Wcca India Abstracts

Acknowledgement
The Organizing Committee acknowledges the efforts of the

Abstract Committee members, namely Dr. R.K. Rattan (convener),
V.C. Mathur, A.R. Sharma, K.M. Manjaiah, S.P. Datta, Anupama and
Debashis Chakraborty from the Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
and Dr. K.K. Datta (NCAP) from the Congress Secretariat.
Chairman
Organizing Committee
Published by 4h World Congress on Conservation Agriculture and printed at M/s Print Process, DSIDC,
Okhla Industrial Area, Phase I, New Delhi 110 020
Contents
Part 1: Abstracts of Invited Papers

Theme 1: Resource Productivity and Efficiency
Session 1.1: Soil and Residue Management ...................................................................................................... 3
Session 1.2: Input Management (Water, Nutrients, Seed and Agro-chemicals) .................................................7
Session 1.3: Diversified Farming Systems ......................................................................................................... 8
Session 1.4: Irrigated Systems ........................................................................................................................ 11
Session 1.5: Mechanization and Energy Management ..................................................................................... 13
Session 1.6: Genetic Strategies ....................................................................................................................... 18
Session 1.7: Indigenous Knowledge and Practices .......................................................................................... 21
Theme 2: Institutional Innovations and Policies
Session 2.2: Integrated Approach for Technology Development and Dissemination ......................................... 23
Session 2.3: Capacity Building ......................................................................................................................... 24
Session 2.4: Enabling Policies ......................................................................................................................... 25
Theme 3: Environment
Session 3.1: Climate Change ........................................................................................................................... 26
Session 3.2: Biodiversity .................................................................................................................................. 27
Session 3.3: Environmental Services ................................................................................................................ 29
Theme 4: Imapct Assessment and Equity Issues
Session 4.1: Impact of Conservation Agriculture ............................................................................................... 31
Session 4.2: Equity Issues (Employment, Drudgery and Regional Disparities, etc.) ........................................ 33
Session 4.3: Common Property Resources ..................................................................................................... 34
Part 2: Abstracts of Voluntary Papers

Theme 1: Resource Productivity and Efficiency
Session 1.1: Soil and Residue Management .................................................................................................... 39
Session 1.2: Input Management (Water, Nutrients, Seed and Agro-chemicals) ............................................. 105
Session 1.3: Diversified Farming Systems ..................................................................................................... 224
Session 1.4: Irrigated Systems ...................................................................................................................... 270
Session 1.5: Mechanization and Energy Management ................................................................................... 290
Session 1.6: Genetic Strategies ..................................................................................................................... 310
Session 1.7: Indigenous Knowledge and Practices ........................................................................................ 352
Theme 2: Institutional Innovations and Policies
Session 2.1: Participatory Approaches and Partnerships ............................................................................... 371
Session 2.2: Integrated Approach for Technology Development and Dissemination ....................................... 389
Session 2.3: Capacity Building ....................................................................................................................... 400
Session 2.4: Enabling Policies ....................................................................................................................... 402
Theme 3: Environment
Session 3.1: Climate Change ......................................................................................................................... 406
Session 3.2: Biodiversity ................................................................................................................................ 426
Session 3.3: Environmental Services .............................................................................................................. 440
Theme 4: Imapct Assessment and Equity Issues
Session 4.1: Impact of Conservation Agriculture ............................................................................................. 450
Session 4.2: Equity Issues (Employment, Drudgery and Regional Disparities, etc.) ...................................... 481
Session 4.3: Common Property Resources ................................................................................................... 489
Author Index ................................................................................................................................................... 491
ABSTRACTS OF INVITED PAPERS
4th World Congress on Conservation Agriculture — February 4-7, 2009
Session 1.1: Soil and Residue Management
No-Till System Applied to Northern Africa Rain-Fed

Agriculture: Case of Morocco
Session 1.1
Oussama EL GHARRAS1*, Azeddine EL BRAHLI2 and Mohamed EL MOURID3
1
Ag. Eng. Laboratory, INRA-Settat, P.O. Box: 589, Settat, 26000, Morocco.
2
Rue 11 Janvier, Al Kahir, Settat, 26000, Morocco.
3
North Africa-ICARDA, 1 Rue des Oliviers ElMenzah V, 2037 Tunis.
(*Email: o_elgharras@yahoo.fr)
Rain fed agriculture in North Africa is facing the challenge of balancing between natural resources preservation and
intensive farming systems. In Morocco, analysis of thirty years of weather data showed a drastic climatic change
threatening crop production. The total rainfall amount received is low to support enough grain production in order to
cover increasing needs for food and feed growing population and high number of animals. The water scarcity is
exacerbated by alarming land degradation from conventional tillage operations and heavy animals grazing of biomass
grown or left as crop residues on soil surface. Research in Morocco investigated over 25 years, conservation tillage
systems at experimental research stations. Different tillage combinations were compared to no till with different rates
of cereals crop residue, crop rotations and weed management. Results showed that the no-tillage system offers most
sustainable way to enhance resources productivity, water productivity and water use efficiency, soil quality and better
cost effectiveness. At farmers’ fields complex and well established relationships are integrating crops and livestock as
a way to face high variability of climate. This production system makes grain production and crop residue of equal
value. Conservation agriculture principles based on residue and cover crops well demonstrated at research stations,
become very difficult to apply especially during drought seasons when animals survival turn to become farmers major
priority. During the last decade, and building on encouraging research results, direct seeding was scaled out to farmers’
fields and has led to a better understanding and adaptation of this promising system to Moroccan and North African
rain fed agriculture production systems. Applying on-station research results in the farmers’ fields resulted in a hybrid
no- till system with no threshold of surface residue cover; but with whatever was left and accumulated over years after
hand removing and grazing. This paper reports results over ten years of on-farm research under rain fed conditions in
semi-arid Central Morocco (Lat. 34 N.). Results obtained in farmers fields showed in all cases higher yields under
drought conditions and higher or equal under normal conditions. These achievements might be attributed to (i) a well
adapted cheap and locally developed no- till drill, (ii) water conservation techniques that allowed more crop production
stability, (iii) simplification of wheat crop establishment with no additional costs of tillage or pre-planting weed control
and (iv) cost effectiveness. The success of this research is credited to full participation of farmers’ communities and to
a strong scientific multidisciplinary team along with real involvement of extension agents and local authorities.
3
Abstracts of Invited Papers
Critical Research for Dryland Conservation Agriculture in the Yellow

River Basin, China: Recent Results
Yan Changrong1,2, He Wenqing1,2, Mei Xurong1,2*, John Dixon3, Liu Qin1,2, Liu Shuang1,2, Liu Enke1,2
1
Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural
Sciences (CAAS), Postal 100081, Beijing, China
2
Key Laboratory of Dryland Farming and Water-Saving Agriculture, MOA, Postal 100081, Beijing, China
Session 1.1
3
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT),
Apdo. Postal 6-641, 06600 Mexico, D.F., Mexico
(*Email: meixr@cjac.org.cn)
Yellow River Basin (YRB) is the cradle of Chinese civilization. Agriculture production plays a very important role in
regional food security. Currently, soil erosion, poverty and water shortages are three major problems that affect the
development of agriculture in YRB. Severe soil erosion is leading to loss of fertile topsoil and decreasing soil productivity.
These processes are particularly evident in dry and sloping lands associated with rainfed agriculture. How to face and
resolve these problems in agriculture? And what are the key techniques to improve rainwater use efficiency? According
to the results in the drylands conservation agriculture research and practice, conservation agriculture is the most
promising approach for sustainable development in agriculture, such as harvesting of rainwater using residue mulches,
which can increase crop production, and the reduction of soil tillage and construction of water harvesting and
supplementary irrigation system. Not only it generates immediate benefits in terms of increased farm productivity, it
also offers social benefits of great relevance to YRB.
Innovations through Conservation Agriculture: Progress and Prospects

of Participatory Approach in the Indo-Gangetic Plains
M.L. Jat1, Ravi G. Singh2, Y.S. Saharawat3, 4, M.K. Gathala4, V. Kumar4, H.S. Sidhu5, and Raj Gupta2
1
Directorate of Maize Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
Pusa Campus, New Delhi, 110 012, India
2
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT), India Office,
NASC Complex, Pusa, New Delhi-110 012, India
3
International Centre for Soil Fertility and Agricultural Development (IFDC), Muscle Shoals, Alabama, USA
4
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) India Office, Pusa New Delhi, 110 012, India
5
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
The scientific and technological innovations have been the basis for promoting agricultural development. The historical
focus of research on improved agricultural technologies has undeniably been successful. But, these strategies have
had limited impacts on the intended beneficiaries, as the complexity of their livelihood and farming systems has not
been taken into consideration. The conservation agriculture (CA) in its initial version of zero-tillage in South Asia during
1970’s and 80’s is a good example of it wherein during technology development, little or no attention was paid to the
farmers’ knowledge for their local settings and innovations. However, linking dynamic knowledge systems of the
farmers with scientific basis of technology through “Participatory Innovation Development” on CA in its version of
Resource Conserving Technologies (RCTs) played a great role in promoting the adoption of RCTs (3.0 Mha) for
resource conservation, poverty-alleviation and sustainable development in irrigated intensive production systems of
the Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia.
4
Strategies to Overcome the Competition for Crop Residues in Southern

Africa: Some Light at the End of the Tunnel
Patrick C. Wall
CIMMYT, P.O. Box MP163, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
(Email: p.wall@cgiar.org)
Session 1.1
Most small-holder farmers in southern Africa rely on maize as their staple food and manage mixed crop/livestock
systems where maize is the major crop and maize residues provide a vital source of livestock feed during the dry
season when grazing areas are limited. Conservation agriculture (CA) on the other hand, relies on ground cover with
crop residues to achieve its potential to increase crop yields under rainfed conditions and increase soil health and
system sustainability. The competition between the soil and animals for the scarce crop residues thus has become a
major point for discussion and often disagreement. However, most analyses of total farm productivity during a transition
to conservation agriculture from tillage-based agriculture assume that all of the farm will be converted to the new
system in a relatively short period of time. This strategy, while conceptually simple, also results in the maximum
competition for residues, and as a result tends to force a decision against CA before its promise of increased yields
and system sustainability can be achieved. If the farm is converted gradually to CA, then competition is less, the farmer
can learn to manage the new system properly under his/her conditions, and soil degradation on the farm can gradually
be reverted while crop productivity increases. The reduced risk of crop failure with CA also allows diversification of
crops on the farm, and may include the production of forage crops with markedly better nutritional quality than cereal
crop residues. Using examples from farmer managed plots in southern Africa, the paper will explore the effects on total
productivity. However, there are other difficulties with surface residue retention, principally communal grazing rights
after harvest and the prevalence of wild fires or bush fires. Both of these need to be taken into account and while the
farmer can control aspects of the solution, overcoming the problems will involve important policy decisions at the
community and district levels.
The Importance of Crop Residue Management in Maintaining Soil Quality

in Zero Tillage Systems; A Comparison between Long-term Trials in
Rainfed and Irrigated Wheat Systems
Nele Verhulst1,2, Bram Govaerts1*, ELS Verachtert2, Fabian Kienle3, Agustin Limon-Ortega4,
Jozef Deckers2, Dirk Raes2, Ken D. Sayre1
1
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT), Mexico, D.F., Mexico
2
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
Celestijnenlaan 200 E, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
3
Colegio de Postgraduados, Km 36.5 Carr. México -Texcoco, CP 56230, Montecillo, Mexico
4
INIFAP-CEVAMEX, AP10, Km 17.5 Carr. México-Lechería, CP 56230, Chapingo, Mexico
(*Email: b.govaerts@cgiar.org)
CIMMYT is committed to improving livelihoods in developing countries by improving the productivity and profitability of
farming systems while sustaining natural resources. This paper focuses on the influence of crop residue management
on soil quality in zero-till systems and includes results from two long-term trials established in the early 1990’s in
different agro-ecological systems in Mexico: (1) a low-input, semi-arid, rainfed system in the rainfed central highlands
(2240 masl) with zero tillage on the flat and (2) a high-input, arid, irrigated system in the northwestern part of the
country with zero-tilled permanent raised beds. In both zero till systems, the (partial) retention of the crop residues was
necessary to maintain soil quality. In the rainfed semi-arid zero tillage system, mean weight diameter obtained by dry
sieving, aggregate stability, infiltration, soil moisture content, soil microbial biomass and nutrient status were lower with
5
residue removal than with residue retention. In the irrigated permanent raised bed system, burning of all crop
residues resulted in a degradation of soil structure, lower direct infiltration, irrigation efficiency, soil moisture content,
soil microbial biomass, lower total N and greater soil sodicity as compared to retaining crop residue at the surface.
Practices with partial retention of crop residue showed soil quality similar to practices with retention of all residues.
The retention of at least part of the crop residue is essential for the sustainability of zero-till systems, although it
may be possible to remove part of the residue for other uses, especially in irrigated conditions where biomass
production is high.
Session 1.1
Conservation agriculture- constraints, issues and opportunities in

rainfed areas
B. Venkateswarlu, K.L. Sharma and J.V.N.S. Prasad

Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, 500 059, Andhra Pradesh, India
(Email: director@crida.ernet.in/vbandi_1953@yahoo.com)
Conservation agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions has to be understood in a broader perspective. It should
involve both soil and water conservation methods mutually reinforcing each other. Conservation tillage appears
more appropriate under rainfed agriculture than zero tillage. Tillage alone without residue retention may not be of
much utility. Therefore, the real challenge lies in ways and means of sparing the crop residue for conservation
farming and find out alternative strategies of meeting fodder requirements of livestock. CA practice has to be
adopted holistically so that it minimizes soil loss, conserves water and controls weeds which are essential for
success of crop production under rainfed conditions.
6
Session 1.2: Input Management

(Water, Nutrients, Seed and Agro-chemicals)
Perspectives on Nutrient Management in Conservation Agriculture
Amir Kassam* and Theodor Friedrich

Plant Production and Protection Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy
Session 1.2
(*Email: kassamamir@aol.com )
Conservation Agriculture (CA) systems aim at enhancing soil health and function as a precursor to sustainable
production intensification. Nutrient management in CA must be formulated within this framework of soil health.
Thus, nutrient management strategies in CA systems would need to attend to the following four general aspects,
namely that: (i) the biological processes of the soil are enhanced and protected so that all the soil biota and
microorganisms are privileged and that soil organic matter and soil porosity are built up and maintained; (ii) there is
adequate biomass production and biological nitrogen fixation for keeping soil energy and nutrient stocks sufficient
to support higher levels of biological activity, and for covering the soil; (iii) there is an adequate access to all
nutrients by plant roots in the soil, from natural and synthetic sources, to meet crop needs; and (iv) the soil acidity
is kept within acceptable range for all key soil chemical and biological processes to function effectively. The paper
discusses in general terms the above four aspects of nutrient management in CA systems.
Polymicrobial Formulations for Enhanced Productivity of a Broad

Spectrum of Crops
C.A. Reddy* and J. Lalithakumari

Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University,
East Lansing, MI, 48824-4340, USA
(E-mail: reddy@msu.edu)
Our principal aim in this research is to develop stable, efficacious, and eco-friendly microbial formulations containing
naturally occurring diverse phylogenetic groups of microbes with complementary functions designed to enhance
productivity of a broad spectrum of crops. The formulation is designed to provide the observed beneficial effects
through enhancement of nitrogen fixation, direct or indirect inhibition of plant pathogens, solubilization and mobilization
of minerals such as P, and production of plant growth stimulants. We constructed two such formulations (F 1 and F2)
using humate (12%, pH 7.0) as a carrier. F2 formulation was found to be more effective than F1 in enhancing the
productivity of a broad spectrum of crops and was the focus of this study. Substantial increase in productivity was
observed in the following crops: Zea mays (corn), Sorghum bicolor (sorghum), Glycine max (soybean), Phaseolus
vulgaris (Garden bean), Pisum sativum (pea), Phaseolus sp. (wonder bush bean), Arachis hypogea (peanut), Oryza
sativa (rice), Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato), Solanum melongena (eggplant), Hibiscus esculentus (okra), and
Cucurbita maxima (squash). For example, when compared to controls, corn height increased by 65%, eggplant 41%;
wonder bush beans 40%, tomato 91%, soybeans 96%, pea purple hull 50%, and okra 16%. Significant increase in
yield was also observed. For example, mean yield of tomato increased by 88%, okra yield increased by 50%, and rice
yield by 40%. In general, the F2-treated plants appeared healthier and showed early flowering and fruiting with good
root nodulation in legumes. Yields obtained in field trials were consistent with those from the greenhouse experiments.
The results indicated that polymicrobial formulations such as F2 reduce input for nitrogen fertilizers and pesticides,
enhance productivity of a broad spectrum of crops, non-polluting, and contribute to the conservation of soil health.
7
Session 1.3: Diversified Farming Systems
Lessons Learnt from the Extension of Direct Seeding,

Mulch-based Cropping Systems (DMC) in the Main Agro
Ecological Zones of Madagascar
Rakotondramanana1, O. Husson2 and A. Rakotondralambo3*

1
GSDM lot VA 26 Y Ambatoroka, ANTANANARIVO (101), Madagascar
2
CIRAD/GSDM, GSDM lot VA 26 Y Ambatoroka, ANTANANARIVO (101), Madagascar
3
GSDM, DG ANAE, Lot II Y 39A bis, Ampasanimalo, BP 5092, ANTANANARIVO (101), Madagascar
(*Email: aralambo@netclub.mg)
Extension of Direct Seeding Mulch-based cropping systems (DMC) among small scale farmers has been tested in
Session 1.3
the main agroecological zones of Madagascar for a period of up to 7 years. These agroecological zones include
climates ranging from subtropical climate at sea level to sub-tropical and semi-temperate climates at high altitude.
Four main agroecological zones were identified: (i) the eastern coast of the country at sea level with high rainfall
(1500 to 2500 mm/year) and high temperature, (ii) the medium altitude (800 to 900 masl) of the Alaotra Lake and the
Middle West, with 6 to 7 months of dry seasons and medium rainfall (600 to 1200 mm/year), (iii) the high altitude
areas (1000 m to 1500 masl) with a 6-months long rainy season (1200-1500 mm/year) and a 6–months long dry and
cold season, and occurrence of frost in some areas and (iv) the dry area of the South of the Country with 3 to 4
months of rains (300 to 600 mm/year). The extension was decided after more than 10 years of adaptation of DMC
systems by the NGO TAFA in the same areas and training of key field extensionists and group of farmers. Reference
sites testing different systems compared with conventional tillage are maintained in these areas and are being used
for training of all stakeholders. The GSDM which is a group of institutions involved in R and D was created in 2000
and aimed at capitalizing all knowledge on R and D related to DMC. A strategy document was written in 2004 and
updated in 2007 for the diffusion of direct seeding on permanent soil cover at national scale. Main focus of the
document was: training of all stakeholders, progressive diffusion based on community level (terroir) and taking into
account all aspects of the living conditions of the communities after a short survey e.g. main commodities, importance
of livestock and main sources of forages, use of inputs (farm manure, fertilizers, pesticides,..), main constraints,
sources of income, market, etc.. This strategy document has been approved by all members of the GSDM and its
main partners. Starting with a few farmers around the TAFA reference sites in 2001/2002, (5 ha, 29 farmers), the
area under DMC is 3.800 ha with 7.700 farmers all over the country in 2007/2008. The main DMC adopted by
farmers in the hills (tanety) under rainfed conditions are: (i) food crops (maize, rice) associated with legumes
(Dolichus lablab, Vigna unguiculata, Vigna umbellata) in Alaotra lake, (ii) food crops (rice, maize) on residues of
Stylosanthes guianensis in the Middle West and eastern coast, (iii) cassava associated with Brachiaria sp or
Stylosanthes guianensis in the eastern coast and to a lesser extent, and (iv) maize associated with Vigna unguiculata
followed by cotton in the dry areas.
Direct Drilling is Behind Agronomy of Opportunity in Tunisia
Moncef Ben-Hammouda*1, Khelifa M’hedhbi2, Hatem Cheikh M’hamed1 and Houcine Ghouili1
1
Ecole Supérieure d’Agriculture du Kef, Tunisia
2
Centre Technique des Céréales, Tunisia
(*Email: Benhammouda.moncef@iresa.agrinet.tn)
Tunisian climate is Mediterranean, characterized by irregular, sudden, intense and relatively low rainfall. Land degradation
is continuing, water resources are becoming scare, and energy cost of farm products is continuously getting high.
8
Consequently, cereal producers can hardly make an economic return, while practicing conventional agriculture
based on tilling soils. Conservation agriculture based on direct drilling (CA/DD) gives farmers a chance to protect
soils and rebuilt their fertility for an efficient use of any available form of water (rain-fall, irrigation). Such desirable
efficiency does not come only by the use of the appropriate crop species, but necessarily by reducing water
evaporation. To do so, a permanent mulching on the soil surface is the pivot of CA/DD. Since rain-fall fluctuates from
one year to another, crop sequences should parallel with such conditions. Some couloirs have early rains (September-
October) and late rains too (May-June). In 2007/08, early and late rains accounted for 26.2 and 19.9 % of the total
rain for cereal growing season (September-June), respectively. These rains are not well capitalized in cereal production,
when applying conventional agriculture. So, coupling the site specific approach and agronomy of opportunity is
imperative to lift up farm productivity.
The climate (rain, heat) of production sites should be characterized to better define growing seasons and make
the appropriate agronomic sequence. Then, the agronomy of opportunity (producing the maximum of biomass whenever
the climate and the biology of the desired crop are favorable) could be applied in different scenarios, under rain-fed
and/or irrigation conditions. There is no static scheme to crop the land, and it is rather a dynamic management of soil,
crops, and water. A particular emphasis should be put on use of strictly seasonal (fall, winter, spring, summer) cereals
and legumes in order to make a continuing cropping with two-three crops a year. A potential scenario could be a fall-
barley/spring-peas/summer short season-sorghum hybrid.
Session 1.3
Actually, few crops (barley, oat, sorghum, millet, african luzerne) are used as cover crops and others still under
experimentation. So, AC/DD is a new agro-technology using the same species cropped in conventional agriculture but
sometimes for a very different purpose. For example, barley may be sown first to be grazed, then according to the rain-
fall a farmer has the choice to keep grazing or remove his flock out of the field and either seed a spring crop or let
barley plants go to grain filling stage. Therefore, barley becomes a multipurpose crop when applying agronomy of
opportunity. Some agronomic scenarios were successfully conducted, for example sorghum was grown after a feed
cereal (oat) and a forage biomass between 3 t ha-1 and 11 t ha-1 was reached under rain-fed conditions. Under
irrigation conditions and taking advantage of luzerne winter dormancy, oat was sown and a hay biomass of 7.5 t ha1
was harvested. The previous two agronomic sequences could be considered as two forms of “relay cropping” where in
former case sorghum benefits of late rain coming in May-June and the stock of water left over by the prior winter crop
(oat) in addition to leached nitrate (NO3-). However, in the late case, oat (could be triticale or barley) benefits of luzerne
biologically fixed nitrogen and irrigation water too.
A Model Suiting Small Farm Diversification : A Case Study from India
Gurbachan Singh
Director, Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, 132 001, Haryana, India
(Email: director@cssri.ernet.in, gbsingh@cssri.ernet.in)
Nearly 65 per cent of the Indian population is dependent upon agriculture to earn livelihood and employment. More
than 50 per cent of the farmers in India cultivate less than one ha (2.5 acre) land holding. To earn reasonable livelihood
from such a small land holding for a family of 5-6 persons and an equal number of cattle is a debatable issue. Further,
in the present scenario of increasing human and livestock populations; decreasing land to man ratio; conversion of
productive agricultural lands for non-agricultural use; deteriorating natural resources (soil, water, climate and biodiversity)
and decreasing total factor productivity (in single crop, commodity and enterprize based farming), a new research and
development strategy is called upon to restore livelihoods of small and marginal farmers. Concerns of quality-conscious
society with increased demand for organic food, increasing indebtedness of farmers; WTO agreement and climate
change triggered frequent occurrences of natural calamities like droughts and floods, heat and cold waves are other
compelling reasons of a paradigm shift in our approach from single crop, commodity and enterprize-based farming to
multi-enterprize agriculture. In the past, vast synergies available with different farm enterprizes remained largely under-
exploited due to crop or commodity-driven policies. Changing consumption and demand patterns and emerging marketing
and trade opportunities are offering ample opportunities for greater diversification of agriculture systems to suit to the
9
declining size of land holdings in India. The potential of integration of dairy, poultry, piggery, duckery, fishery,
beekeeping and horticulture with dominant crops/cropping systems needs to be exploited to make judicious use of
farm inputs, resource management, regular income and year round employment generation on the small land
holding. A comprehensive information about the multi-enterprize agriculture model tried at the Central Soil Salinity
Research Institute (CSSRI), Karnal to improve water, nutrient and energy use efficiency in reclaimed/salt-stressed
environment is reported in this paper. Two years results indicated that a total gross income of Rs. 600-800/day can
be generated from about 0.6 ha land area when fisheries, dairy, horticulture, poultry, duckery and mushroom
cultivation are integrated and byproducts of these enterprizes are recycled within the system. Cultivation of vegetables
on the dykes of the fish pond yielded about Rs. 300-400/week throughout the year. The model revealed that animal
dung from the dairy component can be used as feed for fish, to generate biogas and electricity and to make
compost to practice organic agriculture. The compost generated through decomposition of crop residues with cow
dung in a series of compost pits was sufficient to meet nutritional requirement of fruit trees and vegetables planted
on the dykes of the fish pond. Since no chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides) were used to grow vegetables and
fruits during the study period the produce can be graded as organically produced. The preliminary experiences
reveal that large scale adoption of such multi-enterprize agriculture will require an effective network of marketing,
post-harvest processing, value addition, cold chain, specialized handling and transport system, marketing intelligence,
price support and export opportunities. Required research, development and policy initiatives to up-scale this kind
of diversification in small farm holdings are also discussed.
Session 1.3
10
Session 1.4: Irrigated Systems
Rationale and Application of CA for Irrigated Production in Southern

Europe and North Africa
Helena Gomez-Macpherson1*, Hakim Boulal1,2, Rachid Mrabet3, Emilio Gonzalez4

1
Instituto de Agricultura Sostenible, CSIC, Apartado 4084, 14080 Córdoba, Spain
2
Universidad de Córdoba, Spain
3
National Institute of Agricultural Research (INRA), Tangier, Morocco
4
Asociación Española Agricultura de Conservación Suelos Vivos, Córdoba, Spain
(*Email: hgomez@cica.es)
The development of sprinkler and drip irrigation has resulted in an extension of the irrigated land in the hilly areas of
Southern Europe and North Africa increasing the risk of soil erosion. The CA systems may reduce this risk but their
adoption is quite limited. Residues and cover crop management, soil compaction and new pests have discouraged
many farmers. This work presents the major problems encounter in the CA-irrigated production systems in the region
and introduces the most promising options.
Session 1.4
Implementing Conservation Agriculture Concepts for Irrigated Wheat-
based Systems in North-west Mexico: A Dynamic Process Towards
Sustainable Production
Bram Govaerts1*, Nele Verhulst1,2, Ken D. Sayre1, Fabian Kienle3, Dagoberto Flores1, Agustin Limon-
Ortega4
1
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT), Mexico, D.F., Mexico
2
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
Celestijnenlaan 200 E, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
3
Colegio de Postgraduados, Km 36.5 Carr. México -Texcoco, CP 56230, Montecillo, Mexico
4
INIFAP-CEVAMEX, AP10, Km 17.5 Carr. México-Lechería, CP 56230, Chapingo, Mexico
(*Email: b.govaerts@cgiar.org)
In this paper we use the example of the irrigated wheat-based systems of North Mexico as a typical example of a step-
by-step process to advance the use of Conservation Agriculture based Resource Conserving Technologies towards
the final goal of the implementation of Conservation Agriculture. Sonora in northwest Mexico. This region is characterized
by a desert climate, mostly sunny and dry with a total rainfall of about 381 mm per year with 253 mm during the summer
cycle (May – Oct). The Yaqui Valley is one of the main agricultural production areas encompassing nearly 255,000 ha
of irrigated land using primarily gravity irrigation systems fed by canals (over 80% of irrigation water) and deep tube
wells (around 20% of irrigation water). Crops planted during the winter cycle are wheat (November-May), safflower
(January-June), winter maize (September-February), chickpea (December – April) while during the summer cycle
summer maize (May – October), sorghum (March – July), dry beans (March – May) are most common. There have
been 3 main shifts in farming system practices during the last decades: (1) In 1981, the majority of the farmers were
planting with ‘melgas’ (crops planted in solid stands on the flat with flood irrigation in basins) with only 6% of farmers in
the valley planting on raised beds. However by 1996, 90% of the farmers had shifted to planting on raised beds. The
great benefits from bed planting are reduced production costs, reduced irrigation water use, enhanced field access
11
which facilitates control of weeds and other pests, and timely and efficient application of nutrients, reduced tillage, and
crop residue management. (2) Another remarkable change in farmer practices has been crop residue management. In
the 1992/93 cycle, residues were burned by 95% of the farmers. This practice was deeply entrenched. By 2001,
however, 96% of the farmers are no longer burning but incorporating the residue. (3) Recently there is growing interest
to take the next logical step in making raised bed planting more sustainable by reducing tillage and manage crop
residues on the surface by reusing permanent raised beds with only superficial reshaping in the furrows between the
raised beds as needed before planting of each succeeding crop, following even distribution of the previous crop
residues. Therefore in 1991 the crop management team at CIMMYT started research on permanent beds to offer
farmers opportunities to further reduce production cost and increase sustainability of the system through the positive
effects on chemical, physical and biological soil quality.
Rationale for Conservation Agriculture under Irrigated Production in

Central Asia: Lessons Learnt
J.P.A. Lamers1, A. Akramhanov1, O. Egamberdiev1, A. Mossadegh-Manschadi1, M. Tursunov1,

C. Martius1,2, R. Gupta2,3, K. Sayre3, R. Eshchanov4 and S. Kienzler5
1
Center for Development Research (ZEF), Walter-Flex Str. 3, Bonn, 53113, Germany
2
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA-CAC),
P.O. Box 4564 Tashkent 100000, Uzbekistan
3
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Mexico
Session 1.4
4
Urgench State University, Khorezm, Uzbekistan
5
Earth Science Faculty, Free University of Berlin
The irrigated lowlands of Central Asia have been cultivated for at least 5000 years. The large-scale mechanization,
introduced during the recent Soviet-time era, provoked slowly but clearly reduced soil fertility. To revert this trend, crop
management technologies that conserve natural resources are imperative. Conservation agriculture (CA) technologies,
which are practiced worldwide on 95 million hectares, have proved to be suitable for a wide variety of agro-ecological
situations, yet mostly in rainfed areas. There are various arguments to introduce CA practices also in the irrigated
lowlands in Central Asia.
Following a review of the current status for CA in the irrigated areas of Central Asia it is argued here that the
prospects and need for CA in this region are enormous. Yet, the introduction and spread of CA practices need to be
shouldered by an awareness creation of all stakeholders including farmers, researchers, extensionists and policy
makers. This necessitates in some countries legal, administrative and economic reforms. Also intensive training and
education of farmers needs to be scheduled aside from the planning to ensure that the necessary agricultural equipment
such as seeders and planters become available and accessible. There is also a demand for further research efforts
particularly on the development of implements as well as on assessing the financial benefits from investments in CA
practices. But introducing CA could alleviate the present pressure on existing land and water resources in Central Asia
and reduce soil salinity which in turn could increase household income for the rural poor.
12
Session 1.5: Mechanization and Energy Management
Energy Balance in Conservation Agriculture and Conventional

Farming: a Comparison
S.K. Tandon1* and Surendra Singh2

1
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, KAB- II, New Delhi, India
2
Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal, 462 038, Madhya Pradesh, India
Rice-Wheat is the major crop rotation adopted in Northern India and covers 12 Mha. The mechanization of rice-wheat
cropping system has provided various machines and options for tackling the challenges under different field conditions.
The energy crisis of early seventies forced scientists to conserve energy in all sectors including agriculture and look for
alternate source of energy. The energy use in agriculture has also increased and about 8% of the energy is used in
agriculture. Energy is used for doing various farm operations on the farm. Tillage, irrigation, harvesting, and threshing
consume a large amount of energy. Hence, efforts were made to determine energy used for various farm operations
and to conserve/reduce energy use on the farm by following conservation agriculture (CA) using no-till drills and by
adoption of efficient methods of cultivation. After harvesting of paddy, there is very little turn around time available for
sowing wheat hence, no-till drill, strip till drill, rota till drill have been developed and were used for direct drilling of
wheat in fields, where paddy had been grown earlier. In conventional method, pre-sowing irrigation is applied before
preparing the field using disc harrow, cultivator and planker and seed-drill is used for sowing of wheat. In minimum
tillage technology, pre-sowing irrigation is avoided and no-till drill or strip-till drill or roto till druill can be used for sowing
of wheat in unprepared field. Four different tillage systems were selected for the study, vis-à-vis system I (pre-sowing
irrigation + loose straw removed + disc harrow (2) + cultivator (2) + planker (2) + seed-drill); system II (pre-sowing
irrigation + loose straw removed + mould board plough + disc harrow + cultivator + planker + seed-drill); system III
(Loose straw removed + no-till drill) and system IV (loose straw removed + strip-till drill). The total energy input up to
Session 1.5
sowing including seeds and fertilizers was 11104, 10491, 8892 and 9057 MJ per hectare for systems I, II, III and IV,
respectively. The total energy input was the least for system III (no-till drill), followed by system IV (strip-till drill),
system I and system II. The yield was higher in systems III (5.35 t ha-1) and IV (5.44 t ha-1) as compared to conventional
methods. System III with no-till drill and system IV with strip-till drill offered advantages over system I in terms of saving
in time and fuel (65-80%). The saving in cost of operation was 70-80% with no-till drill and 60-70% with strip-till drill. In
the paper the energy used for weeding, irrigation, harvesting, threshing and straw management for raising wheat have
also been reported and discussed.
Actual Challenges: Developing a Low Cost No-Till Wheat Seeding

Technologies for Heavy Residues - The Happy Seeder
H.S. Sidhu1, Yadvinder Singh1, Manpreet Singh1, J. Blackwell2, Harmanjit Singh1,

Rajinder Pal Singh3, H.S. Dhaliwal1 and Ajaib Singh1
1
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India
2
International Centre of WATER for Food Security, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, Australia
3
Department of Primary Industries, NSW, Australia
Rice-wheat is the most popular cropping system followed on around 13.5 m ha area in the South Asia extending
across the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains. In north-western India, combine harvesting of rice and wheat is now a common
practice leaving large amount of crop residues in the fields. Rice straw has no economic uses and remains unutilized.
13
To vacate fields for the timely sowing of wheat, majority of the rice straw is burnt in situ by the farmers in Punjab as it
is a rapid and cheap option. Scientists are looking at alternative uses for rice stubble or new practices that are
‘economically viable and acceptable’ to the farming community. Recently, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana in
collaboration with ACIAR has developed a new machine called ‘Happy Seeder’. The Happy Seeder cuts, lifts and
manages the standing stubble & loose straw, retaining it as surface mulch and sows wheat in a single operational pass
of the field.
It is encouraging to note that in about 200 ha area in India and Pakistan, wheat has been successfully sown using
Happy Seeder during 2007-08 producing 5-10% more yield (with 50-60% less operational costs) compared to
conventional sown wheat. Additional advantages like less weed growth, water saving, improved soil health and
environment quality were also noted under the use of Happy Seeder technology. Machine weight, load on the tractor
and choking of machine under heavy stubble load were the major constraints in machine operation. To address these
problems, the work was initiated on modifying row spacing, blade geometry, blade tip speed, machine weight and rotor
size/curvature. This might help to reduce the power requirement of the present Happy Seeder machine without adversely
affecting machine performance. Our objective was to develop new prototype of Happy Seeder which will work efficiently
with 35 hp tractors mostly available with farmers in the region. Replicated field experiments were conducted at 3
locations during 2007-08 to study the effect of row spacing [20 cm (control), 30 cm and 20-40-20 cm) in wheat following
rice. The row to row spacing of 30 cm out yielded the other two spacings by 10% compared to other two row spacings.
A light weight prototype of Happy Seeder with 30% more tip speed of modified rotor blades, 40% more window
opening for easy loose straw movement and 19% less weight has been developed having row to row spacing 26.7 cm.
The detailed field evaluation of the prototype will be carried out for analysing the interactive effect of variety, date of
sowing and row spacing on wheat yield during 2008-09. A very dedicated and committed extension efforts & future
strategies are also required to popularize this eco-friendly technology for sustainable agriculture.
Actual Challenges: Developing Low Cost No-Till Seeding Technologies

for Heavy Residues; Small-Scale No-Till Seeders
Session 1.5
for Two Wheel Tractors
Israil Hossain1*, R. Jeff Esdaile2, Richard Bell3, Chris Holland4, Enamul Haque5,
Ken Sayre5 and M. Alam5
1
Wheat Research Centre, Dinajpur, Bangladesh
2
ACIAR Project, Australia
3
Murdoch University, W. Australia
4
Spring Ridge Engineering, Spring Ridge 2343 NSW Australia
5
CIMMYT BANGLADESH, CIMMYT MEXICO and IRRI Bangladesh
(*Email: mdisrail@gmail.com)
Small farmers from South Asia and other parts of the world use two wheel tractors as the main means of land preparation
and other farm operations due to small farm and field size combined with an affordable price. These units have
become very popular, and over 500,000 are manufactured annually worldwide. There are over 350,000 operating in
Bangladesh alone. Two low cost and robust no-till seeders to suit two wheel tractors (12HP) have been developed at
the Wheat Research Centre (WRC), Dinajpur, Bangladesh (with support from the Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research). This follows initial research and development work assisted by CIMMYT and Bangladesh
Agricultural Research Institute from 1995 to 2004.
14
Research and Development of Light No-till Seeders in China
Li Hongwen, Wang Qingjie, Wang Xiaoyan, He Jin, Gao Huanwen, Li Wenying

China Agricultural Unviersity, Beijing, 100083, China
(Email: lhwen@cau.edu.cn)
The adoption of conservation tillage in China, particularly in dry-land farming areas of Northern China, has significant
resource, environmental and economic benefits. However, no-tillage seeding in heavy residue cover field is the main
limiting factor for the application and extension of conservation tillage in China. Some foreign no-till seeders have
strong anti-blockage ability, but they are heavy (765-1130 kg m-1) and expensive. From 1992, we started the research
on lighter and cheaper no-till seeder. These no-tillage seeders with 316-500 kg m -1 of unit weight (50% of foreign
seeders) are suitable for Chinese small and middle size tractor (500-650 kg m-1), while the prices are only 10-15% of
foreign no-tillage wheat seeders.
Avoiding Soil Compaction in CA: Controlled Traffic Systems for

Mechanized CA and their Effect on Greenhouse Gas Balances
J.N. Tullberg
CTF Solutions, Brisbane, Australia
(Email: jeff@ctfsolutions.com.au)
Wheel and tyre combinations used on cropping land cannot function without compacting soil to increase its strength.
If we spread this impact randomly over fields, it is highly visible, damaging, and an ongoing incentive to tillage.
Session 1.5
Alternatively, we can use controlled traffic and confine damage to permanent traffic lanes, where it will improve trafficability
and traction. This requires accurate guidance, and compatible machine track, tyre and operating widths. Guidance can
be provided at low cost by furrows in more intensive Permanent Raised Bed (PRB), or at moderate cost by RTK-GPS
in more extensive controlled traffic farming (CTF). Research on both systems has demonstrated major productivity/
sustainability benefits, and farmer adoption showed that these occur on-farm, in practice. Research and adoption of
CTF occurred primarily in extensive farming in Australia, in contrast to PRB which was focused largely on more
intensive environments, often in low-resource areas. PRB and CTF are really variants of the same fundamental CA
ideas. With controlled traffic, i) energy requirements of field operations are reduced by ~ 50%, ii) greater infiltration and
plant available water capacity increase water use efficiency, iii) hard, compacted permanent wheel lanes improve the
timeliness of all operations, iv) Material and time input per unit production is reduced, v) crop yields are greater and
cropping frequency increases in some environments, vi) soil erosion and waterway pollution is reduced, and vii) Soil
carbon and greenhouse gas balances can be significantly improved.
The paper will provide evidence of each of these, with greater detail on greenhouse gas impacts, particularly fossil
energy use (tractor fuel and equipment manufacture; herbicide and fertiliser manufacture) and soil emissions (soil
structure/hydrology impacts on nitrous oxide and methane production, soil organic matter). The paper will also
demonstrate that significant improvements are relatively easy to achieve when traffic is controlled, but a number of
cropping system changes are crucial to this process. Overwhelmingly, the measures required to improve environmental
outcomes are identical to those required for improved productivity and economics. Anecdotal data suggest a positive
social impact. The underlying idea of conservation agriculture is care for the soil resource and controlling traffic is a
fundamental part of this care.
15
Improving No-Till Seeding Quality with Low Disturbance Furrow Openers

and Residue Handling Devices
Augusto Guilherme de Araújo

Agronomic Institute of Parana State (IAPAR), C.P. 481, CEP 86001970, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
(Email: agaraujo@iapar.br)
In the last two decades, no-tillage in Brazil has increased rapidly reaching more than 25 Mha in 2006. This widespread
adoption of no-tillage for crop production, specially corn and soybeans, has generated new mechanization challenges,
such as: seeding with high amount of residues over the soil surface; assure high seeding quality specially regarding
emergence speed and furrow cover with residues and, finally, decreases the energy demand during seeding operation.
This presentation will focus the results obtained by a modified type of a narrow chisel opener for fertilizer deposition, in
order to reduce the demand of energy during seeding operation, and also the effects of residue handling components
designed for covering seed furrow under high amount of residues (more than 8 Mg ha-1).
The chisel opener is commonly used in Brazilian no-till seeders as a soil-engaging component for fertilizer deposition
due to its capacity to penetrate in hard and, specially, medium to clay soils which, in general, present a surface
compaction after some years of no-till adoption. There are many different designs and types of commercial chisels in
the market and consequently the performance regarding energy demand and soil mobilization are variable. The depth
of operation (H) for this component should not be more than 100 mm because energy demand and soil mobilization
increase with depth.
The objective was to develop a new design for the chisel opener in order to reduce energy and soil mobilization for
the most common operational conditions adopted by farmers. Sixty designs were evaluated and the best results were
obtained for a chisel’s rake angle of 20°, pointer thickness of 20 mm and frame thickness of 13 mm. During operation,
the chisel compresses the soil forward and upward breaking it in a transversal direction. The selected design required
less energy to break the soil and its mobilization was smaller. Results showing the relationships between design
parameters of the chisel, named rake angle, pointer thickness and H/L (relation between operation depth and the
distance from a vertical projection and the frame, which defines the parabolic shape of the chisel) and horizontal draft
Session 1.5
force, vertical force and soil mobilization area are discussed.

Residue handling components for no-till seeders, like row cleaners, have been used in temperate regions to
remove the residues ahead of the openers as a way to clean the soil surface and raise soil temperature for the seeds.
In Brazil, they have been evaluated as an alternative to avoid residue’s clogging in the openers, mainly in the chisel.
Meanwhile, when residue handling components operate afterwards of the openers, they can return the residues over
the seed furrow protecting the soil surface from direct exposition to solar radiation and from the impact of rains and
preventing from excessive soil temperature and loss of soil moisture in the seeding region, which are very important
aspects to achieve a high seeding quality in tropical and dry regions.
Different types of residue handling components, both ahead and afterwards of the chisel opener, are being evaluated
comparing with traditional soil-engaging components of no-till seeders under high amount of residues and distinct
seeding periods. The effect of these components over soil covering, soil temperature and moisture in the seeding zone
and also in the speed of emergence for corn seeds are discussed.
16
Resource Saving Equipment for Conservation Agriculture Leading to

Higher Productivity and Profitability
Nawab Ali
Indian Council of Agricultual Research, Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan II, Pusa, New Delhi, 110 012, India
Agriculture is a complex and risk-prone profession but it is a must for the survival of human being on the planet earth.
Resource conservation in agriculture through minimum tillage, in-situ management of crop residues, saving in water
use and that of inputs like seeds, fertilizers and pesticides are needed for higher productivity and profitability on
sustainable basis. This could be achieved through appropriate engineering interventions which have shown an increase
of 10-35% in productivity, 20% saving of seeds, 15-20% saving in fertilizer, 15-25% enhancement in cropping intensity
and 30-50% increase in farmer’s gross income and return and thereby resulting in better quality living of farmers.
Session 1.5
17
Session 1.6: Genetic Strategies
Constraints to Zero Tillage in Mediterranean Environments
E. Acevedo*, E. Martínez and P. Silva

Laboratorio de Relación Suelo-Agua-Planta. Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas. Universidad de Chile.
Casilla 1004. Santiago. Chile
(*Email: eacevedo@uchile.cl)
The projected world food demand will require a sustainable intensification of field crops agriculture, fine tuning genotypes
and agronomy for the various growing environments. No-till is central to agricultural sustainability, yet its adoption in
Mediterranean environments is lagging behind, particularly in high yielding areas. These environments are characterized
by having winter rainfall and hot, dry summers such that crop residue decomposition on top of the soil does not start
until the break of autumn rains and decomposition occurs at low temperatures. The accumulated residues cause
problems to the planters; allelochemicals limit germination and cause seedling mortality and sexual reproduction of
pathogens occurs on the residue during the summer. When rainfall is high slugs thrive in the cool, humid environment
provided by the straw. Eventually farmers burn the residues defeating a major purpose of conservation agriculture.
Based on our experience with no-till in Central Chile, a high yielding Mediterranean environment, we briefly analyze
the effects of crop residues on the soil, the effect of crop residues on the next crop of the rotation and propose
agricultural practices and ideotypic traits of wheat for no-till that would help to overcome most of the production
problems in these environments. The proposed traits are intended to overcome changes that occur in soil mechanical
impedance, anoxia, weed control, diseases and allelopathy when no-till practices are adopted.
Breeding for Improved Adaptation to Conservation Agriculture

Improves Crop Yields
Session 1.6
Richard Trethowan1, Yann Manes2 and Tariq Mahmood1

1
University of Sydney, Plant Breeding Institute, PMB 11, Camden, NSW 2570
2
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). Apdo. Postal 6-641, Mexico D.F., Mexico
(Email rtrethowan@camden.usyd.edu.au)
Food production must be increased to meet projected global demands. However, declining investment in agriculture,
reduced inputs and an increasingly variable production environment make this a significant challenge. Combining
resource efficient agronomy with better adapted crop cultivars will be vital if the productivity of the world’s food producing
systems is to be maintained or increased. The existence of genotype x resource conserving crop management practice
interactions, traits controlling these interactions and breeding strategies that can be used to improve yield under
conservation agriculture are discussed.
18
Adapting Wheat to Zero Tillage in Maize-Wheat-Soybean

Rotation System
Man Mohan Kohli* and Jorge Fraschina

BIOCERES, Moreno 878-4th Piso (S2000DKP) Rosario, Argentina; Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia
Agropecuaria, INTA, CC 21, 2850 Marcos Juarez, Cordoba, Argentina
Adoption of conservation agriculture, especially zero tillage and associated practices, in the Southern Cone region of
South America have revolutionized the cereals and oilseeds production systems over the last two decades. Of the total
50 million hectares under zero tillage in the region, there are approximately 20 million hectares sown to grain crops in
Argentina, up from less than one million hectares a decade ago. Since wheat is an export commodity for Argentina, it
became important to adapt its varieties and germplasms to the newer set of cultural practices. The evaluation and
exploitation of genetic variability have been for the following adaptation characteristics: uniformity of early crop
establishment associated with soybean/maize stubble; need for high or low tillering capacity and plant height depending
on the number of years of zero tillage and/or the rotation followed; resistance to frost damage in the vegetative (tillering)
stage; stronger straw strength; synchronous heading; resistance to foliar and spike diseases especially tan spot,
septoria leaf blotch and fusarium head blight; rapid grain filling or quick finish to allow early seeding of the following
crop; lack of late tillers; higher yield potential etc. While it has been difficult to establish a genotype x tillage interaction
in every situation, superior genotypes for either tillage environment can be observed. Their identification based on the
traits mentioned above is a key to developing newer wheats adapted to zero tillage conditions. To achieve this goal, the
breeding programs need to adapt to the dynamics of the physical, chemical and biological changes occurring in the
soil system which permit the crops to achieve ever increasing yields as a result of higher water holding capacity and
accumulated soil fertility over time.
Challenges and Prospects to Realize Diversified Agriculture in the

Tropics: The Brazilian Savannah Case
Carlos R. Spehar
Session 1.6
Faculdade de Agronomia e Medicina Veterinária, Instituto Central de Ciências Ala Sul,
C. Postal 4.508 Brasília, DF, Brasil CEP 70.910-970
(Email: spehar@unb.br)
In view of predicted world population, the pressure over natural environments shall increase considerably. Induced
changes in climate, causing weather fluctuations, compound to affect crop performance by drought or excess rain
when they are not needed. Additionally, more demand on agricultural products requires high amounts of fertilizers,
forcing prices to move upwards. Combination of these factors and their interface are serious threats to agriculture and
to mankind. The Brazilian Savannah development has been marked by key events to face intrinsic and extraneous
challenges, leading to efficient production. The large-scale occupation, intensified in the 1960’s by beef cattle ranchers,
was marked by vicious clearance of exceedingly diverse vegetation and disregard to the environment. Great advances
on research, especially crop breeding have revolutionized this scenario, turning the savannah into a major food and
raw material producer. Prevailing cropping systems, however, have based mostly on soybean and maize, causing
income reduction, due to bad soil management and pest and disease problems. These have forced changes of which
the most recent comprise the use of zero-till, associated with crop diversification. The former has picked up quite
rapidly, while there is a slow move towards introducing innovative crops for soil protection and income source.
Considerations about diversified and balanced agro-systems are presented, indicating directions for participatory
research and development. The successful experiences and respective outcome serve as template, guiding initiatives
in similar, potentially developing, world-wide areas.
19
Strategies for Developing Rice-Wheat Genotypes for Conservation

Agriculture
B. Mishra1 and Ravish Chatrath2

1
Sher-E-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology, Jammu, J&K, India
2
Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal, Haryana, India
Continuous adoption of rice-wheat system with maximum exploitation of natural resources has weakened the resource
base. If we continue to exploit the natural resources at the present rate, productivity, and sustainability are bound to
suffer. Therefore, to achieve sustainable higher productivity efforts must be focused on reversing the trend in natural
resource degradation by adopting efficient resource conservation technologies. Development of efficient genotypes
for conserving natural resource base is increasingly looked as one of the viable options. The time has come for an
integrated rice-wheat research towards development of varieties with efficient input use and complete compatibility
with each other.
Conservation agriculture aims at application of modern agricultural technologies to improve production while
protecting and sustaining the natural resources. Application of CA promotes the concept of optimizing yields and
profits while ensuring provision of local and global environmental benefits and services. Acreage under conservation
agriculture which is characterized by minimal soil disturbance before seeding and by diverse strategies to increase
crop residue retention on the soil surface to insure maximum ground cover over time has dramatically increased in
many countries over the past 3 decades. There are now about 28 million ha of zero till seeding in Latin America with
the bulk concentrated in the southern cone countries of Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay. Much of this acreage is zero-
till with residue retention under rainfed condition. CA in the form of conservation tillage (zero/reduce/bed planting) and
incorporation of crop residues have been introduced in the irrigated regions of IGP to reduce the cost of cultivation,
saving the resources like water, fertilizers, energy and time, improve the soil health and enhance the system productivity.
By 2025, 15 out of 75 million hectare of Asia’s flood-irrigated rice crop will experience water shortage. Yet more
rice needs to be produced with less and less water to feed the burgeoning population. Rice is an important target for
water use reduction because of its relatively large water requirement compared to other crops. This aspect of rice
cultivation is undergoing radical changes and technologies are being aggressively developed for more water productive
cultivation practices. System of Rice Intensification (SRI), direct seeding under puddled soil, alternate wetting and
drying, aerobic rice cultivation are some of these practices.
The suitable varieties for different agroclimatic situations should be screened or developed through breeding for
SRI, direct seeding, aerobic rice cultivation etc. The available information indicated that where high yielding lowland
Session 1.6
rice varieties grown under aerobic soil conditions but with supplemental irrigation as a measure to save water have
shown severe yield penalty. Achieving high yields under irrigated but aerobic soil conditions require new varieties of
aerobic rice that combine the drought resistant characteristics of upland varieties with high yielding characteristics of
lowland varieties. The variety so developed should perform well both under aerobic condition as well as under normal
irrigated condition, so that chance of getting a good harvest in a good rain fall year is not skipped. Rice variety that has
competitive ability to suppress weed growth or which give a reasonably good yield under unweeded conditions should
be developed to reduce investment on weeding including herbicide use.
So far the development of rice and wheat cultivars were focused on individual crops under good seed bed condition
involving more number of tillage operations. The breeding programme should consider system approach to suit the
requirement of conservation agriculture. In areas where new resource conservation technologies are gaining popularity,
farmers require cultivar adapted to the new practices. For surface seeding and reduced/zero tillage planting, the
cultivar should posses faster root development to enable rapid establishment of the crop, thereby getting the seedling
past an early and harsh environment and taking the best advantage of available soil moisture. Recently significant
genotype x tillage interactions was reported in tests involving diverse genotypes, requiring plant breeders involved in
wheat improvement to tailor the genotype to different resource conservation technologies. Varieties that possess
faster root growth, and good vigour may present opportunities for increased productivity under reduced tillage condition.
Biotechnological interventions in mitigating abiotic stresses are set to play a major role in conservation agriculture.
Among abiotic stresses drought, extreme temperatures, and saline soils are the most common stresses that plants
encounter. Genetic engineering for developing stress tolerant plants, based on the introgression of genes that are
known to be involved in stress response and putative tolerance, might prove to be a faster track towards improving
crop varieties for conservation agriculture.
20
Session 1.7: Indigenous Knowledge and Practices
Blending Indigenous and Scientific Knowledge for Innovative CA

