more then 1.5 m
/day
The curing of masonry should be done properly for at
least 10 days.

Unequal Settlement of Masonry

Horizontal movement of soil adjoining


the structure
The clayey and black cotton soil undergo volumetric
changes with the changes in atmospheric conditions. They
swell excessively when wet and shrink excessively when
dry, due to which the cracks are formed in the structure.
The various precautions taken are as follows;
The load on the the foundation should be limited.
Foundation should be taken to a depth where the cracks
ceases to extend.
The foundation concrete block or masonry should be
provided with a layer of sand or moorum on either side or
at bottom to prevent the intimate contact of soil.

Horizontal movement of soil


adjoining the structure

Shrinkage due to withdrawal of moisture


from soil below the foundations
The root of trees grown near the wall foundation,
absorbs the sub soil moisture, resulting in
differential shrinkage below the foundation and
forms the cracks in foundation.
The remedial measure taken are as follows:
The safe distance should be maintained between
the trees and the foundations, to avoid the damage
due to the trees.
The foundation of the structure should be taken to
depth of at least 90 cm, to minimize the cracking
action.

Shrinkage due to withdrawal of moisture


from soil below the foundations

Lateral Pressure on the Walls


The walls of the buildings may be subjected to
lateral pressure due to sloped roof or an arch
pressure or due to a violent storm or a wide
cantilever projection; which may overturn the
structure.
In such cases, the wall foundations should be
so designed that the necessary stability against
lateral pressure can be achieved.

Lateral Pressure on the Walls

Action of Atmosphere
The salts in the rainwater entering into the
ground, may react chemically with the material of
foundation and disintegrate it.
Also, if the foundation is not taken to a sufficient
depth, the rainwater may scour the soil and
expose the foundation.
Due to the changes in the sub-soil water table, the
expansion or shrinkage of the soil may takes
place, which causes the cracks in the foundation.

Action of Atmosphere
The various precautions are as follows:
The foundations should be taken to sufficient depth to
avoid the adverse effect of atmosphere.
The adequate drainage provisions of sub-soil water
should be made by providing proper ground slope.
The foundation should be provided with dense cement
concrete or stone masonry, where the ground water and
soil contains excessive salts.
The sides of the foundation trenches should be well
filled and consolidated and providing plinth protection
all along the external wall to keep the rainwater away
from the building.

Lateral movement of soil below


foundation:
When the building is situated near the river
bank or deep excavation is done very near to
the building; the soft or loose soil below the
foundation may be disturbed and causes
dangerous position for building.
In such situations the sheet piles of timber or
steel, should be driven to prevent the lateral or
escape of the soil.

Lateral movement of soil below


foundation

Setting Out Foundation Trenches


The setting out foundation trenches means the marking of the
excavation lines and centerlines, etc. on the ground before
excavation is started.
The setting out plan or foundation layout plan is a dimensioned
ground floor plan usually drawn to scale of 1:50.
For setting out the foundations of any building, the centerlines of the
longest outer wall of the building is first marked on the ground by
stretching a string between wooden pegs driven at ends. This serves
as the reference line for marking the centre lines of all the walls of
the buildings.
The centreline of the wall, which is perpendicular to the long wall, is
marked by setting up a right angle. The right angle is set up by
forming triangles with sides 3, 4 and 5 units long. If we fix the two
sides of right angled triangle to be 3 m and 4 m then the third side
i.e. hypotenuse should be taken as 5 m. The dimensions should be
setout with a steel tape.

Setting Out Foundation Trenches


Similarly, the outlines of the foundation trench of each
cross-wall can be set out, which are marked by
stretching the string joining the corresponding pegs at
the two extremities of the line, with the help of dry line
powder.
In an accurate method, the centerlines of the building
wall are carefully laid by means of small nails fixed on
the top of the wooden pegs driven in the brick pillars or
platforms constructed at both ends of each wall. The
platforms are about 20 cm. thick and 15 cm. wider than
the trench width and are plastered at the top. The top of
platforms should be equal to plinth height of the
building.

Setting Out Foundation Trenches

Questions
What are the causes of failure of foundation? Mention
remedial measure.
When do you suggest:
Combined footing
Strap footing
Raft foundation

Mention foundation suitable for black cotton soil?

Thanks

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