Development using Participatory Action Research
H.J. Smith
ARC-Institute for Soil, Climate and Water, Private Bag X79, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
(Email: hjsmith@arc.agric.za)
Sustainable agricultural systems which emphasize the use of practices such as Conservation Agriculture (CA), that
integrate natural processes into food production and land rehabilitation, but simultaneously improve the livelihoods of
farmers and contribute to the long-term sustainability of the resource base, hold the key to successful agricultural
development. However, many of the processes that exist in sustainable agriculture systems, both biophysical and
socio-economic, as well as their interactions, are complex and poorly understood and require an innovative approach
of research and development. The ARC-ISCW has consequently adopted a systems approach that uses participatory
action research (PAR) as a key methodology, which actively involves farmers in all stages of agricultural research and
development. This approach aims to achieve the following two major outcomes: a) to integrate (blend) scientific and
indigenous knowledge in CA design; and b) to improve the awareness and innovation capacity among various
stakeholders, a critical ingredient for sustainable land management.
During the planning and design phase of a PAR project cycle, farmers and researchers have the opportunity to
design interventions using their own experiences, blending indigenous and scientific knowledge and agreeing on the
most appropriate systems to implement. A key PAR methodology in implementation is experimentation, especially on-
farm, farmer-managed trials, with the following objectives: a) to improve experiential learning, b) to improve modification
and dissemination of technologies to local farmers, c) to increase awareness among farming communities and d) to
facilitate farmer-to-farmer extension and training.
Results show that the emphasis on improving the farmers’ inherent capacity for experimentation is an important
element in sustainable agricultural projects. Equiping farmers to select sustainable management options from a ‘basket
of CA principles and technologies’ and developing capacity to experiment with and adapt these technologies, were
found to be the key to the success of PAR projects. It was furthermore found that the intensive and prolonged interaction
of farmers with project staff (especially researchers) was clearly important for blending indigenous and scientific
knowledge and building experimentation skills.
The PAR can have a major positive effect in developing local CA systems. By engaging farmers in a long enough
period of experimentation, there is an emergence of innovation, self-learning and self organization, which are critical
ingredients for adaptive management and sustainability. Furthermore, PAR links up (integrates) various system elements Session 1.7
and stakeholders and thereby serves as a platform for social learning and local institution building. Finally, the principles
and process of experiential and adult learning play a fundamental role in changing farmers’ interest, paradigms and
behaviour, which are key indicators of emerging sustainability.
21
Adoption of Conservation Agriculture in Kazakhstan
M. Karabayev and M. Suleimenov

International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center,CIMMYT-Kazakhstan, P.O. Box 1446,
Astana, 010000, Kazakhstan
First conservation tillage methods were developed in North Kazakhstan back in 1960s. Farming systems were based
on grain production in cereal fallow rotations with sweep soil tillage. Currently many components of this system are
reviewed to increase the efficiency and sustainability of the soil. Long-term experiments showed the opportunity to
decrease the tillage and minimum tillage became generally adopted practice by the end of the 20th century. There is
great potential shift to direct seeding at certain soil-climatic conditions. No-till is already adopted on over 10% of
cropland area in north Kazakhstan. Raised bed planting has been showing positive results in irrigated agriculture in the
south but it is not adopted by practice because of lack of equipment in the market. In regard to rotations, the opportunities
of crop diversification and replacement of tilled summer fallow with cereal and oil crops are studied. In production
conditions, the decrease of summer fallow area takes place at a slow rate.
Session 1.7
22
Session 2.2: Integrated Approach for Technology Development

and Dissemination
CA Technologies Adoption — Constraints and Opportunities
Session 2.2
Theodor Friedrich
Plant Production and Protection Division, Food and Agriculture Organization
Conservation Agriculture in its different local adaptations is practiced for more than 3 decades and has reached
nearly every part of the world. Wherever it has been adopted it has proven the benefits usually claimed in its favour.
Therefore the question arises: if CA is so good, why is it not spreading like wildfire? The simple answer to this is that
the answer is not that simple. Equal to many other good and proven technologies, adoption of conservation agriculture
needs a primer before it starts moving on its own. A number of constraints are between the theory and a full scale
adoption.
These constraints come in different categories viz., intellectual (knowledge), social, financial, technical, infrastructural
and political. These constraints are meeting actually a number of opportunities which are facilitating change in crisis
and emergencies, such as the soaring food prices, make people more receptive for change; increasing environmental
concerns and pressures regarding the sustainability of production processes, which increasingly put agriculture under
pressure; rising input and energy costs urging for improved input use efficiency; challenges of climate change for
which CA holds promising options. The challenges and opportunities will be discussed in the paper and options to
overcome challenges and to harness opportunities be presented.
Development, Integration and Dissemination of Resource Conservation

Options through Community Watershed Approach
Suhas P. Wani*, T.K. Sreedevi, P.K. Joshi and B. Venkateswarlu

International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics,
Patancheru, 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India
Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Santosh Nagar,
Hyderabad, 500 059, Andhra Pradesh, India
(*Email: s.wani@cgiar.org)
Dryland areas in the tropics are hot spots of poverty as well as severe land degradation and water scarcity. In order to
achieve the food security for millions of rural poor, it is critical to enhance the productivity of rainfed agriculture through
conservation of natural resources such as water and land. The Comprehensve Assessment of Water for Food and
Water for Life has demonstrated that potential of rainfed agriculture of doubling the productivity can be harnessed by
adopting integrated approach through watershed management. Assessment of watershed impacts in India revealed
that watershed approach can be applied in all rainfed areas with suitable modifications of interventions or economically
beneficial and rainfed agriculture can be upgraded by enhancing the effectiveness of 68% of the watershed projects
which are performing below average. The new paradigm for unlocking the potential of rainfed agriculture is by adopting
community watershed management approach as a business model through convergence and linking of farmers to the
markets, efficient use of conserved natural resources for enhancing the productivity by adopting IGNRM approach and
improving community participation through capacity building and ensuring tangible economic benefits. Capacity building
has been identified as the weakest link for scaling-up the watershed programs and national strategy for quality capacity
building measures through consortium of quality service providers with suitable quality indicators is recommended.
Conservation agriculture can be operationalized through watershed approach for improving the livelihoods of rural
poor by unlocking the potential of rainfed agriculture.
23
Session 2.3: Capacity Building
Capacity Building: Harnessing Off-farm Employment Avenues in

Harmony with On-farm Resources
J.C. Katyal
CCSHAU, Hisar, 125 004, Haryana, India
Wide scale unemployment and disguised unemployment in agriculture sector challenge the goal of global food, nutritional
and environmental security. Developing countries of the world are hub of this social scourge. Unemployment is precipitator
of poverty and root of social unrest and growing disruptive activities. It is here where majority of the population lives in
rural areas and depends on agriculture for livelihood. Agriculture by far remains the largest employer of available
workforce in the world.
In the Asia-Pacific region, most of the 250 million farm households are small land holders or are near landless. In
India alone, number of small and near landless farmers (land holding < 2 hectares) is 83.5 million (or 88% of the total
land holders). Of the total workforce of 402 million in India, 58 % (32% cultivators and 26% landless labourers) is
Session 2.3
directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture for its livelihoods. This figure for the world is 42% and for the US less
than 3%. India’s 58% agriculture dependent workforce contributes less than 20% to the gross domestic product, which
indicates glaring under-productivity of this otherwise valuable human resource. For instance, because of seasonal
nature there is no full-time work in agriculture. Generally, farm workers are employed for 100 to 150 days a year. They
have no work for nearly 200 days. Since both men and women contribute to farm work, the latter suffer maximum when
there is no paid job to do.
Without any gainful employment majority of the people in rural areas suffer from unaccepted levels of deprivation
in terms of human well-being; women are hit the hardest. This happens since women own no or very little assets
(primarily land) on which they can fall back for decent livelihoods. Then this group of people have limited access to
enabling conditions like education and training. They are more likely to be illiterate or not possessing adequate levels
of education required for development of skills. State of education is far inferior among women to men. Consequently,
possibility of absorption of illiterate workers in economic sectors other than agriculture becomes increasingly difficult
(GOI, 1990, Visaria and Minhas, 1991, and Acharya, 1993). This situation is not unique to India alone, but repeats in
other developing nations too.
Due to perpetual and growing dominance of small land holders and landless workers, there are limits to create
employment for every working member of a rural household by improving on-farm productivity alone. There is need to
simultaneously expand scope of off-farm activities that demand more labour but less land. The information generated
far points out that education and training are expected to encourage more mobility, expand opportunities for livelihood
diversification into off-farm vocations by decreasing dependence on agriculture. This paper dwells on the role of
human competence and capacity building through education and training to enhance scope and possibilities of off-
farm self-employment. While doing that it integrates the crucial role of other inputs, institutional mechanisms, policy
and physical infrastructure for self-employment. The paper identifies that it is the lack of knowledge and skills about an
appropriate technology, resources and enabling infrastructure that have been and continue to be the major impediments
to adoption of modern and conservation agriculture (CA) practices and livelihood security. In India, only 40% farmers
have access to scientific methods of farming. This report tilts heavily in favour of Indian experience.
24
Session 2.4: Enabling Policies
Policies and Institutions to Promote the Development and Commercial

Manufacture of Conservation Agriculture Equipment
Brian G. Sims1*, Peter Hobbs2 and Raj Gupta3

1
Engineering for Development, Bedford, UK
2
Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850
3
CIMMYT, Kathmandu, Nepal
(*Email: BrianGSims@aol.com)
CA is practised on about 100 Mha worldwide. It is now a farmer-proven technology resulting in energy savings and
dramatic reductions in soil erosion. The CA is complementary to other resource conserving technologies ( e.g. raised
beds, agroforestry and terracing) which together confer greater eco-system resilience to production systems. CA
equipment (principally for planting and weed control) can be tractor, animal or human-powered. Illustrations of CA
equipment supply situations in South America, Africa and Asia are given; the range of equipment available is described
as is the range of stakeholders in the CA equipment input supply chain. National and international policy-maker level
issues to facilitate the local manufacture and provision of appropriate CA equipment are emphasised. These include:
formulation of mechanization strategies; improvement of rural infrastructure; facilitation of finance options; tax relief
and subsidies; batch purchase; facilitation of testing and R and D services; technical and business management
training; provision of quality extension services; land tenure reform; revision of obsolete policies; inclusion of CA in
academic curricula, etc. Policies and strategies for other stakeholders (manufactures, importers, retailers, hire and
repair service providers and farmers) are also discussed. The main conclusions indicate the need for policy action at
government level to promote CA for environmental protection, improve the quality and supply of CA equipment and
encourage farmer adoption of CA.
Session 2.4
The Tragedy Is On, The Tragedy Is Over: Pastoral Challenges and
Opportunities for Conservation Agriculture
Michele Nori1 and Constance Neely2

1
Independent Consultant on Agro-pastoral Livelihoods; Via Casine, 10 – Firenze, Italy
2
Vice President for Global Initiatives and Advocacy; Heifer International, Arkansas, USA
Drylands traditionally represent harsh environments where production without harming the underpinning ecosystem
processes has proven difficult over the long-term. Pastoral societies have been practicing sustainable land management
for millennia, yet they have been poorly recognised for that. Instead national policies and development investments
have often aimed at reshaping pastoral resource management patterns, seriously undermining their livelihoods and
contributing to degrading their environments. As the natural resource became further degraded and advancing agriculture
and tenure arrangements impeded grazing strategies that reduced grassland recovery times, conflicts between sedentary
agriculturalists and mobile pastoralists have increased. Recently, deeper investigations in rangeland ecological dynamics
and in pastoral socio-economic patterns are helping to redress wrongly conceived and misinformed development
paradigms for these systems. The ecological principles behind conservation agriculture and sustainable livestock
keeping are complementary; however, policy dimensions and options must be redefined to ensure opportunities for
both pastoralists and agriculturalists. Building grazing land resilience as well as managing the livestock-cropland
interface to the advantage of pastoralists and agriculturalists can provide an important opportunity for improving
relationships, efficiency, equity, and the environment in drylands.
25
Session 3.1: Climate Change

Session 3.1
Mitigating Climate Change and Better Ensuring Agriculture’s Adaptation

for Impending Climate Change through
Conservation Agriculture
Des Mcgarry
Land and Environment Consultant, Brisbane, Australia
(Email: desmcgarry@optusnet.com.au)
Several agencies (e.g. IPCC) already recognise that the agriculture sector (globally) has developed several documented
and tested strategies with strong potential to impact on global climate change (CC) through reduced GHG emissions
(mitigation), and achieve readiness of the agricultural sector for CC (adaptation), with concurrent benefits (co-benefits)
of attaining more sustainable land management practices, generally, and food and water security, and rural poverty
mitigation, specifically. The common term for these strategies is Conservation Agriculture (sometimes termed “low
input agriculture”) that though non-prescriptive and requiring local fine-tuning to ensure practicality and widespread
success, does have three core themes: (a) maintaining a permanent organic cover over the soil (b) minimising soil
disturbance (no till) and (c) practising crop rotations for organic matter and biodiversity enrichment. Further, inter-
related practices to further enhance CC mitigation and achievement of sustainable systems include biogas (CH4)
production from animal wastes, inter-cropping, the use of biofuels and site specific nutrient management for balanced
fertiliser usage. Required for wide and successful implementation of these initiatives will be the close linking of CA and
related actions to the on-going development activities of existing International and National CC and sustainable
development initiatives, such as the content of IPCC reports, the targets of National Development Strategies and
Millennium Development Goals, the Marrakech Process, the National Communications (NC) and National Adaptation
Programs of Action (NAPA) of several Non-Annex I countries that already mention such actions in brief. Additionally,
placement of these initiatives within higher level policy implementation will help achieve attractiveness of the revised
sector management initiatives. Concurrently, implementation of bottom-up, country driven, regionally networked, cross-
sectoral approaches will ensure multi-level stakeholder benefits for land, water and biodiversity protection within several
key agricultural systems, as well as increased farm profitability towards rural poverty reduction, through lessened
input: output ratios. Selected examples of current CA and related strategies and their role in CC mitigation will be
presented. A current aim is the creation of a “framework” of good practices and their role in mitigating CC. Foreseen is
that this framework will continue to be populated and enriched with time, to ensure multiple examples of good practice
across a wide variety of environments.
26
Session 3.2: Biodiversity
Diversifying Crop Rotations with N2-fixing Legumes
Bruno J.R. Alves*, Claudia P. Jantalia, Luis Henrique De B. Soares, Segundo Urquiaga
and Robert M. Boddey
Embrapa-Agrobiologia, Km 7, BR 465, Caixa Postal 75.505, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, 23890-000, Brazil
(*Enail: bruno@cnpab.embrapa.br)
In southern Brazil, over 80 % of mechanised crop production is managed under the principles of conservation agriculture
(CA). The crop rotations have been diversified as experience has been gained with CA, but few farmers include N2-
fixing legumes. However, many reports show that legumes used as winter cover crops, or summer leys or intercrops,
can make significant contributions of N to subsequent cereals, with greater efficiency that if the residues are incorporated
into the soil under conventional tillage. Results showed that if more nitrogen is fixed by the legume than is exported
from the system as agricultural product, then a proportion of the remaining N can be immobilised in the soil as organic
matter, sequestering carbon in the process. Legume N appears to be much more effective at soil carbon (C) accumulation
than N from industrial fertilizer. We also discuss briefly the difficulties in the adoption of CA by resource-poor farmers.
One of the major constraints is that often all crop residues are utilised for animal feed (despite their often poor value as
forage) leaving no mulch for CA. We suggest that such farmers should form “micro-treelots” of fast-growing legume
Session 3.2
trees on the most degraded areas of their land, and use the foliage as forage. These trees can grow vigorously on
completely degraded areas (even sub-soils), if pre-inoculated with selected rhizobia and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi,
and provide not only forage but also firewood and fencing posts, and recuperate the degraded soils.
Enhanced Opportunities for Use of Plant Genetic Resources in

Conservation Agriculture Initiatives: A Critical Appraisal
P.L. Gautam1*, S.K. Sharma2 and I.S. Bisht2

1
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi-110114, India
2
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Pusa Campus, New Delhi-110 012, India
(*Email:ddgcs.icar@nic.in)
Conservation agriculture (CA) which has its roots in universal principles of providing permanent soil cover, minimum
soil disturbance and crop rotations is now considered the principal road to sustainable agriculture world over. This is a
way to achieve goals of higher productivity while protecting natural resources and environment. Globally, CA is currently
practiced on more than 100 million ha in more than 50 countries and the area is expanding rapidly. The new technologies,
on the one hand, are encouraging the farmers to take up new ways of managing their resources more productively and
on the other hand, throwing new challenges to the scientific community to solve emerging problems associated with
new technologies. Zero- or reduced-tillage having crop residues is different than conventional tillage in several ways.
Important differences being soil structure shift in host-weed competition, availability of different moisture regime if
sown deep or under stubbles, emergence of new pathogen population that survive on crop residues and shift in crop-
pest scenario. There could be requirement for a different plant type suiting to a specific mechanization, agronomical
initiatives such as allelopathy and specific issues related to the problem soils. Further, there could be greater scope of
crop diversification and need for adopting a different breeding approach targeting a specific location or environment. A
critical appraisal of various germplasm enhancement opportunities for CA initiatives has been deliberated in this
paper, which may be considered for appropriate design and application. The areas where enough opportunities exist
27
for crop genetic enhancement under CA initiatives include: varietal development programmes targeted to tillage
requirement; selecting genotypes suiting to soil factors under reduced tillage; genotype suiting to water stress;
strengthening pre-breeding activities for pest resistance; selecting genotypes for quicker residue decomposition; varieties
adapted to specific ecological/ environmental/ problem soil/ agronomic/ crop diversification/ mechanization requirements,
etc. Due to multitude of environments occurring at farmers’ fields, participatory approaches such as Participatory
Varietal Selection (PVS) may be immensely beneficial in CA. Further, new scientific approaches of molecular tools
could be applied for allele mining and developing improved varieties and crops for enhanced yields with low production
costs.
Session 3.2
28
Session 3.3: Environmental Services
Environmental Services of Continuous No-till in Tropical and

Sconditions in Brazil
J. Miguel Reichert1 and Cimélio Bayer2

1
Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Soils Department, Santa Maria-RS, Brazil
2
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Soils Department, Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil
(Email: reichert@smail.ufsm.br)
Agriculture is responsible for over 20% of anthropic greenhouse gas emissions globally. This includes about a quarter
of all anthropic carbon dioxide (CO2) fluxes, mainly from deforestation and fossil fuel use. About over half of total
methane emissions, mainly from ruminant livestock, rice cultivation, biomass burning, and animal wastes; and about
two-thirds of total nitrous oxide fluxes, mainly from cultivated soils, animal wastes, and biomass burning. In Brazil, over
50 million hectares are currently used for grain production. The expansion of agriculture frontier in Brazil with forest
clearing, over the last 140 years, has generated a net emission of 121 Gt of carbon to the atmosphere, characterizing
our country as the single greatest emitter of greenhouse gases from land use change. In contrast, about half of the
total area under grain production is currently under no-tillage, which may contribute to several ecological benefits. No-
till is one of few agricultural practices that can deliver services that benefit farmers, society, and the environment,
including benefits such as reduced erosion, carbon (C) sequestration, energy conservation, and decreased nitrogen
(N) loss. No-till management increases soil aggregation, reduce erosion and sedimentation, and increase soil organic
matter across a range of soil types, cropping systems, and climates. In southern Brazil many fields have been under
continuous no-till since farmers see agronomic and environmental benefits, particularly since long-term yields equal or
exceed those in tilled soils. In some systems, even if yields were to occasionally decline, no-till can still be economical
because of reduced production costs. Soil fertility and soil structure increases over time under continuous no-till,
whereas cultivating no-till systems can decrease soil aggregation and accelerate C and N losses. Two challenges to
continuous no-till of are the increase of exchangeable aluminum with depth and the presence of a compacted soil layer
(no-till pan), which affect water infiltration and root growth, and have induced farmers to till again the soil, with negative
impact on the environment. Direct payment programs to encourage no-till due to its benefits to society are still incipient
in Brazil, but many extension programs funded by national and international organization promote the adoption of no-
till as a low-cost technology to improve sustainability in agriculture. This work reviews research performed under
tropical and subtropical Brazilian soils, with an emphasis on soil structure (aggregation and pores), surface and
subsurface hydrology, erosion and sedimentation, organic matter dynamics, carbon sequestration, and greenhouse
Session 3.3
gases emission.
Role of Carbon in Ecosystem Services from Conservation Agriculture
D.C. Reicosky
USDA-Agricultural Research Service, North Central Soil Conservation Research Lab,
803 Iowa Ave. Morris, MN 56267 USA
(E-mail: don.reicosky@ars.usda.gov)
The world’s farmers must broaden their perspective and shift conservation concepts and programs to get away from
managing for only yield and erosion control and move to managing soil carbon (C ) for crop production sustainability
and maintaining environmental quality. This work reviews research on new technology, tillage-induced carbon losses
and environmental benefits of soil carbon to highlight the role of the agronomist and the farmer who play a major role
29
in optimizing the canopy conditions to maximize solar energy and carbon capture for photosynthesis and a major
management role in nutrient cycling for optimum crop production and minimum environmental impact. With conservation
tillage, crop residues are left more naturally on the surface to protect the soil and control the conversion of plant C to
SOM (soil organic matter) and humus. Intensive tillage releases soil C to the atmosphere as CO2 where it combines
with other gases to contribute to the greenhouse effect. The combination of reducing the volume of soil disturbed by
intensive tillage and using direct seeding techniques should enhance soil and air quality by increasing soil C content.
Management emphasis on diverse rotations must be combined with maximum biomass and yield production and the
use of cover crops to maximize the carbon input into the soil system. The smaller CO 2 loss following conservation
tillage tools is significant and suggests progress in developing conservation tillage tools that can enhance soil C
management. Conservation tillage reduces the extent, frequency and magnitude of mechanical disturbance caused
by the moldboard plow and reduces the air-filled macropores and slows the rate of carbon oxidation. Any effort to
decrease tillage intensity and maximize residue return should result in C sequestration for enhanced environmental
quality. The soil is the fundamental foundation of our economy and existence. While soil erosion continues to be a
major problem, we must expand our thinking to address related soil quality issues, which translates to soil C. Carbon
management to reduce our carbon footprint is required to address a complex list of issues including soil, water, air
quality, biofuels, and climate change. Thus to maintain sustainability of the soil resource, we must think about soil C
management and make efforts to maximize soil C input and minimize C loss. Today, we must place emphasis on
conservation of all natural resources and additional emphasis on C as a key component in maintaining ecosystem
stability and environmental quality.
Weathering the Storms - Conservation Agriculture in Africa’s Potential to

Ameliorate 21st Century Environments
R.M. Fowler
Conservation Agriculture Capacitator, Musson Mews, Hayfields,
Pietermaritzburg 3201, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
(Email: rmfowler@iafrica.com)
Practitioners of conservation agriculture (CA) render a number of services to humanity, present and future, in the
community in which they live and the district where they farm as well as in the state, country, region and global
environment in which they work. These services include the provision of cheaper more reliable supplies of food as well
as a range of environmental services such as increased soil health, reduced water pollution and runoff and decreased
‘greenhouse gas’ emissions.
In recent years much attention has been given to the rewarding of farmers practicing CA and other reduced tillage
Session 3.3
systems for their reduction of Carbon emissions. The actual reduction, however, tends to be very site and tillage-
system specific. Assessment and monitoring are therefore expensive and only really warranted on larger farms. As a
result, especially with the current price of carbon credits, few if any systems exist which attempt to quantify benefits let
alone reward African farmers for their part in these reductions, especially the small scale farmers who make up by far
the majority of African agriculturists..
The price of carbon is currently very dependent on supply and demand, but that of other direct environmental
benefits is often much easier to calculate, especially within a defined geographic area. If these benefits were to be
‘bundled’ with carbon a far more attractive package could be made available for marketing, either to governments to
compensate farmers for direct savings in, for example, water storage and purification costs, or to commercial
organizations wishing to improve their ‘Triple Bottom Line’ audit statements. Based essentially on area cultivated, such
benefits could be assessed, marketed and monitored by farmer organizations, with the ‘profit’ which would normally be
taken by a commercial organization being used, for example, to promote CA and establish and maintain CA Advisory
Services, and the rest, far more than the amount which would normally accrue from carbon benefits alone, being paid
to the farmers.
Innovations based on these principles could accelerate the adoption of CA in Africa, which in turn could slow, and
equip African farmers to better adapt to, climate change. Some existing and possible options are explored and discussed.
30
Session 4.1: Impact of Conservation Agriculture
Global Overview of Conservation Agriculture Adoption
Rolf Derpsch and Theodor Friedrich
No-tillage/Conservation Agriculture (CA) has developed to a technically viable, sustainable and economic alternative
to current crop production practices. While current crop production systems have resulted in soil degradation and in
extreme cases desertification, the adoption of the no-tillage technology has led to a reversion of this process. Soil
erosion has come to a halt, organic matter content, soil biological processes and soil fertility have been enhanced, soil
moisture has been better conserved and yields have increased with time. Data presented ten years ago at the 10th
ISCO Conference in West Lafayette, Indiana, one of us showed a world wide adoption of the no-tillage technology of
about 45 million ha. Since then the adoption of the system has continued to grow steadily especially in South America
where some countries are using CA on about 70% of the total cultivated area. Opposite to countries like the USA
where often fields under no-tillage are tilled every now and then, more than two thirds of no-tillage practiced in South
America is permanently under this system, in other words once started, the soil is never tilled again. In the last years
a big expansion of the area under No-tillage has been reported in Asia, especially in China and Kazakhstan where
more than a million ha have been reported in each country. But also in Europe there is progress in the adoption. There
are about 650.000 ha of no-tillage being practiced in Spain, about 200.000 ha in France and about 200.000 ha in
Finland. No-tillage based conservation agriculture systems gain also increasing attention in Africa, especially in Southern
and Eastern Africa. In many countries the area is still low due to the high percentage of small scale farmers, but the
numbers are increasing steadily as well. Up to now no-tillage has expanded to more than 100 million ha world wide,
showing its adaptability to all kinds of climates, soils and cropping conditions. No-tillage is now being practiced from
the artic circle over the tropics to about 50º latitude South, from sea level to 3000 m altitude, from extremely rainy areas
with 2500 mm a year to extremely dry conditions with 250 mm a year. The wide recognition as a truly sustainable
farming system should ensure the growth of this technology to areas where adoption is still small as soon as the
barriers for its adoption have been overcome. The widespread adoption also shows that no-tillage cannot any more be
considered a temporary fashion, instead the system has established itself as a technology that can no longer be
ignored by politicians, scientists, universities, extension workers, farmers as well as machine manufacturers and other
agriculture-related industries.
Session 4.1
Adoption and Impact of Conservation Agriculture-based Resource
Conserving Technologies in South Asia
Olaf Erenstein3
International Maize & Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT),
NASC Complex, Pusa Campus, New Delhi, India
(Emal: o.erenstein@cgiar.org)
The stagnation of productivity growth in South Asia’s rice-wheat systems has led to increased calls for conservation
agriculture based resource conserving technologies. To date, most significant progress has been made with addressing
the challenge of reducing tillage. After an initial rapid spread of tractor-drawn zero tillage drills particularly in the north-
west Indo-Gangetic Plains, the zero/reduced tillage wheat area seems to have stabilized there between a fifth and a
fourth of the wheat area. Conventional tillage for wheat continues to decline, with an increased use in rotavator making
up the difference – but its intensive shallow tillage goes against the conservation agriculture tenets. Zero tillage wheat
31
allows for a drastic reduction in tillage intensity with significant costs savings as well as potential wheat yield increases.
The cost-saving effect alone makes zero tillage profitable and is the main driver behind its spread. Zero tillage impacts
so far have been primarily limited to the wheat crop. Moving rice-wheat systems towards conservation agriculture also
implies tackling the challenges of reducing tillage for the subsequent rice crop, crop residue retention and diversification.
Equity poses a final challenge and calls for a better understanding of livelihood implications and stakeholder dialogue/
participation.
Session 4.1
32
Session 4.2: Equity Issues (Employment, Drudgery

and Regional Disparities, etc.)
Reducing Drudgery for Smallholder Farmers with Conservation

Agriculture - Focus on Sub-Saharan Africa
Josef Kienzle1, Amélie Berger2, Brian Sims3 and Tom Apina4

1
FAO, Rural Infrastructure and Agro-industries Division, Rome Italy
2
FAO Consultant, Plant Production and Protection Division, Rome, Italy
3
Engineering for Development Consultant, Bedford, UK
4
African Conservation Tillage Network (ACT), Nairobi, Kenya.
At the beginning of the new millennium, rural livelihoods in many parts of the world, and especially in Sub Saharan
Africa (SSA), are under considerable stress and poverty remains endemic. Agriculture lies at the core of rural livelihoods
and has a major influence on the standard and quality of lives of millions of people. In SSA, the viability of rural
livelihoods is threatened by many factors that reduce in particular the agricultural productivity: decrease of soil fertility,
farm power shortage, repeated droughts and extreme climatic events, low access to inputs and outputs markets. The
low asset base level of rural households is also an important feature. Smallholder farmers rely on very small cultivated
area (often less than 0.5 ha in SSA), have no investment possibilities and produce food only for subsistence, what
avoid any risk taking and therefore hinder any change will. In this context, when a problem occurs (HIV/AIDS, malaria,
floods, droughts) and upsets the fragile economic balance, a downward poverty spiral may even increase the vulnerability
of the small farmers’ household.
Farm power, that is to say availability of human labour, work animals, engine power, tools and equipment to carry
out work, is a crucial input in the agricultural production process. A worrying reduction of farm power is observed in
SSA: human workforce is severely hit by HIV/AIDS and malaria; rural youth with little perspective are massively
migrating to urban areas; draught animals being affected by mortal diseases; and tractors in an operational state are
rare. In this context, developing innovative labour-saving practices is very relevant. Conservation agriculture (CA) may
have the potential for forward looking solutions.
Indeed it has been shown that CA is a labour and farm power saving system. Land preparation under CA is more
efficient and requires less farm power, compared to traditional systems using tillage. Saving of more than 50% in
human or draught animal power can be expected with the adoption of direct seeding conservation agriculture. Similar
Session 4.2
observations can be done on saving of tractor power. Fewer operations are executed in the field, so farmers need less
equipment and the costs of both labour and fuel are reduced. Various case studies show that CA can reduce drudgery
and even enhance women’s equity. Therefore conservation agriculture appears to be a solution for facing the labour-
shortage problems, while being a beneficial agronomic system, sustainable and profitable.
Conservation agriculture has been very successful in Latin America in small, medium- and large-scale farms.
Today adjustments are required to fit with the specific constraints of smallholder farmers in Africa. Over time, technical
constraints may be overcome if efficient support systems are in place. Other socio-economics problems may require
attention, like community pressure, traditional land-use rules, free grazing on harvested fields. A participatory approach
like Farmers Fields Schools may support successful adoption in enhancing farmers’ individual skills as well as community
knowledge. The potential to reduce drudgery with CA is promising. It is worth the while to undertake efforts (institutional
and financial support) to support CA systems that are adapted to smallholder farmers real life situation in SSA.
33
Session 4.3: Common Property Resources
Governance and Institutional Change in Traditional Commons: Lessons

from Chhattisgarh, India
Dinesh K. Marothia
National Institute of Ecology, 50-B Pocket C, Sidhartha Extension, New Delhi 110014, India
Present address:19,Professor Colony, Krishak Nagar,Raipur 492 006
(Email:dkmarothia@yahoo.com)
Chhattisgarh, an Indian state, has innumerable multi-use common water bodies (MUCWBs). These water bodies are
being administered and controlled under different property rights regimes by different state departments. Fisheries in
MUCWBs dates back to time immemorial in Chhattisgarh and have been traditionally managed under common property
regime. In recent past, fisheries in MUCWBs have been managed under cooperative governance structure – an
internal institutional structure model of distributed governance system. Fishermen communities/resource user groups
and the state or local village government shared the responsibility of managing fisheries by combining appropriate
institutional skills of local resource users/local committees and technical, administration and financial resources available
with the states. Fisheries cooperative societies (FCSs) have been assigned usufruct rights to use MUCWBs for fisheries
subject to certain socio-economic and administrative conditions. Under the Fisheries Policy of Government of
Chhattisgarh, first preference has been to FCSs to leased in MUCWBs irrespective of water spread area. MUCWBs
can only be leased out to fisherman, groups and individual fisherman if FCSs do not bid for leasing in MUCWBs or
FCSs are not existing in a particular village. Further, in order of priority, fisherman community is being given first
preference to lease out MUCWBs. The issues related to management of traditional MUCWBs by FCSs are complex
due to different categories and characteristics of these common water bodies, scale, size and coverage of FCSs and
multiple stakeholders and agencies involved in governing the water resources. Looking to the importance of MUCWBs
for fish culture, irrigation, and other domestic uses in Chhattisgarh this study was undertaken to provide an overview of
governance structure of fisheries in MUCWBs and to discuss outcomes of an indepth analysis of four FCSs covering
different categories of MUCWBs administered under different property rights regimes. This study also discussed
performance of individual fisherman who leased in MUCWBs. Findings of a quick well focused case study of Self Help
Groups is also presented. The study has suggested workable institutional arrangements for sustainable management
of MUCWBs to reduce poverty and vulnerability of poor stakeholders.
Session 4.3
Irrigation Tanks: A New Way Forward? Focus on Tanks

in South India
K. Palanisami
IWMI-Tata Water Policy Programme, International Water Management Institute,
South Asia Regional Office, ICRISAT campus, Hyderabad, India
(Email: k.palanisami@cgiar.org)
Irrigation tanks in India are century old water harvesting structures. There are about 208,000 tanks in the country
irrigating about 2.3 Mha in 2000-01 and about 64% is concentrated in southern states. Net area irrigated by tanks in
India has declined by 29% between 1990-91 and 2000-01. Among the tank intensive states, Tamil Nadu has the
highest decline of 34.2% and Maharastra the lowest (6%). Other tank non-intensive states put together experienced a
decline of about 47%. Encroachment, poor management, privatization and government appropriation of the tanks
34
have been the main outcomes of the failure of local authority system to enforce the institutional arrangements under
common property resources management regime. Poor management of the tanks had also resulted in lower land
productivity compared to canals and wells. In addition to the existing constraints, the emerging threats may also affect
the stability of tank irrigation. However, due to constraints in the future expansion of the canal and well irrigated areas,
tank irrigation still offers more scope for revival. Several interventions such as revenue mobilization, augmenting
groundwater resources in the tanks, strengthening the multiple uses, tank sluice management, integrating social
forestry and desilting, and tank modernization are suggested. Hence, a new way forward incorporating the needed
interventions is warranted to make the tank irrigation a sustainable livelihood option for the future. Tank irrigation
contributes significantly to agricultural production in parts of South and Southeast Asia. Especially in South India and
Sri Lanka, tank irrigation has a long history and many currently used tanks were constructed in the past centuries. The
tanks have existed in India from time immemorial, and have been an important source of irrigation especially in southern
India. They account for more than one-third of the total irrigated area in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
states. The tank irrigation system has a special significance to the marginal and small scale farmers. They make a very
large number, and essentially depend on tank irrigation, as these systems are less capital-intensive and have wider
geographical distribution than large projects.
Session 4.3
35
ABSTRACTS OF VOLUNTARY PAPERS
Session 1.1: Soil and Residue Management
Farmers’ Perception on Tillage and Residue Management in Arid Zone

of Rajasthan – A Diagnostic Survey
Session 1.1
D.K. Painuli and Usha Rani Ahuja
Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, 342 003, Rajasthan, India
Researches in India in various agroecosystems have revealed that conservation agriculture, of which minimizing
tillage and maximizing residue retention/application on soil surface for cover are among the necessary components,
can successfully be adopted to address various concerns including escalating energy cost, declining factor productivity,
degrading soil condition, global warming and falling profit margins of the farmers.
For hot-arid ecosystem of India, specifically the Thar Desert in western Rajasthan, information on conservation
agriculture seems lacking. Thus, it is pertinent to establish systematic long-term experiments in this ecosystem for
generating conclusive information for developing sustainable agriculture. Since farmer’s perception is based on traditional
wisdom, it is desirable to collect and use it for various purposes including planning of experiments and taking related
policy/management decisions. With this in view, a study was conducted during 2005-2006 with the following objectives:
i) to assess prevalent tillage and residue management preferences/practices, and ii) to identify constraints in adoption
of conservation agriculture.
Chandan (Jaisalmer), Nangil (Churu), Gandhibari (Hanumangarh), Sarecha (Jodhpur), Chandawal (Pali) and Silor
(Barmer) were the six representative villages selected for the study. These villages represented 3 out of 6 agro-
ecological zones (AEZ) of arid Rajasthan. The required data was collected using a comprehensive questionnaire and
conducting personal interview with the selected farm families (21) representing appropriately the entire spectrum of
farm families of the selected villages. The data were compiled and analyzed by adopting standard approaches.
A large number of farm families ranging from 90.5% in Silor (AEZ-5) and Gandhibari (AEZ-4) to 71% in Chandawal
(AEZ-5) informed that they used residue as fuel. The use of residue as fodder ranged from 90.5% in Nangil (AEZ-5) to
76% in Sarecha. These uses as fuel and fodder were despite large number of farm families (85.7% in Silor, 80.9% in
Nangil and Gandhibari, and 67% in Sarecha, Chandawal and Chandan, AEZ-2) being aware that utilizing residue in
field was beneficial. Further, under the condition of assured fodder and fuel supply, 85.7% in Chandan and Gandhibari,
and 80.9% in Nangil expressed willingness to retain residue in field; however, in Chandawal (58%), Sarecha (57%)
and Silor (38.1), the response was not very encouraging.
Regarding method of application, 71% in Sarecha were in favour of using residue as compost, while it ranged
between 33.3% in Nangil to 49% in Chandawal. Standing stubble was in general the second preferred choice, followed
by surface cover. Tillage was perceived beneficial by large number (57 to 73%) of farm families. Given an option of
intensive tillage plus higher amount of residue, and reduced tillage plus higher amount of residue, more number of
respondents were in favour of first. The farmers considered tillage a must for good crop. It was concluded that:
• Farmers considered tillage essential for crop production, as they perceived it was beneficial.
• Farmers were aware of the benefits of utilizing residue in field, and the composted form was their first preference,
followed by standing stubble and surface cover.
• Farmers used residues as fuel and fodder but might spare it for field use, provided supply of fuel and fodder was
assured.
• Given an option, farmers preferred intensive tillage plus higher amount of residue over reduced tillage plus higher
amount of residue as they perceived the first one to be more beneficial. However, they lack experience on
conservation tillage, in general.
• The relation with AEZ was not discernible.
Since long-term studies on conservation agriculture were lacking in arid Rajasthan, it needed to be conducted to
conclusively determine its effects on sustainable agriculture.
39
Abstracts of Voluntary Papers
Effect of FYM, Phosphorus Levels and PSB Inoculation on the

Performance of Kabuli Chickpea (Cicer kabulium )
B.B. Sharma, Deepak Pant and Dinesh Tiwari

Department of Agronomy, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, 263 145,
U.S. Nagar, Uttarakhand, India
Session 1.1
A field experiment was conducted during rabi seasons of 2003-04 and 2004-05 at Pantnagar to study the effect of
FYM, phosphorus and PSB on the performance of kabuli chickpea (Cicer kabulium L.). The soil of experimental site
was sandy loam in texture having high organic C (0.91%), low available N (202.6 Kg N ha-1), medium available P (15.5
kg P ha-1) and exchangeable K (205.4 kg K ha-1) contents, with neutral soil reaction (pH 7.10). Treatments comprising
2 levels of FYM (0 and 5 t ha-1), 3 levels of P (0, 20 and 40 kg P2O5 ha-1), and 2 levels of PSB inoculation (uninoculated
and inoculated) were replicated four times in a randomized block design. Kabuli chickpea (cv. ‘Pusa 1053’) was
planted on 13 December, 2003 and 1 December, 2004, and harvested on 19 April, 2004 and 4 April, 2005, respectively.
Application of FYM @ 5 t ha-1 produced higher grain yield over control during both the years, however, the increase
was not significant. Averaged over two years, 20 and 40 kg P2O5 ha-1 resulted in 9.5 and 23.9% higher grain yield over
control. Increase in grain yield due to PSB inoculation was 11.11%. The straw yield increased (7.9%) significantly due
to FYM application over control in 2004-05. In 2004-05, maximum straw yield was recorded with 20 kg P2O5 ha-1 which
was at par with 40 kg P2O5 ha-1 and was significantly higher (9.0%) than that of control. Straw yield was not affected
significantly due to PSB inoculation during both the years. Protein content and protein yield in grains increased by
FYM application during both the years, however, the difference was not significant. Protein content in grain increased
significantly with increasing levels of P from 20 and 40 kg P 2O5 ha-1. There was no significant difference in protein
content obtained under control and 20 kg P2O5 ha-1. In 2003-04, protein yield increased significantly (27.8% and
21.4%) with increased P levels from 0 to 20 and 20 to 40 kg P2O5 ha-1. However, in 2003-04 only 40 kg P2O5 ha-1 could
yield significantly higher protein yield than its lower dose (20 kg P2O5 ha-1) and control. Inoculation of PSB resulted in
increased protein yield by 16.4 and 13.9% over no inoculation, during 2003-04 and 2004-05, respectively.
Conservation Tillage Effect on Soil Organic Carbon and Water

Transmission Characteristics of a Vertisol
K.M. Hati, A.K. Misra, K.G. Mandal and R.K. Singh

Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal, 462 038, Madha Pradesh, India
Beneficial effect of conservation tillage in reducing soil and nutrient losses through erosion, improving the timeliness of
sowing and saving energy inputs are well established. Owing to the differences in the amount of residues added and
the intensity and frequency of tillage operations, different tillage systems are reported to affect the physical properties
of soil, such as water retention, aggregation, porosity and water transmission properties. The objective of the present
study was to examine the long-term impact of conservation tillage practices on infiltration, hydraulic conductivity and
water retention capacity of Vertisols under soybean-wheat system. Four tillage treatments imposed on soybean, viz.
conventional tillage (CT), mould-board ploughing (MB), reduced tillage (RT), and no tillage (NT) from a long-term
tillage experiment continuing at Institute, Bhopal were chosen for the study. The infiltration rate, hydraulic conductivity
and water retention capacity were determined after six cropping cycles. Infiltration properties (infiltration rate, cumulative
infiltration and sorptivity of soil) were higher under no tillage compared to conventional tillage. Similarly, saturated
hydraulic conductivity at 0-15 cm layer was the highest in no tillage treatment, followed by mouldboard tillage and
reduced tillage treatments, and it was the lowest in conventional tillage treatment. Below that depth, effect of treatment
on hydraulic conductivity was not significant. This might be ascribed to better aggregation of soil under conservation
tillage due to retention of crop residues and less disturbance of the top soil. Water retention by undisturbed soil cores
40
was estimated at 4 cm and at air entry potential (50 cm) using sand box. The data showed that in the plough layer the
soil water retention both at 4 and 50 cm suction was significantly higher in NT, MB and RT than in CT treatments.
Imposition of tillage treatments significantly influenced the organic C content of soil. The SOC of conservation tillage
plots was significantly more than the conventional tillage plots. The effect of tillage treatments on seed and biomass
yield of soybean during the sixth year of study was not significant. The average seed yield of soybean varied between
1251 and 1386 kg ha-1 among the tillage treatments. The grain and biomass yield of wheat in the following winter
season was also not affected significantly due to tillage treatments. The present study thus demonstrated that
conservation tillage practices could maintain the yield level of soybean and wheat up to the yield level of conventional
Session 1.1
tillage treatment with simultaneous saving of energy and improvement in the water retention and transmission
characteristics of Vertisols.
Direct Seeding of Lentil after Rice with Seed Drills under Different
Residue Conditions
P.S. Pandharinath, Arun Kumar and T.C. Thakur

Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, College of Technology, G.B. Pant University of
Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, 263 145, Uttarakhand, India
A field experiment was conducted in silty loam soil with five conservation agriculture seed drills for direct seeding of
lentil after combine harvested rice at Pantnagar, India. Two-factor (3 x 5) experiment with three (3) replications was
carried out in strip-plot design. The factors were field residue conditions (3 levels), viz. standing stubbles (C1) in which
the loose straw residue was collected by a conventional field baler, and leaving the standing stubbles in the field. The
stubble height and field residue density were 200 mm and 2740 kg ha-1, respectively; chopped stubbles as surface
mulch (C2) in which the loose straw residue was collected by the field baler and the standing stubbles chopped by a
stubble shaver and kept as surface mulch after direct drilling of lentil. The stubble height and residue density were 300
mm and 4390 kg ha-1, respectively and chopped straw and stubbles as high density surface mulch (C3) where the
loose straw residue and the standing stubbles were chopped by a stubble shaver and kept as surface mulch after
direct drilling of lentil. Field residue density was about 6980 kg ha-1. Five conservation agriculture drills used were: M1:
Inverted-T opener Zero-Till Drill (NAI), M2: Inverted-T opener Zero-Till Drill (ASS), M3: Double Disc opener Zero-Till
Drill, M4: Star Wheel Punch Planter and M5: Rotary Powered Disc Residue Drill. Studies were conducted to investigate
the effect on soil physical properties, time requirement and fuel consumption, furrow opener’s performance, crop
establishment and overall economics of the tillage systems.
Soil dry bulk density increased from initial value of 1.41 Mg m-3 to 1.52 Mg m-3 at the time of harvest under zero
tillage. Different ZT-drills had significant effect on width and depth of furrow produced during the sowing operation.
Fuel consumption was maximum (7.50 L ha-1) in case of M5 and minimum (4.24 L ha-1) with M4. Crop growth parameters
showed marked effect of different ZT-drills and field residue conditions. The grain yield was maximum (828 kg ha-1)
with M5 and minimum (739 kg ha-1) with M4. Saving in energy and cost in direct-seeded lentil were observed over
conventional method (4 harrowing + two planking operations). Highest benefit : cost ratio was found with double disc
opener ZT-drill (M3) i.e. 1.26, followed by inverted-T opener ZT- drill (M2) i.e. 1.25, and rotary powered disc residue drill
(M5 ) i.e. 1.24 under all the field residue conditions.
41
Assessment of Rice Suitable Soils of Jagdalpur District for

Productivity Improvement
D.K. Mandal, C. Mandal, S.N. Goswami and A. Chaturvedi

National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use planning,
Amaravati Road, Nagpur, 440 010, Maharashtra, India
Session 1.1
Jagdalpur is a tribal district with 43.2% of its geographical area under cultivation. The remaining area is under forest
and miscellaneous land types. Rice is the major crop of the area and constitutes 73% of the net sown area with yield
of < 1 t/ha. The present rice production is 2.92 lakh tonnes. To maintain the food security of the people of the district by
2030, the projected rice demand will be to the tune of 3.34 lakh tonnes for projected population of 19.87 lakhs. To meet
the projected requirement for cereals at productivity growth rate of 5-10% by 2030, the land requirement will be 3.8
lakh ha. The additional land area required will come from pushing the rice cultivation into degraded forest land which
will further deplete organic carbon stock. Therefore, efforts must be made to find out vertical upgradation of productivity
from good agricultural land. To map such good lands, a GIS based study has been done using soil resource mapping
data base of NBSS & LUP (ICAR) at 1 : 250000 scale and FAO-based crop suitability evaluation model and potential
crop yield estimation model. The soil map was generated at sub-group level from strip and grid survey data using
Geometica (Ver. 9.1) GIS software. The polygon attribute data were reclassified into dominant and subdominant group,
the former being the area coverage of more than 60% within the physiography. The suitability assessment has been
done based on matching of crop requirement with soil-site, climatic, and soil condition.
The study revealed that 50% of the soils are deep Alfisols, 14% are Inceptisols and 13% are shallow Entisols. The
Alfisols occupy lowlying areas on gentle to very gentle sloping valleys, whereas Inceptisols and Entisols occupy the
hills, escarpments and low plateau surfaces. Rice suitability assessment indicated that 76,096 ha (36.9%) of TGA is
highly suitable and 16,064 ha (7.79%) is moderately suitable and 42,275 ha (20.5%) is marginally suitable for rice,
whereas 25,365 ha and 50,731 ha lands are temporarily or permanently not suitable for rice. The yield computation
model revealed that potential yield of rice growing areas varied from 4.0-7.6 t ha-1, indicating huge rice production
potential untapped which needs to be exploited through cultivation of suitable rice genotypes. The marginally suitable
areas can be diverted to fruit crops like mango, cashew and aromatic plants like Jamroa, Vetivera, Patchouli and
Eucalyptus to increase the overall land productivity and to ensure the accretion of soil organic carbon.
Effect of Tillage Practices and Crop Residue Management on Soil

Mycoflora Population and Diversity in Rice Ecosystem
Vibha1, P.K. Jha1, R. Laik2 and Ravi Gopal Singh3

1
Department of Plant Pathology,2Department of Soil Science, RAU, Pusa Samastipur, 848 125, Bihar, India
3
CIMMYT, MRSPC, Krishi Farm, Bishanpur, Begusarai, 851 129 , Bihar, India
Microflora population and diversity are influenced by various management practices. The various species of microflora
affect organic matter decomposition and also cause various plant diseases. Some of them are also known for their
antagonistic activity against plant pathogens. Hence, population and diversity of soil mycoflora in rice ecosystem was
studied by dilution plate technique under conservation agriculture in a Calciorthent (free CaCO3, 33%). The plots were
under no till (NT) or conventional till (CT) management with residues retained (+) or removed (-). Under conventional
tillage plots in rice (puddled), transplanted, dry-seeded broadcast and wet pre-germinated seeded were considered.
Under conservation tillage plots, dry direct seeding was done on flat as well as beds. Sesbania was grown in half of
each plot which was killed after 30 days of sowing by 2-4 D (brown manuring). The soil samples were collected from
each plot before and after rice crop. The numbers of fungal species isolated from NT plots were relatively lower
compared to CT, but they were more abundant. The highest number of culturable fungal population (22.07 x 104 cfu g-
42
1
of soil) was observed in NT (+) on bed, followed by NT (+) on flat (15.87 x 104 cfu g-1 of soil), while CT (-) (wet seeded
or dry seeded broadcast) had least fungal population. Brown manuring was found to favour fungal population in rice
cultivation under NT (+) plots (flat and bed). Aspergillus and Penicillium along with other fungal species were more
frequently distributed among different zero tillage practices, while the conventional system favoured the population of
Geotrichum, Monilia, Fusarium and Mycelia sterilia. Hence, it appears that NT (+) favours the population of particular
group of beneficial fungi at the end of the rice crop, whereas the conventional system harbours diverse range of fungal
population.
Session 1.1
Critical Level of Soil pH for Growth, Yield, Nutrient Uptake,
Quality and Induction of Chlorosis in Safed
Musli (Chlorophytum borivilinum)
O.P. Aishwath1, Ram Chandra and M.M. Anwer
National Research Centre for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Boriavi, 387 310, Anand, Gujarat, India
1
National Research Centre on Seed Spices, Tabiji, 305 206, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India
Safed musli (Chlorophytum borivilinum Santapau and Fernandes) is an important medicinal plant of Liliaceae family
and used in Indian System of Medicine. The fleshy roots containing saponins are used in the preparation of Ayurvedic
tonics. Chlorosis in safed musli is a widest problem in all the musli-growing areas caused by high soil pH. However,
threshold level of pH is not yet assessed for limiting plant growth, yield, quality and induction of chlorosis in musli. To
find out the critical level of soil pH for musli, seven levels of soil pH were prepared by using alkali salts in micro-plots:
7.2, 7.4, 7.6, 7.8, 8.0, 8.2 and 8.4.
Number of leaves per plant, roots per plant, fresh and dry weight of tuber per plant, yield, protein content, saponin
content, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and zinc content and their uptake were reduced significantly at pH 7.6. The
reduction in these parameters was more with increasing soil pH. However, chlorophyll, iron, manganese and copper
content, decreased with each successive level of pH. The uptake of iron and manganese was also reduced with
increase in pH. The data obtained with the experimental soil pH were also correlated with plant parameters, and
negative correlation was observed with growth, yield, nutrient and quality parameters, except manganese content.
Irrespective of pH, soil organic C showed the positive correlation with all the plant parameters. There was 23.0%
reduction in root yield with soil pH 7.6 as compared to pH 7.2. The root yield decreased by 53.4% at pH 8.4 compared
to pH 7.2. In case of quality of produce, the saponin content was reduced by 10.5% with pH 7.6 compared with pH 7.2,
and it further went down to 17.5% at pH 8.4. The chlorophyll content reduced by 17.5% and 47.4% with pH 7.6 and 8.4,
respectively as compared to pH 7.2. Therefore, pH 7.6 is the critical level for induction of chlorosis and reduction of
yield and quality of Chlorophytum borivilinum as well as absorption of major and micronutrients.
Influence of Tillage and Residual Organic Manures / Chemical

Amendments on Organic Matter and Yield of Wheat under Sodic
Water Irrigation
N.P.S. Yaduvanshi and D.R. Sharma

Division of Soil and Crop Management, Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, 132 001, Haryana, India
The effect of no-tillage (NT) and conventional tillage (CT) practices applied either with NP fertilizer alone or in combination
with gypsum or farmyard manure (FYM) or sulphitation pressmud (SPM) were evaluated on soil organic C (SOC), soil
43
pH, sodium absorption ratio (SAR), infiltration rate, water saving and grain yield of wheat grown with sodic water in rice
– wheat rotation at Kaithal, India. In NT treatment, the residue of previous rice (15 cm height) crop was left on the
surface, whereas in CT treatment no crop residue was involved.
The NT practice increased SOC and infiltration rate in all treatments. The mean organic carbon in 0-15 cm soil
layer at the end of study was 3.17 g kg -1 in NT against 2.84 g kg-1 in CT treatment. Organic carbon improvement in NT
was reflected in grain yield increment. Soil pH was lower in NT than CT treatment. In general, wheat yield increased
with the increase in N and P fertilizer doses. The grain yield in the NT treatment remained below the CT during the first
Session 1.1
year, but was greater than CT treatment during the next two years. However, the average yield data for the three years
was more or less similar to CT treatment. In NT practice, 32.44 cm irrigation water was used each year compared with
39.66 cm in CT practice. No-tillage, thus saved 7.22 cm of irrigation water. The mean N, P, K and Zn uptake was
slightly greater in the NT treatment but there was no significant difference compared with CT. The results suggest that
using 120 kg N and 26 kg P ha-1 application with FYM, SPM or gypsum under NT was beneficial for improving soil
organic carbon and sustaining wheat production under sodic water irrigation conditions.
APSIM Modelling of Nitrogen Mineralization from Various

Organic Materials
M. Mohanty1*, M.E. Probert2, N.W. Menzies1, R.C. Dalal3, K. Sammi Reddy4 and A. Subba Rao4
1
School of Land, Crop and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Australia 4072
2
CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, Queensland Bioscience Precinct, 306 Carmody Road, Australia 4067
3
Department of Natural Resources and Water, 80 Meiers Road, Indooroopilly Australia 4068
4
Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal, 462 038, Madhya Pradesh, India
(*Email: mmohanty_bpl@yahoo.co.in)
Knowledge of N mineralization and immobilization from different organic materials (crop residues, manures, green
manures etc.) added to soil is a key factor in understanding soil fertility dynamics, nitrogen mineralisation characteristics
and in developing efficient predictions of the need to N fertilization in an integrated nutrient management system. We
describe the application of APSIM SoilN module to predict the mineralized N from a wide range C:N ratio organic
materials by validating against a dataset from laboratory incubation experiments on N mineralization of organic materials
added to a Vertisol. The laboratory incubation study was carried out on a Vertisol of central India using organic materials
viz. Leucaena and Gliricidia cuttings, soybean, chickpea and wheat straw having C:N ratio ranging from 14 to 80 for 16
weeks at 30±1°C. The N mineralised (NH4+ and NO3-) from these organic materials was measured at weekly interval
for 16 weeks.
The APSIM SoilN module predicted net N mineralized reasonably well from materials with low and intermediate
C:N ratios, but was less accurate for materials with high C:N ratios. We obtained another dataset of organic materials
having high C:N ratio and applied to the Vertisol at different rates to improve the predictive performance of APSIM. The
second incubation experiment was carried out with high C:N ratio materials such as wheat and rice straw under similar
set of laboratory condition as before to assess the immobilization pattern of N under various rates of application and
addition of mineral N. With increase in rates of application of organic materials, the net N immobilized also increased.
Nitrogen immobilized from the materials was limited by the mineral N initially present in the soil. With addition of
mineral N externally to the system, the immobilization of N was greater with higher rates of application of organic
materials. The APSIM SoilN module was able to predict the mineralization pattern including the interactive effect of
rates of application of organic materials and addition of mineral N. It is concluded that mineral N availability is an
important factor controlling plant residue decomposition, and a better prediction of the evolution of mineral N in soil
requires description and modelling of both organic matter and mineral N in soils.
44
Computer-Aided Design of Low-Cost Soil Moisture Sensor for

Conservation of Agriculture, Environment, Soil Health, Water and to
Optimize Irrigation for Crops
S. Khaja Syed Shahul Hameed* and A.K. Agarwala

Instrument Design and Development Centre, Indian Institute of Technology,
Session 1.1
Hauz Khas, New Delhi, 110 016, India
(*Email: iitd2005@gmail.com)
Water is the principal need for the plants on earth and without it in adequate amounts, life of living beings on earth
would come into deep stress. Though about two-third of the world is covered with water, there is a scarcity of fresh
water for drinking for living beings as well as for plant watering. Inefficient watering of plants has already made the
water table fall in many zones worldwide, making further agricultural activity extremely difficult and stressful for the
farmers. Farmers being largely unscientific and mostly unskilled in the developing countries, they tend to use water
inappropriately, leading to agricultural yields below optimum levels. Other consequences can also be for the land to
become saline due to washing of excess pesticides, fertilizers and also waterlogging. The land can even become unfit
for further farming. In this paper, an approach based on a low-cost soil moisture sensor for efficient management of the
water usage is proposed.
As in the other developing countries, many Indian farmers are illiterate, unskilled and hold land much less than 2
ha. These marginal farmers are about 48 million in India alone. Government is providing them with free electricity,
subsidized fertilizer and farm loans. These farmers are not aware of scientific farming methods and are also financially
very poor. They use free electricity to pump water from the ground and as a result, the water table is rapidly falling in
many places across India.
The optimum irrigation management is the need of the hour to save the precious water resources for sustainable
agriculture farming and to improve the yield of the crop. It is a well established fact that excessive irrigation leading to
saturation level in soil leads to gravitational water loss, salinity, waterlogging, fall in ground water table apart from
decrease in crop yield. Also it has been proved that upon full saturation of water and waterlogged conditions, organic
decomposition occurs in the field which leads to GHGs emission, resulting in climate changes which can be avoided.
Permanent Wilting Point (PWP) is the most important soil moisture level beyond which the crop intake of water stops,
leading to the premature death of the plants at ultimate wilting point (UWP). Field capacity (FC) is the level reached
after 24 hours of gravitational draining upon the saturated soil. It is estimated that the matric suction potential for plant
uptake of water is between -10 kPa to -33 kPa at FC and -1500 kPa at PWP. The field capacity and permanent wilting
point are two prime important water content levels which play a vital role in the crop yield and survival. Due to plant
uptake, evapotranspiration, atmospheric temperature, the soil moisture continues to vary and most of the crops can
give a better yield at up to 50% decrease in soil moisture content from its field capacity due to better aeration, plant
uptake of nutrients and photosynthesis. This scientific method can be adopted only if suitable low-cost soil moisture
sensors are available.
In order to develop an optimal methodology for use in the fields by farmers to enable optimal water use, an effort
was made to develop an affordable instrument which even an unskilled farmer can use for optimizing the water usage
in fields for various major crops, viz. rice, wheat, sugarcane. A soil moisture sensor was developed and using it, soil
water characteristics of different soils with simulated variation in soil conductivity were studied. Measurements have
been made at frequencies from 100 Hz to 100 MHz to establish the most appropriate measurement frequency. The
moisture measurements have also been correlated with tensiometer measurements. The laboratory experiments held
in a controlled environment have produced encouraging results. This sensor can be used to control irrigation to keep
soil moisture at optimal levels for different crops like rice, wheat, sugarcane. Indian agricultural sector consumes about
30% of total electricity produced in India, resulting in CO2 emission of 0.8-1.2 kg per KWH energy; and hence there
appears to be a huge potential of savings on electricity that can also help in mitigating environmental and climate
change apart from optimizing the water usage and increasing the crop yield in India.
45
A Contextual Perspective on Conservation Farming: A Case with

Irrigated Wheat-Maize System in Hebei Plain of China
LIANG Weili, XIA Ling, LÜ Hong Zhan and WANG Guiyan

Crop Production Department, Faculty of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University,
Baoding, Hebei 071001, China
Session 1.1
Currently there are ‘broad sense’ and ‘narrow sense’ of understanding on conservation agriculture (CA). The ‘broad
sense’ of CA stands for all environment-friendly farming system, while the ‘narrow sense’ of CA implies soil and water
conservation tillage systems. The practice of broad sensed CA has existed for more than 4600 years since the Emperor
Huang taught his people to harvest and haunt in proper times with proper control in order to utilize the benefits of
rivers, lakes, forests and fields. Gravel mulching, which was invented in Gansu province in Qing dynasty, is a typical
paradigm of ancient CA practice in the narrow sense.
The philosophy and technical system of soil and water conservation tillage was introduced to China in late 1970s,
when the most popular practice was plowing, with the purpose of avoiding soil erosion, reducing cost for land preparation,
eliminating hard pan, and improving soil structure. Research on no-till in the wheat-maize system was started then. Up
to present, there have been research reports on crop performance, soil physics, plant nutrition, machine designing,
pest control etc., with mono focuses. After thirty years, CA has become a worldwide matured system and has been
successful in many places, but there are still some problems in its application with wheat-maize system in Hebei plain.
Owing to the limitations in machinery, residue management and farm size, no-till have not been adopted by the farmers,
while the most popular CA practice–direct drilling of maize after wheat harvest and rotary maize stubble into the soil–
has problems as too shallow of the tilth too soft of the seedbed, and reduced rate and trimness of emergence.
Level of mechanization, yield and biomass of crops have greatly increased in the past decades. While there are
no longer abundant rural labours for farming, food security has become a more important issue for the country, water
scarcity is severer, and the public is more concerned with environment quality. Within this new scenario, the objectives
of CA should be shifted to increasing water-use efficiency, eliminating air pollution caused by burning crop residues,
reducing cost of production and reducing labour demand while improving productivity.
Although the philosophy and rationale are the same, there are differences between various locations, so the CA
research and application must clarify the following issues in order to be widely adopted by farmers:
Why yield has been increased or reduced? Is it caused by the technique itself or by any operation in implementing
the technique?
What are the objectives of adopting CA practices, and what problems exist? Are those problems to the farmers, to
the government, to the researchers, or to the machine producers?
Who pays and who benefits? Technology should be compatible with the whole context of rural development and
livelihood of farming households, and goals of all relevant stakeholders should be compatible and achieved.
How to solve the existing problems? On-farm, trans-disciplinary and participatory research is needed. Integration
of modern and traditional is also important.
46
REML-EBLUP Approach for Spatial Interpolation of Soil Physical

Properties in Watershed Scale using Irregularly Distributed and Limited
Spatial Data
Priyabrata Santra1*, Bhabani Sankar Das2 and Debashish Chakravarty2

1
Central Arid Zone Research Institute, RRS, Jaisalmer, 345 001, Rajasthan, India
Session 1.1
2
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur 721 302, West Bengal, India
(*Email: psantra@cazri.res.in)
Runoff and sediment modeling from watershed and water flow modelling in vadose zone needs the surface map of soil
hydraulic properties. Ordinary kriging from point-based measurements of soil properties after fitting the semi-variogram
parameters is the most common geostatistical approach for preparation of surface map. Semi-variogram parameters
for soil hydraulic properties may be obtained from several point–scale measurements but the process is time consuming
and costly. Alternatively surface map of basic soil properties may be prepared in comparatively lesser time and cost
which may further be linked together through pedotransfer functions to obtain the surface map of hydraulic properties.
Although ordinary kriging is considered as optimal geostatistical approach, it fails to prepare surface map using small
number of samples (<100) and from the spatial data with trend. Regression kriging may be used for spatial interpolation
of data with trends. Recently, residual maximum likelihood (REML) method for estimation of semi-variogram parameters
followed by empirically best linear unbiased prediction (EBLUP) of soil properties was shown as the most statistically
sound method even with lesser number ofdata with presence of trend. In this study, the performance of REML-EBLUP
to prepare soil hydraulic property map in a watershed scale was evaluated with irregularly distributed data on basic soil
properties from 100 locations of Dengei Pahad microwatershed (~42 km2), situated at western catchment of Chilika
Lake, India. The performance of simpler and most commonly used spatial interpolation methods i.e. inverse distance
weighting, spline with tension, ordinary kriging, and regression kriging was compared with REML-EBLUP. The fitted
semi-variogram parameters i.e. range, nugget, and sill show that all soil properties may not be assessed using a single
universal sampling density. Average sampling interval might be around 200 m for spatial interpolation of particle density,
organic C content, and particle size distribution, whereas for pH and electrical conductivity, it may be 1 to 2 km. The
root-mean-squared deviation ( RMSD) and goodness-of-prediction (G value) indicated that REML-EBLUP was the
best method for spatial interpolation, and is 5% better than the next best method, regression kriging. This study finally
concluded that the REML-EBLUP might be considered as the most suitable method for spatial interpolation of soil
properties, specifically the hydraulic properties in watershed scale where dense sampling in regular grid is quite costly
and tedius.
Conservation of Soil and Water Resources : Challenges and

Opportunities for Sustainable Agriculture in Foothills of Shivaliks
Sanjay Arora
Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, S.K. University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology,
Chatha, 180 009, Jammu, J&K, India
The lower foothill tract of Shivaliks extends from Uttaranchal to Jammu and Kashmir in north-west India. The area is
mainly rainfed in nature and needs considerable attention. The crops experience moisture stress of varying degrees
as a result of erratic distribution of rainfall, which affects crop productivity adversely. It therefore, requires the development
and adoption of need-based location-specific technologies, by the use of which, the area can be ecologically rehabilitated
and production potential realized on a sustained basis. The foothills of Shivaliks in Jammu have undulating topography,
erodible soils, erosive rains, and above all mismanagement and thus experiences a variety of problems related to soil
erosion, low productivity and shortage of fuel and fodder. The region has unique climatic features representing a semi-
47
arid or sub-humid type climate characterized by low rainfall, where agriculture is totally dependent on monsoon
rains. The land use statistics show that 17.2% land in Jammu district is under forest, 43.7% under agriculture,
6.8% under cultivable wasteland (including grasslands), and the remaining 32.3% area is not available for agriculture.
In Kathua district, 27.8% land is under forest, 28% under agriculture, 9.4% under cultivable wasteland, and 34.8%
area is not available for agriculture. About 92% of the families have cultivable holdings of < 2 ha and 80% have <1.5
ha.
Production seriously suffers from soil erosion due to uneven topography, high soil erodibility, low fertility and
Session 1.1
high erosivity of the rains. It is estimated that soil loss is about 3.6 to 10 t ha -1 through erosion in maize crop.
Farmers in the area have low knowledge and interest regarding rainwater management. As per the recent survey, no
water-harvesting structures or ponds were sited in the villages surveyed. Although one or two were developed a
decade back but there were in poor shape. Lack of technical knowledge and poor economic status are the major
constraints identified for conservation and management of water and soil in the area.
The erodibility of the coarse-textured soil of foothills belt is generally increasing with depth, thus making these
more susceptible to rill and gully erosion. It has been estimated that N-W hills contribute more than 20 Mg ha-1 yr-1 to
soil loss. Further, 6000 m of rich soil is washed down every year. The soil erosion has converted most of the fertile soils
of the region into barren, fallow and degraded lands. About 32% of the total geographical area of Jammu and Kashmir
is highly degraded. Soil erosion creates a vast quantity of debris, which in turn, is accumulated at the base of the rivers
and streams and shrink their basins. Preliminary investigations showed that if water resources are conserved vis-à-vis
managed properly and existing technologies are refined for specific land and pedospheric characteristics, it would
rehabilitate the degraded lands and in turn increase the productivity in the area.
Thus, there is need to extensively adopt the improved practices for soil conservation, in-situ and ex-situ rainwater
management for improving the agricultural productivity vis-à-vis enhancing the economic conditions of the farmers.
Effect of Conjunctive Nutrient Use Practices and Conservation Tillage on

Crop Yields and Soil Quality in Rainfed Alfisol
K.L. Sharma*, G.R. Korwar, K. Srinivas, U.K. Mandal, S.S. Balloli, J. Kusuma Grace
and B. Venkateswarlu
Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, 500 059, Andhra Pradesh, India
(Email: klsharma@crida.ernet.in)
Alfisols are the most abundant soils in semi-arid tropics. The low organic C content and poor fertility of these soils is
primarily attributed to: (i) loss of top soil, organic matter and nutrients, (ii) poor return of crop residues, (iii) temperature
mediated and tillage influenced fast oxidation of organic matter, and iv) low fertilizer use. Consequently, these soils
encounter multiple constraints leading to low productivity. To protect these soils from further degradation and improving
their quality, conservation agriculture techniques such as zero or reduced tillage, green manuring, surface cover and
recycling of crop residues, integrated nutrient management are inevitable. The performance of these practices has not
been studied extensively in rainfed semi-arid tropics. Considering these gaps, a long-term field experiment was initiated
during 1998 at Hayathnagar, Hyderabad, India (17°18′ N latitude, 78°36′ E longitude and an elevation of 515 m above
mean sea level). The prime objective was to assess the influence of conventional and reduced tillage, and conjunctive
nutrient-use treatments on crop yields, sustainability yield index (SYI) and soil quality improvement using sorghum cv
‘CSH-9’ and mungbean cv ‘ML-267’ as test crops in a split plot design. Conventional (CT) and reduced tillage (RT)
comprised the main plot treatments, while the subplot treatments consisted of five low-cost farm-based conjunctive
nutrient-use treatments equivalent to 40 kg N ha-1 to sorghum. These include: T1: Control, T2: 40 kg N through urea,
T3: 4 t compost + 20 kg N through urea, T4: 2 t Gliricidia loppings + 20 kg N through urea and T5: 4 t compost + 2 t
Gliricidia loppings. Mung bean crop received half the dose of N (equivalent to 20 kg N ha-1) applied to sorghum.
Results revealed significant effects (8 years) of tillage as well as conjunctive nutrient-use treatments on sorghum
48
and mungbean grain yields. Highest average sorghum grain yield was recorded with 2 t Gliricidia loppings + 20 kg N
through urea (1895 kg ha-1) under conventional tillage and with 4 t compost + 20 kg N through urea (1580 kg ha-1)
under reduced tillage. In case of mungbean, 2 t compost + 10 kg N through urea (959 kg ha-1) recorded, the highest
mungbean grain yield under conventional tilled plots, and 2 t compost + 1 t Gliricidia loppings (836 kg ha-1) under
reduced tillage plots. The order of superiority of the nutrient-use treatments in increasing the yield of sorghum over
unamended control was: T4 (93.2%) >T3 (88.7%) > T2 (88.5%) > T5 (82.2%), while in case of mungbean, it was: T3
(63.6%) >T5 (60.3%) >T4 (58.0%) >T2 (49.6%). Conventional tillage up to eighth year of the study maintained 12.8
and 11.2% higher sorghum and mungbean grain yields respectively compared to reduced tillage. After eight years,
Session 1.1
reduced tillage tended to be equal or better than conventional tillage in improving the crop yields. This raised the hope
of success of reduced tillage in these SAT Alfisols, if practiced over a long-term.
The influence of these practices on soil quality was studied using 19 soil quality indicators applying principal
component analysis technique. The key indicators identified under sorghum-mungbean system and their overall
percentage contribution towards soil quality indices were: microbial biomass carbon (29%) > available N (28%) >
DTPA- Zn (25%) > DTPA- Cu (9%) > hydraulic conductivity (6%) > mean weight diameter (3%). Tillage did not significantly
influence relative soil quality indices (RSQI), while conjunctive nutrient-use treatments showed a significant influence
on RSQI. Among all the treatments, application of 4 t compost + 2 t Gliricidia loppings showed the highest RSQI (0.98),
followed by 2 t Gliricidia loppings + 20 kg N through urea (0.93), which was at par with 4 t compost + 20 kg N through
urea (0.92). It was interesting to observe that on an average, the sole organic treatment out-performed in aggrading
the soil quality to the extent of 35% over control, while the conjunctive nutrient-use treatments and sole inorganic
treatment could aggrade to the extent of 26.4 to 28.9% and 19% respectively over the control. The overall order of
superiority of the treatments for soil quality indices was: T5>T4 = T3> T2>T1.
Reclamation of Sodic Soils vis-a-vis Change in Root Rhizosphere pH

with Application of Panchgavya for Green Agriculture in
Arid Regions
R.N. Kumawat, Sunil S. Mahajan, R.S. Mertia and Priyabrata Santra

Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Jaisalmer, 345 001, Rajasthan, India
Over the past 100 years, several approaches involving chemical amendments have been used to ameliorate the sodic
soils. In recent decades, cost effective organic amelioration approaches have received considerable attention in many
developing countries both to reclaim sodic soils and to provide nutrients to crops. In view of this, to reclaim sodic soils
and improve crop productivity through organics, effect of soil-applied organic solution of Panchgavya along with foliar
application of indigenous plant leaf extracts was examined on the soil pH, dehydrogenase activity and nutrient availability
in root rhizosphere, and on yield of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea), Jaisalmer (India) during 2006 and 2007 under
irrigated conditions.
Results revealed that successive increase in soil application of Panchgavya from 0 to 3 l m-2 reduced the pH of
groundnut rhizosphere within 24 hours by 0.67, which remained lower than control (no Panchgavya) by 0.31, 0.31,
0.30 and 0.16 at 5 days after application (DAA), 15 DAA, 30 DAA and harvest, respectively. Soil application of Panchgavya
at 3 l m-2 had 53, 54, 82, 96 and 92% higher organic C at 1 DAA, 5 DAA, 15 DAA, 30 DAA and harvest, respectively
than control. Similarly, availability of P, Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu in the rhizosphere increased by 42, 17, 22, 19 and 52%
respectively over control within 24 hours of application. The pod, haulm and biological yield exhibited 85, 93 and 90%
increase higher compared to control with soil application of Panchgavya at 3 l m-2. In addition to this, pod yield was
significantly higher with foliar application of datura (Datura metel) leaf extract, although haulm yield was statistically
higher with foliar application of neem (Azadirachta indica) leaf extract.
49
Management of Yamuna Hills and Valleys Ecosystem Soils for Higher

Production Based on Watershed Technology
R.A. Singh, P.K. Rathi and Ekhlaq Haider

C.S. Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur, 208 002, Uttar Pradesh, India
Session 1.1
The degraded soils of Yamuna hills and valleys ecosystem, situated in the catchments area of Pahuj, which is tributary
of river Yamuna was selected for holistic development. The pilot area was treated with pheripheral / marginal bund,
submergence bunds, check dam, gully plug, contour bund, vegetative bund, field levelling and water storage structure.
The uncultivated and partially-cultivated area of 2217 ha changed into cultivation of groundnut and other crops during
rainy season, and 2035 ha area changed into multiple cropping systems. The cropping intensity increased from 90 to
188%. Area under groundnut cultivation increased up to 1910 ha and covered 87% area of pilot project during rainy
season. The farmers dugout 573 stony open dug well in pilot area of six villages for collection of recharged groundwater.
Groundwater table rose up to the extent of 3.22 m. The recharged groundwater was available for protective irrigations
up to mid-March. The 100% cultivated land has been saturated with protective irrigation facility from recharged and
alimented rainwater. Farm families started the cultivation of vegetables crops like tomato, onion, potato, carrot, radish
and coriander (for green leaves) for maintaining good cash flow system throughout the year. The small and marginal
farm households fetched good money from the condiment crops of ginger and turmeric, and vegetables crops of
tomato, onion etc. because area under these crops increased from nil to 73 ha. The transport facilities improved from
bullock carts to tractors, motorcycles and loaders. The plantation of forest trees on bunds has been started by farm
families for meeting the domestic needs. The conservation practices generated through rainwater management project
are being followed by 80% farm families of six pilot villages on 2035 ha area. Number of tractors increased from 17 to
103 in the pilot area. Number of diesel pumpsets increased from 11 to 709 in the operational area of watershed for
lifting water from water impounded structures. The milk and meat animal demography increased with cows by 5379,
buffaloes by 4328 and goats by 3567 in the pilot area with development of natural pasture land with Digitaria biformis,
Digitaria triformis and Paspalam. The initial productivity of groundnut, maize, wheat, gram, lentil, mustard, radish,
tomato, carrot, onion and potato increased from 0.7 to 2.75 t, 0 to 2.7 t, 0.7 to 4.05 t, 0 to 1.87 t, 0.65 to 1.10 t, 0 to 2.15
t, 0 to 18.7 t, 9.0 to 29.6 t, 0 to 15.6, 0 to 30.7 t and 0 to 30.0 t ha-1, respectively, from the base year. Thus, the average
productivity of watershed was enhanced appreciably from 0.85 to 3.52 t ha-1.
Effect of Crop Diversification and Crop Residue Incorporation on

Productivity, Protein Yield and Energy Output of Cropping Systems
S.N. Sharma
Division of Agronomy, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110 012, India
Rice-wheat cropping systems (RWCS) occupy about 28.8 million hectares (m ha) in Asia’s five countries, namely,
India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh and China. These five countries represent about 43% of the world population on
20% of the world’s arable land. Thus, RWCS are of considerable significance in meeting Asia’s food requirements.
However, practice of following a cereal-cereal cropping system on the same piece of land over years has led to soil
fertility deterioration, and questions are being raised on its sustainability. Efforts are, therefore, underway to find out
alternative cropping systems specially those involving legumes which are known to have soil recuperative properties.
Integrated plant nutrient management involving organic manures and crop residues is another option for sustainable
crop production. Recycling of crop residues has a great potential in meeting the need of organic matter addition to
RWCS soils and availability of nutrients to crop plants. The present investigation was, therefore, undertaken to study
the effect of substituting wheat by rapeseed or potato, followed by mungbean, and crop residue incorporation on the
productivity, protein yield and energy output of the cropping systems, and chemical and biological properties of soil.
50
Field experiments were conducted at New Delhi for three years from 2001-2003 to 2003-2004. The experiments
were laid out in a strip plot design with four replications. The treatments consisted of three cropping systems (rice-
wheat, rice-rapeseed-mungbean and rice-potato-mungbean) in rows and two crop residue management practices (no
residue and residue incorporation) in columns. All the crops were grown with recommended packages of practices.
Rice-potato-mungbean cropping system gave the highest productivity, protein yield and energy output, followed
by rice-rapeseed-mungbean. Both these cropping systems were significantly superior to rice-wheat system in respect
of productivity and protein yield. Available P, populations of fungi and actinomycetes, microbial biomass and CO2
Session 1.1
evolution in soil were also higher in rice-potato-mungbean and rice-rapeseed-mungbean cropping systems than in
rice-wheat system. Incorporation of crop residues increased the productivity, protein yield, energy output, soil organic
C, soil Kjeldahl N, Olsen’s P, exchangable K, population of bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, microbial biomass and CO 2
evolution. Rice-potato-mungbean cropping system along with residue incorporation is recommended for higher
productivity and resilience in soil health as an alternative to rice-wheat cropping system.
Response of Different Seed Treatments and Sowing Methods on Yield

and Economics of Wheat under Late-sown Condition
Satendra Kumar*, O.P. Singh and V. Dixit

Department of Agronomy, Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology,
Kanpur, 208 002, Uttar Pradesh, India
(*Email: satendraz1@yahoo.co.in)
A field experiment was conducted during Rabi season of 2005-06 at Kanpur to study the influence of different seed
treatments and sowing methods on the performance of late-sown wheat. The soil of experimental site was sandy loam
in texture having medium organic C (0.54%), 23.4 kg ha-1 available P and 250 kg ha-1 available K with neutral soil
reaction (pH 7.8). Twelve treatments comprised of three sowing methods (broadcasting, 20 cm line sowing and 20 cm
x 20 cm cross line sowing), and four seed treatments (dry seed, water soaked seed, sprouted seed and seed treated
with ZnSO4) were laid down in randomized block design with three replications. Wheat (‘K-9423’) was sown on 27
December, 2005 and harvested on 6 May, 2006. Studies revealed that significantly higher grain yield was obtained in
water-soaked seed (4.45 t ha-1), sprouted seed (4.456 t ha-1) and seed treated with ZnSo4 (4.19 t ha-1) than dry seed
(3.68 t ha-1). The highest net profit was achieved in water soaked seed, followed by sprouted seed, seed treated with
ZnSO4 and dry seed, however, cost of cultivation was the highest in sprouted seed. The highest net profit was obtained
in line cross sowing, followed by line sowing and broadcasting.
Reducing Tillage in Organic Agriculture on the Canadian Prairies
Iris Vaisman
Department of Plant Science, University of Manitoba, Canada
(Email: iris.vaisman@gmail.com)
Method of termination and incorporation of green manures affect the rate of residue decomposition, which ultimately
affect soil temperature, soil water, and nutrient cycling. These effects directly influence crop performance in the following
year and long-term soil health. In organic crop production, tillage is often used to terminate and incorporate green
manures, and also as a means for seedbed preparation and weed control. However, tillage has been shown to decrease
organic matter and can lead to more erodible soil. Organic farmers are, therefore, faced with the challenge of managing
green manures in a way that can maintain overall soil health, while minimizing weed populations. This study compared
51
the termination of green manures in tillage, low tillage, and zero tillage conditions under organic management. In
spring 2007, chickling vetch (Lathyrus sativus), hairy vetch (Vicia villosa), Indian Head lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.),
and an intercrop of peas (Pisum sativum) and oats (Avena sativa) were seeded as green manures in Carman, Manitoba,
Canada. Beginning at full bloom, the green manure was terminated using tillage, low tillage, and zero tillage. Disking
was used in tillage treatments and the blade roller was used in the low and zero-till treatments. The roller crimps crop
stems and lays the crop flat, eventually drying and killing the plant. The residue left on the soil surface creates a barrier
that can suppress weeds and reduce water evaporation. The residue also contributes to soil organic matter. The roller
can, therefore, minimize field operations by decreasing the need for herbicides or tillage. In spring 2008, wheat was
Session 1.1
seeded into the field of green manures. Measurements were taken in both the years of the green manure and wheat to
determine the effects of the various tillage treatments. These measurements were yield, soil N, plant N, weed density,
soil moisture, and ground cover.
Effect of No-tillage and Permanent Bed Technologies on Soil Parameters

in Irrigated Crop Production System in Khorezm Province of Uzbekistan
Alim PULATOV*1, Abdulla KARIMOV1 and John LAMERS2

Kary-Niyazova, 39,1000000,Tashkent, Uzbekistan
1
EcoGIS Center, Tashkent Institute of Irrigation and Melioration (TIIM), Uzbekistan
2
Center for Development Research (ZEF) Bonn, Germany and ZEF/UNESCO Khorezm project, Uzbekistan
(*Email: alimpulatov@mail.ru)
Uzbekistan is one of main producer and exporter of cotton in the world. Agricultural production system has heavily
influenced soil and water degradation of the country and Aral Sea Basin crisis. Conservation Agriculture (CA) as a part
of sustainable crop production system can improve the situation in the region. Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) and
winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) are the dominant crops in irrigated land of Uzbekistan. In irrigated areas, farmers
mainly use furrow irrigation system with intensive tillage operations starting with deep plough, chiseling, leveling, upto
6-7 times cultivations and reshaping furrows. Cotton and wheat are mainly used in crop rotation. One of the main
characteristics of irrigation is use of furrows with 60 and 90 cm spacing.
Several conservation agricultural technologies were studied as the appropriate solutions for irrigation areas in
Khorezm province which is part of Aral Sea Basin. The study area was placed in Khiva district state farm. Experiments
was conducted with common use by farmers irrigation system with 90 cm inter-row spacing. Effects of no-tillage,
permanent bed parameters under different soil types on soil parameters were studied in 2002-2003. No-tillage (NT)
and permanent bed technologies with bed height 15 cm (PB 15) and with 30 cm (PB 30) as a part of conservation
technologies were tested. Conventional technology (CT) practice which includes plowing or deep chiseling with cultivation
and furrow opening field operations was taken as a control treatment. Four treatments made with and without crop
residue (CR) cover treatments. Soil texture is different from farm to farm. Soil texture of study area includes several
soil types as sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, loam, sandy clay loam, silt loam, silt clay loam and clay loam. Most
dominating soil types among analyzed are: sandy loam, loam and sand. Three dominating soil types viz. loam, sandy
loam and sand in study area were chosen in addition to the technology treatments. Soil samples were taken for
analysis 3 times during the study period. Results show improvement of soil quality parameters on soil conservation
treatments compared with control. Results show that loam texture of the soil is more appropriate for implementation of
CA in irrigated areas of the Khorezm province. Cotton development in 2002, and wheat development and yield in 2002-
2003 show that PB 15 technology has better results than PB 30.
52
Evolution of Residue Decomposition in a Dryland Rotation

in Southern Spain
Carbonell, R.1*, Ordóñez, R.1, Repullo, M.1 and Márquez, F.2

1
Área de Producción Ecológica y Recursos Naturales, IFAPA, Centro “Alameda del Obispo”,
Apdo. 3092, 14080, Córdoba
2
Departamento de Ingeniería Rural. Universidad de Córdoba. Asociación Española de Agricultura de
Session 1.1
Conservación/Suelos Vivos. Centro “Alameda del Obispo”14080, Córdoba
(*Email: rosam.carbonell.ext@juntadeandalucia.es)
Crop residues on the surface provide a protective barrier against soil erosion caused by the two most important
processes, wind and water. The effectiveness of the ground cover in these processes is reflected in greater accumulation
of water (this is because the residues on the surface give it a cushioning effect that reduce water losses through
evaporation and improve water infiltration decreasing runoff surface) and increase the organic matter content. All this
leads to greater productivity of crops and supports sustainability.
During the agricultural seasons of 2006-07 and 2007-08, a study was made of the evolution and characteristics of
plant residues deposited on a clayey soil in the Guadalquivir valley, in which a legume-cereal-sunflower rotation is
followed. This was carried out in the Experiment Station of Tomejil in the Vega de Carmona, Seville, Spain, with the
coordinates 37º24´07´´N and 05º35´10´´W, in which the direct drilling and conventional tillage management systems
are being compared. On this farm, three plots 15 m wide and 150 m long, which had not been tilled since 1982 were
selected. In them, 12 points were localized to assess the evolution of the residue of a crop from its harvesting until the
sowing of the following one.
Between the months of October to January, when it was planted with pea, sunflower residue lost 769.8 kg ha-1 of
biomass and a 2% coverage, while the peas residue, from June to November lost 2216 kg ha-1 and 41% coverage. The
lowest rainfall estimated in the first year and the lowest temperatures of those months that affect the microorganims
decomposers of the residue may be the cause of the observed differences.
Another important aspect of the residue is its ability to provide carbon and nutrients to the soil when it decomposes.
In this, sense has much to say the composition of the remaining plant. In the first season, the C:N declined as did the
biomass of the same, which indicates that there is a greater release of C to N, while in the remains of pea, this
relationship has been reinforced by the time due to the decline experienced by the amount of N in the residue.
Despite the low decomposition of waste in the first season, the evolution of this has released 3.14 and 2.22 kg ha-
1
of K and N, respectively and there has been a lock-up of P 0.63 kg ha-1. These data contrast with the release of
nutrients generated by the decomposition of the remains of pea in the 2007-08 season, in which, it is 54.54, 44.03 and
6.28 kg ha-1 for N, P and, K respectively.
Conservation Agricultural System: An Option for Economic and

Environmental Security in 21st Century
Debashis Mandal and V.N. Sharda

Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute,
218, Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun, 248 195, Uttarakhand, India
This paper discusses the identification and prioritization of research needs for conservation agriculture with special
emphasis on multifunctional benefits affecting crop productivity and environmental security. The experience of green
revolution has proved that maximizing of yield per se is not desirable at the cost of land quality or environmental safety.
53
Hence, it is imperative to identify the beneficial soil management techniques to sustain long-term productivity,
environmental stability and food security.
Long-term experimental data in sub-tropical Inceptisols for maize-toria cropping system revealed that infiltration
rate, soil organic carbon (SOC) and plant nutrients increased considerably while bulk density, runoff and soil loss were
found to decrease in conservation tillage and residue incorporated plots. It was also established that crop residue
management is crucial in increasing soil’s infiltration capacity, reducing runoff and soil loss to the extent of 12 and
24%, respectively over conventional tillage. Average carbon sequestration in the soil from residue applied at 6.0-7.5 t
Session 1.1
ha-1 annually for 8 years was in the range of 0.25 to 0.43 t C ha-1 in the surface soil, which is equivalent to 1.2 t ha-1 of
nutrient storage capacity. Since, most of the crop land in India contains extremely low levels of SOC, enhancing SOC
concentration in these soils can improve productivity to the tune of 210 kg ha-1 yr-1 and 360 kg ha-1 yr-1 for maize and
toria, respectively.
Energy saving data showed that conservation tillage can save about 20 liters of diesel and 187,331 kcal of energy
ha-1 over the conventional system. Coefficient of sustainability in terms of total factor productivity (TFP) and total
natural resource productivity (TNRP) exhibited that combination of conservation tillage and crop residue application is
economically efficient and environmentally sound. The TFP data showed that conservation agriculture (CA) was 7-
23% more efficient over conventional agriculture. The TNRP based upon bulk density, infiltration rate, soil loss, runoff,
SOC, N, P and K also increased significantly in CA system. Maximum advantage was noticed in terms of water
conservation in TNRP as evident from higher efficiency through enhanced infiltration (54-57%) and reduced runoff (40-
60%) over the conventional system. The TNRP for P was 42-71% more efficient, followed by TNRP for K (14-28%) and
TNRP for N (15-23%). The results indicate a close linkage between soil quality, economic output and environmental
quality. Decline in soil quality could set in motion the degradative trends that lead to reduction in agricultural production.
Despite the widespread realization that crop residues return to soil is important for enhancing quality of soil and
environment, removing crop residues for alternate uses is a normal practice followed in India. Achieving soil improvement
under CA provides a range of yardsticks against which the benefits of CA may be compared. However, this needs to be
verified and established under different agro-ecological regions with specific cropping cycles. Necessary strategies
with respect to policy issues, developmental, research and extension issues need to be addressed to accelerate the
adoption rate of already available resource conservation technologies to combat the emerging problems.
Soil Hydrualic Properties Influenced by Organic Matter after 7 Years

of Direct Drilling
Imene JEMAI1, Nadhira BEN AISSA*2, Saida BEN GUIRAT3, Moncef BEN-HAMMOUDA4
and Tahar GALLALI 5
1,5
Faculté des sciences de Tunis, Tunisia
2, 3
Institut National Agronomique de Tunisie, Tunisia
4
(*Email: benaissa.nadhira@planet.tn)
Conservation agriculture based on direct drilling (CA/DD) becomes a current tendency to enhance crop productivity by
improving: i) soil quality, ii) water management, and iii) organic supply. A study was carried out to compare changes in
soil hydraulic properties generated by 7 years of applying DD and conventional drilling (CD) in relation to changes in
soil organic carbon (SOC). On two adjacent large plots, a field experiment was established since the growing season
2000-01 under rainfed conditions on a loamy clay soil in a semi-arid zone of North Tunisia. For the DD plot, cultivation
of a wheat/sulla sequence with residue biomass of 500 and 700 kg ha-1 was left on the soil surface for wheat and sulla,
respectively. However for the CD plot, a moldboard plowing at approximately 20 cm depth was applied, after one year
wheat or two years sulla. Water retention curve and hydraulic conductivity as well as the available water content and
soil moisture content were determined for 0-30 cm soil profile.
54
Application of DD increased levels of SOC on average by 0.5% at the top 10 cm soil layer, which in turn
improved water infiltration rate of soil by 5.5 cm h-1 as compared to CD. However, water availability was not affected
by DD. Water retention curves showed that weighted soil water contents at pF 2.8 and 4.2 down to 30 cm soil
profile were 31 and 42% higher with sulla and wheat mulch, respectively. For CD and at pF 1.0 and 1.5 across the
top 10 cm soil layer, weighted soil water contents were 51.0 and 68.5% higher for sulla and wheat cropping years,
respectively.
Confounding both types of mulching (sulla, wheat), soil moisture for DD increased by 66.2% when compared to
Session 1.1
CD over the top 10 cm soil layer. So, a permanent mulching is recommended to improve soil hydraulic properties.
Efficient Use of Crop Residues in Safflower-based Cropping Systems

under Rainfed Conditions
P. Padmavathi, S.P. Wani1 and I.Y.L.N. Murthy

Directorate of Oilseeds Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, 500 030, Andhra Pradesh, India
1
Agro-ecosystem, ICRISAT, Patancheru, 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India
Proper management of crop residues helps in saving of part of chemical fertilizers and improves the use efficiency of
inputs, and keeping clean environment. With this objective, a field experiment was conducted for three years (2005-
08) in split plot design with three replications in Vertisols under rainfed conditions. The main plot was assigned to three
rainy season crops (mungbean, soybean, maize) and sub-plot was assigned to four integrated nutrient management
practices followed in rainy season crops [i. application of recommended fertilizer through inorganic form, ii) Gliricidia (2
t ha-1) + remaining NPK through inorganic form, iii) Glyricidia (2 t ha-1) + FYM (2.5 t ha-1 to mungbean and soybean; 5
t ha-1 to maize) + remaining NPK through inorganic, iv) Glyricidia (2 t ha-1) + safflower residues (3 t ha-1 to mungbean,
soybean; 6 t ha-1 to maize) + remaining NPK through inorganic farm]. Gliricidia was established on field bund at a
length of 100 m. Safflower was grown in post-rainy season under receding soil moisture conditions with recommended
fertilizer in zero-tilled plots. The amount of rainfall received during cropping season (Jun–Feb) of 2005-06, 2006-07
and 2007-08 was 1073 mm, 674 mm and 693 mm, respectively.
The system productivity varied significantly over the years. Rainy season crops, viz. mungbean, soybean and
maize yielded low (483, 1067, 1202 kg ha -1) in the first year of the study compared to the other two years
(765, 2045, 4660; 622, 2292, 4487 kg ha-1). It could be due to heavy rainfall received during July (460 mm). The system
productivity in terms of economic net returns with soybean-safflower system was found to be greater (Rs 32,000/-)
compared to other two systems (Rs 23,000/-). Safflower crop residues (3-6 t ha-1) would supply 12.5-25 kg N; 8.9-17.8
kg P2O5; 22-44 kg K2O ha-1. Safflower residues could be used efficiently along with Glyricidia (2 t ha-1) to substitute
part/ full of recommended N, P2O5, K2O of rainy season crops to record yields on par with that of crop where nutrients
were met through inorganic sources alone. The mean soil respiration across rainy season crops at 60-70 DAS was
higher with integration of safflower residues, Gliricidia and inorganic sources (327 µg C g-1 soil 10 d-1) than that
applying recommended level of fertilizer through inorganic source alone (249). Similar trends with respect to microbial
biomass C and N, mineral N and net N mineralization were observed. Microbial populations in terms of Azospirillum,
Azotobacter, Fluorescent Pseudomonas and phosphorus solubilizing microorganisms were also quantified during
cropping period, and found to be high in organic-manured plots.
55
Effect of Residue Management Options on Soil Properties and

Productivity of Wheat under Rice-Wheat System
R.K. Sharma, R.S. Chhokar, M.K. Gathala, A.K. Pundir, Rajpal Yadav,
Subhash Chander and R.K. Singh
Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal, 132 001, Haryana, India
Session 1.1
In rice-wheat system of the north-western Indo-Gangetic plains, management of crop residues especially rice is a
major issue. Farmers are generally disposing off the crop residues by burning, leading to depletion of soil organic
carbon as well as causing environmental pollution. Field experiments at the Directorate of Wheat Research farm and
farmer participatory on-farm trials around Karnal, Haryana were conducted to evaluate the possibility of direct drilling
of wheat into rice crop residues, and the effect of residue management practices on soil properties and productivity of
wheat. Retention or incorporation of rice, wheat or both crop residues increased soil organic C to about 0.50% from the
initial 0.32% in the top 15 cm soil layer after 4 years. In residue removal treatments also there was some increase in
soil organic C but in case of burning the residues, there was no change in soil organic C status. The other benefits of
residue retention were decreased soil strength and lower weed infestation. The soil bulk density in the top 15 cm soil
layer was lowest in residue incorporation and highest in residue burning treatments. The effect of residue management
options on wheat yield was not significant for the first two years but for third and fourth year, it was significant. Nitrogen
significantly affected the wheat productivity. For seeding into loose residues, four machines were tested—rotary disc
drill, double-disc drill, punch planter and Happy Seeder at farmers’ field under participatory mode. The performance of
double-disc drill and punch planter was not satisfactory, whereas the rotary disc drill and the Happy Seeder gave
similar or higher yields than the zero-tillage after partial straw burning or conventional tillage after complete straw
burning. The rotary disc drill and Happy Seeder can enable conservation agriculture through minimum tillage while
leaving the crop residues at the soil surface.
Within-Field Soil Management Recommendations-based on Soil Spatial

Variability Assessment : Example of a Belgian Polder Field
Kabindra Adhikari1,3, Marc Van Meirvenne2, Alberto Guadagnini3 and Luca Montanarella1
1
Land Management and Natural Hazards Unit, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Joint Research
Center of the European Commission, Ispra, Italy
2
Department of Soil Management and Soil care, Ghent University, Belgium
3
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Idraulica, Ambientale, Infrastrutture Viarie e Rilevamento (D.I.I.A.R.),
Politecnico Di Milano, Milano, Italy
We studied the influence of spatial variability of soil properties on yield and quality of sugarbeet crop and provided
recommendations for soil management practices to increase farm income at a polder field in Belgium. The objectives
of our work were: (i) to characterize the soil spatial variability across a 10 ha sugarbeet field; (ii) to determine its
influence on the yield and quality; and (iii) to recommend physically-based within-field soil management practices to
farmers, taking into account soil variability features.
A directed sampling scheme with 78 soil sample locations was implemented on the basis of apparent electrical
conductivity (ECa) data gathered from dual dipole electromagnetic sensor (EM38DD) on-the-go. The top soil (0-40 cm)
and subsoil (50-80 cm) samples were analyzed for their texture, carbonates (CaCO3), soil organic carbon (SOC), soil
pH, and soil moisture content at -1.5 MPa (èg). The spatial distribution of the sampled properties was characterized by
large coefficients of variations (CVs) in both layers, with the largest values attained in the sub-soil showing higher
variability in the deeper layer. Moreover, comparatively lower range of spatial dependence and lower Mean Cross-
correlation Distances (MCD) of the subsoil properties confirmed the presence of heterogenic sub-soil. However, the
top-soil was less heterogeneous because of the mixing due to frequent agricultural practices.
56
Principal components analysis (PCA) suggested that field ECa information accounted for most of the soil
spatial variability. Fuzzy k-means classification with ECa leds to identifying two separate zones (termed as potential
management zones) with distinctive differences in sub-soil texture (i.e., zone 1: loamy area and zone 2: sandy
area) as ECa was mostly influenced by highly heterogenic subsoil. The nitrate-nitrogen content and the gravimetric
moisture content (the two major beet quality determiners) were always higher in the loamy area than in the sandy
area throughout the crop cycle. The loamy part was characterized by the lowest Quality Index of the roots. However,
the total root mass yield was larger than that associated with the sandy part. This explained the sub-soil textural
heterogeneity between the zones influenced the quality and quantity of sugarbeet yields.
Session 1.1
We conclude that soil spatial variability can be easily and quickly assessed with EM38DD in a non-invasive
way. Identification of potential management zones, differential input treatment (e.g., split nitrogen application in
sandy area) and better SOC management between the zones and avoiding deep tillage in the sandy area are
recommended to increase gross farm income and to reduce negative environmental impacts.
Effect of Crop Residue and Tillage System on Soil Properties in

Irrigated Agriculture of the Khorezm Region, Uzbekistan
O. Egamberdiev*1,2, L. Tursunov2, A. Pulatov3, K. Sayre4 and J.P.A. Lamers1,5

1
ZEF/UNESCO Khorezm project, Uzbekistan
2
National University of Uzbekistan (NUUz), Uzbekistan
3
Tashkent Institute of Irrigation and Melioration (TIIM), Uzbekistan
4
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Mexico
5
Center for Development Research (ZEF) Bonn, Germany
(*Email: oybek72@zef.uzpak.uz)
Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) and winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) dominate the crop rotation in Uzbekistan,
where more than 70% of the irrigated area is cultivated to these crops. Conservation Agriculture (CA) aims to minimize
soil disturbance, retain adequate crop residues (CR) and use the most appropriate crop rotation to consequently save
water, increase soil fertility, reduce erosion and costs, and increase yields. Yet these attributes stem mainly from
experiences in rainfed areas since there have been very limited experiences with CA in the irrigated areas of central
Asia. This research aimed to analyze the impact of CA on soil properties in the Khorezm region of Uzbekistan. The
treatments included conventional tillage (CT, control), intermediate tillage (IT), permanent bed planting (PB) and zero
tillage (ZT), with all treatments compared with and without CR. Soil parameters were collected six times throughout the
experimental period (2004-2006).
Tillage and CR had no effect on soil texture within 0-0.3 and 0.3-0.5 m soil depths. Treatments with CR had the
highest micro-aggregate content in both 0-0.3 m (plow depth) and 0.3-0.5 m (below plow layer) soil layers. The largest
micro-aggregate content occurred for ZT and IT with CR, whilst the lowest content was PB and ZT without CR at 0-0.3
m soil depth. Soil organic matter (SOM) decreased with depth, but increased significantly with CR left as a surface
mulch at 0-0.3 m, and followed the sequence: ZT>PB>IT>CT in this soil layer. CR significantly increased soil nitrogen
(N) compared to residue removal in the plow layer, whereas ZT had the highest soil N among the tillage systems. In
both soil layers soil phosphorus (P) content increased with the CR mulch as compared to CR removal, and CT had the
lowest soil P when compared with IT and ZT with CR mulch. Mulching significantly improved soil fertility and can offset
the advancing soil degradation.
57
Understanding Barley Autotoxicity to Better Apply Direct

Drilling in Monoculture
Oussama OUESLATI*1, Moncef BEN-HAMMOUDA2, Mohamed FRAI3 and Noura GHANMI4

1
Faculté des Sciences de Gabès, Tunisia
2, 3, 4
(*Email: oussama.Oueslati@fsg.rnu.tn)
Session 1.1
Monoculture of barley is commonly practiced in Tunisia, though yield depression is observed continuously at the
field level, especially for those practicing direct drilling (DD). This is may be due partially to allelopathic/auto-toxic
potential expressed by barley residues left on the soil surface. This study aims to select barley varieties expressing
low and stable auto-toxicity. Five varieties (‘Manel’, ‘Martin’, ‘Moumtez’, ‘Rihane’ and ’Souihli’) were grown at the
experimental station of Ecole Supérieure d’Agriculture du Kef, located in the North-West of Tunisia, in a semi-arid
zone. The experiment was conducted over two growing seasons (2002-03, 2003-04) in a CRBD with four replications.
Auto-toxicity of water-extracts of three different sources (barley stubble, barley straw, soil on which the five
barley varieties were cultivated) was tested using the technique of radicle growth bioassay. All bioassays, regardless
the source of water-extract, were conducted in a CRD with four repetitions. ‘Manel’ was the test variety.
Radicle growth bioassays demonstrated that all barley varieties expressed allelopathic effect in form of auto-
toxicity, with significant differences between varieties. For the first growing season (2002-03), ‘Rihane’ straw and
stubble water-extracts showed the highest inhibition, reducing ‘Manel’ radicle growth by 51.1 and 63.3%, respectively.
‘Manel’ straw-water-extracts expressed the lowest inhibition (28.9%), whereas ‘Martin’ and ‘Souihli’ stubble-water-
extracts originated similarly the lowest inhibition (51.0%). ‘Rihane’ soil-water-extracts expressed the lowest inhibition
(11.1%).
For the second growing season (2003-04), straw-water-extracts of ‘Souihli’ expressed the highest inhibition (50.0%)
and those of ‘Manel’, the lowest inhibition (27.3%). ‘Rihane’ and ‘Moumtez’ stubble-water-extracts expressed similarly
the highest inhibition (63.3%). Soil-water-extracts of ‘Moumtez’ and ‘Souihli’ were equally the most inhibitory (17.8%),
whereas soil-water-extracts of ‘Martin’ and ‘Rihane’ were similarly the least inhibitory (11.1%).
Overall, ‘Rihane’ was the most auto-toxic variety, which makes it a high risky choice in barley monoculture, especially
when conducted in DD. ‘Martin’ will be a better choice, considering its low auto-toxicity. However, field experiments
simulating laboratory conditions should be conducted to investigate the grain yields of both the most auto-toxic and the
least auto-toxic, then make the best decision based on economic returns.
Salinity and Sodicity Management in Irrigated Ecosystems of Bellary,

Karnataka
Gangadharappa Kumari Roopa1, A. Natarajan2, K.M. Nair2, K. Sudhir3, K.S. Anil Kumar2,
M. Ramesh2 and R. Siddaramappa3
1,3
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, UAS, GKVK,
Bangalore, 560 065, Karnataka, India
2
NBSS & LUP, Regional Center, Hebbal, Bangalore, 560 024, Karnataka, India
(*Email: roopag@mailcity.com)
A study was made to characterize and classify the salt-affected soils occurring in Tungabhadra Left Bank Command,
Karnataka using Remote Sensing Techniques. A total of 15 pedons were excavated to a depth of around 2 m from
agro-ecosystems and characterized for their morphological, physical, chemical and fertility parameters. The pH of the
58
soils varied from 8.0-9.9 and EC ranged from 0.19-30.1 dS m-1. The organic carbon of the soil was very low, while
CaCO3 varied from 2.3-18.8% and was uniformly distributed in the profiles. Soils had high CEC varying from 29.6 to
82.4 cmol(p+)kg-1, of which exchangeable calcium plus magnesium constituted 50%, with sodium being the next
dominant. The ESP values in the soils varied from 8.54-60.3, a general increase with the depth, though in two of the
profiles, reverse was the case, indicating start of alkalization from the surface layers. The concentration of bicarbonates
in soil solution was smaller and carbonates were found only in traces. The possibility of movement of sodium salts to
surface layers through capillary rise of water, appreciable amounts of sulphates capable of forming ion pairs in soil
solution and under-estimation of sodicity hazard through U S S L Staff (1954) equation, indicated the chances of
Session 1.1
conversion of these soils, mostly saline-sodic, to sodic soils. This suggested that the course of irrigation, if injudicious,
sub-soil salts may come up to the surface horizons and may impair crop growth adversely. In addition irrigation if the
quality of water is poor may further aggravate the situation. So it is suggested that rainfed agriculture with salt-tolerant
crops is suitable for the area.
Effect of Tillage and Residue Management Practices on Some Soil

Physical Properties in Rice-Wheat Cropping System
M.S. Hadda, Tejdeep Singh, Bijay Singh and H.S. Sur

Department of Soils, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 141 004, Punjab, India
Rice-wheat is one of the important cropping sequences in the Indo-Genetic plains of India. Recently it has been
observed that this system is showing signs of fatigue and declining trend in productivity. For maintaining and improving
the productivity potential of these structurally-damaged soils which are low in organic matter content, the integrated
use of organic manures, crop residues and inorganic fertilizers is a viable alternative. Thus, keeping these points in
view and the problem created by puddling for rice as well as for the following wheat, there is need to develop alternate
tillage systems for improving the physical and structural attributes of these soils. The objective of the study was to
evaluate the effect of tillage and residue management practices on some soil physical properties, and specifically the
soil structural properties. The study was conducted on a sandy loam soil and observations were taken on some soil
physical properties after the harvest of wheat crop in second and third year, respectively.
The bulk density increased significantly from 0-7.5 cm to 7.5-15 cm but decreased in 15-30 cm under all treatment
combinations, except in minimum tilled straw retained treatment. The bulk density was influenced significantly by
straw as well as by depth with increase in time. The hydraulic conductivity was also affected significantly both by depth
and straw application. With increase in depth, there is consistent trend in hydraulic conductivity.
The slope (n) values were higher for conventional tilled straw retained treatment (CTSRT) and conventional tilled
straw removed treatment (CTSRM) in the year 2004-05 compared to that in 2005-06.The cumulative infiltration as a
function of time varied from 93 to as large as 96% in 2004-05 and 2005-06, respectively. The terminal infiltration rate
was observed to be maximum through minimum-tilled straw retained treatment. Of the imposed treatments, the maximum
moisture storage observed was in minimum-tilled straw retained (MTSRT) treatment compared to conventional tilled
straw removed (CTSRM) treatment in 180 cm soil profile in 2004-05. The water storage as a function of time (w = at-
b) showed maximum variation in CTSRT (R2=0.971), followed by CTSRM/MTSRM (R2=0.933) treatment respectively.
Of the evaluated treatment combinations, MTSRT treatment was the most effective combination in retaining the moisture
in the field.
The modulus of rupture values were significantly affected by tillage, straw and depth. With increase in depth,
modulus of rupture values increased. The CTSRT treatment combination had higher modulus of rupture values in
surface and sub-surface layers as 8.2 and 8.4 x 10-4 KPa respectively over MTSRT treatment in surface layer as 7.4 x
10-4 KPa and 7.5 x 10-4 KPa in sub-surface layers. Similar were the observations with respect to CTSRM and MTSRM
treatment combination both in surface vis-a-vis sub-surface layers. The grain yield of wheat was 3.9, 3.7, 3.8 and 4.1
t ha-1 through CTSRT, CTSRM, MTSRT and MTSRM treatment, respectively.
59
Dynamics of Labile Soil Organic Matter Pools in a Calciorthent as

Affected by Tillage and Crop Residue Management
R. Laik1, M. Kumar1, Ravi Gopal Singh2 and S.S. Mandal1

1
Rajendra Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, 848 125, Bihar, India
2
CIMMYT, MRSPC, Krishi Farm, Bishanpur, Begusarai, 851 129, Bihar, India
Session 1.1
Labile soil organic matter pools are the early indicators of soil carbon sequestration by any management practice.
Hence, dynamics of dissolved organic matter and microbial biomass was studied during crop growth period at monthly
interval under conservation agriculture in the second year of rice-wheat cropping sequence in a calciorthent (free
CaCO3, 33%). Soil respiration (SR) was also studied at one month interval during wheat growth period. The plots were
under no till (NT) or conventional till (CT) management with residues retained (+) or removed (-). Under conventional
tillage, plots in rice (puddled), transplanted, dry-seeded broadcasted and wet pre-germinated seeded were considered.
Under conservation tillage plots, dry direct seeding was done on flat as well as beds. Sesbania was grown in half of
each plot, which was killed after 30 days of sowing by 2-4 D (brown manuring). There was a little variation in organic
carbon C of the different plots. In rice-wheat cropping system, NT (+) plots (in each crop) improved mean DOC
concentration by 64.2 and 78.0% and the mean MBC concentration by 25.4 and 32.5% in rice and wheat crops,
respectively, in comparision to CT (-) plots (in each crop). NT (+) plots, in spite of having higher organic matter in the
form of crop residues, had 12% lower mean SR than CT (+) plots. In the two treatments, grain yields of rice were at par
but grain yield of wheat was significantly higher in CT (+) (in each crop). MBC concentration increased and DOC
concentration decreased with increasing growth period of both the crops. Brown manuring maintained higher mean
DOC as well as mean MBC concentration in the treatments. Higher concentrations of DOC and MBC and lower soil
respiration in the NT (+) plots may help in higher organic C restoration than the CT (-) plots in the calciorthent.
Effect of Rice Residue Management Practices on Soil Biological

Parameters in Rice-Wheat Cropping System
Mohammad Shahid*1, A.P. Singh, Intjar Ahmad and Yogeshwar Singh2

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221 005, Uttar Pradesh, India
1
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Horticulture and Forestry,
Central Agricultural University, Pasighat, 791 102, Arunachal Pradesh
2
Department of Agronomy, Rajendra Agricultura University, Pusa, Bihar, India
(*Email: shahid.vns@gmail.com)
Soil microorganisms constitute an active component of the soil organic pool, controlling the breakdown of organic
matter and, hence, the release of nutrients and their availability for other organisms. The microbial biomass also acts
as a small but labile reservoir of nutrients that contributes to maintaining long-term agricultural sustainability. A study
was undertaken to study the rice residue management impacts on the soil biological health. Total organic C, Kjeldahl-
N, microbial biomass carbon (MBC), microbial biomass N (MBN), soil respiration, dehydrogenase and cellulase enzyme
activities were determined in soil after taking wheat crop for two consecutive years at Varanasi. Rice residue management
under conservation tillage system and with the use of microbial cultures had a significant effect on various soil properties.
The value of SMBC was the highest (276.88 mg C kg-1 soil) under the treatment of chopped residue + zero tillage,
while it was minimum (255.11 mg C kg-1 soil) under conventional tillage. Less mixing of surface soil under reduced
tillage system led to concentration of organic matter at the soil surface. Soil respiration, dehydrogenase and cellulase
enzyme activities were also increased under conservation tillage. This study showed that microbial biomass and soil
enzyme activities were significantly higher under conservation tillage along with the use of microbial cultures over
conventional tillage practice. The results indicated that organic management positively affected soil organic matter
content, thus improving soil quality and productivity.
60
Effect of Residue Management and Fertility Levels on Yield in

Rice-Wheat System
L.R. Singh, Vivek Yadav and Rajendra Singh

SVBP University of Agriculture and Technology, Zonal Research Station,
Nagina, Bijnor, Uttar Pradesh, India
Session 1.1
A field experiment was conducted during 2004-05 and 2005-06 at Zonal Research Station, Nagina to find out effect of
residue management and fertility levels on yield of rice-wheat system. The soil of the experimental site was sandy
loam, having organic C 0.39%, available P2O5 41.2 kg and available K2O 262 kg ha-1, with pH 7.4. The experiment was
laid out in split-plot design, keeping 6 residue management treatments, viz. T1- residues of rice and wheat removed,
T2- rice residues removed and wheat residues incorporated, T3- rice residues incorporated and wheat residues removed,
T4- rice residues removed and wheat residues burnt, T5- rice residues burnt and wheat residues removed, T6- residues
of both the crops incorporated, in main plots; and two fertility levels, viz. F1-100+40+40 (N, P2O5, K2O kg ha-1), and F2-
120+60+40 (N, P2O5, K2O kg ha-1), in sub-plots. To facilitate the decomposition of residues, 25% N of the recommended
was applied at the time of residue incorporation, and, remaining N was applied in three splits (basal + tillering + panicle
initiation) in rice, and two splits (basal and after Ist irrigation) in wheat. Variety ‘NDR-359’ of rice and ‘PBW-343’ of
wheat was used in the investigation.
On the basis of pooled analysis, it was revealed that grain yield of rice and wheat was significantly superior when
residues were incorporated than other treatments. The influence of burning (4.36 t ha -1) and removal (4.18
t ha-1) of residues on grain yield of wheat was the lowest among all the treatments. Highest grain yield of rice (6.83 t/
ha) was found under incorporation of residues of both the crops than removal or burning of the residues. Fertilizer level
120+60+40 (N, P2O5, K2O kg ha-1) registered significantly higher grain yield than 100+40+40 (N, P2O5, K2O kg ha-1).
On the basis of physico-chemical properties of soil, significantly higher values of organic C and lower values of bulk
density and pH were recorded with residue incorporation than residue removed or burnt.
Effect of Crop Residue and Land Management Practices on Resource

Conservation, Soil Properties and Sorghum Yield on
a Vertisol of South India
S.K.N. Math*, S.L. Patil, R.N. Adhikari, and S. Mana Mohan

Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Research Centre,
Bellary, 583 104, Karnataka, India
(*Email: sknmath@rediffmail.com)
A field experiment was conducted at Bellary, Karnataka, India during 1997–98 to 2001–02 to study the effect of crop
residue and land management practices on soil erosion, rainwater conservation, soil physico-chemical properties, and
sorghum yield. Lower runoff and soil loss were observed in sorghum + dolichos, with dolichos incorporated into the soil
at 45 days after sowing (DAS), followed by sorghum + dolichos cultivated for grain purpose. Higher runoff and soil loss
were observed in control (sorghum grown without soil disturbance). In sorghum + dolichos cropping system, with
dolichos incorporated into the soil at 45 DAS, and sorghum + dolichos grown for grain purpose reduced the soil loss by
25 and 20%, respectively, compared with sorghum grown without soil disturbance. Higher sorghum grain yield of 2315
kg ha-1 was recorded in the plots with dolichos incorporation, followed by dolichos used as mulch on the soil at 45 DAS
(2141 kg ha-1) in sorghum + dolichos. Higher soil water was observed in the top 60 cm soil profile in sorghum +
dolichos, with dolichos incorporated into the soil after 45 DAS. Sorghum + dolichos grown for grain recorded significantly
higher sorghum grain equivalent yield of 3194 kg ha-1 as compared with other treatments, except with dolichos
incorporated into the soil at 45 DAS. During 2002 February, soil samples from 0-15 cm and 15-30 cm were analysed
61
for soil physico-chemical properties. The results indicated higher mean weight diameter of aggregates and soil
organic C, available N, P, and K with dolichos either cultivated for grain purpose, used as a mulch or incorporated
into the soil with sorghum, compared with treatments without dolichos cultivation (sorghum alone).
Soil Conservation Measures for Plantation Crop in Degraded

Session 1.1
Watershed in North-Eastern Ghats of Orissa
C.R. Subudhi
All India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture, Phulbani, 762 001, Orissa, India
Kandhamal district is situated in central part of Orissa. The annual rainfall of this district is around 1396 mm. Most
of people are tribal and the area under forest. So this area is highly prone to soil loss due to heavy rainfall during
kharif. A trial was formulated to know the effect of conservation trenches for plantation crop. The trial was conducted
during 2001-03 on farmers’ field of Sudreju village of Kandhamal district with the following objectives: (i) to conserve
moisture for establishment of plantation crop, (ii) to reduce erosion from upstream area, (iii) to increase production
of timber, fruit species, fuel wood and fodder.The treatments were: (i) no treatment, (ii) continuous V-ditches at 10
m horizontal interval, (iii) continuous V-ditches at 20 m horizontal interval, (iv) V-ditches staggered at 5 m horizontal
interval, (v) V-ditches staggered at 10 m horizontal interval. Mango variety, ‘Pusa Amrapalli’ was tried during kharif,
and during rabi blackgram (‘PU-30’) was grown in between mango rows. It was observed that in continuous contour
V-ditch at 10 m interval, rate of growth was 2.06 cm month-1 in case of Amrapalli, which was 46% higher than
control. The grain yield of blackgram was also 23.5% higher than control. Though the cost of construction was high,
it was recommended to practice contour V-ditch at 10 m interval to conserve soil and moisture and get more grain
yield in degraded watershed of Kandhamal district.
Effect of Soil Water Conservation Practices on the Hydrothermal

Regime of Soil, Nutrient Removal, Growth, Yield and Quality of Brinjal
Crops
I.S. Singh, O.P. Awasthi, B.D. Sharma and P.L. Saroj

Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India
Field experiments were conducted for three years (2004-05, 2005-06 and 2006-07) on loamy sand soils with egg
plant, under a set of soil moisture conservation practices. Treatments included: (i) control (C), (ii) FYM incorporation
@ 93.3 t ha-1 (FI), (iii) Bui (Aerva pseudotomentosa) grass straw mulch @ 8 t ha-1 (BSM), (iv) clusterbean (Cyamopsis
tetragonoloba) straw mulch @ 8 t ha-1 and (CSM), and (v) FYM mulch @ 140 t ha-1 (FM). While incorporation of FYM
resulted in gain in soil water retention, there was increase in water-use efficiency. This was substantiated by data on
growth and yield parameters of crop. Due to the surface application of mulches, thermal and moisture regimes were
influenced favourably. The modification of hydrothermal regimes by soil moisture conservation practices significantly
increased nutrient uptake, straw and fruit yield and improved the fruit quality. However, among the mulch treatments,
FYM mulch conserved the highest moisture, followed by clusterbean straw mulch. Further, FYM mulch with its rich N
content contributed towards higher N uptake and protein content of fruit compared to clusterbean and Bui straw
mulches.
62
Nutrient-Supplying Potential of Dominant Weed Species during Dry-Wet

Transition for Hybrid Rice Production
S.R. Pascua, Jr, L.C. Battulayan, O.S. Casil and R.L. Dadufalza
College of Agriculture and Forestry, Mariano Marcos State University, Batac City, Ilocos Norte 2906, Philippines
Session 1.1
Several small farmers could hardly afford to use commercial fertilizers due to their high cost. The highly intensive
cropping system adapted by farmers and the unsystematic fertilizer management may not retain nutrients in the soil as
they may be absorbed by weeds; thus, increasing the nutrient content of several weed species. Weeds could serve as
source of nutrients for the growth and development of rice plants in rainfed lowlands.
This study aims to: a) find out the nutrient contribution of different weed species for hybrid rice production, b)
evaluate the agronomic nitrogen-use efficiency (ANUE) of hybrid rice when applied with biomass of different weed
species, c) analyze the cost and return of using different weed species as source of nutrients on hybrid rice, and d)
determine the dominant weed species in San Manuel and San Fernando soil series, and in rice-corn, rice-tomato and
rice-garlic cropping pattern with high nutrient-supplying potential.
There are two experiments: field experiments on rice using different weed species as source of nutrients in two
soil series and a survey of the dominant weed species in different cropping patterns and in two soil series. A randomized
complete block design in 3 replications was used for the experiment with the following variables: no fertilizer application
(control), recommended rate 120-60-30 kg N-P2O5-K2O ha-1, Leucaena leucocephala (Ipil-ipil-control), Chorchorus
olitorius (Saluyot), Chromolaena odorata (Martial law), Limnophila rugusa (Tara-tara- for San Fernando series),
Commelina benghalensis (Marmarakawayan- for San Manuel series) and Ipomoea triloba L. (Marakaong). Tissue
analysis for the different weed species was done at the Crops Research Laboratory. Under each soil series, 16
farmers’ fields were surveyed, while eight farmers’ field for each cropping pattern.
Highest yield of 5.20-5.98 t ha-1 was obtained in plots applied with 120-60-30 kg N-P2O5-K2O ha-1 and comparable
when applied with Ipomoea triloba (5.10-5.65 t ha-1), followed by plots applied with Chorchorus olitorius (4.97-5.56 t
ha-1), and Leucaena leucocephala (5.00-5.76 t ha-1). There is comparable result of ANUE of the hybrid rice when
applied with the recommended rate of fertilizer, ipil-ipil and several weed species in both soil series, except for the C
odorata in San Manuel series. Numerically, the highest net income, amounting to P 29,000.00 – P 32,000.00 was
observed from plants applied with Ipomoea triloba, and this treatment had the highest marginal benefit : cost ratio
(MBCR) of 1.19-1.31.
E. colona was the most dominant weed species in three cropping patterns. It had the highest sum dominance ratio
(SDR) in rice-garlic (44.50%) compared to rice-corn (29.90%) and rice-tomato (38.30%). In rice-garlic cropping pattern
under San Manuel soil series, H. indicum had the highest NPK contribution of 288.22 kg N ha-1, 21.17 kg P ha-1, and
3.74 kg K ha-1. In San Fernando soil series, I. triloba had the highest N contribution of 231.84 kg ha-1.
Influence of Soil Tillage Systems on Soil Organic Matter Dynamics in

Some Soils of Transylvania, Romania
Rusu Teodor*, Bogdan Ileana, Moraru Paula, Pop Adrian, Cacovean Horea,
Pacurar Ioan, Marcel Dirja and Oroian Ioan
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, 3-5, Manastur street,
400372, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
(*Email: trusu@usamvcluj.ro)
It is now internationally unanimous accepted fact that global climatic changes are the results of human intervention in
the bio-geo-chemical material and water cycle, and the sequestration of carbon in soil is considered an important
63
intervention to limit these changes. Soil structure, soil organic matter (SOM) conservation and hydrological function
of the soil are the most important functions determining the fertility, bioproductive capacity, and soil evolution. The
soil through its properties (humus and texture content) and applied technology modifies the soil structure, porosity,
permeability and water capacity.
Soil organic matter includes living organisms such as bacteria, fungi, nematodes, protozoa, earthworms, arthropods,
and living roots. Organic C is the C content that is commonly used to characterize the amount of OM in soils. Carbon
sequestration in soil has net advantages, improving the productivity and sustainability. The more the organic content in
Session 1.1
soil is higher, the better soil aggregation is. The soil without organic content is compact. This reduces its capacity to
infiltrate water, nutrient solubility and productivity, and that way it reduces the soil capacity for carbon sequestration.
Also it raises soil vulnerability to erosion through water and wind.
The paper presents the influence of conventional plough tillage system on soil structure and humus conservation
of soil in comparison with the alternative minimum tillage system (para plow, chisel plow and rotary harrow). The
appliance of minimum tillage systems determine an increase of the humus content with 0.8-22.1% and an increase of
the hydro stabile aggregates content with 1.3-13.6% on 0-30 cm depth towards the classical system. In the case of
humus content and also the hydro stability structure, the statistic interpretation of the dates shows the increasing of the
positive significance of the minimum systems appliance, while the soil fertility and the hydro stability of the macro-
aggregates were initially low, the effect being the conservation of the soil features and also their reconstruction, with a
positive influence upon the permeability of the soil for water.
The increase of organic matter content and even of humus content is due to the vegetal remnants partially
incorporated and to an adequate biological activity in this system. More aggregated soils permit more water to reach
the root zone. This not only increases productivity but may also reduce runoff, and thus erodibility potential.
Possibilities to Recycle in Agriculture the Oil Tanker Sludge
R. Lãcãtusu1,2 and Anca – Rovena Lãcãtusu1

1
National Research and Development Institute for Soil Science, Agrochemistry and Environment Protection
Bucharest, Blvd. Marasti, 61, 011464, sector 1, Bucharest, Romania
2
Al. I. Cuza” University, Iassy
(*Email: radu@icpa.ro)
Sludge formed in the oil tanks in which crude oil is stored temporarily is undergoing a process of extracting useful
components, crude oil and salty water, using a special plant. Following the separation of the two components remains
a solid material, which contains, however, a few percent of crude oil and brine. This material should be managed so as
not to pollute environment.
One of the possible variants of this waste is recycling in agriculture. The solution is feasible because the analysis
of this material showed the presence of chemical elements such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu etc., which have
a major role in mineral nutrition of plants.
Some of these chemical elements, such as heavy metals, which in high amounts could have negative impact on
plants. To demonstrate the hypothesis viability experiments were conducted with plants (maize) in the greenhouse and
field. Fertilization treatments were achieved with moderate doses of solid material generated from the petroleum
sludge production, alone or mixed with mineral fertilizers. Results showed that solid material derived from petroleum
sludge processing along with mineral fertilizers NPK resulted in achieving significant crop rise. In this way, it can
foresee recycling in agriculture of this industrial waste without polluting the environment.
64
Performance of Controlled Field Traffic Conservation Agriculture

Zero-Till Drills for Direct Drilling of Wheat after Rice under
Different Surface Managed Residue Conditions
T.C. Thakur, V.P. Ranaware, Arun Kumar and R.K. Singh

G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar 263 145, Uttarakhand, India
Session 1.1
After successful introduction of zero-till seed drills for direct drilling of wheat, pulses and oilseeds in anchored rice
stubbles, a new range of second generation ZT-drills capable of drilling in different surface managed loose as well as
anchored crop residue conditions along with controlled field traffic features were introduced during 2002-03 at a
number of locations in IGPs including Uttarakhand, India with the main objective of selecting the best drill / opener for
further acceleration of conservation agriculture technology. Field experiments were, therefore, conducted during 2004-
05 for direct drilling of wheat after rice combining with four types of second generation controlled field traffic ZT-drills
equipped with 6 rows of inverted-T openers (M1), double disc openers (M2), star-wheel punch planter (M3) and rotary
powered discs ahead of double disc openers (M4), all working under three rice residue conditions, viz. standing stubbles
(200 mm) with residue density of 2740 kg ha-1 (C1), chopped stubbles as surface mulch with residue density of 4390 kg
ha-1 (C2) and chopped loose straw and stubbles as high density (6980 kg ha-1) surface mulch (C3). In case of M1, M2
and M3, 6 sets of openers were mounted on single drill one after another during field operation. The parameters
selected for evaluation were fuel consumption, changes in soil physical properties, furrow / slit opener’s performance,
irrigation water requirement, attributes of wheat crop establishment and yield. The fuel consumption of drills was found
to be maximum (7.50 l ha-1) with M4, followed by M1 (4.97 l ha-1), M2 (4.67 l ha-1) and M3 (4.25 l ha-1). In general, the dry
soil bulk density of silty loam soil increased gradually from 1.41 g cc-1 (initial) to 1.51 g cc-1 at the time of harvest. The
field residue conditions did not significantly affect the irrigation water requirement, and was minimum with C 3 (1370 m3
ha-1) followed in increasing order by C2 (1390 m3 ha-1) and C1 (1408 m3 ha-1). The soil moisture content varied significantly
in different residue conditions at different stages of crop growth, and was found to be higher as 14.63, 21.13, 25.74 and
13.08% in C3 in comparison to 13.84, 18.56, 22.25 and 12.05% in C1 at 25, 60, 90 and 130 DAS (days after sowing),
respectively. The weed density varied significantly with field residue conditions and was found to be maximum of 60.42
and 29.12 g m-2 (C1) and minimum of 35.70 and 13.93 g m-2 (C3) at 45 and 60 DAS, respectively. The grain and straw
yield of wheat ‘PBW 343’ was found significantly maximum (3155 and 7362 kg ha-1) with M2, followed by M4 (3044 and
7197 kg ha-1), M3 (3026 and 7030 kg ha-1) and M1 (2855 and 6898 kg ha-1). In general, the double disc opener ZT-drill
(M2) performed superior to other drills and methods of crop establishment, and was recommended for further extensive
trials.
Investigation Methods of Control and Non-Control Catchments

Management in Iran Rangelands
Mahmoud Yousefi* and Hosain tavakoli

Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center of Mashhad, Khorassan Razavi, Iran
(*Email: mahmodyosofi@yahoo.com)
The arid and semi-arid regions of the world constitute 44.7 million square kilometers, majority of which are not suitable
to crop production but can be used as grazing lands. The lands of Iran are similar to condition of semi-arid regions.
Permanent over-grazing and utilization of natural rangeland compact surface soil and destruct vegetation cover, resulting
in surface runoff and soil erosion. The present study (control management) was carried out in three stages. The first
stage was determination of land use management for range sites and watershed network places. The second stage
was seeding, furrowing, pitting with suitable range plants such as: Agropyron desertorum, A. elengatum, A. cristatum,
Festuca arundinaceae, F. ovina, Cecal mountanum, B. tomentellus, Bromus kopetdaghensis, Medicago sativa,
65
Onobrychis amoena, O. sativa, O. verae, Astragalus brevidense, Eurotia seratoides and Kochia prostrate. The
third stage was evaluation of forage, production by method of randomized sampling for determining, canopy cover,
carrying capacity, number of runoff occurrence, and percent of water sediments. The data were compared with non-
control catchments rangelands sites and natural current catchments rangelands management. It was indicated
that controlled management practices increased percentage of canopy cover, forage production, and carrying
capacity for animal unit. However, number of runoff and rate of water sediments were decreased.
Session 1.1
Changing Scenario of Crop Production through Resource

Conservation Technologies in Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains
A.R. Khan*, S.S. Singh, M.A. Khan, Olaf Erenstein1, Ravi G. Singh1 and Raj K. Gupta2
ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region, Patna, 800 014, Bihar, India
1
CIMMYT – India, New Delhi, India
2
ICARDA, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
(*Email: khan_ar@sify.com)
Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) is the most productive region of south Asia. The region witnessed higher growth rates for
foodgrain production as compared to other regions of the world. Most of this area is under rice-wheat cropping system,
covering a total of 13.5 million hectares in India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan. However, growth rates have decreased
or stagnated even as there is a wider recognition of environmental issues arising from the intensive and sometimes
excessive use of inputs, especially fertilizers and herbicides.
Long-term sustainability of these systems is now a subject of attention. There is a general consensus that quality
of natural resource base needs to be improved for enhanced productivity in the eastern IGP. Future productivity growth
would increase only through rational risk management strategies in the drought and flood-prone tracts of the eastern
Gangetic plains. Resource conserving technologies (RCTs) offer newer opportunities for higher production, saving in
inputs and also provide better livelihood for the resource poor, small and marginal farmers of densely-populated
eastern Gangetic plains.
Zero tillage allows farmers to establish a wheat crop almost immediately after rice harvest, thereby improving
yields and input-use efficiency. In eastern Indo-Gangetic plains, 15 November to 10 December is recommended sowing
time of wheat. Delay in sowing beyond 15th December reduces yield up to 55%, inspite of all inputs. Conventionally,
farmers plough the fields 4-5 times after rice harvest. The soils of this region are generally heavy. Poor drainage,
higher water-holding capacity and excess soil moisture do not allow normal ploughing for wheat sowing even after
harvest of rice in late December. The heavy clod formation also creates problem in ploughing. These compelling
factors lead to delay in wheat sowing by 15-25 days and thus it goes till mid-January.
Resource conservation technologies through zero-till machines were adopted since 2002 on farmers’ fields of
Sone Canal Command of Patna, Bihar On-farm trials on various second generation RCTs like double-zero tillage,
paired row and equal row were conducted in wheat sowing at 162 farmers’ fields on 90 ha area of 17 villages during
2007-08. The yields ranged between 3.8 and 4.2 t ha-1 under second generation RCTs in comparison to 2.0-2.4 t ha-1
under conventional non-RCTs fields. During 2004-06, higher yield up to 5 t ha-1 was observed in rotary disc drill where
wheat crop was sown in rice residue. The input costs including sowing of wheat in RCTs fields were Rs 6,880 ha-1 in
comparison to Rs 11,040 ha-1 in conventional farmers’ fields. In addition to saving in inputs, the minimum increase in
yield was 1.8 t ha-1 over conventional non-RCTs fields. Biophysical performance, economic gains, resource conservation,
effect on weeds, irrigation water and crop vigour; benefits and constraints; yield and social performance and response
of stakeholders were also studied.
66
Stability of Aggregates and Aggregate Size Distribution under Different

Plant Cover and Tillage Management Practices
D.K. Painuli1, M. Mohanty2*, A.K. Misra2 and K.M. Hati2

1
Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
2
(*Email: mmohanty_bpl@yahoo.co.in)
Session 1.1
Soil aggregate stability (water stable aggregates and mean weight diameter) is a potential early warning indicator of
land degradation. Because it depends on the long-term balance between soil organic matter inputs (which tend to
increase it) and disturbance (which tends to reduce it), it should integrate changes in plant production, and soil surface
disturbance. Variability in soil organic carbon (SOC) inputs and disturbance together determine soil aggregate stability
at a particular point in the landscape. Stable soil aggregates are more resistant to detachment and loss through
erosion than less stable aggregates. By controlling soil porosity, soil aggregates enhance soil water infiltration and
water holding capacity. The soil organic matter that helps bind aggregates together conserves soil fertility. Soil aggregate
stability reflects the status of other soil processes because soil aggregation depends on SOC inputs and the activity of
the soil biotic community.
Present investigation was carried out by collecting soil samples under different plant covers and soil management
practices in a Vertisol in central India. The plant covers included: Leucaena, Gliricicdia, Eucalyptus, grass waterways;
and tillage management practices from long-term tillage experiment, viz. conventional tillage (CT), reduced tillage (RT)
and no-till (NT). Results revealed that under different plant covers, the amount of macro-aggregates was the greatest
in Eucalyptus and the lowest in Leucaena treatments. The macro-aggregates distribution was the highest in no-till
treatments and lowest in conventional treatments among the land management practices. Amongst all the treatments,
the distribution of macro-aggregates followed the order: Eucalyptus>grass waterways>Gliricidia>Leucaena>NT>RT>CT.
The SOC status under different plant covers was significantly higher than those under cultivation practices. The stability
of the soil (MWD and WSA) was the highest under Eucalyptus plant cover and the lowest under conventional tillage.
We expected stability to be greater in areas where plant cover was higher and the degree of disturbance was lower
due to the correspondingly higher soil organic carbon (SOC) inputs at the treatment level. The stability of soil under
different plant covers could be attributed to the biochemical properties of plant leaves and amount of leaf falls that led
to the change in SOC status of the soil. There were significant and positive correlations between stability of aggregates
and SOC under different plant covers, and cultivation practices. The study provides an insight into formation of stability
of aggregates under different plant covers as plant induced changes in stability of aggregates will affect plant growth
mostly by modifying the root physical environment, the water and nutrient cycles.
Resource Conserving Technologies and Crop-Livestock Interactions

in the Indo-Gangetic Plains: Implications for Crop Residue
Management and R&D
N. Teufel1*, O. Erenstein2 and A. Samaddar2

1
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI),
CG Block, NASC Complex, DPS Marg, Pusa, New Delhi, 110 012, India
2
CIMMYT, Mexico
(*Email: n.teufel@cgiar.org)
Conservation Agriculture based Resource Conserving Technologies (RCTs) in the Indo-Gangetic Plains have been
identified as suitable interventions for improving soil productivity, a critical constraint of agricultural growth. Especially
67
zero-tillage in winter wheat has already found wide-spread adoption in more progressive areas of north-western
India and is actively promoted elsewhere. However, year-round zero-tillage systems demand more residue retention
in the form of mulch than conventional systems to improve soils. On the other hand, the mixed small-holder
systems dominating this region rely heavily on residues as the most important feed component for most of the year,
with wheat straw being preferred in the north-west and rice straw in the east. The current study assesses the
characteristics of adoption and use of zero-tillage in wheat, the current practices in residue management and the
links of crop and livestock activities especially through feeding. Nine study sites in India and Bangladesh were
selected, comprising the Trans-Gangetic, the Upper and the Lower Gangetic plains, to study these issues within
Session 1.1
the contrasting settings of this large region. Data were collected from 54 villages and around 1000 small-holder and
landless households both on current activities as well as on perceptions of improved technologies and livelihoods.
Results from village and household surveys in the north-western Indo-Gangetic plains, where RCTs have found
wide-spread adoption, indicate that the management of cereal residues is more influenced by harvesting technologies
than by the adoption of RCTs. Combine harvesters spread uncut straw irregularly all over the field while traditional
stationary threshers produce straw in a single heap. The determinants of residue management are most obvious in the
case of zero-tillage in wheat and the retention of straw from the preceding rice crop. Although interviewed farmers
regularly state that increased residue retention is good for soil fertility, hardly any respondent appeared to act accordingly.
The main reason for this appeared to be related to the available RCTs. Similarly, there seems to be little effect of the
adoption of zero-till in wheat on feeding patterns. In the north-western region, rice straw, the straw to be retained for
zero-till in wheat, is of less importance as feed, as it is considered to be inferior to wheat straw.
However, the perceptions on rice straw as feed are more balanced in the central region and strongly positive in the
eastern region. Correspondingly, feeding of rice straw is prominent in the usage patterns while wheat straw is hardly
fed at all. At the same time, the use of combine harvesters is so far very limited in these regions. Thus, it is hypothesised
that it will be more difficult to convince farmers of the benefits of retaining more rice straw on the field when introducing
zero-tillage in wheat there. On the other hand, zero-tillage technologies in rice, which would allow more wheat straw to
be retained, are still in an early stage of development. The research and development implications of these diverging
crop residue management strategies for conservation agriculture based RCTs are explored.
The SoCo Project (Sustainable Agriculture and Soil Conservation)
Brechje Marechal*, Ezio Rusco and Luca Montanarella

European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES),
Land Management and Natural Hazards Unit, T.P 280, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, I-21027 Ispra (VA), Italy
(*Email: brechje.marechal@jrc.it)
How can the Rural Development Program and the Common Agricultural Policy, especially cross-compliance, encourage
farmers to adopt soil conservation practices? On request of the European Parliament, the SoCo project aims to
answer this question. SoCo is managed by DG Agriculture of the European Commission and the research is carried
out by the Joint Research Centre. It is the most extensive European study on sustainable agriculture. It started in
October 2007 and will finish in summer 2009. It has a budget of •2 million.
The work is divided into four work packages. WP1 has a European wide focus. We looked at the nature, localisation
and magnitude of soil degradation processes in the EU, applied soil conservation practices and existing policy measures
with soil conservation effects. Next, the links between these three elements and to other environmental objectives
were analysed. In order to research these issues in greater detail, ten case studies were carried out across Europe
(WP 2). Questionnaires and workshops were used to involve local stakeholders. In the 3rd WP we ‘translate’ the
detailed results into a European context in order to draw conclusions on soil conservation practices and policy measures
and implementation at a European level. In the last phase, WP 4, the focus is on disseminating the acquired information.
All relevant material will be accessible from the project website: http://soco.jrc.ec.europa.eu from April 2009.
68
Here we focus on some results from the Italian case study in WP2, followed by overall conclusions of all case
studies.
Case Study Marche, Italy
The Marche region is located in Central Italy, with the Adriatic Sea to the east and the Apennine mountain range to
the west. The main soil degradation processes in Marche are soil erosion, soil organic matter decline and soil compaction.
These processes are linked to the natural soil and environmental conditions (slope, parent material, soil texture) and to
the soil and farm management. In order for farming practices to be sustainable, they have to be adapted to this local
Session 1.1
context.
Cover crops, generally seen as a champion conservation practice, backfire in the Marche region. The preparation
of the soils for spring crops that have cover crops in winter, needs to be carried out in early spring. Farmers cannot
always postpone tillage until ideal field conditions are reached and thus plough the soil when the soils are saturated,
damaging the structure and causing compaction, thus risking increased vulnerability to erosion and lower crop yields.
Probably to the surprise of conservation agriculture experts, many soils in the Marche region are ploughed
perpendicular to the contour lines. Although generally regarded as bad agronomic practice, combined with water
regime management, it is accepted as a conservation practice in the Marche. The risk of landslides brings about
greater consequences than erosion and thus the priority is given to prevent the more destructive form of land degradation.
Conclusions of the SoCo case studies
Looking at the 10 case studies, it can be concluded that there is no single solution to protect all Europe’s soils.
Different conditions such as soil type, landscape, climate and dominant farming system and crop under cultivation
require different approaches. Consequently their applicability, effectiveness and a farmer’s capacity to adopt varies.
Understanding the wide-ranging social, economic and environmental factors that influence the uptake of practices is
essential. Policy measures are more effective if supported by advice and technical support; it encourages stakeholder
participation (farmers, input suppliers and crop purchasers) and stimulates farmer uptake and longer-term behavioural
change.
Effective soil policy should be coordinated, form part of a strategic framework and have a long-term vision. When
based on an integrated assessment at local level, the promotion of locally adapted and suitable practices will lead to
the conservation of Europe’s soils. To facilitate this process, the profile of soil has to be raised in the public debate.
Impact of Zero-Tillage Technology on Resource Conservation in

Agriculture: An Empirical Experience of Indian Punjab
D.K. Grover1 and Tarun Sharma2

1
Agro-Economic Research Center, 2Department of Economics and Sociology,
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 141 004, Punjab, India
Need is being felt to explore the possibilities of saving critical inputs by adopting alternative resources conservative
technologies in agriculture as zero tillage and bed planting. Zero tillage / no tillage refers to planting of various crops
with minimum soil disturbance. Recently this technology has been recommended to farmers in Punjab to conserve
water, save fuel, ensure timely sowing and to reduce drudgery of work. Consequent upon good response from farmers,
area under zero-till wheat has increased from merely 750 ha in 2000-01 to over 2 lakh ha in 2005-06. Economic
analysis of the data shows that zero tillage method for wheat cultivation is economical and attractive option for farming
community. The high yield grain and less cost of production were noted on zero tillage farms as compared with
conventional farms. The estimates of regression analysis show that zero tillage could increase income of the farmers
substantially. Finally, the adoption of zero tillage technology improved farmer’s profit, his livelihood and eventually
reduced poverty. Unawareness about the technology, management of standing stubbles of rice crop and deep sowing
69
of seed were mentioned as some of the hindering factors in the fast adoption of this technology on farmers’ field.
The various policy measures in this regard include: extension of technical know-how of zero-till technology, conducting
field trials, giving a new package of practice to the farmers, and providing easy access to zero-till drill, either at
subsidized seed drill price or through custom hiring by the co-operative societies/state agriculture department.
Session 1.1
Soil Test Crop Response Correlation Studies and Development of

Targeted Yield Equations on Wheat for Mollisol in Uttarakhand
Debarati Bhaduri, Poonam Gautam, Sobaran Singh and A.K. Agnihotri

Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture,G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
Pantnagar, 263 145, Uttarakhand, India
The shortage and high cost of fertilizers necessitate that every unit of fertilizer be used judiciously. In view of high
location-specific nutrient needs and soil-test based fertilizer recommendation for specific crop and crop sequences,
soil testing has updated its methods and techniques to remove soil fertility constraints. A field experiment was carried
out in three strips with distinctive fertility gradient to develop dependable equations for computing nutrient dose for
target yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in a Aquic Hapludoll at Pantnagar. Crop response was studied by using 24
treatment combinations of different levels of N (0, 100, 150, 200 kg ha-1), P2O5 (0, 30, 60, 90 kg ha-1), K2O (0, 25, 50,
75 kg ha-1) and FYM (0, 5, 10 t ha-1). Multiple regression type of response functions were fitted into the data by selected
soil test methods. Nutrient uptake based on plant analysis and soil test values was utilized as the basis of nutrient
prescriptions for target yield of wheat. Nutrient requirement to produce a quintal of wheat grain was found to be 2.72
kg, 0.49 kg and 2.67 kg N, P2O5 and K2O, respectively. Percent contribution of N, P2O5 and K2O was 29.02, 14.59 and
31.5 from soil; 15.97, 9.05 and 15.6 from FYM; 43.49, 54.34 and 193.67 from chemical fertilizer and 43.09, 51.9 and
196.3 from conjoint use of chemical fertilizer with FYM. Coefficient of determination (R2) was found significant between
yield, soil test values and fertilizer dose. Optimum fertilizer dose responsible for producing better grain quality in terms
of protein, gluten, starch, zeleny contents was assessed. Further, the fertilizer doses for N, P and K were estimated in
presence and absence of FYM for the specified target yield. The coefficient of determination (R2) for soil N as alkaline
KMnO4 and % organic carbon were comparable and highly significant with yield. This implied that both the methods
were equally suitable for wheat in Mollisol of Uttarakhand.
Morphology, Mineralogy and Classification of Soils of Khajeh, Iran
A.A. Jafarzadeh*, A, Ebadpour, M.R. Neyshabouri and Sh Oustan

Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz, 51664, I.R of Iran
(*Email: ajafarzadeh@tabrizu.ac.ir)
The aim of this study was to evaluate soil formation and characteristics. Eight representative soil profiles were selected
and morphological, physico-chemical and mineralogical properties were determined. The soils were found to be
piedmonts with mainly calcareous, gypsiferous and shale parent material, lying at low latitude and surrounded by hills
and mountain.
The area calculated soil temperature and moisture regimes by using data from Khajeh closed climatological
stations and Newhall method revealed mesic and weak aridic respectively. Mineralogical analysis (X.R.D) showed
chlorite, illite, kaolinite, vermiculite, palygorskite, quartz, and in a few portion smecttite (montmorillonite). Illite and
chlorite in all layers, kaolinite in the majority of horizons and palygorskite in some layer are inherited, but vermiculite in
the majority of horizons seems to be formed in the soil and is one of the main pedofeatures.
70
In general the soils with different topography from qualitative point of view showed same mineralogical properties,
but kaolinite found mainly in the lower parts of soil profiles showed similarity in parent rocks and materials, and also
limited condition of minerals weathering. Calcium carbonate and gypsum are the dominant inorganic materials which
have formed calcic and gypsic horizons by calcification and gypsification processes. The soils are neutral to slightly
alkaline, and texture is medium to relatively heavy before removing gypsum. Subsequently soils were classified as
Aridisols and sub-orders of calcids and gypsids, great groups of Haplocalcids,Haplogypsids and Calcigysids based on
Keys to Soil Taxonomy 2006.
Session 1.1
Influence of Establishment Techniques on Productivity of Rice
A.Y. Hugar, H. Chandrappa, H.M. Jayadeva and Nagaraj Kusagur

Agricultural Research Station, UAS, Kathalagere 577 219, Karnataka, India
A field experiment was conducted during summer season of 2007 on sandy clay loam soils of Agricultural Research
Station, Kathalagere, Karnataka to study the performance of rice under different establishment techniques. Six different
establishment methods, viz. normal, transplanter, drumseeder, SRI, aerobic and zero tillage were used with four
replications. Among the different methods tried, SRI method of rice recorded the maximum grain yield (6.30 t ha-1) and
was followed by normal planting (6.21 t ha-1) and transplanter rice (5.57 t ha-1). Least grain yield was recorded by zero
tillage (4.00 t ha-1). The maximum straw yield was obtained with normal planting (6.89 kg ha-1) and SRI method of rice
(6.84 t ha-1). The number of total tillers m-2 (472) and effective tillers m-2 (392) were maximum in SRI method rice.
Among the different methods tried, aerobic method of rice planting recorded the maximum water saving (40-45%),
followed by SRI method (20-25%) over normal planting method of rice.
Legume Covers in Immature Rubber Plantation: A Means for

Soil Health Conservation
Annie Philip, Elsie S. George, K.I. Punnoose and N. Usha Nair
Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) cultivation in the traditional rubber growing tracts of Kerala occur in a narrow belt with an
elevation of 30 to 450 m. These areas are undulating and receiving rainfall of 2000 to 4500 mm. The topography and
heavy rain causes land degradation by the severe soil erosion when the land is exposed. Hence adoption of suitable
agro-management practices become inevitable in rubber plantations for conserving soil, moisture and nutrients.
Establishment of leguminous ground covers in the immature phase of rubber plantation is an accepted agro-management
practice. Pueraria phaseoloides and Mucuna bracteata are the two common cover crops grown in the rubber plantations
in India. In order to understand the efficiency of these two cover crops at different ages (1-5 year old) in dry matter
production and nutrient accumulation, a field study was conducted at Travancore Rubber and Tea Estate, Mundakayam
in Idikki district of Kerala state. The effect on soil moisture conservation and soil phsico-chemical properties by
establishing leguminous covers in comparison with adjacent bare land were also studied. Eight microplots (1x1 m size)
were demarcated at random in the respective leguminous cover crop fields within each age group and adjoining bare
land, and observations were taken from these plots.
It was observed that dry matter production was maximum in the two year old pueraria (5.46 t ha-1) and mucuna
(7.62 t ha-1). It showed a declining trend in the later years. Nitrogen accumulation by pueraria and mucuna for a period
of two years were 174 kg ha-1 and 236 kg ha-1 respectively. Cultivation of these cover crops were found to improve
significantly the soil physical properties like porosity and soil moisture retention when compared to adjacent bare land
except in the first year. Soil moisture during summer months at different depths indicted a higher soil moisture status
71
in the cover crop established fields than the adjacent bare land. Among the two species, mucuna established fields
recorded more soil moisture than pueraria fields. In general, the organic carbon status of the fields was in the order:
mucuna> pueraria> bare land.
Analysis of Knowledge about Soil Types and Adoption of

Session 1.1
Improved Agricultural Practices in Rice Farming
A.K. Jhajharia1, J.D. Sarkar2, Santosh Kumari3 and I.M. Khan4

1,4
Department of Extension Education, S.K.N. College of Agriculture,
Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner 334 006, Rajasthan, India
2
Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture,
India Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
3
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Sangria, Hanumangarh 335 063, Rajasthan, India
Soil is a thin layer of earth’s crust and serves as natural medium for growth of plants. It contains mixture of fine rock
particles and decomposed organic matter of vegetation and animals. Soil is a precious gift of nature, human beings
achieved great success by learning the use of the soil. Bhata is affected with late rating process and found in red
yellow mixed colour with shallow depth and undulating rolling slope. Yellowish colour, few fine cracks, moderate depth
and water retention capacity are the main features of Matasi soil. Dorsa is silty-clay, moderate and brownish gray in
colour. Kanhar soil is black in colour and oilish the power of water absorption in this soil is greater. This study was
carried out in Raipur district of Chhattisgarh in 3 blocks namely Abhanpur, Arang and Dharsiwa. From the randomly
selected 12 villages, a total of 120 farmers were finally considered in the sample for the collection of primary data.
The study reveals that majority of the respondents were having 95.9% knowledge about importance of Matasi soil.
Also majority of the respondents were having maximum 78.2% knowledge about water holding capacity of Kanhar soil.
Maximum (83.3%) knowledge about soil structure of bhata soil. Majority of the respondents were having 70.9% knowledge
about soil topography of dorsa soil. Majority of the respondents were having 70.8 and 81.5% knowledge about soil
depth and soil productivity of Kanhar soils, respectively. Among, all the traits of soils being in interrogated by the
farmers, the level of knowledge about all soil types was found fairly high. Adoption of recommended technology of rice
in various soil types, in respect to variety, majority of the respondents were growing recommended varieties in Kanhar
soils. According to sowing method, majority of the respondents were adopted the recommendation at medium level in
Matasi soil. Recommended doses of nitrogen and phosphorus were adopted by the maximum respondents in Matasi
and Kanhar soils. The recommended dose of potash were adopted at medium level in Matasi and Kanhar soil. Modern
pest management practices were also adopted in Kanhar and Matasi soils at a high level. Majority of the respondents
79% adopted recommended sowing methods in Matasi soil. Majority of the respondents 62% adopted recommended
dose of nitrogen in Kanhar type of soil. Majority of the respondents 68% adopted recommended dose of phosphorus in
Kanhar type of soil. Majority of the respondents 60% adopted recommended dose of potash in Kanhar type of soil.
Majority of the respondents 74% adopted recommended dose of pesticides in Kanhar type of soil. Majority of the
respondents 86% adopted recommended disease management in Dorsa type of soil.
72
Long-term Fertilization and Manuring Effects on Soil Biological

Activities under Wheat Growth
Asit Mandal, A.K. Patra, Dhyan Singh and T.J. Purakayastha

Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110 012, India
Session 1.1
Long-term application of manures and fertilizers affects below-ground microbial processes, plant growth and productivity.
Increased plant growth in turn has an increased rhizosphere feed back to microbial processes. The fertilizer treatments
consisting of control (without fertilizer and manure), N, NP, NPK, NPK+FYM, NPK+S of Long-Term Fertilizers Experiment
continuing for more than three decades at the farm of Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, were chosen
for our study. The biological activities in terms of microbial biomass carbon (MBC), microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN),
mineralizable N and activities of dehydrogenase, acid and alkaline phosphatase enzymes were measured in the
rhizosphere soil of wheat grown on the above treatments at three critical growth stages (tillering, flowering and dough).
In general, long-term fertilization and physiological growth stages of wheat had positive influence on the measured soil
biological activities. A balanced application of NPK (100% based on soil test) along with FYM (15 Mg ha -1 yr-1) exhibited
the highest values for the measured parameters and lowest at the control. The values were generally highest at
tillering stage, followed by the flowering stage and dough stage. A significant interaction between fertilizer treatments
and physiological growth stages of wheat was noticed for MBC, mineralizable N and activities of dehydrogenase and
alkaline phosphatase. The interaction effect of fertilization and growth stages was highest at maximum tillering owing
to the application of NPK and FYM. Stepwise regressions revealed that grain yield of wheat was significantly affected
by the mineralizable N at tillering (R2 = 0.80), MBC at flowering (R2 = 0.90) and alkaline phosphatase activity at dough
stage (R2 = 0.70). It is thus concluded that the interaction effect of long-term fertility management regimes and the
physiological growth stages of wheat (i.e. rhizospheric feed back) should be considered in assessing the microbial and
biochemical processes in soil, which in turn affect nutrient cycling significantly to produce sustainable crop yields.
Relationship of Organic Carbon Pools with Available Nitrogen,

Phosphorus and Sulphur in Soils under Different Agricultural
Management Practices in the Tropics
B.C. Verma1, S.P. Datta1, R.K. Rattan1 and A.K. Singh2

1
Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, IARI, New Delhi, 110 012, India
2
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, KAB-II, IARI Campus, New Delhi, 110 012, India
Soil organic carbon can be separated into different fractions potentially reflective of their relative responsiveness to
land-use and management practices. Stabilized fraction of SOC has an important role in the exchange of cations and
water holding capacity. It is not generally associated with rapid microbial turnover of nutrients in agricultural soils. By
contrast, the labile pools of carbon are primarily influenced by new organic matter (originating from plants/ animals)
contributed annually has a significant role in nutrient turnover and supply. In view of little information available on the
impact of labile carbon on the available nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and sulphur (S), particularly under tropical
conditions, we attempted to study the relationships among various soil organic carbon pools and their contribution to
the extractable N, P and S status of soil under different agricultural management practices and land uses.
For this purpose, in all, 117 surface (0-15 cm) soil samples were collected from the three important cropping
systems of the country (rice-wheat, maize-wheat and soybean-wheat), peri-urban agricultural lands receiving sewage,
sludge and industrial effluents for long period, and forest-lands. Results indicated that across the different agricultural
management practices and land uses, total and labile pools of carbon were highly correlated with each other. On an
73
average, WBC, LBC and MBC accounted for 25.4, 8.92, and 2.17% of total soil organic carbon, respectively. In view
of gross under-estimation of total organic carbon content in soils, it appears that the generally used correction
factor of 1.3 for the conversion of WBC to TOC is not applicable to tropical soils, particularly in this region (Delhi).
Under arable agriculture crops and native forest, MBC proved to be the most useful for monitoring N, and P
supplying capacity of soil, followed by LBC and WBC. In case of S, any of these soil organic carbon pools can be
used. In soil continuously receiving sewage, sludge and industrial effluents, WBC can be used as an index of
fertility status of soil in respect of N, P and S.
Session 1.1
An Assessment of Soil Erosion in the Coastal Belt

of Peninsular India
D.V. Singh*, V. Selvi, A.K. Sikka1 and R.S. Kurothe2

Research Centre, Udhagamandalam 643 004, Tamil Nadu, India
1
National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA), NASC Complex,
Dev Prakash Shastri Marg, Pusa, New Delhi, 110 012, India
2
CSWCRTI, Research Centre, Vasad 388 306, Gujarat, India
(*Email: dvsign@rediffmail.com, dvs_icar@yahoo.co.in)
Coastal belts are characterized by different physical and climatic features leading to different kinds of soil erosion
problem in these areas. An estimate of soil erosion is the basis for identifying critical source areas for treatment in a
target area. A 50 km wide strip was created all along the coast line of peninsular India in Geographical Information
System (GIS) and the area thereby delineated was considered as the coastal belt in this study. For this belt, potential
soil loss was estimated through employing Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) following a distributed parametric
approach. Spatial data base was developed for the six factors of this equation in GIS and all these thematic layers
were overlaid for spatially discretizing the whole belt into Erosion Response Units (ERUs). Potential soil loss was
estimated for each ERU and it was observed that major portion (75%) of the coastal belt of peninsular India falls in <5
t ha-1 yr-1 soil loss category. The soil loss under the category of 5-10 t ha-1 yr-1 occupy 8.7% of the total coastal area with
major occurrence in the states of Maharashtra (577.3 thousand ha), Andhra Pradesh (550.3 thousand ha) and Karnataka
and Goa (401.3 thousand ha). The extent of area under the soil loss class of 10-20 t ha -1 yr-1 is 1239.8 thousand ha
(4.5%) with more concentration in the states of Karnataka and Goa, Maharashtra, Kerala and Gujarat which contribute
towards 82% of area under this category. About 4% of the total coastal area suffers soil loss which can be termed as
severe (20-40 t ha-1 yr-1) and about 8% falls in the very severe soil loss category (>40 t ha-1 yr-1). These two classes are
mostly confined to the states of Maharashtra, Kerala and Karnataka and Goa due to occurrence of steeper slopes
coupled with higher rainfall erosivity in these areas.
74
Happy Seeder Technology Provides an Alternate to Burning for

Managing Rice Loose Straw after Combine Harvest
Mahesh K. Gathala1*, H. Pathak1, J.K. Ladha1, Vivak Kumar2, Deepika Mishra1, John Blackwell3,
Crisian Roth3, Virender Kumar1, Vipin Kumar1 and Sheetal Sharma1
1
International Rice Research Institute, India-Office, New Delhi, India
2
SVBPUAT, Modipuram, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
Session 1.1
3
Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Australia
(*Email: mgathala@cgiar.org)
Rice-wheat is the major cropping system in the Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP) grown on about 13 M ha. In the past
decades, with the introduction of contractor operated combine harvesters there has been exponential growth in
mechanical harvesting in the better endowed rice-wheat growing areas of north-west India. However, burning is the
normal method of rice stubble management in these areas. Residue burning causes air pollution (particulates and
greenhouse gases), nutrient loss (especially nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, potassium and sulphur) and soil organic
matter decline. Rice stubbles can be managed by incorporating it with tillage. As tillage to incorporate rice residue is
costly, time consuming and exacerbates the risk of late wheat planting, farmers to a large extent resorted to partially
burning of rice residue prior to zero till wheat planting which has led to an increased use of zero tillage. This present a
challenge to farmers, as there is only a very short time window to prepare the fields for wheat planting after the harvest
of rice. Often late harvesting of rice results in late planting of wheat, with a potential yield reduction of 1 to 1.5% for
each day wheat is planted after the 20th November. In this context, the Happy Seeder is able to sow directly behind the
combine harvester in one operation. It cuts the rice straw only in front of tyne and presenting the seeding drill with clear
line and then deposits the cut straw as mulch between the seed rows. Hence, it provides an alternative to burning and
thus legislaters are likely to encourage (or legislatively enforce) adoption of the technique.
An attempt has been made under the current study in IGP for evaluating the on-farm performance of happy seeder
technology (HST) at farmers’ participatory research trials of wheat in complete rice residue in Western Uttar Pradesh
and simultaneously to conduct on-station research trials on method and timing of fertilizer nitrogen application in
wheat sown into rice residue with the help of happy seeder. Happy seeder farmer’s participatory trials were conducted
in rice residue load of 3.5 to 6.4 t ha-1 at 11 locations in Western UP with the comparison of without residue wheat
seeding. The results revealed that higher yield were achieved with happy seeder technology (5.18 t ha-1) compared to
without residue sowing in zero tillage (5.05 t ha-1).
On-station research trials revealed that wheat sown into rice residue with the help of happy seeder and fertilizer N
application in split doses resulted in higher yields over conventional-tilled wheat and zero-tilled wheat without happy
seeder by 1-15 and 3-24%, respectively. Addition of N fertilizer significantly increased wheat yield over the treatment
where no fertilizer was added. Conventional-tilled wheat resulted in high decomposition and thus high percent loss of
rice straw compared to zero tillage planting and planting wheat into rice straw using happy seeder. Residue incorporation
using happy seeder resulted in less fluctuation and a more linear trend in NDVI values measured using green seeker.
Whereas in conventional-tilled wheat and zero-tilled wheat without happy seeder immediate rise and fall in NDVI
values were observed whenever N fertilizer was added. Invariably low NDVI values were obtained in the treatment
where no N fertilizer was added to wheat. Minimum temperatures increased and maximum temperatures decreased
by 1-4 0C and 0.4-4.7 0C when wheat was sown into rice residue using happy seeder. Thus, creating conditions
favouring better plant growth and photosynthetic activity in wheat using happy seeder technology (HST) can go a long
way in improving wheat productivity in IGP.
75
Characterisation of Soil Water Relationship in Different Tillage

Practices in SW Spain
J.L. Muriel*, J.A.

J i m é
nez-bocanegra, I. García-tejero, K. Vanderlinden, F. Perea and G. Martínez
Centro IFAPA “Las Torres-Tomejil” CAP. Junta de Andalucía. Ctra. Sevilla-Cazalla Km. 12,2. 41200.
Session 1.1
Alcalá del Río, Sevilla, Spain

(*Email: josel.muriel@juntadeandalucia.es)
Crop yields are primarily water limited under dryland production systems in semiarid regions, like Southwest Spain,
where soil water availability is going to be critical for growing spring-summer crops when root water extraction is
maximum but no rainfall occurs. Keeping a suitable soil water balance is fundamental to avoid water stress situations.
The objective of this work was to compare the soil water dynamics in different tillage alternatives: direct drilling (DD)
and conventional tillage (CT) in a heavy clay soil with wheat-sunflower-legume crop rotation.
The use of FDR probes to measure the soil moisture content on real-time basis allowed an accurate characterisation
of the water balance under the two soil tillage situations. Geostatistical approaches were used to map the depth-time
soil water content the distribution. Apparent electrical conductivity (ECa) measurements (using electromagnetic induction
and DGPS equipment) reproduced well the spatial variability of the soil water content as a function of the different
tillage treatment plots. Different soil water patterns were observed, spatially, in depth, and with time. During dry periods,
the treatments under DD tended to accumulate more water in the root zone, and so, to minimise the water stress. This
advantage improves the productive efficiency of spring-summer crops.
Long-Term Effect of Bamboo Species on Chemical Properties

of the Acid Soils in India
K.A. Singh*1 and Arvind K. Rai1

ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya 793 103, India
1
Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi 284 003, India
(*Email: kasingh@igfri.ernet.in)
The impact of genetic variability in bamboos of the north-eastern hill region on soil chemical properties was evaluated
at ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Arunachal Pradesh Centrer, Basar located in a humid sub-tropic. Thirty
bamboo species namely Arundinaria hirsuta, A. mannii, Bambusa arundinacea, B. balcoa, B. cacharensis, B. multiplex,
B. nana, B. nutans, B. pallida Type I, B. pallida Type II, B. polymorpha, B. tulda, B. striata, B. wamin, Chimonobambusa
armata, C. callosa, C. griffithiana, Dendrocalamus asper, D. giganteus, D. hamiltonii, D. hookerii, D. longispathus, D.
sahnii, D. sikkimensis, Phyllostachys assamica, P. manni, P. pubescens, S. pergracile, S. polymorphum and
Teinostachyum helferii were planted in 1988 in a bamboo setum on 25% hill slope. The soil texture of the site was clay
loam. Planting were done in randomized block design at planting density of 2l8 clumps ha -1. After 15 years of planting,
surface soil (0-30 cm) under rhizosphere of each bamboo species were analysed for soil pH, organic carbon (OC),
Brays P-II (available P), exchangeable K, Ca and Mg. All the bamboo species were effective in increasing soil pH from
3.82 to 4.42±0.2. Maximum soil pH was observed under D. sikkimensis (4.87) and D. longispathus (5.10). Soil organic
matter content and exchangeable Ca and Mg contents increased by 1.28, 1.92 and 1.53 times, respectively, as compared
to initial soil status. Although, these soil were initially very low in available P content (4.1 kg ha-1), but bamboo plants,
further, exhausted available P and exchangeable K in the soils causing reduction below the detectable range in most
of the species except under B. pallida Type II (0.88), B. polymorpha (3.0), B. tulda (2.5), D. asper (0.95), D. longispathus
(1.68), P. manni (1.5) and T. helferii (3.25) and exchangeable K content also depleted from the initial value of 473 kg
76
ha-1 to 241 kg ha-1 under different species. D. longispathus and D. sikkimensis were least depleter of the exchangeable
K. Significant variations in soil organic matter enrichment, exchangeable K depletion were found among species
related to inherent foliage characteristics. Highest soil organic matter and exchangeable Ca and Mg contents were
found under Bambusa species. The study indicates the potential of bamboo species to improve the soil chemical
properties in acid soils. However, these need annual application of P and K to maintain balance of these nutrients in
the soil.
Session 1.1
Soil Conservation Practices in the North-Eastern Hilly Region
of India- A Myth or Reality?
K.K. Datta1,*, S.B. Singh2 and Subhasis Mandal3

1
National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research (NCAP),
DPS Marg, Pusa, New Delhi 110 012, India
2
ICAR Research Complex for NEH, Manipur Centre, Imphal, Manipur, India
3
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Canning Station, West Bengal, India
(*Email: kkdatta@ncap.res.in)
The study from the north-eastern hilly region in India established that for given agro-climatic conditions, increases in
population density will gradually move the agricultural system from shifting cultivation to continuous cultivation. The
intensive cultivation of permanent fields in the frontier using labour and external input demanding technology (such as
Puertorican terrace and bench terrace systems) will become the norms only when arable land is exhausted. It can,
therefore, be inferred that where land value rises due to land shortage, farmers with lower discount rates are likely to
adopt bench terrace. However, for those farmers exhibiting high discount rates under high population conditions,
research should focus on reducing the establishment cost of bench terrace system to make it competitive with the
Puertorican terrace system. Soil conservation technologies which required substantial establishment cost and higher
labour and other external inputs, become cost effective as population densities increase. Although the conservative
practices were economical under high population density conditions, the major concern was high establishment cost
and no or negative returns in the initial years. Given the subsistence income of tribal farmers in the steep slopes of
NEH region, farmers cannot afford even temporary income reductions. Thus, they are unlikely to adopt conservative
technologies on their own.
Our study confirmed Boserups’ (1981) hypothesis that there exists a positive correlation between intensity of land
use and population density. Our findings suggest that in land abundant regions, area expansion through shifting
cultivation systems with long fallow periods are the lowest cost sources of growth. There is a need for improved policy
analysis and information for decision making. Incorporating the depletion of natural capital in studies of traditional
farming practices can help evidence the limitations of these techniques. Ultimately, a whole-farm systems approach
may be the most appropriate basis for financial analyses of soil conservation practices, as this can capture the full
range of responses that farmers make when choosing to adopt a new technology. In devising appropriate policies
relating to soil conservation practices for sustainable agriculture, developing sustainability indicators that can more
clearly show the benefits of conservation practices over its alternatives. Similar improvements are achievable at the
economic-analysis level also. Moreover, it can incorporate the many options available to farmers in making such
choices, something which is not possible in a simplistic comparison of conventional tillage. The conservation technologies
may result in net social benefits but may also result in a financial loss at the farm level.
If households choose migration (which is common in case of Jhumia), they may reduce the intensity with the
existing plots, or abandon their old lands altogether and bring new land in frontier areas under cultivation. The latter
can have serious implications if farmers transfer unsustainable soil management practices to new areas. There are
also many technical alternatives available to producers if they choose to change existing management rather than
migrate. The choices of individual farmers are cumulative and can have eventual impacts well beyond the individual
farm.
77
Impact of Various Crop Residue Management Practices on Nutrient

Uptake by Rice-Wheat Cropping System
Mohan Lal Dotaniya1 and Brahma Mishra2

1
Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, IARI, New Delhi, 110 012, India
2
Department of Soil Science, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
Pantnagar 263 145, Uttarakhand, India
Session 1.1
Crop residues have traditionally played an important role in maintaining soil fertility, and their importance is increasingly
being recognized in the face of hazardous effect of excessive and imbalanced application of chemical fertilizers. In
order to examine the effects of three crop residue management practices (crop residue incorporation, residue burning
and residue removal) on nutrient uptake and yield, rice and wheat were grown in sequence, with two levels of nitrogen
(100 kg and 150 kg N ha-1) and three levels of potassium (0, 30 kg and 60 kg K2O ha-1) fertilization.
All the three crop residue management practices showed significant effects on nutrient uptake and yields of both
the crops. Incorporation of crop residue resulted in significantly higher uptake of N (123.6 kg ha-1) and K (179.5 kg ha-
1
) in rice crop, as compared to residue removal, by 8.4 and 8.5% respectively. In case of wheat, N and K uptake was
11.7 and 7.9% higher with incorporation of residue than with residue removal. But the response was at par with burning
of residues in both crops. Nitrogen @ 150 kg ha-1 resulted in significantly higher N uptake (20%), K uptake (9.11%) and
crop yields of rice (6.4%) and wheat (13.7%) over 100 kg N ha-1. Potassium @ 60 kg K2O ha-1 resulted in significantly
higher N uptake (6%), K uptake (8.3%) and rice yield (3.2%) as compared to control. This maximum applied level of K
(60 kg ha-1) also significantly increased K uptake and yields of both the crops with respect to 30 kg K2O ha-1 application.
The present study showed that there were significant effects of crop residue management practices, N and K applications
on the nutrient uptake and yield of rice-wheat cropping system.
Effect of Anilofos and Pendimethalin on the Mineralization of Carbon

and Nitrogen in a Haplustept of West Bengal
S. Nongthombam, H. Nayek and A.C. Das

Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science,
Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, 741 252, West Bengal, India
An experiment was conducted under laboratory condition to investigate the effect of two systemic herbicides, viz.
anilofos (S-[N-(4-chlorophenyl)-N-isopropylcarbamyl]-O,O-dimethyl phosphorodithioate) and pendimethalin ( N-(1-
ethylpropyl) -2, 6-dinitro-3,4-dimethyl aniline), either alone or in combination, at their recommended field rates (400 g
and 1.0 kg a.i. ha-1, respectively on the mineralization of carbon and nitrogen, and changes in total phosphorus content
in a Haplustept of West Bengal. Application of the herbicides in general, stimulated the mineralization of carbon and
nitrogen in soil. Single application of anilofos and pendimethalin augmented retention of organic carbon and availability
of exchangeable NH4+ in soil. Application of herbicides either singly or in combination retained higher amount of total
nitrogen in soil. Anilofos increased the availability of soluble NO3 to the highest extent. Availability of exchangeable
NH4+ was increased in greater amount by the application of pendimethalin. The retention of total phosphorus was
significantly increased due to single application of pendimethalin and its combination with anilofos.
78
Assessment of Soil-Borne CO2 Exchange in Irrigated Cropland

of the Aral Sea Basin, Uzbekistan
Oksana Forkutsa, Christopher Martius, Rolf Sommer, John L.P. Lamers and Mehmood-Ul-Hassan
Land use activities contribute to the global climate change. Meanwhile, long-term intensive agriculture without
Session 1.1
proper management is leading to soil degradation. Conservation agriculture (CA) practices such as zero tillage with
residues improve soil quality with time, and reduce emissions. Central Asian countries have been the major agricultural
lands depending heavily on intensive agricultural practices. This research aimed at evaluating potential of CA in
terms of maintaining soil quality, and reducing carbon emissions in semi-arid environments. Four agricultural sites
under winter wheat crop and a natural riverine ecosystem research site were chosen for observation. Two agricultural
sites that differed in soil texture included treatments with zero tillage and residues. The study comprised of the
analysis of soil properties that are related to soil organic matter formation (soil microbial biomass C) and soil CO2
emissions as a biological indicator for microbial decomposition of organic matter.
Conservation practices did not significantly differ from conventional practices in terms of CO 2 emissions and
soil microbial biomass C. Measured values of soil emissions on conventional and zero tillage fields were in similar
range, where in some cases treatments with residues resulted in rather higher emissions values. Measured values
of CO2 in riparian forest with native vegetation did not exceed those on agricultural sites and due to little changes
during the measuring period the range of daily fluctuations was very low. Linear regression analysis was used to
model the influence of soil moisture and soil temperature on the fluxes. Existence of soil moisture in the sampling
depth (20 cm) proved to be the major driver of soil respiration in summer season. This might imply that for a realistic
assessment of CA benefits in terms of reduction of emissions, longer period research might need to be undertaken.
Prospects of Conservation Tillage in Hill Agriculture
Pradeep K. Sharma, Sanjeev Sandal and Kapil Saroch

CSK Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University, Palampur, 176 062, Himachal Pradesh, India
The peculiar demographic features, fragile and marginal agro-ecosystems, restricted scope of mechanization, poor
socio-economic conditions of hill farmers and dependency for irrigation on rains are some of the challenges in hill
agriculture which have encouraged the researchers to orient their research programmes on conserving soil and water
resources for sustaining crop productivity. The significance of conservation tillage as a resource conservation technology
has already been well recognized in mechanized farming; however, it has added advantages in hill agriculture.
Conservation tillage, in addition to time and cost effectiveness, matches well with the fragile agro-ecosystems and
poor socio-economic conditions of hill farmers. Field experiments conducted at CSK Himachal Pradesh Agricultural
University, Palampur (India) have established the beneficial effects of conservation tillage (mulch plus zero/minimum
tillage) in hills under both rainfed and irrigated situations. Availability of optimum seed-zone moisture content at sowing
time of summer (kharif) and winter (rabi) crops is a major constraint to crop establishment in rainfed areas. Multi-
location studies have shown that application of waste organic biomass as mulch in the standing kharif crops (like
maize, okra etc.) at the recede of monsoon (first fortnight of September) resulted in in-situ moisture conservation in the
seed zone and its subsequent carry-over for timely sowing of succeeding wheat crop. The efficiency of conserved
moisture was enhanced by sowing rainfed wheat with minimum tillage. Conservation tillage, through moderation of
hydro-thermal properties of soil, led to better early crop stand, root and shoot biomass, enhanced plant water status
and ultimately higher biological yields. Nutrient economy was also improved with continuous conservation tillage
operations. The fertilizer adjustment equations developed for okra and wheat under irrigated conditions performed well
under rainfed situations also when crops were sown with conservation tillage. Conservation tillage performed equally
well for wheat in rice-wheat system under irrigated conditions.
79
Long-term Effect of Different Land Use Systems on Soil Properties of a

Reclaimed Sodic Soil in North-West India
P. Dey, S.K. Singh, Kapila Shekhawat and Gurbachan Singh

Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal 132 001, Haryana, India
Session 1.1
Yield plateau in rice-wheat system along with diminishing factor productivity especially in reclaimed sodic soils is
a serious problem engulfing the agriculture. Identification of efficient and sustainable land use system has, therefore,
assumed greater significance under these circumstances. Accounting these, seven land use systems established on
reclaimed sodic soils were evaluated for soil physico-chemical properties to ascertain the changes that have taken
place in originally characterized Zarifa viran series in 1979. The land use systems include crop-based system
(conventional rice-wheat, zero-tilled soybean-wheat), horticulture-based system (guava, aonla) and forestry-based
systems (Casuarina, Eucalyptus and Prosopis). Profiles were studied for morphometric characterization in each land
use system and horizon-wise samples were collected for physico-chemical analysis using standard procedures. The
results showed that chroma and value became darker by one unit in old guava plantation (10 YR 3/3) and in soybean-
wheat systems (10 YR 3/2) managed with zero tillage indicating greater humification. In other systems, the soil colour
remained unchanged from that of original Zarifa Viran series (10 YR 4/3). Soil structure changed from medium moderate
platy (m 2 platy) to medium moderate sub angular blocky (m 2 sbk) with medium common pores indicating augmented
granulation and increased surface area with more water holding capacity. Particle size analysis revealed that clay and
silt contents in reclaimed soils reduced by 19.8 and 36.0%, respectively, while sand content increased by 53.2%,
indicating improvement in internal drainage system of the soils. Organic carbon increased from 80 to 143% except
soils put under rice-wheat system where it remained almost unchanged. Soil pH reduced from 10.3 to 7.7 in all the land
use systems studied; however, reduction was not so prominent in rice-wheat system and Eucalyptus plantations. The
lowering of pH can be related to the organic matter accumulation because of litter fall and their subsequent decomposition.
Knockdown effect of CaCO3 was more pronounced in Prosopis plantations where 23% reduction in CaCO3 content
was observed in surface soil. This may be ascribed to the maintenance of increased CO2 level in the soil by tree roots
which helps mobilizing and dissolving CaCO3 followed by exchange of Ca2+ with Na+ on the ex-change complex,
thereby resulting in decreased calcium carbonate content in the surface soils. These observations indicated that
guava / Prosopis system and zero-tilled soybean–wheat system proved better for maintaining/enhancing soil health as
compared to rice-wheat system under reclaimed sodic soil conditions.
Use of Water Hyacinth in Combination of Aromatic Crop for

Improvement of Sodic Soil
R.P. Singh*, S.N. Singh, P.K. Yadav and R.S. Singh

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Udai Pratap Autonomous College,
Varanasi, 221 002, Uttar Pradesh, India
(*Email: raghvendra_pratap@yahoo.com)
Water hyacinth is a worldwide aquatic weed. It is abundantly found in different water resources. The water hyacinth
finds one of its best use in soil amendment and as compost. The high rate of production and its mineral composition as
well as ability to absorb more nutrients from its surrounding water make it profitable source of compost. The compost
can provide up to 1.1% P2O5, 2.5 % K2O, 3.9% CaO and 2.05% N2. The use of water hyacinth compost has been
shown to increase the yield in a number of crops like okra, jute, rice and potatoes. The addition of organic matter
through water hyacinth along with calcium phosphate or bone meal, or coal has been found useful for permanent
reclamation of saline and alkaline soils. The use of compost also improves the physico-chemical properties of the soil
and yield of crops. It has a C : N ratio of 20:1 to 30:1. By use of water hyacinth compost as soil amendment in salt
affected soils this weed can be eradicated from water resources on one hand and improves the soil on the other
hand. Aromatic crops have properties of reducing salinity and alkalinity of soil.
80
Keeping these facts in mind, a field experiment was conducted to study the effect of water hyacinth compost
alone and in combination with other amendments using Palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii L.) an aromatic crop as
test crop on reclamation of sodic soil (pH 9.4, ECe 2.4 dSm-1, SAR 38, organic carbon 0.2%). It was found that the
pH, ECe, SAR of soil decreased and hydraulic conductivity, organic carbon status, available N, P, K, Cu, Zn and Fe
increased due to application of all the amendments. However, maximum improvement in physico-chemical properties
and fertility status of soil was found with treatment combination of water hyacinth compost at 3 t ha-1 + pyrite at
40% of GR ha-1. The treatments were also able to increase the crop production in the form of herbage and oil yield
of Palmarosa.
Session 1.1
Studies on Gene Effects of Traits Associated with Excessive Soil
Moisture Tolerance in Tropical Maize
Rafat Sultana1,*, P.P. Singh2, R.P. Singh1, D.K. Singh1, M.L. Jat1, Sain Dass1,
P.H. Zaidi1 and Ishwar Singh1
1
Directorate of Maize Research, Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110 012, India
2
R.B.S College, Bichpuri, B.R.A. University, Agra, India
(*Email: rafat.apr@gmail.com)
Among the various abiotic stresses, excessive soil moisture (ESM) stress is probably second important constraint
for limiting the maize production mainly in South and South- East Asia, and some other parts of the world. The
choice of an efficient breeding procedure depends on the genetic information/ management practices. Being complex
trait, information with respect to inheritance of ESM tolerance is scanty. However, systematic and complete information
on genetics of ESM tolerance in maize is yet to be established. The objective of this study was to know inheritance
patterns for the traits associated with ESM tolerance including some of the yield components, using six parameter
generation mean analysis. All the six generations (P1, P2, F1, F2, BC1 and BC2) were evaluated at knee-high (V7-8) crop
growth stage under waterlogging, keeping one set under normal moisture. Analysis of variance reinforced the hypothesis
that the genetic parameters estimated varied in stress and non-stress condition significantly. Generation mean analysis
suggested that both additive and dominance effects were important for most of the traits evaluated in this study, but
dominance had a more pronounced effect. Scaling test revealed strong significant epistasis interaction across the
environment. Additive, additive x additive gene interaction was more important for nodes with brace root, while dominance,
additive x dominance and dominance x dominance was significant for grain yield under excessive moisture condition.
The duplicate type of epistasis was observed for most of the secondary and yield traits. However, the characters like
plant height and ear height were observed to be under the control of duplicate as well as complementary type of
epistasis. The conclusion was drawn from the above study that parents should be of diverse nature for the traits to be
analyzed. Further, it is evident that nature of type of gene action depends on specific parental combination.
Increasing Efficacy of Reduced Tillage through Legumes and Compost

Application in Arid Region
Praveen Kumar, J.C. Tarafdar and S. Kathju

Increasing costs of energy, labour and equipment and other associated disadvantages like threat of erosion and lack
of sustainability in highly productive agricultural systems are forcing scientists to devise newer approaches to
improve production and maintain profit levels. Soil tillage is a major energy consuming activity in agriculture.
81
Although favourable results on crop yields have been obtained with reduced tillage systems in many cases but,
studies in Indian arid zones have consistently shown decline in pearlmillet productivity under reduced tillage. One
of the major reasons for lower productivity under reduced tillage is low availability of crop residues. Residue production
in arid region is very low on one hand and on the other, residues of pearlmillet, a major crop of the region are used
as animal feed. Further, even when applied in field on experimental scale, pearlmillet residues are easily destroyed
by termites. Thus, scope of their application under reduced-tillage is largely limited. Therefore, we studied the effect
of rotations of pearlmillet with three legumes (mungbean, mothbean and clusterbean) and compost application
under reduced-tillage. It was assumed that deep penetration of soil by tap roots of legumes, consequent addition of
Session 1.1
organic matter at lower depths by roots would help in water movement and increase microbial activity. Further, arid
legumes shed most leaves at maturity and thus leaf fall on surface would mimic the effect of residue application and
increase productivity of reduced-tillage systems. Our results showed that even after four years, pearlmillet yield
under its continuous cultivation remained lower under reduced-tillage than in tilled plots. However, its yield after
legumes or after compost application under reduced-tillage gradually increased and by the end of two cycles
became higher than that obtained in tilled plots under continuous pearlmillet cultivation. Microbial activity in plots
under reduced-tillage remained lower than those under tillage in case of continuous pearlmillet cropping but
incorporation of legumes in cropping system or application of compost reversed this trend with time. Higher microbial
activity could have led to better nutrient transformation and was reflected in pearlmillet yield.
Our results with reduced-tillage showed a limited success of this concept in Indian arid region. One of the major
reasons could be that the soils are tilled only once or twice every year and not excessively as in Punjab, Haryana,
western U.P. etc., and therefore, problems associated with excessive tillage are not as acute. Another major factor that
thwarts the success of reduced-tillage systems is low residue production by non-irrigated crops i.e. about a t ha-1.
Pearlmillet residues are a major source of animal feed. This is an important factor in this region negating the use of
residue for soil application as about 19% of the farmer’s income is from livestock. Further even when applied on field
on experimental scale are easily destroyed by termites. Mustard and sesame residues are not used as fodder but due
to their slow decomposition, these are generally not used for soil application and are burnt. Techniques need to be
developed for integrating these residues with no-tillage to improve pearlmillet yield.
Residue Recycling in Rice-Wheat Cropping

System: A Sustainable Approach
Rakesh Chandra Nainwal and S.C. Saxena

Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
Pantnagar 263 145, U.S. Nagar, Uttarakhand, India
Combine harvesting technologies, which have become common in rice-wheat system in India, leave behind large
quantities of straw in the field for open burning of residues. Residue burning causes nutrient and resource loss, and
adversely effects soil properties, thus calling for improvement in harvesting technologies and sustainable management
of rice-wheat system. Burning of agriculture residue in now recognized as an important source of pollutant emissions.
It leads to emission of trace gases like CO2, CO, CH4, SO2, N2O, NO and hydrocarbons. It may also lead to adverse
impacts on health of the population in the region. Burning of straw also emits large amount of particulates that are
composed of a wide variety of organic and inorganic spp. One tonne straw on burning releases 3 kg particulate matter,
60 kg CO, 1460 kg CO2, 199 kg ash and 2 kg SO2. This burning also leads to considerable nutrient loss as crop
residues are a good source of plant nutrients and also important components for the stability of the agricultural ecosystem.
About 25% of N and P, 50% of S and 75% of K uptake by cereal crops are retained in crop residues, making them
viable nutrient sources. In view of recycling of residues in rice–wheat cropping system, more emphasis is needed to
accelerate the adoption of cost effective and environment friendly residue management practices such as direct seeding
or zero tillage. Recycling of crop residues is also being advocated to improve soil health in rice- wheat system and also
escape the soil from the loss through the process of soil and water erosion, help in maintaining the productivity of
the soil. Crop residues not only replenish soil organic matter, a key determinant of soil quality, but also supply
essential plant nutrients like N, P, K, S and other micronutrients, when mineralized.
82
Tillage and Residue Management Effects on Weeds in Rice-Wheat

Cropping System
R.S. Chhokar, R.K. Sharma, Subhash Chander and R.K. Singh

Resource Management Programme, Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal, Haryana, India
Session 1.1
Tillage and crop residue management practices may influence the weed germination and establishment. No-till
system in wheat under rice-wheat system reduced the Phalaris minor infestation but favoured the infestation of
broad-leaved weeds like Rumex dentatus and Medicago denticulata. The tillage operation stimulates the weed
germination and emergence of many weeds through brief exposure to light as well as through reduced soil strength.
In rice-wheat system, management of rice residue is a major issue. Most of the farmers practice complete or partial
burning for rapid straw disposal and smooth seeding of wheat. The burning of rice residue besides creating pollution
problem also reduces the efficacy of soil-applied herbicides. Burning of rice residue also stimulates the weed
emergence. Instead of burning, the surface retention of residue is a better option as it besides conserving moisture
also helps in suppressing weeds. The surface retention of rice residue of 4-6 t ha -1 in combination with no-till
system reduced the weed abundance in wheat. Considering the advantage of residue retention, efficient weed
management strategies should be evolved under such residue management practices.
Effect of Soil Mulching Under Saline Water Irrigation on Soil

Production Environment in Syrdarya Province of Uzbekistan
Ruslan Qalandarov1,*, Alim Pulatov1, Akmal Karimov2 and Lijbert Brussard3

1
EcoGIS center, Tashkent Institute of Irrigation and Melioration, Kari-Niyaziy str. 39,
Tashkent 100000, Uzbekistan
2
International Water Management Institute, Apartment No. 123, Home No. 6,
Murtazaeva Street, Tashkent 100000, Uzbekistan
3
Soil Biology and Biological Soil Quality, Department of Soil Quality, Droevendaalsesteeg 4, 6708, PB
Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
(*Email: kalandarovruslan@yahoo.com)
Poor soil fertility reasoned by intensive agriculture and with saline background of irrigation water is one of the main
problems in hunger steppe of Syrdarya province in Uzbekistan. Saline water irrigation is reasoned by fresh water
shortage during vegetation period. This circumstance involved water use limitations in irrigation systems of Hunger
steppe. The shortage of fresh irrigation water does not let grow intermediate and repeated culture. Modern soil
conservation technologies allow sustaining yield by contributing on production and soil environment. Association of
soil conservation technologies with saline water irrigation are investigated in the research.
Field experiment was conducted in 2006 and 2007 to investigate the effects of saline water use and soil conservation
technology on cotton yield and soil quality in order to improve farmer’s condition in Syrdarya province of Uzbekistan.
Different irrigation water: (i) low saline, (ii) moderate saline (conjunctive use of drainage water and vertical well water)
(iii) high saline was studied. Two levels of crop residue application (with and without) were used in the treatments.
Treatments with applied crop residues used for soil cover 4.3 t ha-1 of wheat straw. Due to application of crop
residues, during the implementation of the treatments tillage operation was reduced.
Results show effectiveness of mulching with low soil disturbance background under low quality water irrigation
for yield sustainability. The plots irrigated with low quality water and with crop residues showed almost the same
yield of cotton that the plots irrigated with good quality water without crop residues. Significant change of microbial
diversity was observed among the treatments as well. Significant effect of both factors on increase of all groups of
microorganisms was observed during the observation. Results show economic and energy efficiency of conservation
tillage treatments up to 1.4 units per unit of agricultural product.
83
Predicting Field Soil Aggregate Stability Dynamics Following Organic

Residue Incorporation
S.K. Chaudhari* and Gopali Bardhan

Session 1.1
Our ability to predict the effects of various organic amendments on soil aggregate stability is limited due to the
complexity of the biological, chemical, and physical mechanisms involved. Based on previous experimental results,
this study developed a model to predict the dynamics of aggregate stability following the incorporation of various
organic residues under field conditions. Following Monnier’s conceptual model and previously published data, a
lognormal function is first used to describe changes in aggregate stability after organic inputs under laboratory
conditions. A lognormal function was chosen from among others for its ability to reproduce all the patterns (time
duration and magnitude) presented in Monnier’s model. In particular, it was possible to reproduce large variations
that could be observed immediately after organic residue incorporation as well as the dynamics over a longer period
of time. The adjustments of the lognormal function parameters were calculated using data from an experiment
performed under controlled conditions. In this experiment, aggregate stability was followed after the incorporation of
four organic substrates that broadly correspond to the four categories. These fitted parameters were related to the
biochemical characteristics of the organic substrates using principal component analysis. At this stage, the model
simulates the dynamics of aggregate stability under controlled conditions. Using principal component analysis, the
parameters of the lognormal function are associated with the biochemical characteristics of the organic products
such as water-extractable polysaccharide, cellulose and hemicellulose, and lignin contents. To simulate aggregate
stability dynamics under field conditions, the effects of soil moisture, soil temperature, and N availability are taken
into account by specific functions obtained from the literature. When model simulations were compared with
experimental results under field conditions, variations in aggregate stability were generally well reproduced. The
sensitivity of the model to climate variations and organic residue characteristics was tested. Soil N availability and
the substrate lignin content are major factors that influence the prediction of aggregate stability dynamics. Our
results suggest that prediction of aggregate stability dynamics under field conditions using organic substrate
characteristics and simple climatic data is possible. More work is required to test the model and broaden its
applicability to other soil and climatic conditions. This approach allows to take into account the dynamic nature of
soil aggregate stability with time and to use functions that describe the climatic and soil conditions that will
influence the decomposition of the organic substrates under field conditions. Generally, trends in measured aggregate
stability are well reproduced by the model and with relatively good accuracy. Differences between simulated and
measured values are comparable to the error associated with field measurements. This suggests that prediction of
aggregate stability dynamics using organic substrate characteristics and simple climate data is possible.
Soil Moisture Conservation and Sulphur Utilization by Mustard

through Sub–Surface Compaction under Different Irrigation Levels
in Loamy Sands
K.K. Sharma, B.L. Kumawat and Arvind Kumawat

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Rajasthan Agricultural University,
S.K.N. College of Agriculture, Jobner 303 329, Rajasthan, India
Sandy soils are excessively permeable mainly because of their coarse texture, looseness and poor organic matter
content. Their moisture retention capacity is also very low and more than one third of applied or rain water is lost as
deep percolation. Addition of large quantities of FYM and other organic matter residues can improve physical environment
84
of sandy soil. However, there is a general scarcity of such organic materials in the arid and semi-arid regions.
Further, due to high temperature and excessive aeration, oxidation of added organic matter is very rapid and difficult
to build-up organic matter reserves in such soils. Compacting sandy soils at optimum moisture creates a barrier of
relatively high bulk density increasing micropores at the expense of macropores. Keeping this view, the present
investigation was undertaken to explore the possibilities of improving moisture storage capacity and sulphur utilization
under precise use of irrigation water besides improving the yield of mustard in loamy sand soil through sub-surface
compaction. A field experiment consisting 3 levels each of compaction (0, 2 and 4 passes of 500 kg iron roller) and
irrigation (one irrigation at flowering, two irrigations at flowering and pod filling stage and three irrigations at branching,
Session 1.1
flowering and pod filling stage) as main plot treatments and 4 levels of sulphur (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg S ha -1 through
gypsum) as sub plot treatments were laid out in split plot design with three replications. A basal application of half
N and full dose of P2O5 @ 30 kg ha-1 was applied at sowing and remaining 30 kg N ha-1 was top-dressed at flowering
stage of crop. Mustard variety ‘Bio-902’ was taken as a test crop.
Results showed that increasing levels of compaction improved soil physical condition by decreasing saturated
hydraulic conductivity, total porosity and non-capillary porosity, while increasing bulk density, capillary porosity and
moisture content of soil more so in the sub-surface (15-30 cm) layer followed by surface (0-15 cm) layer, and least in
30-45 cm layer. Yield attributes (siliquae per plant, seeds per siliqua, test weight) seed and stover yields, content and
uptake of S in seed and stover, protein content in seed and oil yield increased significantly with application of three
irrigations over one and two irrigations. Maximum water-use efficiency was observed under two irrigations.
Increasing rates of sulphur significantly increased the SO4—-S retention in soil at flowering and harvest stage of
crop. Application of S @ 90 kg ha-1 significantly increased the pooled mean siliqua per plant, seed and stover yields,
S, oil and protein content of seed, S uptake by seed and water use efficiency whereas the pooled mean seeds per
silqiua and test weight increased significantly at 60 kg S ha-1. Conjunctive use of compaction due to 4 passings along
with two irrigations proved as good as three irrigations with 4 passings resulted in a saving of one irrigation as a
consequence of sub-surface compaction in respect to siliquae per plant, seed and stover yield and S uptake by seed
and stover, oil yield and water-use efficiency. Significantly higher siliquae per plant, seed and stover yields, and S
uptake by seed and stover, oil yield and water use efficiency observed with 4 passess of roller + 60 kg S ha -1 which
remained at par with 4 passings + 90 kg S ha-1 indicating a saving of 30 kg S ha-1 due to compaction. Application of two
irrigations in conjunction with 60 kg S ha-1, resulted in significantly higher water use efficiency. Retention of SO4—-S at
flowering and harvest stage, residual available N content at harvest, yield attributes (siliquae per plant, seeds per
siliqua, test weight) seed and stover yields, content and uptake of S in seed and stover, protein content of seed, oil
yield and water-use efficiency increased significantly with increasing levels of compaction.
Evaluation of Herbicide Persistence under Elevated Carbon

Dioxide Conditions
Shobha Sondhia* and Jay G. Varshney

National Research Centre for Weed Science, Jabalpur 482 004, Madhya Pradesh, India
(*Email: shobhasondia@yahoo.com)
Climate change predicts a severe threat to the future well-being of all life on earth, and may cause substantial short
and long-term threat to crops too. The atmospheric carbon dioxide level, which has already risen from pre-industrial
levels of 280 ppm to 368 ppm today, will rise to almost 550 ppm by mid of century 2100. Weeds cause enormous
yield losses if present in cropped condition. Apart from yield loss, weeds cause great disturbance to the local
biodiversity and creating potential threat to ecology due to their competitiveness. At present weeds account for an
average of 37% annual yield loss and increasing CO2 levels will further intensify this loss due to physiological
plasticity and genetic diversity of weeds. Thus use of herbicides will continue to increase to combat with weeds
under global climate change. Hence, studies were conducted to see the fate and persistence of herbicides in soil
and weed flora. Prominent weeds, viz. Echinochloa colona, Commelina benghalensis, Euphobia geniculata, and
85
Phalaris minor were grown under ambient (360+20) and elevated CO2 conditions (550 +30). Herbicides of the family
viz. imidazoline, sulfonylureas and fops were applied on these weeds at recommended dose to see the response
of herbicides under elevated CO2 conditions. It was observed that herbicides dissipated at faster rate in weeds as
compared to soil. This indicated a less persistence of herbicides under elevated CO2 conditions and thus predicts
that management of persistence of herbicides for control of weeds under critical period will be a big problem for the
existing herbicide at the existing rate of application.
Session 1.1
Conservation Agriculture Technologies for Improving Productivity,

Profitability and Soil Health in Rice-Wheat Rotation
K.K. Singh and R.P. Mishra

Project Directorate for Cropping Systems Research, Modipuram, India
Rice-wheat is the most important food production system which has enabled the country to attain food security
during the last three decades and provided livelihood to millions of farming families. The productivity of this system
has started showing signs of stagnation or decline at many places. There are also concerns of increasing cost of
fuel, declining availability of water, deteriorating soil health and other related environmental problems. At the same
time, food demand is rapidly increasing due to increasing population and income growth. A long-term field experiment
is being conducted at the Project Directorate for Cropping Systems Research, Modipuram, since 1998, to evaluate
the effect of different conservation agriculture technologies (zero till drilling, strip till drilling, rotary till drilling, bed
planting and conventional sowing) in rice- wheat cropping system on crop productivity, profitability, water requirement
and soil health.
Zero, strip and rotary till drills and bed planter saved 61 to 88% time, labour, diesel, cost and energy; provided
higher rice and wheat yields (7-13%), net returns (19-26%), cost effectiveness (23-24%) and energy efficiency (25-
31%); required lower specific energy (20-24%) and specific cost (9-13%); improved soil bulk density (1-5%), root
volume (20-32%) and root weight (26-33%) in 0-15 cm layer; and reduced Phalaris minor (24-61%), other weeds (35-
55%), irrigation water (8-39%), cone index (4-7%), root volume (5-30%) and root weight (9-21%) in 15-30 cm layer,
compared to conventional sowing of wheat. Zero till drilling resulted in maximum moisture content at all the growth
stages of crop, minimum cone index and bulk density, and maximum organic carbon (OC) and mean weight diameter
of aggregates (MWD) than any other method. Bed planting, and zero and strip till drilling improved soil organic carbon
(15-36%) and MWD (17-66%), whereas rotary till drilling and conventional sowing reduced OC (2-7%) and MWD (9-
20%) after eight crop cycles.
Accelerating Adoption of Zero Tillage- A Resource Neutral Technology

for Improving Farm Profitability in Sone Command
of Bihar, India
P.K. Dwivedi1 and A.K. Singh2

1
KVK, Bhojpur (SCADA) Japanese farm, Ara, Bhojpur, 802 301, India
2
Zonal Coordinator, Zone- II, ICAR, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
(Email: zcukolkata@rediffmail.com)
The Sone command eastern-Gangetic plain is the breadbasket of Bihar that witnessed higher growth rates for food
grain production compared to other regions of the world. Rice-wheat rotation is the predominant cropping system in
86
this command that occupies nearly 2 lakh hectares. However, during recent past there has been a growing realization
of shrinking farm profitability and degradation of natural resource base under the prevailing conventional input intensive
farming practices. To address these issues, zero till wheat- a resource neutral technology has been evaluated and
accelerated through farmer participatory field trials. Results revealed that wheat yield under zero tillage was
significantly higher (3.2 t ha-1) compared to conventional farmers practice (2.45 t ha-1). Further, the productivity was
further increased with zero tillage having surface retained residues (3.35 t ha-1) compared to zero tillage without
residues. A saving of Rs. 1500-1700 ha-1 in cost of tillage operations was recorded with zero tillage compared to
conventional tillage under tillage operation other than significant yield gains. Therefore, a net benefit of Rs. 8,500 ha-
Session 1.1
1
was recorded under zero tillage compared to conventional system. On the basis of encouraging results of preliminary
studies, large-scale experiments have been taken up in the pilot farm project wherein zero-tillage out-performed all
other systems, and achieved dramatic increases in productivity over other systems. Zero-tillage system has been
adopted in Bhojpur district (Bihar) on a large scale. Resultantly, the zero tillage technology initiated during 2001-02
with one ZT drill covering 8.0 ha by 6 farmers have grown up with 35 drills covering 7200 ha and adopted by nearly
6800 farmers during 2007-08. Considering the impressive contributions of the KVK, Bhojpur, in accelerating the
adoption of zero tillage technology, the Govt. of Bihar declared KVK, Bhojpur as nodal hub for zero tillage technology
during 2006.
Remediation of the Nickel-contaminated

Industrial-effluent-irrigated Soils
C.M. Mathavan, R.K. Rattan and S.P. Datta*

Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110012, India
(*Email: spdatta@yahoo.com)
Among the remediation options of metal-contaminated soils, in-situ immobilization of metals by using suitable
ameliorants is logical and rational as compared to soil excavation (prohibitively-expensive) and phytoremediation
(very slow and time-consuming). In risk assessment studies, recently a few attempts have been made to predict
the plant uptake of metals as a function of easily accessible soil characteristics. However, limited information is
available on the applicability of such an approach for the ameliorated soils. Hence, present investigation was
undertaken to study the effect of ameliorants on the bioavailability of Ni in contaminated soils and predict the Ni
uptake by crops grown on ameliorated soil.
For this purpose, a Ni contaminated (total and DTPA-Ni: 1194 and 18.3 mg kg-1, respectively) bulk surface (0-
15 cm) was collected from the field adjoining the Atlas Cycle Factory, Sonepat (Haryana), which had been receiving
industrial effluents for last 15 years. Soil was amended with lime (2.5 and 5%), farmyard manure (FYM: 2.2 and 4.4 g
kg-1), biogas slurry (2.2 and 4.4 g kg-1) and hydrous manganese oxide (HMO: 0.5 and 1%). Greenhouse pot experiment
experiments were conducted using this amended soil with radish, lettuce and onion as test crops grown in a sequence.
Nickel uptake by plants was predicted using the combined pH-dependent Freundlich and free ion activity model
(FIAM). Results indicated that the application of lime (5%) was most effective in reducing the Ni content in radish,
lettuce and onion followed by HMO (1%), FYM (4.4 g kg-1) and BGS (4.4 g kg-1). Among the different fractions, Ni
content underwent transformation from water soluble and exchangeable to the less labile fractions due to application
of lime and HMO. Integrated solubility-free ion activity model based on DTPA-extractable Ni, Walkley Black organic
carbon and pH more consistently predicted the Ni content in radish (r2=0.88), lettuce (r2=0.90) and onion (r2=0.79)
as compared to that based on loss on ignition, and either of EDTA, NH4OAc or CaCl2-extractable Ni. Further, risk
assessment for intake of Ni through consumption of radish, lettuce and onion indicated a significant threat to
human health even for limed and HMO-amended soils.
87
Conservation Measures for Rainfed Systems of Semi-arid Vertisol

Region in Eestern India
R.K. Singh, S.N. Prasad, Ashok Kumar and B.K. Sethy

Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Regional Centre, Kota, Rajashthan,
India
Session 1.1
Maintaining acceptable yield levels and bringing stability in crop production continue to be a priority concern for
rainfed areas of semi-arid regions in India. With average annual rainfall of about 750 mm, the rainfed areas of south-
eastern Rajasthan represent agro-ecological environment of semi-arid Vertisol region of western India. Soybean,
sorghum and maize in the Kharif, and mustard and chickpea in Rabi season are preferred rainfed crops in this
region. A field study evaluated suitability of conservation measures for prevailing cropping systems of the region.
Three conservation measures, viz. sunken and raised beds with bed width 6:6 m (SRB), contour furrows at 6 m
horizontal interval (CF) and conservation bench terracing with 2:1 contributing and receiving area (CBT) were compared
against untreated control plots for five cropping seasons. The cropping systems evaluated were: sorghum + pigeonpea
intercropping in control plots, sorghum + pigeonpea or soybean grown on raised beds of SRB, inter- furrows of CF and
slopes of CBT plots. Either gram or mustard were sown in the sunken beds and terraced benches. Conservation
measures significantly reduced runoff from cropped area. Averaged over four cropping seasons, surface runoff recorded
from untreated control plots under sorghum + pigeonpea intercropping was 24.11% of rainfall. It reduced to 20.5, 15.8
and 4.2% when treated with CF, CBT or SRB, respectively. Marginal reduction in runoff was recorded from the plots
under soybean compared to sorghum + pigeonpea intercropping. Soil loss and nutrient loss also followed similar
pattern, although sheet erosion was not a sever problem since the observed soil loss rates were within the soil loss
tolerance limits for the region. Performance of different crops in response to conservation measures varied year to
year with the monsoon behaviour. Overall, CF was the most cost effective and remunerative conservation measure for
both sorghum + pigeonpea intercropping as well as soybean giving B : C ratio of 1.67 and 1.54. However, for crop
diversification either SRB or CBT are suitable with chickpea as Rabi crop. Mustard did not perform well due to lack of
moisture in seed zone or saw fly infestation immediately after germination. Implementation of conservation measures
also influenced soil fertility in surface layer. After 3 years of treatment imposition, sunken beds and CBT benches had
lower organic matter and available P as compared to raised beds and CBT slopes. Plots under legume crops improved
total N. Cracks formation is a sever a problem which contributes to depletion of profile moisture and formation of pipe
holes and gullies. Since this is a moisture dependent phenomenon, conservation measures helped in reducing crack
volume and continuity of pores.
Impact of Soil Amendments on Surface Cracks in Black Soils of Chambal

Ravine Region, India
J. Somasundaram, S.N. Prasad and Ashok Kumar

Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Regional Centre, Kota, Rajashthan,
India
Crop yields in rainfed areas are primarily dependent on rainfall pattern and stored moisture in the profile. Cracks are
striking feature of black soils, which provide an opportunity to soil to get recharged during rainy season. It also enhances
evaporation loss from surface and sub-surface during dry spell. The frequency, size and rate of development of cracks
can be influenced by addition of crop residues/soil amendments. Though it has direct relationship with the transport/
transmission of water, nutrient and exchange of gases in the soil profile, however, studies on charactersing cracks,
water losses from cracks and impact on crop productivity are scanty. Hence, a study was conducted to find out the
suitable soil amendment and land use for reducing the rate of crack formation in medium-deep black soils Chambal
88
ravine region of south-eastern Rajasthan. The soil of experimental site was Typic Chromusterts (Vertisols) clay
loam with pH 7.78, organic carbon 0.51% and EC 0.46 dS m-1. The status of available N, P and K was 269, 12.5 and
395 kg ha-1 respectively. The study was conducted under 3 land uses, viz. agriculture (1:1 ratio of sorghum +
pigeonpea), grassland (Cenchrus ciliaris), fallow land (no cultivation) with 4 soil amendments, viz. S0- control, S1
-fly ash @ 10 t ha-1, S2- crop residue (wheat straw) @ 5 t/ha, S3- gypsum (100% gypsum requirement), S4 –FYM
@ 5 t/ha. Soil amendments were incorporated thoroughly in soil before onset of monsoon. Mean data of two years
revealed that soil amendments reduced the rate of crack formation and had positive influence on moisture retention.
Soil amendments recorded 8.5-21.5% higher soil moisture in 60 cm profile than control plots. Among the different
Session 1.1
soil amendments tried, wheat straw registered higher reduction in crack volume followed by gypsum, FYM and fly
ash. The impact of different land uses on crack volume reduction was found in the order: >fallow land > grassland.
Wheat straw recorded the highest sorghum grain equivalent, which was 40.4% higher over control followed by fly
ash (36.3%), gypsum (24%) and FYM (21%). Similar trend recorded in the yield of pigeonpea. High yield of
sorghum and pigeonpea was attributed to uniform distribution of rainfall during crop growing season, improved soil
aggregation and moisture retention in soil profile. In Cenchrus ciliaris, wheat straw applied recorded the highest air-
dry fodder yield, which was 35% more than control, followed by gypsum (19%), FYM (17.4%) and fly ash (16.8 %).
Soil Organic Carbon Density- An Index for Optimizing Land Use and
Preserving Soil Health in Northwest Arid Ecosystem, India
S.K. Singh1 and Mahesh Kumar

Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, India
1
present address: Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, India
Soil health declines in northwest hot arid ecosystem, covering 31.7 Mha land; as evident from soil organic carbon
(SOC), phosphorus and potassium stock depletion by 9.7, 17.1 and 9.0, respectively in twenty seven years (1975 to
2002). Loss was the highest in Typic Torripsamments (19.7%) and Lithic Torriorthents. A rise of soil pH (0.1 to 0.2) in
some soil series and an increased in organic carbon by 0.37 Tg on 22850 km2 area was the other indicators. Growing
crops out of the capability class was one of the dominant reasons apart from high incidence of drought; incomplete
adoption of recommended package and practices and prevalence of high RSC water for irrigation. These call for
developing a methodology for optimizing land use to conserve soil health.
A cumulative soil suitability index was derived by allocating numerical value from 20 to 80 for each soil site
characteristics depending upon the land use requirement. The lowest value was allocated to the most limiting factor,
while the highest value was assigned to the most favorable characteristics. These were normalized on the scale of 100
before their addition for cumulative soil suitability index. For giving the regional look the index was further normalized
on the scale of 0.2 to 1.0 with respect to the best soils of the region. The index was regressed against SOC density (0-
100 cm soil depth) for developing second order polynomials. These were differentiated for optimum SOC density for
different land use. The soils with SOC density of above 3.0 kg m-2 could be used for growing cowpea, cluster beans,
mustard and wheat, while soils with SOC density of 2.56 kg m-2 may be utilized for pearl millet. Lasiurus sindicus/
Cenchrus ciliaris, moth bean and sesame could be grown successfully in the soils, having SOC density 2.03
kg m-2.
For testing the model, SOC density was evaluated under pasture (Lasiurus sidicus),, silvipasture(Trees+ Cenchrus
ciliaris), agro-forestry, pearl millet (Pm)-legume and PM- Pm land use system, which were maintained at CAZRI research
farm from last thirty years. The results indicated that first four land use system contained 185,141,121, and 50% higher
SOC and could sequester 9.6, 7.4, 6.3 and 2.6 kg/m2 higher CO2, than the traditional Pm-Pm sequence. Latter reduced
initial SOC (2.03 kg m-2) by 30 % during the period. An upward and downward movement of SOC in pasture and cereal
based system, respectively endorsed that soils with SOC level of 2.03 kg m-2 are suitable for grassland and non
suitable for cereals. An increased SOC from initial by adopting Pm-moth bean rotation further confirmed versatility of
the index.
89
Thus the result demonstrated that optimum SOC density derived in the back ground of soil site suitability
criteria is a better index for land use planning that may preserve soil health for today and tomorrow.
Effect of Different Residues Managements on Soil Organic Carbon

and Nitrogen in a Semi-Arid Zone
Session 1.1
Nadhira BEN AISSA1, Bassem DIMASSI1, Halim BEN HADJ SALAH1*, Moncef BEN-HAMMOUDA2
and Tahar GALLALI3
1
Institut National Agronomique de Tunis, Tunisia
2
Ecole Supérieure d’Agriculture du Kef, Tunisia.
3
Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, Tunisia.
(*Email: halimbhs@yahoo.com)
A comparative study was conducted at a farm in North Tunisia to determine the effects of direct drilling (DD) and
conventional drilling (CD) on soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), bulk density (BD) at 0-50 cm soil profile in
a semi-arid zone under rainfed conditions and SOC mineralization over 60 days incubation. Both types of drilling (DD,
CD) were applied on two adjacent fields for 7 years period with a 1-year-wheat/2-years-sulla.
Application of DD significantly increased levels of SOC for the top 20 cm soil layer. The highest contents were
obtained with DD (1.8% at 0-10 cm, 1.4% at 0-20 cm). The SOC increased by 2.08 t ha-1 with DD at 0-10 cm soil depth.
Within the top 20 cm soil layer, the difference in SOC pool between DD and CD was not significant. The TN rates were
183.8 kg ha-1 and 149.5 kg ha-1 at 0-10 cm, 220.2 kg ha-1 and 159.9 kg ha-1 at 10-20 cm, and 149.0 kg ha-1 and 163.2
kg ha-1 at 20-30 cm for DD and CD, respectively.
BD was found significantly lower under DD than CD at 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm soil depths with 1.01 kg cm-3 and
1.21 kg cm-3, respectively.
SOC mineralization was obtained from samples out of 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm soil layers, that were sieved at 2 mm
and incubated at 28°C and 65% of field capacity. Carbon mineralization for the top 0-10 cm soil layer was 308.2 kg-C/
ha and 308.2 kg-C/ha for CD and DD, respectively. At 10-20 cm soil depth, carbon mineralization decreased, and
ranged between 216.5 kg C ha-1 and 251.7 kg C ha-1 for CD and DD, respectively.
Evaluation of Selected Cover Management Practices for Maintaining

Soil Productivity in Sloping Lands of Meghalaya
N.K. Lenka, K.K. Satapathy and N.A.K. Singh

Division of Agricultural Engineering, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region,
Umiam, 793 103, Meghalaya, India
In the entire Meghalaya state a typical form of shifting cultivation, viz. ‘Bun’ method of cultivation is widely practiced.
In this method, raised beds are prepared along the slope and crops are grown on raised beds. The high intensity of
rainfall coupled with high degree of slope cause very high run off and soil loss and after 3-4 years, the patch of land
becomes almost leveled and thus abandoned. Terracing on these sloping lands help in reducing soil loss and has
been observed to reduce the practice of shifting cultivation. However, the cost of terracing has very often not encouraged
farmers to come back from the shifting cultivation methods.
90
In this study, four cover management practices were evaluated with the farmer’s practice of Bun method. The
three treatments were: (T1) Contour cropping, (T2) Contour cropping + in-situ weed retention, (T3) Cover cropping of
groundnut, (T4) Cover crop (Groundnut) in the upper half and maize in the lower half, both on contours, (T5) Bun
method. The treatments were taken in standard run off plots of 22 m length and 1.85 m width with average land slope
of 40% and the experiment was taken at ICAR Research Complex, Umiam in the cropping season of 2008. In all the
treatments, maize (Vijaya Composite) was grown except where groundnut was taken as a treatment. For T2, natural
weeds were maintained and maize crop was sown at 60cm row spacing. After 30 days of emergence of maize,
weeding was taken up and the weed biomass was retained and incorporated near the maize row.
Session 1.1
Results showed that soil strength in T5 was least, as revealed from cone penetrometer readings. The penetrometer
readings in T2 varied from 40 to 60 N whereas in other treatments, it varied from 120 to 240 N for 2.5 cm soil depth
penetration. As there was almost periodic rainfall without conspicuous dry spell, effect of the treatments on profile soil
moisture states didn’t show any significant difference. Soil loss was least in T2 followed by T1, T3, and T4. Highest soil
loss was observed under Bun method of cultivation. Apart from this, the significant difference between weed incorporated
treatment (T2) and other treatments was that there was formation of narrow terraces under T2 treatment and thus
reduced the land slope and made it easier for climbing up the slope for other cultural operations and the next crop. The
study of root parameters showed that dry root biomass per maize plant varied from 7.57 g plant-1 in T2 to 1.46 g plant-
1
in T5. The root length density (RLD) varied from to 1.08 cm cm-3 under T2 to 0.36 cm cm-3 under T5.
The study revealed that in such high sloping lands (average slope of 40%), conventional method of clean weeding
can lead to poor plant establishment as most of the seeds are washed away and thus cropping on contours along with
manipulation of weed cover can help in reducing soil loss, land slope and maintaining soil productivity in such sloping
lands.
Reduced Tillage and Nutrient Management Practices for Sustainable

Productivity of Pearl Millet under Different Soil and Agro-Climatic
Conditions in India
G.R. Maruthi Sankar1, P.K. Mishra1, G.R. Chary1, S.P. Singh2, D.K. Kathmale3, R.N. Singh4, M.S.
Sidhpuria5, B. Venkateswarlu6, A.K. Gogoi7 and A.K. Singh7
1
All India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture (AICRPDA), Hyderabad, 500 059, Andhra
Pradesh, India
2
AICRPDA, RBS College, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India
3
AICRPDA, MPKV, Solapur, Maharastra, India
4
AICRPDA, SKDAU, Dantiwada, Gujarat, India
5
AICRPDA, CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana, India
6
CRIDA, Hyderabad, India
7
NRM Division, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India
(*Email: gmsankar@crida.ernet.in)
Tillage and nutrient management studies have been conducted in a permanent site for eight years (2000 to 2007) with
the objective of identifying an efficient practice for rainfed pearl millet in different agro-climatic regions of India viz., (i)
Arid Inceptisols at Agra; (ii) Semi-arid Vertisols at Solapur; (iii) Arid Aridisols at Hisar; and (iv) Semi-arid Aridisols at
Dantiwada under AICRPDA during the rainy seasons (June to September). A combination of nine treatments comprising
of 3 tillage practices viz., (i) conventional tillage (CT); (ii) low tillage + interculture (LT1); and (iii) low tillage + herbicide
(LT2); and 3 fertilizer practices viz., (i) 100% organic (F1); (ii) 50% organic + 50% inorganic (F2); and (iii) 100%
inorganic (F3) have been tested in a split-plot design with tillage treatments in the main plots and fertilizer treatments
in the sub-plots in the study. A wide range in the crop seasonal rainfall was observed at different locations with a mean
of 42, 202, 133 and 80 mm at Agra; 71, 95, 144 and 150 mm at Solapur; 77, 130, 69 and 54 mm at Hisar; and 67, 281,
171 and 70 mm at Dantiwada in June, July, August and September respectively. Based on Analysis of Variance, the
91
tillage and fertilizer treatments were significant in influencing pearl millet yield in different seasons. The mean crop
yield ranged from 1359 (LT1 F1) to 1636 kg/ha (CT F3) at Agra; 1221 (LT2 F1) to 1867 kg/ha (LT1 F3) at Solapur; 1605
(LT1 F1) to 1738 kg/ha (CT F3); and 778 (CT F1) to 1079 kg/ha (LT2 F3) at Dantiwada. Based on multivariate regression
models of yield as a function monthly rainfall of June to September, the rainfall received in June, July and August at
Agra; June and July at Solapur; August and September at Dantiwada; and June and August at Hisar was beneficial to
the crop with a positive effect, while the rainfall of September at Agra; August and September at Solapur; June and
July at Dantiwada; and July and September at Hisar carried a negative effect on yield in different years. The
analysis indicated that yield was predictable in the range of 0.64 (LT2 F1) to 0.81 (CT F3) at Agra; 0.63 (LT2 F3) to
Session 1.1
0.92 (LT1 F2) at Solapur; 0.56 (LT1 F2) to 0.70 (CT F3) at Dantiwada; and 0.75 (CT F3) to 0.89 (LT2 F1) at Hisar. A
measure of sustainable yield index (SYI) has been determined for each treatment of tillage and fertilizer using the
mean yield over years, prediction error based on models and maximum potential yield attained in the study for each
location. The SYI of treatments ranged from 34 to 44% at Agra; 20 to 46% at Solapur; 40 to 57% at Dantiwada; and
61 to 65% at Hisar. The superiority of treatments was assessed based on multivariate ranking of treatments for
yield attained in individual years; mean, coefficient of variation, prediction error and SYI attained over years for each
location. From conservation agriculture point of view, this study indicated that 50% organic + 50% inorganic fertilizer
with conventional tillage in Arid Inceptisols at Agra and Arid Aridisols at Hisar; low tillage + interculture in Semi-arid
Vertisols at Solapur; and low tillage + herbicide in Semi-arid Aridisols at Dantiwada were efficient for sustainable
pearl millet productivity in India.
Soil Quality, Crop Productivity and Economic Comparison of Organic

and Inorganic Farming Systems of Malwa Region of Western MP
S.K. Sharma, Kuldeep Solanki, S.K. Aggarwal and M.P. Jain

College of Agriculture, Indore, 452 001, Madhya Pradesh, India
The investigation entitled “Soil Quality, Crop Productivity and Economic Comparison of Organic and Inorganic
Farming Systems of Malwa Region of Western MP.” was carried out during the year 2007-08 under the All India
Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture, College of Agriculture, Indore. The study was carried out in
two villages namely Samliyachau and Girota of Indore and Depalpur tehasil, respectively. These villages were
adopted by the Department of Agriculture, Government of MP as biovillages and farmers are practicing organic
farming since last 4-5 years. The objectives of the study were (i) to conduct the survey in the organic farming
villages (Samliyachau and Girota) of Malwa region for assessing farmers perception and constraints in adopting
organic farming. (ii) to study the management practices being adopted and to find out the default areas of organic
faming.(iii) to assess soil quality under organic and inorganic farming system. (iv) to evaluate on farm crop productivity
under organic and inorganic farming systems. (v) to assess the economic feasibility of organic farming.
To meet out these objectives the survey was conducted during June 2007 to January 2008 in two villages. The
farmers were selected based on the criteria that they have been practicing organic farming for the last 2-3 years or
more. The name of the farmers, villages and the blocks were selected from the list provided by the Department of
Agriculture, Madhya Pradesh. A questionnaire was prepared to collect the information on different aspects of crop
management, productivity of crops, economics and their perception and constraints in adopting organic farming
from individual farmers who are practicing organic farming. Soil samples were collected from conventional and
organic farming areas of the individual farmer’s holdings.
To assess the soil quality under following farming systems the soil samples were collected. The farming
practices involved were: Organic Farming (< 3 years), Organic Farming (e”3years), Inorganic farming with RDF,
Farmer’s practice. Under each farming condition five farmers were selected to characterize the soils for assessing
soil quality as influenced by organic farming and conventional farming system. The data on crop productivity of
soybean/wheat/gram grown by the farmer’s were also collected and analysed statistically using Randomized
Block Design with five replications (farmers were considered as replications. Soil quality evaluation was done by
92
the methods described by Pierce and Studarson (1993) and Larson and Pierce (1994). In this study, 9 soil quality
indicators were used. The major occlusions drawn from the study are:
The survey revealed that small, medium and large farmers constitute 10, 40 and 50% respectively indicating
that more number of large and medium farmers are involved in organic farming as compared to small farmers.
Among organic farmers 87% farmers grow soybean, 8% farmer grow maize and 5% farmers grow sorghum during
kharif season and during rabi season maximum farmers grow wheat crop (44%), followed by potato (30%), chickpea
(22%) and garlic (4%). Majority of farmers (58%) who were practicing organic farming are defaulters. 25% farmers
Session 1.1
are adopting organic cultivation of crops for last 3 years and 17% farmers are adopting organic farming from > 3
years and still continuing organic farming. The total number of cattle possessed by the organic farmers (20 in Girota
and Semliyachau villages) is 321 with a very good average number of cattle i.e.16. This emphasized that enough
sources of farm yard manure are available with the farmers who are practicing organic farming in the Semliyachau
and Girota villages. Out of 20 organic farmers, only one farmer is practicing agriculture without irrigation and the
remaining 19 farmers are having good source of irrigation either through tube well or dug wells. Most of the farmers
are having their own tractors along with tillage implements and seed drill.FYM, NADEP and vermicompost were the
predominant source of manures for nutrient management in organic farming. Most of the farmers are using bio-
fertilizers and few formers are using products of Pratishtha Company. In general, the quantity of organic manures
being applied was lower than the nutrient requirement of the crops. On an average, farmers were applying 3.6 t ha-
1
FYM/ NADEP, 1.5 t ha-1 vermicompost and 1.2 t ha-1 biogas slurry for kharif crops. In wheat and chickpea crops
they apply 4.2 t ha-1 FYM/ NADEP, 1.6 t ha-1 vermicompost and 1.7 t ha-1 biogas slurry. Spraying of neem oil, cow
dung and fermented butter milk (Mtha) were the most frequently used methods of insect and pest control. Farmers
were also using Trichoderma against soil born diseases. Application of ash, erection of bird pegs in the field to
attract predatory birds, use of pheromone traps were some of the methods used for the pest management.
The higher productivity was obtained under organic farming > 3 years treatment in case of legume crops i.e
soybean and chickpea. In case of cereal crop i.e. wheat the inorganic farming with RDF gave higher productivity as
compared to organic farming treatment. The productivity of soybean, wheat and chickpea crops was affected significantly
due to different treatments at both the villages that is Semliyachau and Girota. The soybean–gram sequence proved
better from economic point of view as compared to soybean–wheat sequence. The comparison of different treatments
revealed that the highest gross return, net return and B:C ratio was obtained due to organic farming > 3 years treatment
followed by inorganic farming with RDF, organic farming <3 years and minimum in case of farmers practice.
Soil pH and electrical conductivity was not affected significantly by various treatments under study. The organic
carbon content was affected significantly by various treatments. The highest organic carbon content in both the villages
was recorded in the treatment comprising of organic farming > 3 years, which was found statistically superior to rest of
the treatments. The available N, P and K content in soil was also affected significantly by the different treatments.
Available N content was maximum in case of inorganic farming with RDF in both the villages followed by Organic
farming >3 years in Semliayachau and Girota villages. In general, the micronutrient content was more in organic
farming treatments than inorganic farming. The bulk density was decreased significantly due to organic farming > 3
years as compared to other treatments. The penetration force was lowest in organic farming treatment which was
statistically inferior to the rest of the treatments. The per cent porosity was increased significantly in organic
farming > 3 years treatment as compared to rest of the treatments. The MWD was increased significantly due to
organic farming > 3 years as compared to rest of the treatments. There was a great increase in soil quality in
Semliyachau village due to adoption of organic farming since > 3 years, while this increase was moderate in village
Girota. The increase in soil quality in case of inorganic farming with RDF and organic farming < 3 years was
moderate to slight. Improved soil health was the major reason for adopting organic farming by the farmers in both
the villages. Almost 100% of surveyed farmers were of this opinion. Majority of farmers adopted organic farming due
to the state government initiative and support provided during the formation of bio-villages.
During survey the major constraints identified by the farmers in adopting organic farming are: (i) lack of technical
knowledge for practicing organic farming, (ii) labour problem in both the villages, (iii) lack of marketing facilities and
no knowledge about the export of organic products, (iv) not getting higher prices for organic produce, (v) reduced
yields during initial years, (vi) labour crises for composting, (vii) finds difficulty in maintaining record of organic
farming practices, and (viii) lack of certification agencies and their interaction with the farmers.
93
Receding Residual Soil Moisture in Rice Fallows - A Resource with

High Potential in Coastal Plains
B.L. Manjunath, V.S. Korikanthimath and J. Ashok Kumar

ICAR Research Complex for Goa, Old Goa, Goa, India
Session 1.1
Among the different agro-climatic regions of India, coastal plains occupy a sizeable area. This region with a warm
humid tropical climate and abundant rainfall abodes a rich bio-diversity. Coastal plains are predominantly covered by
sandy loam soils with inundation of rain water during rainy season. With cessation of rainfall by October in West coast
and by December in East coast, the soil moisture slowly recedes from saturation to field capacity and will be ideal for
cultivation of a variety of crops and cropping sequences. Rice and rice-based cropping systems is the predominant
land use system with varying productivity within the region.
Field experiments were conducted at ICAR Research Complex for Goa and in farmers fields from 1999 onwards
to estimate and assess the moisture availability periods with various recycled manurial resources and their suitability
for major rice based crops of the region. The experiments were conducted in a split-plot design with three replications.
The effect of three recycled manurial resources along with recommended fertilizers with no recycled manure as control
formed the main plot treatments while four rice based cropping systems with rice-fallow as control formed the sub-plot
treatments.
All the recycled manures were found to have a positive influence in retaining better soil moisture as compared to
no recycling of manures. Relatively higher soil moisture was observed in plots recycled with poultry manure (8.46 cm)
followed by recycled FYM (8.30 cm). Recycled paddy straw with mushroom spent substrate was found better over no
recycled manure (7.70 and 6.69 cm. of soil moisture in top 30 cm depth, respectively).
The depletion of soil moisture was found faster during December–January period as compared to later months.
Only recycled poultry manure treatment was able to retain more moisture (4.28 cm) in the surface layer (0-15 cm
depth) as compared to sub surface layer (4.18 cm).
In general soil moisture depleted as the crops advanced in their life cycle However, the soil moisture depletion was
found faster (1.69 cm per 30 cm soil depth) in sunnhemp crop compared to either groundnut (0.86 cm per 30 cm soil
depth) or cowpea (1.06 cm per 30 cm soil depth) right in the initial stages and among the latter two, depletion of soil
moisture was more in groundnut (2.12 cm per 30 cm soil depth) compared to cowpea (1.78 cm per 30 cm depth of soil).
In the early vegetative phase, sunnhemp was found to deplete the surface soil moisture faster (1.12 cm per 30 cm
soil depth) as compared to cowpea (0.39 cm per 30 cm soil depths), the latter, extracting more moisture (0.67 cm per
30 cm soil depth) from sub surface layer. However in the latter stages of crop growth, soil moisture was observed to be
extracted both from surface and sub surface layers in all the crops tested.
Thus, most of these coastal plains can be effectively cropped with a crop/variety that matures in 90 to 100 days.
Resource Conservation Technologies for Enhancing Productivity and

Profitability of Rice (Oryza sativa)-Wheat (Triticum aestivum) System
R.P. Sharma, K.R. Raman and S.K. Pathak

Bihar Agricultural College, Rajendra Agricultural University, Sabour, 813 210, Bihar, India
A field experiment was conducted for four consecutive years from 2004-05 to 07-08 at Bihar Agricultural College,
Sabour, Bhagalpur to compare the performance of the conventional method, zero till drilling, strip till drilling and bed
planting under varying rice sowing/transplanting viz., direct sowing by zero till drill, direct seeding of sprouted seeds in
94
puddled soil by drum seeder, manual transplanting and mechanical transplanting by transplanter in strip plot
design. The experimental soil was clay loam in texture, low in organic carbon 0.47%, available N 168 kg/ha, P 10.4
kg/ha and K 95.5kg/ha. The rice variety ‘PHB-71’ and wheat variety ‘HD 2733’ were fertilized with uniform dose of
100 kg N+17.2 kg P + 16.6 kg K/ha and 120 kg N + 25.8 kg P + 33.2 kg K/ha, respectively.
Mechanical transplanting by transplanter provided significantly higher grain yield (6.33 t/ha), rice-equivalent
yield (12.60 t/ha) and nutrient uptake (213.7 Kg N, 53.0 kg P and 266.6 Kg K/ha) as well as net monetary return (
Rs. 53, 513/ha) and benefit: cost ratio (1:60) than those obtained under zero till drill and drum seeder but remained
Session 1.1
at par with manual transplanting. In comparison to manual transplanting, zero till drill, drum seeder and use of
transplanter saved 75.1, 55.9 and 35.6% cost of sowing/transplanting and 76.2, 52.1 and 30.9% energy, respectively.
Direct seeding of rice by zero till drill required minimum specific energy (341 MJ/ha) and higher specific productivity
(294 g/Mj).
Sowing methods of wheat under different tillage practices revealed that the highest grain yield (4.34 t/ha), rice-
equivalent yield (12.70 t/ha) and nutrient uptake (215.7 kg N, 53.3 kg P and 270.8 kg K/ha) as well as net return (Rs.
54, 102/ha) and B: C ratio (1.63) was realized by strip till drill, which was significantly superior to other methods except
grain yield which remained at par with conventional method of wheat sowing. In comparison to conventional method,
zero till drill, strip till drill and bed planter covered 0.42, 0.50 and 0.35 ha/ h area, saved about 90.0, 88.6 and 76.6%
time, 73.9, 62.0 and 31.8% cost of sowing, 71.8, 62.0 and 31.8% energy, 11.0, 16.0 and 32% water, 69.0, 74.0 and
58% diesel. Sowing of wheat by strip till drill resulted in minimum specific energy (435 MJ/q) and higher energy
productivity (230 g/MJ).
Zero and strip till drills improved organic carbon and available P2O5 content of soil. However, marginal decline in
available N and K2O was observed in all the methods indicating the significance of replacement of these nutrients in
adequate amounts for achieving higher yields.
Pedotransfer Functions to Estimate Available Water Capacity of

Seasonally Impounded Shrink-swell Soils
N.G. Patil and S.R. Singh
Pedotransfer functions (PTF) to estimate available water capacity of seasonally impounded shrink-swell soils
of central India are presented. Performance of the calibrated PTFs is compared with that of ‘Rosetta’ a widely used
general PTF, Available information on soil properties contained nine point soil water retention data for 175 samples
measured at varied potentials, textural composition, bulk density and organic carbon content. Nine widely used water
retention functions proposed by different researchers were fitted to the measured data and evaluated, Brooks-Corey,
van Genuchten, and Campbell functions were recommended for describing WRC of these soils. We present point
PTFs to estimate available water capacity (AWC) using two approaches - regression and artificial neural networks
(ANN). Point estimation PTFs were calibrated for water contents at-33 and -1500 kPa and consequently AWC.
Performance evaluation with root mean square error (RMSE) criteria suggested that ANN-based PTFs were better
than regression PTFs. Performance evaluation of ‘Rosetta’ suggested its applicability for the study area. Increasing
the number of predictor variables improved performance of neural PTFs and ‘Rosetta’.
95
Comprehensive Soil Assessment – A Vital Key to Conserve Soil

Fertility
M.R. Ramasubramaniyan, S.V. Murugan and R. Kalpana

National Agro Foundation
Session 1.1
Indian agriculture is marred by low productivity of crops. The decline in soil fertility is one of the key factors
responsible for low crop productivity. The unscrupulous application of fertilizer materials is one of the major reasons
decline in soil fertility and increase in problem soils. Majority of the farmers often have less or no access to
technology and tools which leads to injudicious resource management especially soil. The use efficiency of inputs
like seeds and fertilizers depend mainly on the soil fertility management. Lack of knowledge about the soil on the
part of farmers has to be addressed to increase the crop productivity and improve the use efficiency of seeds and
other inputs for sustainable farming. The available facility in terms of soil fertility assessment is often limited to
determining the status of major nutrients like Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium. However, the comprehensive
knowledge on all the vital soil parameters especially Secondary (Calcium, Magnesium Sulphur) and Micronutrients
(Zinc, Manganese, Iron, Copper, Boron) apart from major nutrients is the key to improve the crop productivity by
balancing the deficiency and sufficiency of the limiting and excess nutrients. It has been demonstrated through
several case studies by National Agro Foundation, a NGO, in Kancheepuram District of Tamilnadu that the crop
productivity can be increased to a tune of 35% - 40% by comprehensively assessing the soil nutrient status like pH,
E.C, Organic Matter, CEC, % Base Saturation, Major, Secondary and Micronutrients and improve the income level
of farmers. It has also been observed that even without application of certain nutrients (which is otherwise applied
due to lack of knowledge by the farmers), the crop productivity can be improved. Hence it is considered essential
to extend this facility to vast majority of farmers which is the need of the hour.
Estimation of Rice Residue Burning Areas using Remote Sensing

Technologies
Milap Punia1*, Parvesh Chandna2, Jagdish K. Ladha2, Raj K. Gupta3

1
Centre for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110 067, India
2
International Rice Research Institute, NASC Complex, New Delhi, 110 012, India
3
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT), Mexico
(*Email: milap.punia@gmail.com)
Burning of rice (Oriza sativa) residues in combine harvested fields in the rice-wheat system of the Indo-Gangatic
Plains (IGP) of South Asia, has become a widespread practice, leading to environmental degradation through emissions
of trace gases and chemical compounds like CO2, CO, CH4, N2O, NOx, NMHCs and aerosols. A methodology using
low and moderate resolution (MODIS & AWiFS) satellite data was developed for estimation of residue burned areas in
Punjab, state of India. The study utilized thermal channels of MODIS ( Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer)
and knowledge-based approach for classification of AWiFS (Advanced Wide Field Sensor ) data. Decision-tree
classification was combined with image classification using See5 (a machine learning decision tree) to obtain higher
accuracy. Estimated burned areas using AWiFS data were around 4315 km2. Among these, Amritsar (674 km2),
Jalandhar(610 km2), Patiala (555 km2) and Ludhiana (490 km2) were found to be the major contributor to total rice
residue burned areas followed by Firozpur, Gurdaspur, Faridkot, Kapurthala, Hosiharpur, Bhatinda and Rupnagar was
the least affected (41 km2). To avoid residue burning machines such as Turbo Happy Seeder, Rotary Disk Drill and
Double Disk Drill machines are suitable options for seeding directly into loose and anchored residues. These machines
have been tested and performed well in the various on-stations and on- farm trails conducted by Rice Wheat Consortium
(RWC) and its national partners in different parts of the Indo-Gangatic Plains. The study provided decision-makers
with essential information to plan and deploy appropriate residue management technologies in the most effective
manner. However, efforts are needed to improve the estimation of residue burned areas of IGP using high resolution
satellite data.
96
Determination of Some Soil Properties using Hyper-Specteral

Reflectance Data
D.K. Singh1, Nayan Ahmed1, R.N. Sahoo2 and R.K. Sharma1

1
Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi, 110 012, India
2
Division of Agricultural Physics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110 012, India
Session 1.1
Hyper Spectral Scanning technology provides more detailed information than multispectral imaging. Using hyper
spectral remote sensing we are able to identify and differentiate spectrally unique materials in soils. Hand held
hyper spectral Spectroradiometer (FS3, ASDI, USA), was used to characterize the spectral reflectance patterns of
different soil orders namely Alfisol, Inceptisol, Mollisol and Vertisol collected from different agro-climatic regions of
India.
Reflectance spectra of 87 soil samples that represent most of the soil groups within the examined population
revealed that Alfisol showed higher reflectance pattern in the IR region than the other three soils orders (Inceptisol,
Vertisol, and Mollisol). The Mollisol spectral reflectance was the lowest one as compared to all other soil orders
throughout the spectral region (350-2500 nm). Spectral reflectance pattern of Vertisol showed higher reflectance pattern
than Mollisol but lower than Inceptisol and Alfisol.
Soils samples were analyzed for some soil parameters such as texture, moisture, organic matter, calcium carbonate
and free iron-oxide content. Best correlated bands and spectral parameters (i.e. reflectance, absorbance, first and
second derivative of reflectance and first and second derivative of absorbance) were identified for different soil parameters
through statistical analysis. Few best correlated bands of different spectral parameters were chosen through multiple
regression analysis (MRA) and prediction equations were developed taking 50 soil sample data and these were validated
with rest 37 soil sample data. The r2 value obtained for prediction equations of different soil constituents were 0.87 for
organic matter, 0.84 for sand, 0.83 for clay, 0.82 for silt, 0.87 for CaCO3, 0.83 for iron oxides and 0.59 for soil moisture.
The best fitted equations were developed for predicted and measured parameter values and found that they were best
fitted with 1: 1 line.
Identification of Potential Zones for Resource Conservation

Technologies and its Discrimination through Multispectral
Remote Sensing
R.N. Sahoo1*, R.K. Tomar1, Suraj Pandey2, P. Chandna3, Raj K. Gupta4, N. Kumar5, V.K. Gupta1, R.K.
Sharma6 and K.S. Babu6
1
Division of Agricultural Physics, IARI, New Delhi, 110 012, India
2
FAO, Nairobi
3
IRRI, NASC Complex, New Delhi, 110 012, India
4
ICARDA-CAC Office, P.O. Box 4564, Tashkent -700000, Uzbekistan
5
Dept. of Food and Agricultural Engineering, IIT, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
6
DWR, Karnal, Haryana, ndia
(*Email : rnsahoo.iari@gmail.com)
Tillage is an important management practice that has direct impact on soil and water quality. Conservation tillage
has evolved in past three decades toward less soil inversion and maintenance of crop residue on the soil surface
and gained popularity in large areas of the country. Present study reveals the potential of remote sensing technique
for finding potential areas for adoption of Resource Conservation Technologies (RCTs) and estimating areas covered
97
under the conservation tillage which would be valuable input for ecological models. Mau and Patna districts of Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar, respectively were taken for identifying potential zones of RCTs and Karnal district of Haryana
was considered for discriminating conventional (CT) and conservation tillage adopted fields through remote sensing
data. Time series multispectral remote sensing satellite data was used to characterize the areas and thereby
making decision for different RCTs could be possible. Late harvested rice followed by fallow or late sown crop in
both the districts, saline areas in Mau, excessive moisture and flood in Patna district could be characterized
through remote sensing data analysis, thereby identifying potential zones for adoption of different RCTs. The onset
of flood recession time and temporal availability of lands for cultivation could be estimated using these modern
Session 1.1
techniques which may enable the farmers and the planners not only to schedule the sowing of crops but also to
ensure timely availability of required inputs including RCTs for timely planting of crops. For discriminating RCT and
CT adopted fields in whole Karnal district, 80 training sites for each class randomly distributed over the study area
were collected using GPS. Rice-wheat area was estimated using temporal NDVI profile of preprocessed satellite
data of IRS P6, LISS –III of six dates and decision tree based classification. Satellite image of November, when
mostly land remains fallow, was used for mapping the RCTs and CT areas using logistic regression and spectral
angle mapper (SAM) technique with digital number (DN) and radiance values. After evaluating individual bands,
different indices and derived principal components with forty training sites from each class (RCT & CT), only four
significant variables (i.e. b1, b4, NDSVI and VIgreen) were considered and logistic regression equation was developed
and applied on whole image for mapping. Pure spectral end members of same sites of RCT and CT were developed
from both DN and radiance values and SAM technique was used for mapping whole rice-wheat area. Accuracy
assessment of all the three classifications was done with remaining forty training sites of RCT and CT areas and
Kappa coefficient was computed. Logistic regression, SAM with radiance and DN values resulted 19.3, 16.0 and
15.0% of rice-wheat area of Karnal under RCT, respectively. Kappa coefficient values revealed that SAM with
radiance image (K = 0.96) was better compared SAM with DN image (K= 0.90) and logistic regression approach (K
= 0.86). Hyper-spectral remote sensing data with better spatial resolution would improve accuracy further in mapping
RCT areas under such small holding and heterogeneous field conditions.
Tillage and Residue Management Effect on Performance of

Greengram (Vigna radiata) and Carbon Sequestration in a
Maize-based Cropping System
U.K. Behera, J.R. Meena and A.R. Sharma

Division of Agronomy, Indian Agricultural Research institute, New Delhi, 110 012, India
A field experiment was conducted during summer season 2007 at the research farm of Division of Agronomy, Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi to evaluate the effect of cropping systems, and tillage and residue management
on growth and yield performance, carbon sequestration, soil physical parameters, energy relations and economics of
summer greengram. Treatments included four cropping systems, viz. maize-mustard-greengram, maize-chickpea-
greengram, maize-linseed-greengram, maize-wheat-greengram; and four tillage and residue management treatments,
viz. conventional tillage with and without residue and zero tillage with and without residue. The experiment was conducted
in split plot design with three replications.
Results showed that growth and yield parameters of summer greengram were significantly affected by cropping
systems. However, maximum growth and yield parameters were recorded in maize-chickpea-greengram cropping
systems. Seed yield of summer greengram was maximum (899 kg/ha) in maize-chickpea-greengram, followed by
maize-mustard-greengram (844 kg/ha), and these two systems were statistically similar but significantly superior to
maize-linseed-greengram and maize-wheat-greengram cropping systems. Conventional tillage with residue gave
significantly higher grain yield than other tillage and residue management treatments. However, conservation tillage
produced marginally higher seed yield than conventional tillage without residue application. Soil physical parameters,
viz. bulk density, hydraulic conductivity and soil aggregation were significantly influenced due to cropping system as
well as tillage and residue management. These results were restricted to surface soil (0-15 cm) only. Bulk density and
98
soil aggregation increased significantly in zero tillage than conventional tillage. Distribution of macro-aggregates
was more in zero tillage than conventional tillage, showing the beneficial effect of zero tillage on soil aggregation.
Carbon sequestration was significantly influenced due to tillage and residue management, but the effects of
cropping systems was non-significant. However, maize-chickpea-greengram cropping systems resulted in higher carbon
sequestration than other cropping systems. Carbon sequestration was significantly higher in conservation tillage than
conventional tillage, and the effect was restricted to only surface soil. But the effect was non-significant in sub-surface
soil.
Session 1.1
Energy requirement was maximum in maize-wheat-greengram cropping system. The energy requirement in
conventional tillage (without residue) was about 19.5% higher than the zero tillage (without residue). The highest
energy output was obtained in conventional tillage with residue application, followed by conservation tillage. Cost of
production in summer greengram varied from Rs 11,757/ha in maize-linseed-greengram to Rs 13,320/ha in maize-
wheat-greengram cropping systems. Similarly, it was from Rs 11,160/ha in zero tillage without residue to Rs 13,051/ha
in zero tillage with residue. The highest net returns of Rs 15,302 were obtained in maize-chickpea-greengram, closely
followed by maize-mustard-greengram cropping system. The highest net return of Rs 18,965 were obtained in
conventional tillage with residue. The next best net returns were obtained from conventional tillage without residue
application and conservation tillage. Both these treatments gave similar net returns.
Based on these findings, it may be concluded that the performance of summer greengram in maize-chickpea-
greengram and maize-mustard-greengram cropping systems was superior to others. Cultivation of summer greengram
is profitable under conventional tillage with residue application. Conservation tillage and conventional tillage without
residue application gave similar economic returns, however, the former has several other benefits from environment
and economic point of view, such as better soil aggregation and carbon sequestration and soil nitrogen availability and
energy saving.
Assessment of Sediments and Nutrients Losses and Their

Conservation in the Mountain of Nepal
B.P. Tripathi1, G.P. Acharya2, M.A. McDonald3

1
Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS), Lumle, Kaski, NARC, Nepal
(Present address: IRRI-Nepal Office, NARC Building Singha Durbar Plaza, Kathmandu, Nepal)
2
Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS), Lumle, Kaski, NARC, Nepal
(Present address: National Wheat Research Programme, Bhairahawa, NARC, Nepal)
3
School of Agricultural and Forest Science, University of Wales, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, UK
The mountains of Nepal occupy about 51% of the total agricultural land. Rainfed Upland (Bari land) constitutes 64%
of the cultivated land, of which 61% lies in the middle mountains alone. Soils of these areas are thought to be
declining in fertility and vulnerable to soil losses due to combination of natural factors such as sloping topography,
heavy seasonal rainfall and predominance of erosion prone soils and human factors such as intensive cultivation of
land and erosion prone farming practices. The objectives of this study were to evaluate combination of mulch, strip
crops and incorporation of legumes in the improvement of soil fertility, minimization of soil and nutrient losses and
to increase farmers’income by promoting locally adoptable crops and cultivation practices on sloping terrace lands.
Experiments were established in five farmers’ fields. One farmer’s field was a block assigned a set of three
treatments. The treatments were: strip cropping with maize (Zea mays L.) and ginger, and strip cropping with maize
and legumes such as cowpea in the first year, soybean in the second year and field bean in the third year, and a control
treatment (cultivation of only maize). The treatments were randomly assigned to plots within each of the blocks. Each
experimental plot was 100 m2 (5m x 20m down slope). Data were collected on rainfall, leachate, runoff, eroded sediments
and loss of nutrients through runoff and leaching during the rainy season.
99
Total monsoon rainfall was 1386, 1124 and 870 mm during the year 2000, 2001 and 2002, respectively. Runoff
from the intervention plots were generally lower than from the control plots, particularly the maize/ginger plots. The
trend of runoff were reflected in sediment losses, which were very low (< t ha-1). Losses were highly vulnerable and not
significantly different between the intervention and control treatments over three years. Leachate ranged from 44-
69% of the total rainfall and amounts were not significantly different between treatments. Losses of dissolved
nutrients, NO3-N, P and K were lower in runoff than in leachate due to high percolation rates. Organic C, total N,
available P and exchangeable K concentrations were higher in the eroded sediments than they were in the bulk
soil. The higher nutrient levels in the eroded sediments were as a result of preferential erosion of finer silt particles,
Session 1.1
and higher nutrient sorption on fine particles. Treatment differences were significant in 2000 (P=0.02), 2001 (P=0.4)
and 2002 (P=0.01) in terms of income. Maize and ginger strip cropping gave the highest net income of Rs 18,110
to Rs 33,647 ha-1 from 2000 to 2002 as compared to other treatments (Rs 9,236 to 9,398 ha-1). Maize and ginger
strip cropping is the best practice for soil and nutrients conservation as well as high income. Farmers applied 26.2
t farm yard manure (FYM) in 2001 and 15.9 t FYM ha-1 in 2002 in their plots, which showed that the system can be
considered to be in a steady state.
Integrated Crop and Resource Management for Enhancing

Productivity and Profitability of Rice–Wheat System in Nepal Tarai
A.P. Regmi1, J. Tripathi1, G.S. Giri1, M.R. Bhatta1, D.P. Sherchan2, K.B. Karki3, B.P. Tripathi4,
Virender Kumar5 and J.K. Ladha5
1
National Wheat Research Program, (NWRP), Bhairahawa, Rupandehi, Nepal
2
Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), Singha Darbar plaza, Kathmandu, Nepal
3
Central Soil Science Division, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal
4
IRRI/Nepal Office, NARC building, Singha Darbar Plaza, Kathmandu, Nepal
5
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)/India Office, DPS Marg, Pusa, New Delhi, India
Rice (Oryza sativa L.)–wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) rotation is a major cropping system of tarai, mid-hills and river
basins of Nepal. The productivity and profitability of this system is far below of its potential mainly because of poor
resource and crop management practices. Field experiments were conducted in 60 farmers’ field in Rupandehi district
from 2005/06 to 2006/07 to evaluate the integrated crop and resource management (ICRM) for improving the productivity
and profitability of rice-wheat system. The ICRM strategy significantly improved grain yields of both rice and wheat and
net income over conventional practice. On an average, conventionally tilled transplanted rice with ICRM (CT-TPR-
ICRM) produced 1.4 Mg ha-1 higher rice grain yield over conventional transplanted rice (CT-TPR). Similarly, in wheat,
ICRM approach had 30% higher grain yield than the conventionally broadcast wheat (CT-BCW). In rice, yield gap 1
(Maximum attainable yield–average yield obtained with ICRM approach) and yield gap 2 (Maximum attainable yield–
average yield obtained in conventional practice) were 2.7 (37%) and 3.9 Mg ha-1 (53%) respectively. In wheat, yield
gaps 1 and 2 were 2.9 (53%) and 3.5 Mg ha-1 (64%), respectively. On a system basis, higher N balance (52 kg ha-1)
was found in ICRM compared to conventional practice (16.5 kg ha-1). Similarly 26% higher P balance was observed
with ICRM strategy over the conventional practice. However, negative K balance was found in both with ICRM (-57 kg
K ha-1) and in conventional practice (- 64 kg K ha-1). In wheat, more than 60% of land preparation and seeding cost can
be saved with the resource conservation technology. Net income gained by applying ICRM approach over conventional
practice was higher in rice (US$ 192) than in wheat (US$ 166). The findings showed that improving crop and resource
management in Nepal could increase the productivity and profitability of the rice–wheat system.
100
New Implications of Scientific Facts for Nutrient and Residue

Management for Sustainable Agriculture
R.C. Yadav1* and Paritosh Srivastava2

1
CSWCRTI, Research Centre, Agra, 282 006, Uttar Pradesh, India
2
Hindustan College of Science and Technology, Farah, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India
(*Email: ramcyadav@ rediffmail.com)
Session 1.1
There is a always continuous thrust for managing nutrients(organic and inorganic) and water to increase yield in a
given agro-ecosystem. Best efforts have been devoted to provide combination of organic and inorganic fertilizers.
However, due to mechanization the availability of organic manures have become insufficient to cope up with the
demand for intensive agriculture. In this endeavour the residue management has become an alternative of profound
potential. The objectives of residue managements have so far been to conserve soil moisture, soil loss by water and
winds, and build-up organic carbon etc. However, the chemical reaction in the decomposition process of residues in
the fields or for that matter in any manurial amendment have not been rightly understood. That means, no innovative
developments have come in and the set practice of residue management has been going on from generation after
generations. Accordingly, field experiments were conducted that produce site-specific results on its performance. No
universally applicable innovation has come in practice. While NPK shortfall are compensated by application of higher
doses, no thinking has gone into the on spot management of available resources in residue management.
The residue incorporated either directly in field or as a part of amendment, basically comprises cellulose and plant
tissues in dried form. It undergoes the process of decomposition and reduces to sulphate or sulphides. The knowledge
of sulphur cycle has not been applied in residue management of any kind. The decomposition in the sulphur cycle
goes both aerobic and non-aerobic. During the aerobic decomposition, the sulphur content of residue gets converted
into sulphate, which is directly taken up by the plants for promotion of growth. On other hand, the anaerobic reaction
occurs following irrigation and rain, which causes detrimental effect. Thus, well thought over beneficial effects of
residue management go to cause bad effect. The situation get worsened with irrigation of sewage water, salty water or
in saline alkali soil, which bring the bad effect of sewage sickness.
The study describes situation-wise aerobic decomposition of residues by application of sulphur cycle. Creation
of aeration by ploughing or interculture are the simple ways that will convert cellulose into sulphate. The sulphur is
a constituent of amino acids such as cysteine, cystine and methionine involved in chlorophyll production which is
required for protein synthesis, plant function and structure, significantly affected by the available doses, is taken in
sulphate form. Thus, large deficiency of sulphur can be overcome by convening the innovative aerobic decomposition
of residues. The innovative form of aerobic decomposition is recommended to be NADEP composting, where in the
benefit of aerobic decomposition has been realized but the scientific process and chemical reaction has practically
remained as a knowledge in a black box. Thus, new innovation based on the scientific facts will overcome problem
of sulphur deficiency for promoting sustainable agriculture, where residue management has been going on since
ages.
Reduced Tillage Options and Residue Management under

Rice-Wheat Cropping System in Vertisols of Central India
S.S. Tomar and S.K. Sharma

Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishva Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, 482 004, Madhya Pradesh, India
Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) are grown in sequence over 26 M ha land of south and east
Asia to meet the food demands of rapidly expanding human population. Rice-wheat system covers about 12 M ha in
101
India and is the backbone of country’s food security . Through out SE Asia puddling is used to prepare soil for
lowland rice. Interms of the degree of alteration of soil structure, puddling is rather extreme form of tillage, because
it results in aggregate breakdown and the destruction of macropores. The long turnaround time is needed to prepare
puddle Vertisols for subsequent wheat crop after rice. Planting of wheat crop beyond 15 November reduces yields
considerably. Recently, a number of workers have advocated for zero or reduced tillage due to shortage of time
between rice harvesting and wheat sowing. It calls for evaluation and popularization of direct sowing of rice by
suitable drills so as to cater the needs and requirements of farmers.
Session 1.1
Series of experiments were conducted to generate the technological options for sustainable crop production
under rice-wheat sequence at Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh under AICRP on tillage requirement of major Indian soils. A
brief account of the technologies developed and recommendations generated has been discussed in this paper.
In a long-term study conducted under rice wheat cropping system in Vertisols (Typic Haplusters), it was concluded
that in Vertisols should be grown as direct-seeded crop, which provides better physical environment for subsequent
wheat crop. Significantly higher yield of wheat was recorded in direct-seeded as compared to transplanted plots, and
the overall productivity of the system was higher under reduced tillage conditions i.e. direct-seeded rice, followed by
zero-till wheat. No till system of wheat and reduced tillage in rice (avoiding puddling and direct seeding of rice) helped
to reduce the turnaround time and get the wheat planted close to the optimum date. This system offers the advantages
of timely wheat sowing, favouring crop productivity, saving energy and turnaround time. This system not only increases
productivity of the system but also reduces the cost of cultivation, fuel cost, wear and tear of tractors and increases
input use efficiency. The twin advantage of enhancement of productivity and its profitability under zero-till system will
go a long way in enhancing the sustainability of rice-wheat system. Incorporation of rice and wheat crop residue both
in situ or as compost increased the soil organic carbon content and improved soil health, while improving the productivity
of the rice-wheat system. The return of carbon to soil and yield of crops was maximum, when crop residue was added
along with fertilizer N @ 120 kg N ha-1.
After harvest, the prepared seedbed is quite cloddy, this affects germination of post rainy-season crops adversely.
Vertisols are having a high water storage capacity, which can be very well exploited if we can have a good germination
of rabi crops, specifically under rainfed situation. For better stand of rainfed rabi crops in rice-based cropping system
either watering in seeded rows or rollering with 20-30 kg roller has been found effective in improving seed-soil contact,
which results in water conservation, higher water absorption and thereby increased germination and overall productivity
of rabi crops grown after rice. About 40% and 26% higher wheat yield, 25 and 18% higher chickpea yield, 28 and 13%
higher yield of linseed were obtained due to watering and compaction, respectively as compared to control.
Tillage Rotation Effects on Soil Carbon Pool Management Index in

Double Rice Cropping Region
Sun Guofeng, Zhang Hailinaþ and Chen Fu*

Key Laboratory of Crop Cultivation and Farming System, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Agronomy and
Biotechnology, China Agriculture University, Beijing 100193, China
(*Email: chenfu@cau.edu.cn)
Conservation tillage may concentrate organic matter and carbon in the soil and improve soil quality, labour-saving
and economic performance. Thus it is very common for rice in Southern China. However, problems such as bulk
density and compaction occurred for paddy fields with long-term conservation tillage, which was not favourable for
rice growth. In order to solve these problems, rotational tillage was introduced in this study. Compared with continuous
no-tillage (NT) for seven years, rotary tillage (RT) and conventional tillage (CT) were conducted in 2006. In the half
field of rotary tillage (RT) and conventional tillage (CT), no-tillage (NT) was proposed in 2007 in double rice cropping
region, Hunan province. Treatments were NT-NT, CT-CT, CT-NT, RT-RT and RT-NT, respectively. The tillage methods
were same for early rice and late rice. Total organic carbon (TOC), active carbon (AC) and carbon pool management
index (CPMI) were measured at the late rice harvest in Oct, 2007. Results showed as following: the total organic
102
carbon (TOC) at 0-5 cm soil layer was significantly higher for NT-NT (33.72 mg g-1) than that for CT-CT (25.18 mg g-
1
) and RT-RT (29.77 mg g-1), which were significantly lower than that for CT-NT (28.16 mg g-1) and RT-NT (31.44 mg
g-1) at the 5% level, respectively. However, it was significantly lower for NT-NT than that for CT-CT and RT-RT, which
were significantly higher than that for CT-NT and RT-NT at 5-20 cm at the 5% level, respectively. The active carbon
(AC) at 0-5 cm soil layer was higher under NT-NT (3.31 mg g-1) than that under CT-CT (2.92 mg g-1) and RT-RT (2.98
mg g-1), which were higher than that under CT-NT and RT-NT at 0-20 cm, respectively. The carbon pool management
index (CPMI) was significantly lower under CT-NT (82.57) and RT-NT (84.47) compared to that under CT-CT (101.41),
RT-RT (100.66) and NT-NT (100.00) at the 5% level. In conclusion, compared with NT-NT, soil carbon pool management
Session 1.1
index (CPMI) of CT-CT and RT-RT were slightly high, which were significantly higher than that of CT-NT and RT-NT
at 0-20 cm.
Effect of Crop Residue Management Practices on Soil Physical

Properties and Wheat Yield
R.N. Garg*, R.K. Tomar, D. Chakraborty, V.K. Gupta, S. Singh and N.V.K. Chakravarty
Division of Agricultural Physics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
(*Email: rngarg_phy@iari.res.in)
Crop residue management practices can play pivotal role in agricultural sustainability by altering the organic matter
status, physical and chemical properties of soils, which interact for better soil health. However, quantitative relationships
between soil physical parameters under different crop residue management practices, under intensive cropping systems
are scanty. Crop residues including leguminous plants and green manuring have been reported to improve soil physical
conditions. Field experiments were conducted in an alluvial clay loam soil to study the influence of organics applied in
rice on soil physical properties and performance of succeeding wheat. Treatments comprised of incorporation of rice
husk @ 5 Mg ha-1, subabul (leaves+twigs) @ 25 Mg ha-1 and combination of both with control. Results showed that
incorporation of rice husk and subabul combination enhanced soil organic carbon content (8.4 as against 5.3 g kg -
1
in control), water stable aggregates >0.25 mm (18.8 as against 15.2% in control) and saturated hydraulic conductivity
of soils (0.26 as compared to 0.14 cm hr-1 in control), and a concomitant decrease in soil bulk density (1.39 against
1.47 Mg m-3 in control) in the 0-15 cm layer. Similar but lower in magnitude, changes in soil physical properties
were observed in 15-30 cm depth. The correlations between organic carbon and water stable aggregates and
hydraulic conductivity were found positive and highly significant (R2=0.95 and 0.96, respectively). These improvements
in soil physical properties were possibly translated in higher rice and succeeding wheat yield which increased from
3.99 Mg ha-1 in control to 4.51 Mg ha-1 (in case of rice) and from 3.32 Mg ha-1 (control) to 3.94 Mg ha-1 (in case of
wheat) with rice husk + subabaul combination. Significant positive relationship was obtained between water stable
aggregates and grain yield of wheat. Results suggested that incorporation of rice husk, green leaves and twigs of
subabul in soil could be a suitable agro-technology for enhancing crop production under rice-wheat system.
Conservation of Biological Control Agents through IPM
Pradyumn Kumar, Neelam Chaudhary, Naorem Sumorjit Singh, Meenu Aggarwal and Sain Dass
Every crop harbour several scores to few hundreds of phytophagous insects at various stages. Generally in any crop,
often 2-5 insects assume status of major pests. The populations of remaining insects are kept at low by numerous
parasitoids, predators and pathogens present in the ecosystems. Often their presence and significance remain obscured
until this host and natural enemy relationship is given jolt by injudicious use of chemical insecticides or by some other
103
agronomic practice. Biological control is a main stay in the integrated pest management (IPM) strategy of any
crop. Most of the components of IPM conserve and promote naturally occurring biological control agents and tend
to be in the harmony with nature. IPM recommends intercropping. Intercropping increases floral diversity which in
turn increase insect- fauna diversity. The biological control agents get alternate hosts and their populations stabilize
at higher level. For natural enemies to maintain high reproductive success it is important that disruption for their
host foraging process is minimal so that most of their time and energy can be allocated to finding hosts, spray of
parasitoid food has given maximum success in Hymenoptera both in increasing population and performance. IPM
also recommends to grow both annual and perennial flowering plants. The nectar and pollens of flowering plants
Session 1.1
attract parasitoids and predators and also increase their fecundity. The concept of refugia is promoted in IPM for
providing protection to biological control agents during the period when the crop is harvested and no more host
insects and shelter is available for them. Refugia cater their all such need as wild flowering plant meet their nectar
and pollen requirement and alternate host insects are parasitized/ predators during the lean period. Conservation
cages of different types are used for manual collection of egg masses and keeping them in conservation cages.
These cages are permeable to parasitoid adults but not to the immature hosts. Bamboo cage-cum-bird perch is
one such type of conservation cage. Spiders play a very significant role in pest suppression in rice ecosystem. To
conserve them, small brooms of sticks are strewn in rice field. The spiders find these brooms ideal place to lay their
eggs where they are protected from predators. Above all, while developing IPM strategy for any crop only relatively
safer chemical insecticides are recommended which are less harmful to biological control agents. Further, these
insecticides are applied at a time when the activity of natural enemies is minimal. The literature is replete with
scientific studies where populations of natural enemies have increased when no chemical insecticide was used.
Undoubtedly, the potential of biological control agents can be boosted and best harnessed through integrated pest
management strategy.
104
Session 1.2: Input Management

(Water, Nutrients, Seed and Agro-chemicals)
Soybean Response to Irrigation, Deep Tillage and Straw Mulching in a

Semi-arid Sub-tropical Environment
V.K. Arora, A.S. Sidhu, S.S. Thind and C.B. Singh

(*Email: vkaro58@yahoo.com)
Depleting groundwater resources in Punjab calls for diversifying from rice to low water-requiring crops and adopting
Session 1.2
water- conserving technologies. Soybean offers a diversification option in coarse- to medium- textured soils. However,
its productivity in these soils is constrained by high soil mechanical impedance and high soil temperature in the earlier
part of growing season. These constraints can be alleviated through practices of deep tillage and straw mulching.
There is little information on the individual effects of deep tillage and its combination with straw mulching on soybean
productivity. A field experiment was conducted to study effects of deep tillage, straw mulching and irrigation regimes on
soybean growth and yield in relation to soil water retentivity. Treatments included combinations of two irrigation regimes,
viz. full irrigation, and partial irrigation in main plot; two tillage regimes, viz. conventional-till (CT)- soil stirring to 0.10 m
depth, and deep tillage (DT)- chiseling down to 0.35 m depth followed by CT in sub-plot; and two mulch rates, viz. 0
and 6 t ha-1 in sub-sub-plot on two soils with extractable water capacity of 15 and 20 cm m-1 soil depth.
Three years data showed that mean seed yield was greater in the sandy loam than in the loamy sand soil reflecting
the effects of water retentivity. Yield gains with straw mulching were comparable on the two soils (20%). Irrigation
effects were far greater on loamy sand (40%) than on sandy loam (5%). Similarly, deep tillage benefits were also more
on loamy sand (15%) compared to sandy loam (5%). Deep tillage and straw mulching gains are ascribed to deeper and
denser rooting as a consequence of moderation of soil temperature and water conservation with straw mulching and
tillage-induced reduction in soil strength. These results demonstrate that deep tillage and mulching are promising
options for improving soybean yield and water productivity in coarse- textured soils.
Nitrogen Mineralization Pattern of Concurrently Grown Daincha in Wet

Seeded Rice
S. Anitha* and Jose Mathew

Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, India
(*Email: anitha.sarala@gmail.com)
High production cost and low productivity are the two major constraints in rice cultivation in India. This is mainly
attributed to high labour cost, unavailability of labour for timely field operations. The productivity is further affected due
to the non-application of organic manures in view of their high cost and limited availability. The new system of wet
seeding rice with concurrent growing of daincha and its subsequent incorporation assumes significance in this contest.
Nitrogen release pattern after the incorporation of concurrently grown daincha is important in formulating an efficient
nitrogen management schedule for wet seeded rice. Field experiments were conducted at Agricultural Research Station,
Mannuthy, Kerala during 2004 to 2006 to study the effect of incorporation of concurrently grown daincha on nitrogen
release pattern under wet seeded rice crop. Daincha was grown along with wet seeded rice and incorporated at 20 and
30 days after sowing by using one of the three methods, viz. using cono weeder, spraying 2, 4-D @1.0 kg ha-1, and
spraying met sulfuron methyl spray (@ 5 .0 g ha-1). Two levels of nitrogen (100 and 75% N of the recommended dose)
105
were super-imposed over them. Pure crop of rice receiving FYM (5 t ha-1 ) as per Package of Practices
Recommendations of KAU was taken as control. Nitrogen release pattern was studied in terms of ammoniacal
(NH4+-N) and nitrate-nitrogen (NO3--N) before and after incorporation of daincha up to harvest at periodic intervals.
Release of ammoniacal nitrogen (NH4+-N) from daincha was fast. Ammoniacal nitrogen release was significantly
influenced by the stages of incorporation of daincha. Release of ammoniacal nitrogen was higher at 30 days after
incorporation (DAI) from both 20 and 30 days-old daincha and then declined up to harvest. The maximum release of
NH4+-N from 20 days old daincha (157 kg ha-1) was at 50 DAS i.e., 30 DAI. Similarly the maximum release of NH4+-
N from 30 days old daincha (176 kg ha-1) was noticed at 60 DAS i.e., 30 DAI. The quantity of release of NH4+-N was
significantly higher when daincha was incorporated at 30 DAS. This might be due to the higher biomass addition
and nutrient content of daincha at 30 DAS than at 20 DAS. The release of NO3--N was less compared to NH4+-N.
However an increasing trend was noticed in the release of NO3--N up to harvest. Methods of incorporation had no
significant influence on nitrogen mineralization pattern of daincha. Nitrogen mineralization pattern of daincha was
significantly affected by the levels of N. Release pattern of NH4+-N and NO3--N was significantly higher in treatments
receiving 100 per cent N.
Session 1.2
Integrated Crop Management: A potential Agronomic Technique for

Increased Productivity and Profit of Rice Cultivation in Bangladesh
M. Murshedul Alam1, Md. Abbas Ali Sikder2, Md. Saiful Islam3, V. Kumar4 and J.K. Ladha4
1
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Bangladesh Office, 104 Masjid Road,
Dhaka 1206, Bangladesh
2
Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE), Kapasia Upazila, Gazipur, Bangladesh
3
DAE, Monohardi Upazila, Narshinghdi, Bangladesh
4
IRRI, India Office, NASC Complex, DPS Marg, Pusha, New Delhi, 110 012, India
(*Email: malam@irribd.org)
Agriculture in Bangladesh is characterized by small farm and rice (Oryza sativa L.)-dominated farming system
having large yield gaps between farmer’s fields and research trials. The national average yield (3.9 Mg ha-1) of high
yielding rice varieties is less by about 1.5-2.5 Mg ha-1 than the average yield in research farm. The profit of rice
cultivation is low because of low productivity and increased cost of cultivation and it is further decreasing in recent
years because of increasing input and labor cost without increasing yield. Growing more rice through increased
yield with reduced or without increasing production cost, increased input use efficiency and sustaining the quality
of natural resource base is a major concern. On-farm trials were conducted in Gazipur and Narshingdi districts of
Bangladesh during two consecutive wet seasons as monsoon rice (aman) and two consecutive dry seasons as
winter rice (boro) during 2006-08 to evaluate the effects of integrated crop management (ICM) technique on productivity,
resource (seed, fertilizer, labor) utilization and economic return. Three to four available improved crop management
technologies which were lacking in farmers’ management practices causing yield gap were incorporated in a
package called ICM-LCC and ICM-USG techniques and demonstrated along with farmers’ practice (FP) in farmers’
fields. The ICM-LCC compared with FP on an average, increased grain yield by 0.8 Mg ha-1 in both aman and boro,
saved seed and fertilizer N by 26 kg ha-1 and 13 kg ha-1, respectively in aman and 28 kg ha-1 and 49 kg ha-1,
respectively in boro, increased production cost by US$ 76 ha-1 in aman and US$ 49 ha-1 in boro and gave additional
net return of US$ 56 ha-1 in aman and US$ 106 ha-1 in boro across the years. The corresponding values for ICM-
USG were 0.7 Mg ha-1 in both aman and boro, 26 kg ha-1 and 50 kg ha-1 in aman and 28 kg ha-1 and 76 kg ha-1 in
boro, US$ 77 ha-1 in aman and US$ 53 ha-1 in boro and US$ 39 ha-1 in aman and US$ 78 ha-1 in boro. In ICM
techniques, the increased production cost largely because of using balanced fertilizer mainly P, K, S and Zn, which
farmers are not using at recommended doses and added net returns were because of increased yield. The ICRM
technique is ready for wide-scale validation leading to promotion in Bangladesh.
106
Evaluation of Different Crops on Permanent Raised Beds on Vertic

Ustochrepts in Punjab, India
Harmanjit Singh Dhadli*, Gurpreet Singh, Yadvinder Singh, Sukhpreet Singh

(*Email: harman172@yahoo.co.in)
Permanent beds offer the opportunity to reduce tillage and irrigation water inputs. Raised beds can also prove
beneficial to water sensitive crops grown on poorly drained fine-textured soils. Field experiment was conducted on
Vertic Ustochrepts at Fatehgarh Sahib, Punjab, to evaluate zero tillage (ZT), conventional tillage (CT), and permanent
raised beds (PRB) under four cropping sequences, viz. rice (Oryza sativa)-wheat (Triticum aestivum), maize (Zea
mays)–wheat, maize-gram (Cicer arietinum) and soybean(Glycine max)-wheat during 2006 to 2008. The study
revealed that mean maize yields in maize-wheat and maize-gram sequences were significantly higher on raised
Session 1.2
beds (7.10 t ha-1) as compared to ZT (6.24 t ha-1) and CT (6.45 t ha-1) during kharif 2006. Similar trend in maize
yields was observed during kharif 2007. Rice yields were 8 to 12 per cent higher during 2006 and 2007 under beds
and CT compared with ZT. Soybean yields were also 15 and 22 per cent higher during 2006 and 16 and 30 per cent
higher in 2007 on raised beds compared with CT and ZT. Wheat yields under on PRB were 16 per cent higher than
under ZT and CT, irrespective of cropping sequence with similar yields under CT and ZT during both the years. Gram
yield was significantly higher on beds as compared to CT with lowest yield in ZT during both the years. The higher
yields of maize, soybean, wheat and gram on PRB were mainly due to avoidance of aeration stress due to excessive
wet conditions under flat system in case of CT and ZT. Study suggests that permanent raised bed system has a
potential in ameliorating problems of poorly drained fine textured soils thereby resulting in higher productivity of
maize, soybean, wheat and gram compared to conventional tillage system. Also, permanent beds will provide the
other associated benefits like saving of irrigation water, and reduced tillage costs.
Effect of Phosphorus, Sulphur and Phosphate solubilizing Bacteria on

Growth and Yield of Wheat
Prasoon Singh, Elamathi, S.* and Mohd. Kaleem

Department of Agronomy, AAI-DU, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
There is a lot of gap between average yields of wheat in different regions and the yields of experimental trials
conducted either at farmer’s field or at research stations. Simply by filling these gaps with the use of enhanced and
balanced fertilization, wheat production can be increased to the tune of 11 million tonnes annually. Phosphorous
enhances water use efficiency by promoting root growth; on the other hand its low application will limit the proper
growth of plant. Only 30% of applied P is available to the current crop and the remaining parts gets fixed and
becomes unavailable. Solubilization of phosphate can be accomplished by application of phosphate solubilizing
bacteria which will be available to crop plants. Sulphur deficiencies are occurring with greater frequency at various
locations. Keeping the above facts, in view, a field experiment was conducted during rabi 2004 at Central Research
farm, AAI-DU, Allahabad. The soil was sandy loam with pH 8.2 having low organic carbon (0.32%), available
nitrogen 180 kg ha-1, available phosphorus of 25.50 kg ha-1 and available potassium 190 kg ha-1. There were 18
treatments, viz. three ‘P’ levels (20, 40, 60 kg ha-1), three sulphur levels (0, 30, 60 kg ha-1) and PSB inoculation and
no inoculation which were replicated three times.
Application of 60 kg phosphorus ha-1 significantly increased the yield attributing characters such as number of
effective tillers, 1000 seed weight and seed yield over 20 and 40 kg P2O5 ha-1. Application 60 kg P2O5 ha-1 significantly
enhanced the seed yield of 17.50 and 16% over 20 and 40 kg ha-1. It also increased the nitrogen uptake (48.20 and
10.10%) and protein content of grain (16.20 and 3.2%) over 20 and 40 kg P2O5 ha-1. Application of 60 kg sulphur ha-1
107
significantly enhanced the grain yield of 16.80 and 5.6% over control and 30 kg sulphur ha-1. Seed inoculation with
PSB culture significantly increased the yield and yield attributes over control. From the present investigation, it
may be concluded that application of 60 kg P2O5 ha-1 + 60 kg sulphur ha-1 and seed inoculation with PSB gave
significantly higher seed yield and net return as compared to other levels of phosphorus, sulphur and control.
Effect of Sulphur Application on its Availability in Soils in Relation to

Rice (Oryza sativa L.)
Lovely Balasaria1*, A.K. Dolui1 and D.K. Das2

1
Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Institute of Agricultural Science,
University of Calcutta, Ballygunge, Kolkata, 700 019, West Bengal, India
Session 1.2
2
Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
P.O-Mohanpur, 741 252, Nadia, West Bengal, India
Field experiments on wet season rice (cv. IET 4094) during the years 2005 and 2006 were conducted in an Aeric
Endoaquept to study the effect of sulphur on its availability in soils in relation to yield and nutrition of rice. Sulphur was
applied at 4 levels, i.e. 0, 40, 60 and 80 kg ha-1. Experiment was laid out in a randomized block design with three
replications. Each plot received the recommended doses of NPK (60:30:30) as basal excepting nitrogen where it was
applied 50% as basal and the rest 50% at the panicle initiation stage.
The results showed that the amount of sulphate-sulphur in soil as well as in straw and grain significantly increased
with the progress of crop growth, being maintained in soil a greater amount (20.72 mg kg-1) in the treatment where
sulphur was applied at 80 kg ha-1 in two splits viz. 50% as basal and the rest 50% at panicle initiation stage. The uptake
of sulphur by straw and grain and the yield of straw (6.58 q ha-1) and grain (4.69 q ha-1) were recorded highest with the
application of sulphur at 80 kg ha-1 in two splits. The yield of both straw and grain was found to be significantly and
positively correlated with corresponding sulphur contents in rice straw and grain. Multiple regression equations showed
that the sulphur content in grain and straw accounted for 91 and 92 per cent of the variability towards the grain yield of
rice during 2005 and 2006, respectively. Apparent sulphur use efficiency (ASUE) was 15.01% by rice grain and 16% by
straw in the treatment receiving 80 kg ha-1 sulphur in two splits along with recommended dose of NPK fertilizers.
Recycling of Vegetable Crop Residues for Vermicompost and

its Response on Growth and Yield of Carrot (Daucus carota L.)
cv Early Nantes
Ranjit Chatterjee and J.C. Jana

Department of Vegetable and Spice Crops Faculty of Horticulture, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Pundibari, Cooch Behar, 736 165, West Bengal, India
The present investigation was aimed to explore the possibility of bioconversion of vegetable crop residues for the
production of vermicompost and subsequently the effect of different vermicompost was assessed on growth and yield
of carrot. The first experiment was conducted by using 10 different vegetable residues and their combination in CRD
with 3 replications. Treatments included vermicompost prepared from solanaceous vegetable crop wastes (T1),
leguminous vegetable crop wastes (T2), cruciferous vegetable crop wastes (T3), cucurbitaceous vegetable crop wastes
(T4), mixture of solanaceous, leguminous, cruciferous and cucurbitaceous vegetable crop wastes at 1:1:1:1 ratio (T 5),
108
non legume : legume vegetable crop wastes at 1:1 ratio (T6), non legume : legume vegetable crop wastes at 2:1
ratio (T7), kitchen wastes (T8), vegetables market wastes (T9) and cow dung (T10). In the second experiment, the
performance of different vermicomposts was evaluated along with recommended dose of inorganic fertilizers (N:P:K
50:50:100 kg ha-1) (T11) on carrot in RBD replicated thrice. The vermicompost was prepared by employing Esienia
foetida and was applied @ 5 t ha-1 in the soil before sowing of carrot. The entire experiments were carried out during
2005-06 and 2006-07 at UBKV, Pundibari, Coochbehar, West Begal, India. The results revealed that vermicompost
can be prepared by utilizing locally available vegetable crop residues. Among the different crop residues, the
substrate combining a mixture of non legume : legume vegetable wastes at 2:1 ratio was found to be an ideal
combination for vermicompost preparation considering the nutrient contents, C:N ratio, vermicompost recovery and
earthworm multiplication. The field experiment revealed that among the vermicompost treated plots T8 (vermicompost
prepared from kitchen wastes) recorded maximum shoot length (30.42 cm) and shoot weight (61.34 g) but highest
root length (12.43 cm), root volume (67 mL) as well as root weight (63.28 g) and above all root yield (15.84 t ha-1)
were recorded with the treatment T7 (vermicompost prepared from non legume:legume vegetable wastes at 2:1).
However treatment having recommended doses of N:P:K (T11) recorded maximum root weight (67.14 g) and root
yield (16.33 q ha-1) which were statistically on par with the treatment T7. Considering the growth and yield attributes,
Session 1.2
the treatment T7 may be an effective source of organic nutrients for sustainable carrot production.
A Response of Groundnut’s (Arachis hypogaea L.) Yield Attributes and

Yields to Different Levels of Sulphur along with Organic Manure
Kondaplli Ravi Chandra, Sunil Babu D and Joy Dawson

Department of Agronomy, Allahabad Agriculture Institute- Deemed University,
Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
The experiment was laid in kharif season of 2006 with var. Chitra to evaluate the effectiveness of different levels of
sulphur and FYM individually and interaction of both on the yield and yield components of groundnut. The treatments
consisted of 4 levels of sulphur (0, 10, 15, 20 kg ha-1), 3 levels of FYM (0, 5, 10 t ha-1) along with nitrogen applied at 40,
phosphorus at 80, potassium at 30 kg ha-1. There were 12 treatments and each treatment was replicated thrice in a
randomized block design. All the yield attributing characteristics namely 100 pod weight (114 g), seed index(46.9 g),
no. of pods /plant, shelling (73.2%) and pod yield (2.64 q ha-1) were found to be highest in the treatment where sulphur
was applied at 20 kg ha-1 along with 10 t FYM ha-1 in combination with recommended dose of NPK
Effect of Different Sources o Boron on the Maintenance of Boron in Soils

In relation to Rape (Brassica campestris L.)
Mitali Mandal* and Nihar Ranjan Roy

P.O-Mohanpur 741 252, Nadia, West Bengal, India
(*Email: mitali_mandal@rediffmail.com)
Field experiments were conducted during rabi seasons of 2005 and 2006 in an Aeric Endoaquept taking rape (Brassica
campestris L.) as a test crop using different sources of boron (calbor and borax) integrated with organic manure. The
results showed that the amount of 0.02 M CaCl2 extractable B content in soil was highest (0.70 mg kg-1 ) in the
treatment receiving calbor at 1 kg B ha-1 along with recommended doses of NPK (80:40:40 ) fertilizers as basal
109
excepting N in two equal splits. The highest B content was recorded in plots (11.56 mg kg-1) at 90 days of crop
growth in the treatment T4 (integrated application of 0.5 kg B ha-1 as calbor, organic manure @ 5 t ha-1 and
recommended dose of NPK). The yield of rapeseed and stover was highest (8.9 and 26.8 q ha-1 respectively) under
combined application of boron at 1 kg ha-1 as calbor and recommended.
Water Management in Aonla (Emblica officinalis Gaertn) under Hot

Arid Agro-ecosystem
A.K. Shukla* and D. Singh

Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, Beechwal, Bikaner, 334 006 (Rajasthan), India
*Present address: Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Gwalior Road,
Session 1.2
Jhansi, 284 003, Uttar Pradesh, India

(*Email: akshukla@igfri.ernet.in)
Aonla (Emblica officinalis Gaertn) has become an important fruit crop, not only because of high production potential
but also having versatile characteristic features, viz., wider edaphoclimatic adaptability, hardy to various biotic and
abiotic stresses, precocious and prolific bearing habit, quality fruit with high nutritive value, medicinal and therapeutic
attributes, used after processing in different value added products. In arid agroecosystem, water management is
considered as critical input for sustainable fruit production. Drip irrigation method has proved beneficial in establishment
of orchards of fruit crops under limited water resources under hot arid region. Since during establishment phase of
plantation, less requirement of water with more frequent application is essentially required and water requirement
efficiently managed through drip system and basin irrigation. However, during full bearing phases of aonla crop the
technique of drip irrigation is less efficient to meet the water requirement for fruit set and further growth and development
to attain full size and weight of the fruit because at this stage canopy growth of tree expanded to more that 5 m and the
feeder roots generally confined 2-3 m away from the main stem depending on canopy spread. Under this developmental
situation, drip irrigation system found to be ineffective to saturate the all feeder roots. Keeping in view the problem of
efficient water management in aonla through drip system, a double ring method was devised and applied for water
management in the full bearing trees of aonla. The size of outer ring of the system was maintained 1-1.5 m wide
depending on canopy structure and the remaining inside area was kept free from water application and irrigation water
applied to the outer ring area where maximum feeder roots confined and take maximum advantages of the applied
water. Under this double ring method of irrigation, 50-60% water has been recorded to be saved and the maximum fruit
size and weight was achieved as compared to conventional ring method, where excessive water is applied through
single ring method which further create the problem of weeds and flower and fruit dropping due to uncontrolled watering.
In the promising varieties of aonla NA6 and NA7, the maximum fruit size (3.9 x 4.1 cm, 3.8x3.7 cm) and weight (40.2
g and 38.7 g) was recorded in double ring irrigation as compared to drip system (3.7x3.5 cm, 3.4x3.2 cm, 37g and 33.2
g) or conventional single ring/ basin method of irrigation (3.2x3.1, 3.1x3.0 cm and 35 g, 31.0 g). The position of fruit set
was also better in case of double ring system as compared to drip and conventional. This paper includes the water use
efficiency and influence on the fruit set, growth and development of the aonla fruits under hot arid ecosystem.
110
Performance of Double Rows Cotton in Ninety Centimeter Bed under

Different Nitrogen Levels
M.K. Devkota1*, R.K. Gupta2, C. Martius2, K.D. Sayre3, O. Egamberdiev1, K.P. Devkota1, and J. Lamers1
1
ZEF/UNESCO, Khorezm Project, Urgench, Uzbekistan,
2
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas(ICARDA) B-6/106,
Murtazaev Street, PO Box 4564, Tashkent 100000, Uzbekistan
3
CIMMYT International, Mexico
(*Email: mdevkota@uni-bonn.de )
In Uzbekistan, cotton is commonly planted on 90 cm row spacing with higher nitrogen dose i.e. 250 kg ha-1. Since
a decade, cotton yield is almost stagnant due to lack of poor crop stand, less nitrogen and water use efficiency and
synchronous maturity. Balancing the amount of N with optimum plant population is still a major challenge in this region.
Session 1.2
Thus, an experiment was conducted to determine the effect of number of rows (single and double rows in 90 cm bed
spacing) with three doses of N (50, 125 and 250 kg ha-1) on growth and productivity of cotton in Khorezm region of
Uzbekistan during 2008. This experiment was conducted in randomized complete block design with four replications.
Together with agronomic traits, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) was also measured at various growth
stages. Double rows planting in 90 cm beds increased plant population per hectare by 58% (80000 plants ha-1) and
produced 15% higher seed cotton yield with 80% harvest in first picking. Among the N doses, double rows cotton with
125 kg N ha-1 resulted in significantly higher (5.33 t ha-1) yield. In double row planting, foliage cover reduced evaporation
loss from the soil and increased the water and nitrogen use efficiency.
Effect of Different Levels of Phosphorus and Nitrogen Fertilizers

on Rapeseed after Rice Harvest in North of Iran
Majid Ashouri
Islamic Azad University, Lahijan branch, Iran
(Email: mashouri48@yahoo.com)
In order to provide sufficient vegetable oil for domestic consumption we have turned to global market. Domestic
production of vegetable oil is about 100000 t while its consumption rates exceed 850000 t in Iran. This huge difference
is supplied by importing. The area of land under cultivation in the northern regions of Iran is over 460000 hectares,
which is mostly used in the first six months of the year for growing paddy. Hence, rapeseed can be grown after harvest
of paddy. This experiment was a completely randomized factorial design with three replicates and was conducted in an
experimental field in Lahijan in 2005-2006. The first factor included three levels of phosphorus (P 1=0, P2=50, P3=100
kg ha-1) and the last factor contained four different levels of nitrogen (N1=0, N2=100, N3=150, N4=200 kg ha-1. Considering
most of surveyed characteristics and compared to other levels, N4 showed superiority. Seed yield and percentage of oil
in seed increased with increasing levels of N, while the main effect of P was statistically non-significant.
111
Long-term Effect of Zero Tillage on the Productivity of Rice-Wheat

System under Semi-reclaimed Sodic Soils of Central Uttar Pradesh
D.K. Sharma*, Chhedi Lal and A.K. Nayak

Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
(Email: dineshksharma@yahoo.co.in)
Rice-wheat is one of the major cropping systems in reclaimed sodic soils of the Indo-Gangetic plains. With increasing
cost of inputs and stagnation in productivity, the benefits of the farmers are shrinking. Therefore, zero till-drill is one of
the alternatives to save the inputs besides advancing the sowing of wheat. Therefore, a field experiment was initiated
during 2002 to assess the relative performance of different tillage practices on yield, economic viability and input use
efficiency of rice and wheat crops in the system.
Session 1.2
The experiment was conducted at CSSRI-Regional Experimental farm Shivri (Lucknow) in reclaimed sodic soils.
The initial properties of reclaimed sodic soils (0-15 cm) are pH2 8.9, EC2 1.2 dS m-1, Ca +Mg 3.4 meq L-1, CO3 3.5 meq
L-1, HCO3 4.8 meq L-1 and Na 7.7 meq L-1. During the kharif season rice was transplanted in the second week of July
and harvested in the third week of November. During the rabi season, the treatment consisted of conventional tillage
(CT), zero tillage (ZT), ZT with rice stubble (ZT+RS) and CT with rice stubbles (CT + RS) replicated four times. Wheat
variety KRL-19 was sown on 22 to 24 November and 5 to 7 December in ZT and CT treatment, respectively. During the
wheat crop season, 350 to 380 and 275 – 290 cm of water was applied to wheat in conventional and zero tillage
treatments, respectively.
Based on 5 years study, rice yield was higher when rice stubbles were incorporated before sowing of wheat as
compared to remaining treatments. But the difference in grain yield of rice was not significant between zero tillage with
rice stubble and rice stubbles incorporated in field, but these treatments were significantly superior to remaining
treatments. The yield of wheat did not differ significantly between zero tillage and conventional tillage. Benefit cost
ratio was higher in zero tillage as compared to conventional tillage because of higher yield and saving of Rs. 2050 for
land preparation in zero tillage treatment. Water use efficiency was higher in zero tillage plots as compared with
conventional. It is concluded that in reclaimed sodic soil, wheat sowing with zero tillage is a cost effective, input saving
proposition (water and fuel) as compared to the conventional method of sowing.
Input Use Efficiency as Influenced by Organic Source Variations in

Plumbago rosea Linn.
A. Latha*, V.V. Radhakrishnan, S. Mini and S. Krishnan
Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala, India
(*Email: lathades2003@yahoo.com)
A field study was conducted at All India Network Project on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Kerala Agricultural
University, Vellanikkara to assess the effect of variations in organic sources on yield, quality and use efficiency of
applied inputs in Plumbago rosea as an intercrop in coconut garden. Chitrak (Plumbago rosea) is an important
medicinal plant of Kerala and it is pungent, astringent, diuretic, germicidal and abortifacient. Plumbagin is the major
active principle and the roots of P. rosea are the richest source of plumbagin. The treatments consisted of two
sources of organic manure (farm yard manure(FYM) and vermicompost) at three levels and two sources of biofertilisers
[Azospirillum and phosphorus solubilising bacteria (PSB)]. The results indicated a significant increase in root and
plumbagin yield with the application of FYM compared to vermicompost. The input use efficiency and cost effectiveness
were also more for FYM compared to vermicompost. The uptake of nutrients, root yield and quality were superior
when FYM was applied in combination with biofertilisers than its individual application. Higher use efficiency of
applied inputs was observed for the combined application of FYM @ 10 t ha-1 with Azospirillum and PSB @2 kg ha-
1
compared to different sources and doses of organics. Higher efficiency of inputs in terms of yield, quality and
monetary benefits in P. rosea was envisaged at lower levels of inputs.
112
Cultural Management Practices for Enhancing Grain Yield of Rainfed

Upland Rice (Oryza sativa L.)
Girish Jha, S.K. Tripathi and Amit Kumar Jha

JNKVV, College of Agriculture, Rewa, Madhya Pradesh, India
(*Email: girishagcrewa@rediffmail.com)
A field experiment was conducted on rainfed upland rice in sandy loam soil under AICRIP on rice, JNKVV College
of Agriculture, Rewa (Mahdya Pradesh) for 2 years during kharif season in the years 2005 and 2006 with factorial
randomized block design to evaluate the different cultural management practices for the enhancement of grain yield
and economics of rainfed upland rice with two varieties Vandna and JR 3-45 and six cultural management practices,
viz. T1 - Farmers practice of broadcasting (100 kg seed ha-1) + RFD (NPK- 80:50:30 kg ha-1), T2 - Improved practice of
cultivation sowing of 60 kg seed ha-1 in plough furrows + recommended fertilizer dose and weed control with herbicide,
Session 1.2
T3 - Line sowing (60 kg seed ha-1) + 50% NPK of RDF in furrows + 5 t FYM ha-1 (15 days before sowing) and weed
control with herbicide, T4 – T3 + seed treatment with Azotobacter @ 500 g ha-1, T5 - line sowing (60 kg seed ha-1) + FYM
(5 t ha-1) application 15 days before sowing and recommended dose of NPK (N in 3 splits -50% N application after 15
day after sowing + 25% at active tillering + 25% at panicle initiation) and weed control with herbicide and T6 - Sowing
with mechanical row seeder + T5. The results revealed that variety Vandna and treatment T6 were significantly superior
to all other cultural management practices and gave higher grain yield (2.61 and 2.99 t ha-1, respectively ) with higher
NMR (Rs. 10527) and B:C ratio (2.0).
Effect of Neem (Azadirachta indica) Extract on the Cotton Plant

for the Destruction of Cotton Pest American
Bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera)
Mamta Deshraj (nee Singh)1 and S. D. Narkhede2

1
Institute of Science, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
2
Department of Environmental Science, Institute of Science, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
The Helicoverpa armigera (American bollworm), a harmful pest on cotton, causes direct damage, reducing plant
vigor, and indirect damage by honeydew secretion and transmission of several viruses. Due to the problem of pesticide
resistance, alternative techniques for chemical control, such as the use of natural insecticides, have been objective of
this study. The effects of aqueous extracts of neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) seed powder on the development,
survival and fecundity of Helicoverpa armigera were evaluated. We used 5% neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) from
45th day of crop stage and resorted to application of insecticides only when the population was not controlled by them.
Treatments consisted of neem seed powder in the concentrations of 23.8, 122, 410 and 1, 410 mg/100 mL of distilled
water. Mortality rate during the nymphal development for aphids maintained on cotton leaf discs treated with the two
highest concentrations were, respectively, 60.0 and 100.0%. With the exception of the highest concentration (1, 410
mg/100 mL), neem concentrations did not extend the aphids’ development period. The net reproductive rate (R0) was
of 35.0 nymphs/female for control Helicoverpa armigera and of zero nymph/female when the group of females was
exposed to neem seed powder at 1, 410.0 mg/100 mL since birth. The aqueous extract of neem seeds is efficient
against the Helicoverpa armigera, causing nymph mortality and reducing their survival period and fecundity.
113
Carbon Management Index – A Tool to Evaluate Integrated Nutrient

Management Interventions for Cotton on Vertisols
D. Damodar Reddy*, D. Blaise, B. Kumrawat and A.K. Singh

(*Email: ddreddy132@yahoo.com)
Carbon management index (CMI), a product of carbon pool index and carbon lability index, serves as a yardstick in
evaluating different management practices for their impacts on soil organic carbon and soil quality. Vertisols supporting
rainfed cotton are generally low in organic carbon and available nutrient status resulting in crop productivity. Variable
integrated nutrient management (INM) options based on farmers’ access to and availability of nutrient resources are
advocated for improving soil and crop productivity. Our knowledge about the effects of these INM interventions on
SOC quality (lability) is very limited. In a 2-year field study conducted under Technology Mission on Cotton (TMC),
Session 1.2
some INM interventions involving phosphocompost and poultry manure as components (intended to reduce dependency
on FYM and simultaneously do away with the need for PK fertilizers) were compared with the recommended INM (5 t
FYM + 80-40-20 N-P2O5-K2O kg ha-1) for their effects on cotton productivity and soil quality in terms of CMI. The INM
interventions involving 2.5 t ha-1 of phosphocompost or poultry manure proved as effective as recommended INM with
respect to cotton yields, nutrient uptake and soil fertility. The labile organic carbon (LOC) in soil (permanganate oxidizable
organic carbon) was found to be sensitive to nutrient management practices. The CMI, computed on the basis of soil
C fractions, was relatively higher for all the INM practices (1.3-1.8) than for the inorganic fertilizer treatments (1.1-1.2).
The INM interventions with phosphocompost resulted in relatively higher CMI values compared to those with poultry
manure. The higher CMI value is indicative of an improvement in soil organic carbon quality and thus reflecting on the
sustainability of management practice.
Characterisation of Soil Water Relationship in Different Tillage Practices

in SW Spain
J.L. Muriel*, J.A. Jimenez-Bocanegra, I. García-Tejero, I., K. Vanderlinden, F. Perea and G. Martínez
Centro IFAPA “Las Torres-Tomejil” CAP. Junta de Andalucía. Ctra. Sevilla-Cazalla Km. 12, 2. 41200.
Alcala del Río, Sevilla, Spain
(*Email: josel.muriel@juntadeandalucia.es)
Crop yields are primarily limited under dryland production systems in semiarid regions, like Southwest Spain,
where soil water availability is going to be critical for growing spring-summer crops. The objective of this work was
to compare the soil water dynamics in different tillage alternatives: direct drilling (DD) and conventional tillage (CT),
in a heavy clay soil with wheat-sunflower-legume crop rotation. The use of FDR probes to measure the soil moisture
content on real-time basis allowed an accurate characterisation of the water balance under the two soil tillage
situations. Geostatistical approaches were used to map the depth-time soil water content distribution. Apparent
electrical conductivity (ECa) measurements (using electromagnetic induction and DGPS equipment) reproduced
well the spatial variability of the soil water content as a function of the different tillage treatment plots. Different soil
water patterns were observed, spatially, in depth, and with time. During dry periods, the treatments under DD
tended to accumulate more water in the root zone, and so, to minimise the water stress. This advantage improves
the productive efficiency of spring-summer crops in Mediterranean climate.
114
Seed Micro Flora Association of Rice (Oryza sativa) and their

Management
S.K. Tripathi and Girish Jha

AICRIP, JNKVV College of Agriculture Rewa, 486 001, Madhya Pradesh, India
(*Email: sanat62tripathi@rediffmail.com)
Rice is an important agricultural crop supplying approximate 23% of the per capita energy for six billion people
world wide. The popularisation of high yielding dwarf and high input responsive varieties is considered for the out
break of foliar and seed borne diseases causing 40% yield losses and becoming a major threat for its cultivation.
The quality of seed is highly correlated with the association of seed contaminants which may adversely affect the
seed germination and seedling vigour .The seed borne microflora, particularly externally seed rotting fungi, drastically
deteriorated the quality of seeds due to mycotoxin secretion and their activities are much influenced by the biotic
Session 1.2
factors, viz. seed moisture and temperature in storage. Currently major emphasis is given on export of rice; therefore
it is the imperative to study the seed quality traits which may play vital role in germination and seedling vigour.
Location specific popular varieties need special attention towords the seed quality merits.Therefore, present
investigation was carried out with fifteen rice cultivars including improved varieties and hybrids under in vitro condition
for seed microflora association and their effect on seedlings vigour using standard blotter method, at College of
Agriculture Rewa during the year 2005-06. Seed study of microflora revealed that Curvularia lunata was predominant
(21.92% ) followed by Fusarium moniliforme (17.7% ) and Penicillioum sp. (13.8%).The least association was
recorded with Cephalosporium sp (1.22%), Spermospora sp (1.81%) and Trichothecium roseum (2.47%). Local
cultivar showed maximum association of fungi than improved cultivars as it was evident with the results of seedling
vigour index. Local cultivars Benibhog closely followed by Dehula was found to be highly associated with seed
microflora being 16.2% and 14.0%, respectively. Whereas, PA 6201, KRH 2, JRH 4, IR 64, Govinda, Jaya and
Kalinga recorded least association. Vandana had optimum seedling vigour index (1324) followed by PA 6201(1320)
whereas, minimum was recorded in local highly susceptible cultivar Dehula (606). In regard to seed treatment study
the fongorene @ 3 g kg-1 followed by tricyclazole 3 g kg-1 gave promising results for controlling the seed-borne
microflora and enhancing the seedling vigour. Physicochemical properties, factors influencing the seed microflora
and variability of dominant pathogens were also studied.
Effect of Integrated Nutrient Management on Production and

Economics Rice Bean in West Bengal
C.K. Kundu, B. Basu, Pintoo Bandopadhyay, P.S. Bera and D.K. De1
Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Nadia, West Bengal, India
1
Department of Plant Breeding, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Nadia, West Bengal, India
(*Email: champakbckv@rediffmail.com)
A field experiment was conducted in the Central Research farm of BCKV, Gayespur, situated at 23° N latitude, 89°
E longitude and at an elevation 9.75 m above the mean sea level during kharif season 2005-2008 to assess the
effect of integrated nutrient management in rice bean on fodder yield as well as economics. The experimental soil
was sandy loam with pH 6.90, organic carbon 0.48%, total nitrogen 0.053%, available phosphorus 25 kg ha-1 and
available potassium 190 kg/ha. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design with three replications
including seven treatments, viz. T1 - Control (No fertilizer application), T2 - 100% NPK inorganic fertilizer, T3 - 50%
N FYM + 50% NPK inorganic fertilizer, T4 - 25% N FYM + 50% NPK inorganic + GM, T5 - 50% N FYM + Biofertilizer
+ GM, T6 - 25% N FYM +50% NPK inorganic + GM + Biofertilizer, T7 - GM + 50% N FYM + PSB+ Biofertilizer.
Results of the experiment revealed that application of 50% N FYM + Biofertilizer + GM gave maximum green forage
115
and dry matter yield in all the three years followed by T6 (25% N FYM +50% NPK inorganic + GM + Biofertilizer) in
2005-06 and 2007-08 but T4 (25% N FYM + 50% NPK inorganic + GM ) in case of 2006-07. Maximum crude protein
yield was obtained from T2 (100% NPK inorganic fertilizer), T4 (25% N FYM + 50% NPK inorganic + GM) and T5
(50% N FYM + Biofertilizer + GM) treatments respectively in the consecutive years. Highest net return was
attained when the crop received 50% N FYM + Biofertilizer + GM treatment in 2006-07 and 2007-08 which was
superior to T 4 (25% N FYM + 50% NPK inorganic + GM) and T6 (25% N FYM +50% NPK inorganic + GM +
Biofertilizer) except 2005-06 where the treatment T7 (GM + 50% N FYM + PSB+ Biofertilizer) gave highest net
return.
Conservation Agriculture in Northern Parts of West Bengal -

Constraints and Opportunities
Session 1.2
A.K. Chowdhury, P. Mukherjee, P.M. Bhattacharya, S. Kundu1, D. Mandal1 and B. Rudra2

Uttar Banga Krishi Viwavidyalaya, Pundibari, CoochbBehar, West Bengal, India
1
KVK, Uttar Dinajpur, UBKV, Chopra
2
KVK, Malda, UBKV, Ratua, Malda
Most of the northern parts of West Bengal belongs to terai region are characterized with high rainfall coupling with
low soil productivity because of low soil organic matter, acidic pH, sandy to sandy loam soil texture, wide spread
deficiency of micronutrients (Zn and B) and aggressive growth of weeds. Continued low cropping system productivity
resulting in poor economic condition of farmers has been the chief concern in formulating strategies. Apart from soil
constraints, traditional mindset of intensive tillage practice, use of low productive varieties, serious imbalance in
nutrient management, disease incidence at epidemic level, aggressive growth of weeds, poor marketing facilities
with low market price, lack of proper post harvest processing unit are some of the important factors that already led
the North Bengal Agriculture to a cross road. Human activity in the form of intensive tillage and faulty nutrient
management practices expedited the processes of soil natural resource degradation and that has already turned
out as a constraint in crop production in this region. There is an urgent need in generating technologies to be seen
as a new direction of agriculture by correcting soil constraints as well as improving soil productivity, crop diversification,
using high productive variety, adopting integrated management practice to supply plant nutrients and to tackle
disease, insect pest, weed problems and making farm mechanization. Correcting soil constraints by crop residue
management and green manuring through surface mulching, reduced or zero tillage, efficient utilization of resources
and profit maximization have intimate relationship with farm mechanization leading to increased land and labour
productivity. Combination of farm mechanization and above-mentioned technologies constitutes the conservation
agriculture (CA). Conservation agriculture is a new route of agriculture in ensuring sustainability of production
system and reversing the process of natural resource degradation, however, conversion to CA requires a radical
change in the mindset and knowledge of crop management. It is seen as a problem in promoting CA in this region
and therefore, efforts need to be made in sharing information and knowledge among the stakeholders involved in
diffusion process in empowering farmers about CA. Weather forecasting regarding onset of monsoon plays a key
role in determining success of CA in rice cultivation during kharif season. Two years research activities on CA in
rice-wheat cropping system indicated good possibilities in improving system productivity through CA in this region.
However, requirement of varietal characteristics is quite different from conventional agriculture. This problem can be
solved with identification of varieties performing well in CA. Efficient weed management is a key to achieve success
of CA and shifting of weed flora is taking place in these areas while moving from conventional agriculture to CA. Poor
economic condition and low purchasing capacity of farmers is a bottle neck in step forward towards farm
mechanization. However, this barrier could be broken by introducing the concept of service provider through farmers’
club, farmers’ field school, NGO etc. and this strategy will be the beginning of farm mechanization and profit
maximization through conservation agriculture.
116
Competing Ability of Durum Wheat Cultivars under Different Resource

Conservation Techniques
R.K. Jat*, R.S. Banga, Ashok Yadav and R.K. Malik

Department of Agronomy, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, 125 004, Haryana, India
(*Email: rkagron@gmail.com)
Sustained production now depends on the focused attention on resource conservation technologies (RCT’s) like
zero-tillage (ZT) and furrow irrigated raised bed system (FIRBS). Zero tillage is being accepted among the farmers
while FIRBS is still in the developing phase. Use of competitive crop cultivar coupled with RCT’s can help manage
weeds. Since durum wheat may also find ample scope in near future in India due to changing food habits, it was
realized to conduct an investigation on durum wheat during rabi season of 2005-06 and 2006-07 in a field having soil
sandy loam in texture, low in available N, medium in available P and higher in available K at Research Farm,
Session 1.2
Department of Agronomy, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar. The experiment including three resource
conservation techniques, viz. ZT, CT and FIRBS in main plot and three cultivars (WH 896, WH 912 and PDW 291)
and two weed control treatments (pendimethalin 1.5 kg ha-1 and weedy check) in sub- plot was laid out in split plot
design. Zero tillage (ZT) significantly reduced the dry matter accumulation by grassy weeds as compared to
conventional tillage (CT) and furrow irrigated raised bed system (FIRBS) in durum wheat but reverse was true in
case of broadleaf weeds. Different resource conservation techniques (RCT’s) did not influence the yield attributes
and yield of durum wheat, while, ZT sowing of durum wheat gave more mean net return of Rs 3257 and 4158 ha-1
over CT and FIRBS, respectively. Cultivar PDW 291 reduced the density and dry weight of weeds more effectively
and, comparatively produced superior yield attributes and significantly more grain yield and net return over WH 896
and WH 912. Pendimethalin reduced the density and dry matter accumulation of grassy as well as broadleaf weeds
very effectively and on an average, it increased the grain yield of wheat by 25 per cent and net return to the level of
Rs. 10257 ha-1 over weedy check.
Performance of Vermicompost and Farmyard Manure in Integrated

Nutrient Management of Palak (Beta vulgaris var. bengalensis)
J.C. Jana*, M.K. Jha, and R. Chatterjee

Department of Vegetable and Spice Crops, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari,
Coochbehar, West Bengal, India
(*Email: janajc@rediffmail.com)
The experiment was conducted to evaluate the comparative effect of vermicompost and farmyard manure in integrated
nutrient management of palak (Beta vulgaris var. bengalensis Hort. Variety: All Green) on an acidic sandy loam soil of
terai agro-climatic zone of West Bengal during the period from November 2007 to April 2008. The land was medium
fertile and pH was 5.6. There were seven treatments, viz. vermicompost (VC) 10 t ha-1 + 100% NPK (T1), farmyard
manure (FYM) 15 t ha-1 + 100% NPK (T2), VC 10 t ha-1 + 50% NPK (T3), FYM 15 t ha-1 + 50% NPK (T4), VC 10 t ha-1
(T5), FYM 15 t ha-1 (T6) and absolute control (T7). The experiment was laid out in randomized block design with three
replications and 100% doses of NPK were 100, 60 and 40 kg of N, P2O5 and K2O per hectare, respectively. Results of
the experiment revealed that application of 10 t ha-1 of vermicompost along with 100% recommended dose of NPK
gave the significantly highest value for all growth, green and seed yield and quality parameters of palak. Maximum
number of leaves at flower stalk initiation (20.7), fresh green fresh green yield (5.35 t ha-1), and seed yield (0.96 t ha-
1
) observed by application of vermicompost 10 t ha-1 along with 100% recommended dose of NPK (T1). Performance
of vermicompost was better in all the cases over farmyard manure (FYM) when it was applied alone or in combination
with 100% or 50% of recommended inorganic fertilizers. Due to high price of vermicompost, the net returns and benefit
117
cost ratios of the treatments with vermicompost were relatively low in spite of high green and seed yield and gross
return when compared with that of FYM. Application of organic manures in combination with higher levels of
inorganic fertilizers increased fresh green yield as well as seed yield per hectare. For all cases of yield attributing
parameters, sole application of vermicompost also performed better than sole application of farmyard manure.
Subsurface Drip Irrigation – A Technology to Conserve Water
Neelam Patel* and T.B.S. Rajput

Water Technology Centre, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110 012, India
(*Email: np_wtc@yahoo.com)
Loss of water from the soil profile through evaporation from the soil surface is an important contributor to inefficiency
Session 1.2
in irrigated crop production. This is particularly important in sandy and sandy loam soils in arid and semiarid regions of
India. Subsurface drip system is used to provide water to plant roots while maintaining a relatively dry soil surface,
which ensures that most of applied water becomes available to the plant root system. Subsurface drip irrigation has
been part of drip irrigation development since early 1980s. But in India, this is the most recent method of water
application. Information for design, installation and depths of placement of drip laterals are missing for growing vegetables
in sandy loam soils and needs to be generated for semi-arid regions of India. Studies were conducted to assess the
effect of subsurface drip system on yield and quality of vegetables and on application of Hydrus-2D model for the
simulation of soil water movement under subsurface drip system. Experiments were conducted on potato and onion
during October to May for 3 years (2002-03, 2003-04 and 2004-05) to study the effect of depth of placement of drip
lateral on crop yield and evaporation losses. Lateral depths varied from 0 (surface) to 0.30 m and lateral spacing
ranged from 0.60 m to 1.0 m. It was observed that most of the applied irrigation water was used beneficially through
root water uptake with a value more than 80% in subsurface drip. Subsurface drip irrigation led to an overall reduction
in evapotranspiration (crop water use) of as much as 10%. Yield response of potato and onion indicated that crop yield
for subsurface drip was greater than surface drip and required less water. Higher yield can be achieved by placing the
drip lateral within the crop root zone and sufficiently below the soil surface that replenishes the root zone effectively
due to gravity flow in light soils and simultaneously cuts off evaporation losses due to restricted upward capillary flow.
Conservation Agriculture: An Alternative to Improve Water Use

Efficiency in Cereal Production
Issam NOUIRI*1, Moncef BEN-HAMMOUDA2 and Khelifa M’HEDHBI3

1, 2
3
(*Email: nouiri.issam@iresa.agrinet.tn)
Conservation agriculture based on direct drilling (CA/DD) is one of the promising agro-technology to efficiently
exploit the available natural resources and preserve them for future generations. CA/DD is known to: i) reduce soil
erosion, ii) improve soil fertility, iii) improve soil water retention capacity, and iv) contribute substantially in improvement
of wheat and maize grain yield. A field trial was conducted to study the impact of DD on water use efficiency (WUE)
in comparison with conventional drilling (CD). Soil moisture dynamics in roots zone was taken as an indicator for
WUE. Two adjacent 0.5 ha plots were used for this particular study, one plot for DD and the other for CD. The split
into both plots was based on similarity of soil texture and topography. Both DD and CD were applied over a three
years period (2002/03-2004/05). Two procedures were followed to study the dynamics of soil moisture. First, a
gravimetric technique was applied to both plots (DD, CD) on a weekly basis for four soil depths [0-15, 15-30, 30-45,
45-60 cm]. Second, a modelling technique was computed to rebuild the dynamics of soil moisture.
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Measurements and modelling of soil moisture revealed that the DD plot had always higher soil moisture, and
this was true for all tested soil depths. In addition, soil moisture increased, at every water supply (rain-fall, irrigation).
These results are due essentially to an increase in soil water infiltration rate and reduced soil evaporation. Prior
results illustrate that CA/DD makes: i) soils more productive by being a water reservoir (rain-fall, excess of irrigation
water), and ii) the permanent mulching is a strong barrier for solid transport and run-of toward rivers and/or dams.
Consequently, farm production is enhanced and infrastructure (roads, dams) is nicely protected.
Inorganic and Organic Ameliorative Measures for Management of Acid

Soils for Increasing Crop Poductivity
Sushanta Kumar Pattanayak*, Dillip Kumar Sarangi, Sujit Kumar Mukhi and Bandita Jena
Session 1.2
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, OUAT,
Bhubaneswar, 751 003, Orissa, India
(*Email: sushanta_1959@yahoo.com)
Field experiments in farmers’ fields were conducted in the district of Mayurbhanj, Orissa, India having more than 85
per cent acidic soils. In the village Rangamatia, ten farmers were chosen to conduct experiments to study the
Influence of inorganic and organic ameliorative measures with soil test based fertilizer application on yield, nutrient
uptake, recovery and post-harvest soil properties of maize-mustard-green gram cropping sequence. The farmers of
the area in general grow rice and green gram crops. The soils of the experimental sites were clayey in texture,
acidic in reaction (pH 4.9-5.5), medium in status with respect to available P, K and organic carbon but low in
available N. The lime requirement of soils by Woodruff buffer method varied between 7-8 t CaCO3 ha-1. The test
crops received five treatments: namely (i) control, (ii) soil test based NPK (STD), (iii) STD + FYM, (iv) STD + lime
and (v) STD + FYM + lime. The first two crops in the sequence, maize and mustard had received, the N-P2O5-K2O
dose of 100-40-40 and 30-20-20 kg ha-1, respectively. The third crop green gram was grown on residual fertility. The
sources of N-P2O5-K2O were urea, single superphosphate and muriate of potash respectively. The FYM was applied
@ 5 t ha-1 and lime as paper mill sludge @ 0.2 LR below the seed zone behind the plough on the day of sowing of
crops. Three crops were grown successfully, then analysed for nutrient concentration, uptake and recovery by
crops.
Use of soil test based fertilizers either alone or with FYM / lime or two ameliorants together influenced the crop
yields, nutrient uptake, their recovery by crops compared to control significantly. Use of lime proved superior to FYM.
However use of both synergetically influenced the yield of crops, nutrient uptake and recovery (N from 45 to 83%, P
from 25 to 78% and K from 92 to 198%). The cost benefit ratio for the treatments followed the order: STD (1:0.98), STD
+ FYM (1:1.21), STD + lime (1:1.40), STD + lime + FYM (1:1.60). Integrated treatments helped in maintaining the soil
reaction, by reducing acidity, organic carbon and available N, P and K status better than fertilizer alone or no fertilizer
application. The study revealed that soil test based fertilizer application integrated with organic (FYM) and inorganic
(paper mill sludge) ameliorants can improve the yield of crops, recovery of applied nutrients and maintain soil health for
future crop production in acid soils.
119
Effect of Some Insecticides on the Egg Parasitoid, Trichogramma

chilonis Ishii (Trichogrammatidae: Hymenoptera )
S.K. Mandal* and N.C. Venkatesh
Department of Agricultural Entomology, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, India
(*Email: skmbckv@rediffmail.com)
Laboratory study was undertaken to investigate the effect of some insecticides, each at two dosages, on the
mortality of Trichogramma chilonis pupae; and parasitization of insecticide treated host eggs by the parasitoid and
subsequent emergence of adults. The insecticides included the only representative of the anthranilic diamide,
rynaxypyr 20% SC, EC and SC formulation of indoxacarb (14.5%), all at 0.005 and 0.01% a.i.; cypermethrin 10%
EC at 0.01 and 0.015% a.i. and chlorpyriphos 20% EC at 0.05 and 0.07% a.i. Rynaxypyr at 0.005 and 0.01% a.i.
Session 1.2
was the safest to T. chilonis pupae causing 14.6 and 36.5% mortality. The two dosages of SC and EC formulations
of indoxacarb, cypermethrin at 0.01% a.i. and chlorpyriphos 0.05% a.i. showed moderate level of toxicity with
47.56-76.82% mortality. Cypermethrin at 0.015% and chlorpyriphos 0.07% a.i. showed high levels of toxicity (84.9
and 91.4% mortality, respectively).
Chlorpyriphos at 0.05 and 0.07% a.i. caused total reduction in parsitization of treated host eggs. Other insecticidal
treatments caused 40.45-76.40% reduction in egg parasitization. Both the dosages of cypermethrin and the two
formulations of indoxacarb at 0.01% significantly reduced the emergence of adult parasitoids in the F 1 progeny. Only
0.015% a.i. of cypermethrin adversely affected the percentage of F1 progeny females.
Efficacy of Film Coating Technique in Maintaining Pesticide Efficacy

during Seed Storage
R.J. Sherry1*, M.B. Arun Kumar1, Madhuban Gopal2, Chitra Srivastava2 and S.N. Sinha2
1
Directorate of Seed Research, Maunath Bhanjan, Uttar Pradesh, India
2
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
(*Email: sherryrachel@yahoo.co.in)
The need for an efficient delivery system for seed protectant chemicals is imminent, owing to the several disadvantages
of the conventional seed treatment method. In this context, the efficacy of film coat application in maintaining the
persistence and potency of imidacloprid (Gaucho 70WS, Bayer Crop Science) was evaluated on Lycopersicon
esculentum L. seeds, after simultaneous storage under ambient and regulated environment, in paper and aluminium
packages. Film coating was carried out using the commercial hydrophilic polymer, discoclear (Incotec International
B.V.Ltd, The Netherlands) and the efficacy of the treated seed were compared with that of slurry treated seeds, as is
the conventional method. For estimating the residual pesticide content, high performance liquid chromatography was
carried out on treated seeds and its thirty day old seedlings. The efficacy of each treatment in maintaining pesticide
potency was evaluated through biological assay experiment conducted on thirty day old seedlings, with Bemisia tabaci
(white fly) as the test insect and insect mortality counts were recorded after 24 and 48 hours of exposure to the adult
insects. Both the chemical and bioassay experiments were conducted prior to, and after the end of the one year
storage period.
High performance liquid chromatography revealed that beyond a threshold residual pesticide content of 0.135 mg
kg-1 of herbage material, cent per cent insect mortality was assured. In film coated treatments, this level was attained
even from the half dosage treatment whereby it was found to give on par performance with the recommended dosage,
in the biological assay. Film coat technique was also found to provide early protection to the crop, which is of great
relevance since it would considerably reduce the possibility of virus transmission by the insect for which spray application
of imidacloprid has been reported to be ineffective.
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Post-storage studies indicated that film coated seed treatments in both the packaging materials could absolutely
maintain the biological efficacy of the pesticide, whereas in case of slurry treatments there was a significant reduction
in pesticide efficacy in either cases. This observation is of high practical significance since it denotes the applicability
of this technique for effective storage of farm-saved seeds using routine practices.
From the study, it could be concluded that other than serving as an effective binder and thus reducing dust off loss,
the film coat facilitated effective persistence of the pesticide throughout storage and thereby facilitated achievement of
superior pesticide dosage, at a remarkably lower level than the recommended dose. Hence, the technique may facilitate
formulation of revised standards of pesticide doses, which would not only lower the pesticide contamination in the soil
environment but would also provide early protection for the crop even when used after storage under ambient condition
and with routine packing.
Session 1.2
Saturation of Zero Till Sowing of Wheat in Village Bauhapar of District
Panipat, Haryana, India
Rajbir Garg, R.K. Malik, A.S. Dahiya, Ashok Yadav, B.R. Kamboj, S.N. Singh and H.R. Malik
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (Ujha) Panipat, 132 104, Haryana, India
A case study was carried out in village Bauhapar of district Panipat, Haryana (India). This village with geographical
area of 560 ha is situated in the core area of RWCS within the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Zero till sowing of wheat unfolded
in the 1990s in the back drop of resistance in Phalaris minor against isoproturon. It was a resounding success but this
village stands unique where adoption is to the level of saturation (98% of total wheat area). It was initiated in 1998-99
when a farmer named Mr. Ram Mehar S/o Sh. Bharat Singh purchased the zero till drill and sowed 4 ha of wheat. The
technology clashing with traditional wisdom had to face utter pessimism of farmers. It was a long wait of three years
when the second drill came and thereafter it was the fit case of pessimism to optimism and ultimate saturation achieved
in 2007-08. The yield gain in wheat crop from 1998 to 2008 is about 500 kg ha-1, primarily due to zero tillage along with
some associated factors like varietal replacement, better management etc. The front-line demonstrations in this village
revealed the monetary advantage of Rs. 6000/ha at the current rates due to zero tillage alone. It further established
that yield level of 6 t ha-1 in wheat is achievable even in marginal areas through zero tillage. Apart from much needed
resource conservation, cumulative returns to the farmers in a decade periods were over rupees one crore. Good
impact was observed in the hinter villages. Attempt will be made to integrated zero tillage with other RCTs like green
manuring, traditional basmati rice and laser leveling so as to achieve the saturation of RCTs in system as whole
(RWCS) on the same piece of land.
Productivity and Sustainability of Long-term Zero- tillage in non- Rice-

Wheat Cropping Systems in Haryana, India
Ashok Yadav*, R.K. Malik, R.S. Malik, V.S. Kadian, V. Kumar, V.K. Phogat, K. Kukreja,
K.R. Dabur, Ramesh Kumar and Anil Mehta
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, 125 004, Haryana, India
(*Email: aky444@gmail.com)
No-till/zero tillage (ZT) has widely been reported to improve soil health across a range of soil types, cropping systems
and climate besides sustaining productivity of soil and protecting the environment. No-tillage is now being adopted
on more than 95 Mha world wide and the technology is gaining increasing importance. Introduction of zero-tillage in
121
wheat in Haryana and thereafter its popularization in the adjoining states of India during last 11 years is a unique
example in this context. Zero tillage in wheat in India has reached to more than 2.1 Mha during 2007-08. The
potential benefits of no-till can be fully realized only when it is practiced continuously and the soil surface should
remain covered at least 30% by previous crop residues. It takes more than 20 years of continuous no-tillage to reap
the full benefits of the system. But research work regarding permanent no-till/zero tillage is very meager in the
whole Indo-Gangetic Plain. Long-term (11 years) yield data in pearl millet–wheat and eight years in sorghum-wheat
cropping systems at Research Farm of CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India showed that such technologies
like zero tillage are highly sustainable. The long-term outlook embodies various causes and effects and therefore,
issues related to long-term yield growth, soil health, insect-pest and weed spectrum, soil biology and the economics
have been answered. Over the years, the grain yield of wheat as well pearl millet under ZT was either more or equal
to grain yield of the respective crop under CT. Similarly, grain yield of wheat and fodder yield of sorghum each under
ZT were more or equal to the yield of respective crop under CT. Savings somewhere like Rs 2600/ha are obtained
while using the zero till machine over conventional tillage (CT). Then there is a saving in water (10% during first
irrigation) and diesel (50 L ha-1), less grassy weeds (40%), and it also frees up time that can be used to do other
productive work. Zero-tillage technology has the benefit of 22 - 31% less energy use. The effect of terminal heat can
Session 1.2
be avoided by planting the wheat as early as possible. Temperature moderation due to residue retention on soil
surface is another very important feature of zero-tillage. The bulk density in upper 0-5 cm soil profile after wheat
harvest during 2007-08 was similar under ZT and CT and the soil organic carbon was higher under ZT. The soil
organic carbon was also found to increase with the depth in ZT, which substantially reduced the sub-soil compaction.
The trend in population of nematodes and microbes was not consistent over the years and needs further research
for drawing valuable conclusions. There was no variation and cause of concern as far as insect-pest and diseases
are concerned under ZT. The results of four years (2004-2008) intensive studies conducted at farmers’ fields on zero
tillage in other than rice-wheat cropping system (wheat in rotation with clusterbean, pearl millet, sesame, groundnut,
arhar, dhaincha-grown for seed production and cotton) in Southern Haryana were quite encouraging. Based on 11
years experience, it appears that zero-tillage technology is not only very remunerative and sustainable but is also
eco-friendly. Now, efforts are required to make it more familiar and successful in the form of permanent no-till
coupled with residue retention under different agro-ecological systems.
Weed Dynamics under Different Establishment Techniques of Direct

Seeding and Transplanting of Basmati Rice
Dharam Bir Yadav1, Ashok Yadav2, R.K. Malik2 and Gurjeet Gill3
1
CCS HAU Regional Research Station, Karnal, Haryana, India
2
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana, India
3
Adelaide University, Adelaide, Australia
There is a need for more water efficient and less labour intensive systems of rice establishment like direct seeding
for obtaining optimum plant population. Direct seeding of rice may be cost-effective and can give higher net returns
because production costs are lower. Also, establishment under un-puddle conditions is helpful in conserving our soil
resource. Weed infestation is one of the major constraints in direct seeded rice (DSR). Also new weeds are expected
to emerge under new establishment techniques due to different field conditions. Hence, the present study was undertaken
to monitor weed dynamics under different establishment methods of rice.
A field experiment was conducted at CCS Haryana Agricultural University Regional Research Station, Karnal
during kharif, 2007. The treatments included puddled DSR, un-puddled DSR, puddled transplanted rice, un-puddled
transplanted rice with and without laser leveling. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design with three
replications. Scented rice (Basmati) cultivar CSR 30 was used for sowing. Sowing of the DSR in field was done with
drum-seeder on 29 June, 2007. Seed rate was 50 kg ha-1 which was followed by thinning for proper plant population
maintenance. Row spacing was 18 cm with traffic control system of skipping one row after every 12 rows. For initial 30
days, fertilizer was applied as per requirement of nursery crop, while later on fertilizer was applied as in case of main
122
crop. Sowing of nursery for the transplanted rice was also done on 29 June 2007. Transplanting of 30 days old
seedlings was done in the experimental field at a row spacing of 18 cm with traffic control system of skipping one row
after every 12 rows, and 15 cm intra-row spacing. Fertilizer was applied as per the existing recommendations. The net
plot size was 5.8 m x 11.5 m.
The observations recorded in the month of September indicated that emergence of Leptochloa chinensis was very
high in direct seeded rice. More Leptochloa density and dry weight was observed under un-puddled than puddled
direct seeded rice. Leptochloa was not present in the conventional puddle-transplant system of rice, while its population
was very low under un-puddled transplant system. Echinochloa crus-galli in puddle DSR was more than all the other
establishment systems. The populations of Ammania baccifera and Cyperus rotundus did not differ significantly among
the different establishment methods. Maximum Cyperus defformis was present under un-puddled transplanted rice.
Fimbristylis miliacea was present only in direct seeded rice, but not in transplanted system in this field. The results
indicated clear cut differences in the dominance of weeds under different establishment systems and warrant for
different weed management approaches.
Session 1.2
Validation of IPM Technology against Maize Stem
Borer, Chilo partellus
M. Anuradha1, D. Sreelatha1, J.C. Sekhar2, S. Hemalatha1

1
Maize Research Centre, ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India
2
Winter Nursery centre, DMR, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India
(*Email: agromet2002@ahoo.co.in)
Use of egg parasitoid, Trichogramma chilonis as a part of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) against stalk borer, Chilo
partellus, Walker in maize cultivar BH 2187 was conducted during kharif 2005 in farmers’ field in Andhra Pradesh
where rice was grown during rabi 2004-05. IPM technology involves release of Trichogramma chilonis @ 1.6 lakh
eggs/ha (8 cards/ha) at 12 and 22 days after germination/DAG. This technology was compared with normal farmers
practice of either endosulfan spray or non adoption of any control measures. Three treatments (egg parasitoid, endosulfan
and untreated) were imposed in 0.5 acre plots each. Tricho cards containing 40, 000 eggs (2 cards/0.5ac) were
released twice at 12 and 22 DAG. In second field, endosulfan 0.07% was sprayed at 15 DAG. In the third field, no
treatment was imposed. Lowest per centage (6.58) of dead hearts was observed in the field where egg parasitoid was
released as against endosulfan sprayed field (7.43) and untreated field (8.26). Per cent infested plants were highest in
untreated field (24.1) compared to endosulfan sprayed field (23.2) and egg parasitoid released field (22.6). Highest
yield of 928 kg/0.5ac was realized in egg parasitoid field which was cost effective and no environmental hazard
compared to 812 kg/0.5ac in untreated field. 20.3 per cent less dead heart formation occurred in parasitoid released
field compared to untreated field. Benefit to cost ratio was calculated to be 1.32:1 in case of adoption of IPM technology.
T. chilonis was effective in parasitizing the eggs laid by the C. partellus resulting in lesser leaf damage and dead heart
formation.
123
Assessment of Silicon Nutrition Effect on Growth Characteristics,

Resistance to Stem Borer (Chilo suppresalis), and Yield in Rice
Genotypes (Oryza sativa L.)
Majid Amini Dehaghi* and Kayvan Agahi

Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Shahed University, Tehran, Iran
(*Email: amini@shahed.ac.ir)
Rice is an important crop in Iran. Silicon is being increasingly used on rice farms in everglades agriculture areas
due to the benefits of its application i.e. disease control and insect management, and consequently increased
yield. The Objectives of this study were to evaluate the effect of silicon nutrition on growth characters, resistance to
stem borer, and yield as well. For this purpose, 12 Iranian rice genotypes i.e. Dylamani, Onda, Sepidroud, Fajr,
Session 1.2
Ramadan-ali tarom, Nemat, Neda, Pouyesh, Tabesh, Shiroudi, Sahel and Shafagh were tested at Chaparsar Rice
Research Institute, Ramsar, Iran during 2006 and 2007. Applying a split plot design with three replications, genotypes
were distributed into sub plots while different levels of calcium silicate i.e. 0, 350, 750, and 1050 kg h-1 were located
into main plots. Field data were collected on grain per panicle (GPP), full grain per panicle (FGP), empty grain per
panicle (EGP), 100 brown grain weight (HBGW), total tiller at harvesting (TTH), plant height at harvesting (PHH),
stems per plant (SP), infected stem (IS), infection percentage (IP), grain yield per plant (GYP), brown grain length
(BGL), brown grain breadth (BGB), brown grain length - brown grain width ratio (BGL/BGB), grain length (GL), grain
breadth (GB), grain length - grain breadth ratio (GL/GB), 100 grain weight (HGW), seed bark weight -seed weight
ratio (SBW/SW), and awn length (AL).
The analysis of variance revealed that silicon had significant effect on IS and IP (p<0.01). Moreover, the interaction
between year and silicon showed significant effect on IS and IP. This confirms that silicon had no similar effect on
traits, during different years. The interaction of year and variety had also significant effect on all traits except HGW and
PH45. On the other hand, interaction of year and variety and silicon, did not show considerable effect. Although the
variety interaction through silicon showed a significant effect on GYP but there were not seen significant differences
between other traits. The cluster analysis based on principal component analysis, grouped the 12 genotypes in 2
clusters. The estimated Pierson correlation among all traits showed that PHH was significantly (P<0.01) correlated
with GYP (r=-0.56). Moreover, IS with PH demonstrated a significant (P<0.01) positive correlation (r=+0.87). On the
other hand, IS was negatively correlated (P<0.01) with GYP. Neda and Nemat demonstrated high resistance against
rice stem borer and showed better GYP in contrast to other genotypes.
The total stem proteins were analyzed using S.D.S PAGE electrophoresis method beside field evaluations. The
comparison between protein bands did not show significant difference. According to this result, induced resistance by
silicon has no genetic source and could not be considered as antibiosis. In fact, silicon uptake by rice plant makes a
preference resistance against stem borer. However, for better understanding of the silicon effects, same trials with
more traits, genotypes and silicon levels are recommended.
Botanical Biopesticide: An Innovation for Sustainable Management of

Eriophyid Mite (Aceria guerreronis) Problem in Coconut
K. Rout, S. Patnaik, S. Pal, S. Sahoo1, P.S. Mukherjee and P.K. Panda

IMMT, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India
(Email: m4maniyaa@gmail.com)
Coconut is the major plantation crop grown in Asia and Pacific regions. Having the third highest nut production with an
area coverage of 1.9 Mha, India supports more than five million farm families. However, the natural disasters and
124
infestation by various pests and pathogens hinder the pace of progress. The infestation of tiny air-borne eriophyid mite
caused reduction in overall nut production and quality deterioration directly affecting the sustenance of the dependent
farm families as well as the related industries, thus posing a great threat to the economy of the major coconut growing
countries. The mite discovered in Guerrero city of Mexico by Keifer during 1965 has spread to all the coconut growing
belts. The rising economical and environmental problems of conventional pesticides have paved a way for alternative
chemicals i.e. the plant products having eco-friendly bioactive components. The present study dealing with a new
innovation for formulation of the botanical biocide using Hyptis suaveolens, Citronella winterianus, Pogostemon cablin,
Ocimum sanctum, Citrus limon, Andrographis paniculata and Sapindus emarginatus has shown significant effects on
reduction of intensity of mite infestation. The intensity of mite infestation has been reduced from 75.5 to 22.5% after
four subsequent applications of the herbal biocide as spray formulation @ 25mL in 250 mL of water along with soil
application of the organic biocidal manure @ 3 kg per plant at quarterly intervals. Thus the present study supported the
possibilities of encouraging the use of botanicals for an eco-friendly and sustainable approach to deal with the devastating
coconut eriophyid mite.
Session 1.2
Response of Paddy Straw and Paper Mill Effluent on Wheat and
Succeeding Green Gram of Yield in a Mollisols
Ashutosh Singh, Ritu Mishra and H.S. Mishra

Department of Soil Science, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
Pantnagar, 263 145, U.S. Nagar, Uttarakhand, India
A pot experiment was conducted during rabi season of 2002-03 and 2003-04 and kharif of 2003 and 2004, to evaluate
the effect of paddy straw and paper mill effluent along with urea as starter dose, gypsum, Azotobacter inoculation and
phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) inoculation on soil properties and performance of wheat and succeeding green
gram. The treatments consisted of two levels of paddy straw (control and paddy straw @ 10 t ha-1); three levels of
microbial inoculants (control, Azotobacter inoculation and PSB inoculation); three levels of supplements (control, urea
as starter @ 20 kg N ha-1 and gypsum @ 0.5 g kg-1 soil) and two levels of paper mill effluent (no effluent and 50%
diluted effluent @ 250 mL kg-1 soil). This made twenty-four treatment combinations.
The combined application of paddy straw, Azotobacter inoculation, urea as a starter dose, with and without paper
mill effluent had significant positive influence on performance of wheat crop. The same treatment exhibited significant
residual effect on the yield of succeeding green gram yield.
Studies on the effect of season on mineral and biochemical composition

of Parthenium hysterophorus L.
Pankaj Kumar Mishra*, Dr. B.R.Maurya, Prof.Surendra Singh, Chandra Mohan Singh,
Prem kishor and Minakshi Dwivedi1
B.H.U., Varanasi, 221 005, Uttar Pradesh, India
1
Department of Dravyaguna, Faculty of Ayurveda, I.M.S, B.H.U., Varanasi, 221 005, Uttar Pradesh, India
(*Email: mishraias@gmail.com)
The word Parthenium is derived from Latin words Parthenice: ancient name suggesting reputed medicinal merits and
hysterophorus derived from the Greek words hystera (Womb) and phorus (bearing) referring to the prolific seeding of
125
the plant, and it is considered as one of the ten worst weed of the world. It was accidentally introduced in India
during 1955 with imported food grain materials and first time reported in Maharastra. It occurs in all parts of India
and has covered both agricultural and non agricultural lands. Partheium hysterophorus L. is also popular as congress
weed, star weed, carrot weed, white cap, white top etc. The weed can germinate, flower and set seeds within four
weeks. Once established, it can survive severe droughts and frosts. It is also able to extract nutrients even from the
nutrient-deficient soil in which it grows.
A study was done at the Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Institute of Agricultural Sciences
B.H.U. during rainy and winter season, 2006 on the mineral and bio-chemical composition of Parthenium hysterophorus
with respect to season in different parts of plants.
Season influenced the content of minerals (Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, copper, zinc, iron and
manganese) and biochemical composition (e.g. Starch, reducing, non reducing sugars, carbohydrate and protein) in
Parthenium plants. In both the seasons, content of nitrogen, sulphur and protein were highest in the leaf while phosphorus
and potassium in stem. Reducing and non reducing sugars were high in leaf during winter season than during rainy
season. This study indicates that occurrence of sizable of macro and micronutrients in Parthenium hysterophorus L.
Session 1.2
can be utilized in plant nutrition if its compost is prepared. Composting will also reduce the environmental problem as
well as health hazards caused by this obnoxious weed.
Enhancing Productivity of Henna (Lawsonia inermis) through Integrated

Weed Management in Arid Tracts of India
S.S. Rao and P.L. Regar

Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Pali-Marwar, 306 401, Rajasthan, India
(*Email: raoss@yahoo.co.in)
Henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) is an important export-oriented perennial dye crop. About 70% of its gross production
meets domestic requirements while 30% is exported to countries viz. Turkey, Japan, France, UAE, Germany, Saudi
Arabia and Malaysia and some other countries. Presently major area under henna is in Pali district of Rajasthan.
Scarcity of water and declining water table led to a shift in cropping pattern and henna became the dominant crop in
the region. Weed control through herbicide is an integral part of the conservation farming system. Crop weed competition
severely affects the growth and yield of henna in cultivated fields. A replicated experiment was laid out in 2004 on
different weed control methods. During the 3rd annual growth cycle the effect of seven methods of weed control
(involving manual weeding and use of weedicides and mechanical interculture for weed control) were compared under
both 45 and 60 cm row spacing.
The major weeds occurring in the henna fields at Pali included Digeria arvensis, Amaranthus spinosus, Amaranthus
viridis, Trianthema portulacastrum and Euphorbia hirta among the broad leaf weeds; Setaria glauca, Digiteria sanguinalis,
Dactylactenium aegyptium and Penicum repens among the grassy weeds; and Cyperus rotundus sedge. Among
these Digera arvensis, A. spinosus and A. viridis were the pre-dominant weed species. Analysis of variance revealed
significant differences among the treatments for weed population, dry weed biomass, plant height of henna, number of
branches/ plant and leaf weight/ plant. Maximum dry leaf yield was recorded with atrazine spray @ 1.0 kg a.i. per
hectare + one interculture with tractor under 45 cm row spacing followed by same treatment under 60 cm row spacing,
two hand weedings and Atrazine spray alone. The increases in yield with corresponding treatments were 60.7, 56.8,
45.5 and 44.6% over control. Results further indicated that at same level of application (1.0 kg a.i. ha-1) atrazine
showed better weed control efficacy as pre-emergence spray compared to the other weedicides tested. Best weed
control leading to maximum leaf production was evident from the combined use of atrazine pre-emergence spray and
one interculture by tractor during the early crop growth phase.
126
Productivity, Water Use and Income of the Rice-Wheat Systems

with Alternative Tillage and Crop Establishment Methods in a
Rice-Wheat Rotation in North Western IGP
Y.S. Saharawat1*, Bhagat Singh2, R.K. Malik2, M. Gathala3, M.L. Jat5, Raj K. Gupta4 and J.K. Ladha3
1
International Center for Soil Fertility and Agricultural Development (IFDC),
PO Box 2040, Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35662, USA
2
CCS Haryana Agricultural University Hisar, 125 004, Haryana, India
3
IRRI- India, CG Block, NASC Complex, DPS Marg, Pusa, New Delhi, India
4
International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
5
Directorate of Maize Research, Pusa Campus, New Delhi, 110 012 India
(*Email: ysaharawat@ifdc.org)
Session 1.2
Indo-Gangetic plains have been densely populated and intensively cropped. Agricultural sustainability problems resulting
from declining natural resources as water, increasing labour and energy prices are prevalent throughout this agro-
ecological region. Rice–wheat (Oryza sativa L.–Triticum aestivum L.) is the major cropping system of region and the
conventional tillage and crop establishment methods such as puddled transplanting require a large amount of water,
labour and energy, which are increasingly becoming scarce and expensive. This article considers practice that would
sustain higher and stable yields for the rice-wheat system of the region. We attempted to evaluate alternatives that
would require smaller amounts of these two inputs. A field experiment was conducted in the IGP for 2 yrs to evaluate
various tillage and crop establishment systems for their efficiency in labour, water, and energy use and economic
profitability. The yields of rice in the conventional puddled transplanting, unpuddled transplanting, no-till transplanting
and direct-seeding (wet and dry) systems were equal. Yields of wheat following both the conventional or alternative
tillage and crop establishment in rice were also equal. Normally, wet-direct-seeding required 21% more irrigation water
than puddled, unpuddled and no-tillage transplanting in rice. Compared with conventional puddled transplanting, dry-
direct seeding of rice had a 9 to 11% less water application without a yield penalty. Nevertheless, water use efficiency
(WUE) in the rice–wheat system was higher with dry-direct-seeded rice (0.33 g L-1) than with transplanted rice (0.29-
0.32 g L-1). Dry-direct seeding and no-tillage rice-wheat system had saving in energy and was labour-saving. No-tillage
transplanted and dry-direct seeded followed by no-till wheat had higher net return than the conventional, unpuddled
and wet-direct seeded system in both the years. The study showed that the conventional practice of puddled transplanting
could be replaced with unpuddled and no-tillage-based crop establishment methods to save water, labour and energy.
Raised Bed Technology to Replace Conventional Flood

Irrigation in Pakistan
Niaz Ahmad and Muhammad Adnan Shahid

Water Management Research Centre, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan
Agriculture in Indus Basin is a thousands years old. The civilizations like Harrapa and Moinjodharo are its witness. The
area has been blessed with a continuous flow of five rivers with the history of high floods during monsoon period and
gentle runoff during the rest of the year. British introduced canal irrigation network by controlling and diverting river’s
flow primarily for agriculture of low cropping intensity (less than 70%) without drainage system which resulted in
waterlogging. The riparian of the rivers enjoyed abundance of water which was more than 5000 cubic meter per person
on the independence of Pakistan. All above favoured most inefficient flood irrigation-based agriculture.
Being a sole source of dependence in Indus basin, agriculture has been playing an important role for the survival
of the inhabitants. During the last half century, increase in population increased the cropping intensity from 70% to
127
150%. In some areas, the cropping intensity has gone even more than 200% with a major contribution from
groundwater; more than 50% percent irrigation water is being pumped from the aquifers. Under drought like situation
during last decade (1998 to 2008), the high watertable (water-logging) afforded the pressure of increasing groundwater
pumpage of increased tubewells from 250000 to 800, 000. Under increasing demand and decreasing supply of
irrigation water and greater discharge with less recharge of groundwater, over-exploitation of groundwater, secondary
salinity and shortage of irrigation water are likely threats to the agriculture of Pakistan.
Quick management to take out country’s agriculture from the on-going dwindling position to a sustainable
position needs urgent replacement of its conventional irrigation with furrow irrigated raised bed planting (Raised Bed
Technology) and finally with high efficient irrigation systems. Raised Bed Technology has good potential to save
enough water and increase yield within affordable spending. Keeping all above in view, efforts were made not only to
design and develop the local bed planter to grow multi crops on beds, but also to disseminate this technology to
farmers. Planting on raised beds with University Bed Planting Machine has shown 50% water saving with 10-25%
increase in wheat yield. This increase in yield due to raised bed planting has been found on average 30% for spring
maize and 15% for autumn maize. The intercropping of sugarcane in furrows with wheat on beds revealed 26.7%
Session 1.2
increase in yield. It was concluded that sowing of wheat on raised beds in the month of November and sugarcane
planting in furrows during the month of February not only helped in better utilization of crop inputs but also enhanced
the water productivity of wheat and sugarcane crops. Recently rice on raised beds has shown 30-40% water saving
while yield results of rice and cotton are in compilation process. Detailed results of all these activities regarding
raised bed technology in Pakistan will be presented in this paper.
Enzymatic Saccharification of Saccharum spontaneum for

Bioethanol Production
Priti Gupta and H.B. Chaudhary

Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110 012, India
(Email: pritigupta.du@gmail.com, hbchaudhary@iari.res.in)
Saccharum spontaneum hydrolysate has been utilized as a rich source of carbon compounds for bioethanol
production using Pichia stipitis. The bioconversion of lignocellulosics to ethanol could be successfully developed
and optimized by voraciously applying the novel technologies to solve the key problems of conversion process. One
such technique, enzymatic saccharification, was carried out to release cellulosic sugars from both acid and alkali
treated substrate. Maximum sugars (92.0 g/100mL) were released at 24 hours and then decreased to 29.6 g/100
mL in the next 24 hours with constantly decreasing enzyme units upon utilization of purified enzymes from Fusarium
oxysporum only in the case of alkali treated substrate, whereas no sugars were released in case of acid treated
substrate. This causes hydrolysis of the substrate to the extent of 82%.
Evaluating Agronomic Management Practices for Flowering Stage

Drought Stress in Maize (Zea mays) under Tropics
R.P. Singh, D.K. Singh, P.H. Zaidi, M.L. Jat, Rafat Sultana, Ishwar Singh and Sain Dass
Directorate of Maize Research, Pusa Campus, New Delhi, 110 012, India
Maize (Zea mays L.), the most productive cereal with very high genetic diversity has a great role to play for meeting
the emerging challenges in farming globally. In India, maize is becoming very important crop cultivated over 8.26
128
Mha with annual production of 19.31 Mt, and contributes more than 8% to the national food basket. Despite
significant progress on development of high yield potential maize genotype in India, the productivity is still low
mainly due to drought stress as nearly 78% of maize is grown under rainfed conditions with limited moisture
availability at critical crop growth stages. Drought stress, one of the major limitations to maize productivity, causes
average annual yield loss about 17% in tropical maize. Efforts are being made for developing stress tolerant
genotypes and agronomic management practices but in isolation due to which potential productivity with either of
these technologies could not be realized. Therefore, this study was carried out during 2005 to 2007 at Pusa, New
Delhi to identify the suitable crop management option(s) helpful in reducing drought injuries and yield losses under
severe drought stress. The treatments consisting of eight agronomic management practices and 2 genotypes were
evaluated in randomized block design with three replications. Until knee-high stage (V8-V9), the crop was grown
using standard agronomic practices, including water management. At knee-high, the irrigation was withdrawn and
resumed at 2 weeks after 50% female flowering to impose severe drought stress at flowering stage.
The results revealed that various agronomic management practices had significant effect on the performance of
maize genotypes under drought stress. Raised-bed planting of maize supplemented with thio-urea spray @ 0.2% at
Session 1.2
pre-tasseling and flowering stages resulted in 19% yield enhancement compared to flat planting and without thio-urea
spray. The next best alternative was bio-intensive maize (maize + Sesbania, 1:1) cropping wherein Sesbania was
mulched at 30 days after seeding. This helped in reducing evaporative losses of water due to which more water was
available in the root zone at flowering stage and hence led to 10% higher productivity. Therefore, yield losses due to
flowering stage drought stress can be minimized through improved and modified agronomic management practices.
Effect of Micronutrients Application on Forage Productivity

and Quality
S.B. Tripathi, S.N. Tripathi, K.K. Singh and Arvind K. Rai

Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi, 284 003, Uttar Pradesh, India
To work out the effective strategy for addressing the problem of multinutrient deficiencies under intensive forage
production system an experiment was conducted at IGFRI, Jhansi in split plot design from 2004-2007. Farmyard
manure (FYM) @ 5.0 and 10.0 t/ha were applied in main plot and nutrients treatments namely control (without S and
micronutrients), S, S+Zn, S+Zn+Mn, S+Zn+Mn+Cu and S+Zn+Mn+Cu+Mo in subplot to the sorghum- barley sequence.
Recommended dose of N, P and K @120, 40, and 30 kg/ha, respectively, was applied in all the plots. The dose of S,
Zn, Mn, Cu and Mo were applied @ 40, 20, 10, 5, and 0.5 kg/ha, respectively. The results showed that the S and
micronutrients application gave 6-17 and 7-18% increase in green and dry forage yield of the sorghum over control.
Combined use of S+Zn+Mn application showed significant increase in green (37.6 t/ha) and dry (9.9 t/ha) forage yield
than the S alone. Application of Mo and/or Cu with S+Zn+Mn further increased the yield but differences were non-
significant. FYM application resulted in 6-14 and 10-17% increase in green and dry forage yield. The application of
FYM @5.0 t/ha was effective in giving the yield equivalent to S+Zn. The residual effect of S and micronutrients
combination (Zn+Mn+Cu+Mo) resulted in significantly higher fodder yield of barley by 17.0% with 5 t FYM/ha and
19.2% with 10 t FYM/ha, respectively over NPK (29.8 t/ha green fodder). Similarly, the application of S and all four
micronutrients alongwith 10 t FYM/ha showed highest residual value of S (22 ppm), Zn (1.08 ppm ), Mn (5.45 ppm), Cu
(2.2.5 ppm) and Fe (18.85 ppm) in the soil. The content of S, Zn, Mn, Cu and Fe in control was 8.0, 0.65, 4.0, 1.0 and
6.1 ppm, respectively. The quality traits like mineral ratios (N:P, P:S, Zn:S, Mn:S, Cu:S, Zn:Mn, Zn:Cu and Zn:P),
protein content, neutral detergent fibre, acid detergent fibre and In vitro digestibility of the sorghum were also improved
significantly due to combined use micronutrients and FYM. The study showed that the application of FYM @ 5 t/ha
may mitigate the micronutrients deficiencies.
129
Water Conservation in Rice–Wheat Cropping Systems of the Indus

Basin: A Case Study from Pakistan Punjab
Asad Sarwar Qureshi1*, Mushtaq A. Gill2 and Hugh Turral3

1
International Water Management Institute (IWMI) 12 KM, Multan Road, Chowk Thokar Niaz Baig,
Lahore-53700, Pakistan
2
On-farm Water Management, Govt. of Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
3
International Water Management Institute (IWMI) P.O. Box 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka
(*Email: a.sarwar@cgiar.org)
The rice-wheat production system of Pakistan occupies about 2.2 million ha (Mha) of the total farmland (21 Mha) of
the country consuming about 20% of the total available fresh water in Pakistan. The supply of fresh water to
agriculture sector will be reduced in future due to increasing demand and competition from environmental, industrial
Session 1.2
and domestic sectors. Therefore, the major challenge for agriculture sector during 21st century is to produce more
food with less water. The water savings from rice-based cropping systems such as rice-wheat gains significant
importance as about 50% of the freshwater used in Asian agriculture is used for rice production.
This paper compares the water use, crop yields and water productivity (yield per unit of water) of rice–wheat
cropping system under traditional flat transplantation and bed plantation methods. The results presented are based on
a study conducted in the rice–wheat cropping zone of Pakistani Punjab. The results indicate that the total water
applied to bed transplanted rice was 13% lower than the flat transplanted rice. The yield obtained by bed planted rice
was 3.0 t/ha, which was 20% lower than the yield obtained under traditional transplanted rice (3.6 t/ha) under similar
experimental conditions. In terms of water productivity, both methods were comparable (0.23 kg/m3 for bed and 0.25
kg/m3 for traditional transplanted rice). Similar trends of water saving (13%) and yield reduction were found for wheat
sown on beds as compared to flat-sown wheat. The major reason for low crop yields in case of bed planting for both
rice and wheat crop was the excessive infestation of weeds. The experimental results suggest that bed plantation is a
viable option for saving irrigation water on the fields. However, these field water savings are usually out-weighted by
the decrease in crop yields. Therefore, more concrete efforts should be devoted to find ways to improve weed and pest
control, develop better agronomic and cultural practices, to manage crop residue and design of beds. Improving crop
yields under bed plantation will help in introducing this method to a larger farming community.
Integrated Plant Nutrient Management Strategies for Sustainable

Productivity and Resource Conservation in the N-W Indian Himalayas:
An Overview
B.N. Ghosh* and K.S. Dadhwal

218 Kaulagardh Road, Dehradun, 248 195, Uttarakhand, India
(*Email: bnghosh62@gmail.com)
Results of long-term experiments under crop sequences of rice-wheat, maize-wheat, soybean-wheat and millets-
wheat in different soil orders of the N-W Himalayan states have revealed that recommended NPK + 10 t FYM ha-1 was
superior to 150% NPK in sustaining high crop yields at different locations over the years. The mean yield of soybean
(Glycine max L.) under NPK + FYM treatment was 90 and 385% higher, respectively than that observed under NPK
and the unfertilized control treatments after 30 years of cropping. The residual effect of NPK + FYM treatment was also
considerable, resulting in 66 and 162% increase in wheat yield over that observed under NPK and the unfertilized
control treatments. Another study with conjoint use of 20 kg N with FYM 15 t ha-1 to rice enhanced the grain yield of rice
130
and succeeding rainfed wheat (grown on residual fertility) by 120 and 230%, respectively, over unfertilized control.
Studies with 50% recommended NPK + green manuring with sunhemp recorded at par yield of rice with recommended
NPK. Sustainability of rice-wheat, maize-wheat and soybean-wheat system is a big problem for maintaining soil health.
Cropping with only NPK fertilization just maintained SOC content in rice-wheat, maize-wheat and soybean-wheat
systems, while NPK + organics increased SOC ranging from 24.3- to 32.5% over control. One of the interesting point
has come out from long-term fertility trial that there is a build-up of available P irrespective of location but depletion of
available even in 100% NPK fertilizer, indicating mining of reserve K which needs review of K fertilizer recommendation
in this agro-ecosystem. Marked reduction in available Zn and Cu content was observed throughout the profile depth
under NPK treatment. Available Zn Cu, Fe and Mn content increased to the tune of 30-85% from initial level in NPK+
FYM treatment. Results accomplished over the years revealed that balance fertilizations with FYM in IPNM mode is
the best nutrient management option for sustaining crop yield and soil quality in the N-W Himalayan region.
On-farm Evaluation of Site-specific Nutrient Management in Pearl
Session 1.2
millet-based Cropping Systems
B.S. Dwivedi, Dhyan Singh, K.N. Tiwari1, A. Swarup, M.C. Meena and K.S. Yadav2
1
IPNI-India Programme, 133, Sector 23, Gurgaon, Haryana, India
2
KVK, Shikohpur, Gurgaon, Haryana, India
Asian soils are generally low in organic matter, and have consistently been depleted of nutrients due to continuous
cropping. Simultaneous deficiencies of more than one nutrient, referred to as multi-nutrient deficiencies, in the soils
that have emerged and expanded due to improper fertilizer use need to be carefully appraised and quantified, so as to
develop site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) options for enhancing nutrient-use efficiencies and farm profits.
Development of site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) options appears to be the only pragmatic way to address
these soil fertility problems. We, therefore, compared SSNM vis-a-vis other options in 14 farmer-managed on-farm
experiments in pearlmillet-wheat and pearlmillet-mustard cropping systems on alluvial soils. Treatments comprised 7
fertilizer options i.e. SSNM, fertilizer NPK for a pre-set yield target as per AICRP-STCR approach (TY), TY+secondary
and micronutrients (TY+Micro), state recommendation (SR), SR+K, farmer’s fertilizer practice (FFP), and FFP+K.
As the deficiencies of N, K, P, S, Zn and B were prevalent in the soils of on-farm experimental sites (village
Lohtaki, Gurgaon, India), SSNM treatment was comprised of 4 to 6 nutrients. Soil test-based fertilizer input i.e., SSNM,
TY or TY+Micro augmented the crop yields and net returns compared with other treatments, without any deterioration
in soil fertility. Annual net returns over FFP, averaged across the experiments, were the highest under SSNM in pearl
millet-mustard (Rs 32346/ha) as well as pearl millet-wheat (Rs 35856/ha) cropping system. Further, the state ad hoc
recommendations proved suboptimal and insufficient, thus necessitating for the upward revision and also for inclusion
of more nutrients. The exhaustive cereal-based systems have greater demands for K, and judicious K fertilization
along with other deficient nutrients brought appreciable increase in crop yields as well as profit.
Performance of Rainfed Castor (Ricinus communis) in Relation to

Weed Management under Two Tillage Methods in SAT Region
C.V. Raghavaiah, P. Laxmamma and I.Y.L.N. Murthy

Field investigation was made during 2006 and 2007 rainy season on Alfisol growing castor with 2 tillage practices
(shallow tillage and deep tillage) and 6 weed management practices (Alachlor 1.5 kg a.i./ha pre-em, imazethapyr 0.2
131
kg ai/ha post-em, alachlor 1 kg ai./ha + intercultivation at 30, 45 days after sowing (DAS), Farmers practice ( 1 H.W
at 25 DAS + 2 intercultures at 45, 60 DAS) compared with weed-free check (2 H.W. + 2 intercultures at 45, 60 DAS)
and unweeded check in a split plot design; with tillage in main-plots and weed management in sub-plots with 3
replications.
The predominant weed flora in the field comprised monocots like Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Digitaria sanguinalis,
Cyperus rotundus, Commelina benghalensis and Brachiaria eruciformis; and dicots like Vernonia cinera, Amaranthus
sp. Cleome viscosa, Celosia argentia, Argemone mexicana, Digera arvensis, Parthenium hysteriphorus, Acalypha
indica, Abutilon indicum, Corchorus acutangulus, Solanum nigrum and Phyllanthus madraspatensis.
It was found that the shallow tillage did not differ with deep tillage on plant height, primary spike length, test seed
weight, resulting in similar castor bean yield and stalk yield under rainfed Alfisol conditions. This has been due to no
discernible variation in weed density and weed biomass under these two tillage methods, though deep tillage tended
to reduce weed biomass production. The soil dehydrogenase and urease activity, a measure of soil microbial activity
analysed at 40 and 70 DAS tended to be more with deep tillage than shallow tillage. The soil enzymatic activity
declined with time from 40 to 70 days after sowing.
Session 1.2
With regard to weed management practices, maintaining the field weed free through hand weeding (HW) and
interculture resulted in distinct improvement in castor bean yield (1304 kg/ha) than herbicidal weed control (551 kg/ha);
while unweeded check offered the least yield (409 kg/ha). Among the herbicides, pre-emergence application of Alachlor
1.5 kg ai/ha (551 kg/ha) was found superior to post-emergence treatment with imazethapyr 0.2 kg ai/ha at 25 DAS
(397 kg/ha), as the latter exhibited toxic effect on castor crop, expressed as chlorosis and stunted growth and
development. Herbicide application had adverse effect on plant height, plant stand, spike length, stalk dry matter and
reduced bean yield in comparison with weed-free check. The soil dehydrogenase activity was found to be better with
traditional weed management practices, while herbicidal application reduced the activity. The soil urease activity was
more with weed free check and alachlor 1 kg + interculture at 30, 45 DAS. The soil urease activity declined with crop
age. Uncontrolled weeds robbed the crop of 160 kg N/ha, 19 kg P205/ha and 208 kg K20/ha with shallow tillage; while
under deep tillage it was 181 kg N/ha, 18.4 kg P205/ha and 208 kg K2O/ha.
It can be concluded that there is no discernible variation in weed control and castor bean yield between shallow
tillage and deep tillage. Traditional weed management practices of hand weeding and inter-row cultivation offered
better weed control and superior yields than herbicidal method of weed control. Soil enzymatic activity (dehydrogenase
and urease) was found better with cultural weed management than chemical methods under rainfed Alfisol conditions
in semi-arid tropical region.
Input Use Efficiency and Adoption of Integrated Pest Management in

Cotton
C.A. Rama Rao, M. Srinivasa Rao, K. Kareemulla and B. Venkateswarlu

Central Research Institute of Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, 500 059, Andhra Pradesh, India
Integrated pest management (IPM) is integration of cultural, biological, mechanical and chemical means of pest
management and as such the input use pattern on the IPM and non-IPM farms would differ. Optimum use of chemical
fertilizers is also one of the components of IPM. With this in view, using the primary data collected from 180 farmers in
Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, India, the input use pattern and efficiency was examined in cotton cultivation as
affected by adoption of IPM. The sample included 90 IPM farms and 90 non-IPM farms. The data were also subjected
to stochastic frontier production function with technical efficiency effects in order to test whether the efficiency was
higher on IPM-farms. It was observed that the IPM farmers on an average used more farmyard manure, less nitrogenous
fertilizers, more phosphatic fertilizers and employed more human labour. Compared to non-IPM farms, the use of plant
protection chemicals was 64% lower on non-IPM farms. In spite of the use of lower level of inputs, the average yield on
the IPM farms was higher than that on the non-IPM farms by about 18%. When analysed using the Cobb-Douglas
132
production function, it was observed that the yield levels responded significantly to application of farm-yard manure,
phosphatic fertilizers and employment of human labour. A one per cent increase in application of farm-yard manure
was found to increase yield buy about 0.21%. The corresponding elasticities for phosphorous fertilizers and human
labour were 0.35 and 0.25, respectively. The coefficient associated with expenditure on chemical insecticides was
found to be non-significant indicating the indiscriminate use of insecticides. Further, the corresponding coefficients in
a stochastic frontier model were found to be higher indicating the scope for efficiency improvement. The technical
efficiency was found to be positively related to adoption of IPM. Further, the insecticides used by the IPM farmers were
less hazardous and less persistent. Further, the technical efficiency as measured from the frontier production function
was observed to be higher for IPM farms compared to non-IPM farms.
Puccinia sp. (Isolate NRCWSR-3) – A New Rust Bioagent for Ecofriendly
Session 1.2
Management of Exotic Weed Lagascea mollis
Chandra Bhanu
National Research Centre for Weed Science, Jabalpur, 482 004, Madhya Pradesh, India
(Email: chandrabhanu21@gmail.com)
Rust pathogens which possess high degree of host specificity and widespread dispersal within short space of time,
have huge potential to suppress weeds in croplands, pastures, roadsides, forestry, rangelands, and conservation
areas. In natural ecosystems, rust pathogens may be ideal bioagents for controlling weeds in remote and inaccessible
locations. Velvet bush (Lagascea mollis Cav., Family- Asteraceae), also known as Acuate, doll’s head, silk leaf, American
softhead etc., is native to Central America (Mexico) and also reported from several other countries including India. In
India, it is a naturalized weed in southern and central part, and is spreading towards northern states. Infestation of L.
mollis into croplands causes considerable losses in the crop yields. Apart from causing competition with crops, L.
mollis also serves as an alternate host for several insect pests and plant pathogens.
A study was conducted at NRCWS research farm, Jabalpur, India during kharif season of 2007 to evaluate promising
native rust bioagent Puccinia sp. (Isolate NRCWSR-3) against L. mollis. Experiment was conducted in microplots (1 m
x 1 m) in twelve replications. Spore suspension of bioagent (containing 106uredospores/ml) was sprayed on L. mollis
plants at 30DAS. Controlled plots were maintained by protective spraying of propiconazole (systemic fungicide) at
monthly intervals. Observations were taken on growth parameters, seed production and seed viability of L. mollis.
Plant height, number of primary branches, number of secondary branches, number of leaves, leaf area, plant dry
weight and number of flower heads per plant were reduced by 35.08, 52.78, 89.28, 63.17, 63.29, 76.07 and 87.06%,
respectively in the inoculated plants at 30 days after inoculation. A remarkable reduction (91.68%) in the seed production/
plant was observed due to inoculation of weed by the rust bioagent at 60 days after inoculation. Thousand seed weight
and seed germination from inoculated plants were reduced by 68.20 and 77.78%, respectively. In a preliminary host
range screening under field conditions on more than 150 plant/crop species, the bioagent was found safe to other
hosts and specific to L. mollis. The heavy damage potential of safe rust bioagent Puccinia sp. (Isolate NRCWSR-3)
may be exploited for eco-friendly suppression of this exotic weed in different ecosystems in India.
133
Lime and Sulphur Interaction for Sustainable Groundnut

Production in Alfisol
D. Jena, B. Mohanty, B. Jena and S.K. Mukhi

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology,
Bhubaneswar, 751 003, Orissa, India
Acid soils in the state of Orissa constitute more than 75% of the total cultivated area. Acid soils support major
crops of the state, but the yield of pulses, oilseeds and vegetables are far below the national average. Soil acidity
along with deficiency of sulphur, calcium and boron are found limiting to the crop yield in these regions. Sulphur
deficiency is widespread in soils of Orissa and varies from 7.0 to 98.0% with mean value of 28.0%. In recent years
S deficiency has been aggravated in the soil due to continuous crop removal and use of S-free high analysis NPK
fertilizer. Various research data on response of crops to sulphur application are available. However, the information
Session 1.2
on S management with lime in acid soil is inadequate. Therefore, the present investigation was undertaken to study
the interaction effect of lime and sulphur on groundnut.
A field experiment was conducted in red soil of central farm of OUAT during rabi, 2007-08 to study the effect of
lime and sulphur on yield and oil content of groundnut. The experiment was laid out in a RBD with three replications
and 12 treatments consisting of four levels of lime (0, 10, 20 and 30% of LR) and three levels of S (0, 20 and 40 kg S
ha-1). The crop was grown with recommended dose of fertilizer @ 20-40-40 kg N-P2O5-K2O ha -1. Sulphur from gypsum
and lime from PMS was applied as per the doses. The soil of the experimental site was acidic (pH 4.82) and non
saline. The LR value determined by Woodruff ’s Buffer method was 7.3 t ha-1. The exch. acidity and exch. Ca of the soil
was 0.96 and 1.26 meq/100g. The soil was low in available N and K but high in available P. The soil was medium in
available SO4-S (29 kg/ha).
The pod yield of groundnut varied between 1.15 q ha-1 (control) to 2.54 q ha-1. There was significant increase in
pod yield with increase in doses of lime and sulphur as compared to control (S0L0). The highest significant pod yield by
45, 58 and 72% over L0 at L0.1,L0.2 and L0.3,respectively. Similarly, S dose has significant effect on increasing pod yield
of Groundnut. With application of S@ 20 and 40 kg ha -1, the pod yield was increased by 16-18% over control. The
interaction effect of lime and S is significant. The highest significant yield of 2.54 t ha-1 was obtained in L0.3 + S40.
The oil content in L0 treatment was 43.53%, which was increased by 2-3% with application of S. Lime application
has little effect on enhancing oil content of groundnut. The mean sulphur content in kernel of groundnut in L 0 treatment
was 0.14% which was increased by 7% at 0.3 LR. Similarly, the mean S content in S0 treatment was 0.13% which was
increased by 15% with application of 20 to 40 kg S ha-1. Interaction effect of lime and sulphur on S content was non-
significant, highest sulphur content of 0.16% was observed in L 0.3 S1 treatments. The interaction of lime and sulphur
on Ca content of groundnut was significant. Highest Ca content of 0.8% was recorded in L0.2S2 treatment.
Soil analysis data showed that with application of lime, the pH was increased from initial value of 4.82 to 5.62-6.96
after 15 DAS and to 5.31-7.21 after 30 DAS. With the application of sulphur there was slight decrease in pH within 15
days of sowing and thereafter there was increase in pH by 0.1 (4.54 - 4.62) unit after 30 DAS. With application of
sulphur, the exchange acidity decreased from initial value of 0.96 to 0.768 - 0.816 meq/100gm after 30 DAS, whereas
with combined application of lime and sulphur these values were decreased to 0.044-0.096 meq/100g Integrated use
of lime and S increased the exch. Ca content of soil from initial value of 1.96 to 1.98-3.96 meq /100 g at 15 DAS and
to 1.80-3.76 meq/100 g at 30 DAS. The available S status of soil before sowing of groundnut was 9.0 kg ha-1 which
decreased to 25.50 kg ha-1 30 days of sowing in L0S0 treatment. But in other treatments the available S status was
higher than L0S0.
From this study it can be inferred that, application of S along with lime is more beneficial for crop production and
maintenance of soil health. Synergistic effect of lime × sulphur on groundnut was found significant and promising.
Lime @ 0.2 LR and S @ 30 kg ha-1 recorded 22% higher pod yield and 3% oil yield over control, and is recommended
in acid soil regions of Orissa for getting higher crop productivity.
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Effect of Organic Farming on Productivity and Soil Health under

Rice and Maize-based Multiple Cropping Systems at Mid-Altitude
Subtropical Meghalaya
D.P. Patel*, Anup Das, G.C. Munda, Jurisandhya Bordoloi and Manoj Kumar
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, 793 103, Meghalaya, India
(*Email: pateldpp2001@yahoo.com)
About 18 lakh ha area in the north-east India can be classified as ‘Organic by Default’. The use of agrochemicals like
fertilizer (12 kg/ha) and pesticides is negligible. The region is therefore, identified as one of the potential zone for
organic food production in India. Keeping this in mind, a field experiment was conducted in kharif and rabi seasons of
2006-07 and 2007-08 at upland experimental farm, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam (950 m msl),
Session 1.2
Meghalaya to evaluate the efficacy of various on-farm and off-farm produced organic sources on productivity and soil
health under various rice and maize-based cropping systems. The five organic nutrient sources used were Farm Yard
manure (FYM), vermicompost (VC), local compost (LC)-made from composting of locally-available weed biomass and
crop residues, integrated nutrient sources (1/3rd each of FYM +VC+LC) and control. Nutrient sources were applied on
N-equivalent basis. Phosphorus was adjusted by applying mussorie rock phosphate (MRP).The soil of the experimental
site was acidic in reaction with high organic matter content but low in phosphorus and medium in potassium content.
All the cultural practices were done as permissible in organic food production.
The experiment was laid out in split plot design with four cropping sequences in main plot- CS1: rice+soybean
(4:2)-mustard, CS2: rice+soybean (4:2)-tomato, CS3: maize+soybean (2:2)-groundnut, CS4: maize+soybean (2:2)-
Frenchbean; and five nutrient sources in sub-plots. Maximum growth in terms of plant height, effective tillers/m 2 in
case of rice was recorded in FYM treatment, followed by vermicompost and integrated management practices in both
the years. Similar trend in respect of growth parameters was obtained in case of maize, soybean, Frenchbean, groundnut
and tomato. FYM application resulted in 181% increase in grain yield of rice over control during 2006-07. Higher
values of yield attributing characters contributed to higher yield in maize, soybean, groundnut, French bean and tomato
in FYM treatment, followed by vermicompost and integrated nutrient application. On the other hand, mustard exhibited
better yield response to vermicompost application. Total productivity in terms of maize equivalent yield was recorded
significantly higher in FYM treatment. In two years, pH of soil increased from the initial value of 4.5 to 5.64 due to FYM
application. Improvement in N, P, K content, soil physical and microbiological properties was also recorded due to
application of organic nutrient sources, which indicated the improvement in soil health. Nutrient uptake (kg/ha) was
recorded significantly higher in FYM for the grain part of the crops in the systems (154.3 kg, 26.3 kg and 91.8 kg N, P,
K /ha respectively). From economic point of view, application of FYM was found to be cost effective as greater benefit
cost ratio was obtained in FYM treatment, irrespective of cropping systems.
Characterization of Soil Physical Conditions: Introduction of a Single

Value Soil Quality Index
Sonali Mazumdar, Debashis Chakraborty*, R. Mittal, K. Kamble and P. Chanda

(*Email: debashis@iari.res.in)
The paper defines an index of soil physical quality after Dexter (2004), and investigates its possible use in differentiating
the soil physical conditions as influenced by the management practices. This soil physical quality index (SPQI), defined
as the ratio of the change in soil water content per unit change in logarithm of water potential, at the inflection point of
the soil water characteristic curve, is able to differentiate soil textural classes and precisely delineate the effect of
135
compaction. Significant positive correlations were obtained with bulk density and organic carbon content of soils
under long-term tillage and fertilizer experiment at Modipuram and New Delhi, India. The SQPI was found to be a
good indicator of root growth potential of crops in these soils under varying management practices. Results reveal
that SPQI has significant potential in differentiating soil physical conditions and management practices and can
possibly be used as effective indicator for soil physical health. An analytical solution of the soil water function can
further strengthen the interpretation through SQPI and its applications.
No-till Direct-Seeded Rice in the Eastern Gangetic Plains: Potentials

and Prospects
A.N. Tewari, H. Pathak and J.K. Ladha

Session 1.2
International Rice Research Institute-India Office,

NASC Complex, DPS Marg, Pusa Campus, New Delhi, 110 012, India
Rice crop is usually established by manual transplanting of 4-6 weeks old seedlings on puddled field in the Eastern
Gangetic Plains comprising of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. Pudding and transplanting operations,
however, are water and labour intensive consuming 25% of total water and 30% of total labour requirement in rice
cultivation. Due to erratic and inadequate rainfall, depletion of groundwater, irregular and short availability of power,
unassured canal water supply and migration of labour from eastern region to Punjab during peek period, transplanting
of rice is often delayed resulting in lower productivity. This also delays the sowing of succeeding wheat, potato and
other oilseed and pulse crops.
Direct-seeded rice (DSR) offers a good opportunity to avoid puddling with comparable yield to conventional system
of transplanting. This also saves water and labour, thereby reducing cost of production and increasing income. On-
farm trials conducted in 8 districts of West Bengal (Jalpaiguri, Cooch Behar, 24 Paraganas, Burdwan, Dinajpur,
Murshidabad, Nadia and Birbhm) during 2006 under IRRI / RWC collaborated programme showed that DSR under no
tillage recorded 10-15% higher grain yield of rice (4.17 Mg ha-1), with net saving of Rs 3975 – 7266 ha-1 over that of
conventional transplanting. In Bihar (Patna, Nawada, Bhojpur and Jamui) also no-till DSR recorded comparable grain
yield with a net saving of Rs 4000 – 7000 ha-1 compared to conventional rice. In Patna use of leaf colour chart (LCC)
demand driven N management saved 45 hg N ha-1 in DSR crop. In Uttar Pradesh (Chandauli, Mau, Gorakhpur, Kanpur
and Pratapgarh) no-till DSR was superior to transplanting in terms of yield with considerable saving in cost of cultivation
(Rs 4500 – 6000 ha-1). In Eastern Gangetic Plains, the DSR technology is getting popularity with the farmers as it
eliminates puddling, reduces labour requirement, saves irrigation water, and allows timely planting of succeeding
crops. Availability of water for crop establishment during May-June, availability of no-till machine and effective herbicides
for weed control, however, are the main constraints in adoption of no-till DSR in the region.
Productivity of Wetland Rice under Low Input in-situ Fertility

Management in Sub-tropical Meghalaya
G.C. Munda*, D.P. Patel, Anup Das, R. Kumar, J. Bordoloi and Manoj Kumar
Division of Agronomy, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, 793 103, Meghalaya, India
(*Email: mundagc@yahoo.com)
Field experiments were conducted during kharif season from 2003-2007 at the ICAR Research Complex for NEH
Region Farm, Umiam (950 m msl), Meghalaya to study the feasibility of sustaining and improving productivity of
136
wetland rice using low inputs through in-situ biomass incorporation, minimum tillage and suitable cultivars in
absence of any plant protection measures with a view to evolve pesticide-free low-cost rice production technology
for the farmers of Meghalaya. The soil was acidic in reaction (pH 4.98), low in available N (195 kg/ha), low P (14 kg/
ha), medium in K (221 kg/ha) and high in organic carbon (1.88%).
The first set of experiment was laid out in a split plot design keeping fertility management practices, viz., F1 -
recommended dose of fertilizer (80:60:40 kg NPK/ha) and F2 - in-situ biomass incorporation thrice in main plot and
eight rice varieties (‘IR-64’, ‘Mendri’, ‘Manipuri’, ‘K. Hamsa’, ‘IR-36’, ‘RCM-9’,’ Vivek Dhan-82’ and ‘Sahsarang-1’) in
sub-plots. Based on the performance of all the eight cultivars during the first three years, the second set of experiment
was conducted in a factorial randomized block design (RBD) replicated thrice during the kharif season of 2006 and
2007 involving two better performing rice cultivars (‘IR-64’ and ‘Sahsarang-1’) and five cultural management practices,
viz., M1 – trampling (no tillage + no weeding transplanting by dibbling), M2 - one spading before transplanting, M3 - two
spading before transplanting, M4 - one spading fb one hand weeding at 35 DAT and M5- two spading fb one hand
weeding at 35 DAT. Experimental results showed superiority of rice variety ‘Sahsarang-1’ which had edge over other
varieties in terms of grain yield, resistance to pest and diseases and competing ability against weeds. In the initial two
Session 1.2
years, recommended dose of fertilizer (80:60:40 kg NPK/ha) application produced higher grain yield in all the varieties,
except the two local cultivars (‘Mendri’ and ‘Manipuri’), which suffered from lodging due to higher dose of fertilizer and
in-situ biomass incorporation. In the subsequent years, the in-situ biomass (paddy straw and weeds) incorporation
thrice resulted in similar yield level as that of recommended dose of fertilizer application. In the fifth year, the rice cv.
Sahsarnag-1 produced as high as 4.87 t/ha under in-situ biomass incorporation which remained at par with grain yield
(5.04 t/ha) obtained with recommended dose of NPK fertilizers. In the second experiment, IR-64 (1.46 t/ha) and
‘Sahsarang-1’ (1.89 t/ha) produced lowest grain yield under no tillage + no weeding treatment but indicated superiority
of ‘Sahsarang-1’ over IR-64 in terms of competing ability against weeds. Although the soil fertility status at the end of
fifth year showed low in N and P content, medium in K content, there was improvement in grain yield, soil pH (5.54),
organic carbon (2.88%) and microbial population under in-situ biomass incorporation.
Enhancing Productivity of Transplanted Rice through System of Rice

Intensification (SRI) in Southern Rajasthan
G.S. Ameta*, Hargilas and S. Ramesh Babu

Agricultural Research Station, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology,
Banswara, Rajasthan, India
(*Email: ametags@yahoo.co.in)
Rice is a principle food crop world over and increasing its productivity in different rice ecosystems has been an
important need to feed the ever-increasing population. The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) practices can make
this improvement possible as SRI believes in the philosophy that yield potential in rice plant can be realized if proper
conditions are provided for its growth which changes the structure of rice plant ultimately making more yield per unit
area. A field experiment with the objective to enhance productivity of transplanted rice employing SRI practices was
conducted at experimental farm, Agricultural Research Station, MPUAT, Banswara (Rajasthan) during wet season of
the years 2006 and 2007. The soil of experimental site was clay loam in texture with pH 7.8. The treatments comprised
of age of seedlings (10, 20 and 30 days) with stand geometries (20x15, 20x20, 25x25 and 30x30 cm with control) were
tried in split plot design with 3 replications. The pooled results for two years revealed that 10 days old seedlings
registered significant superiority in terms of no. of tillers/hill, grains/panicle and grain yield over those obtained under
20 and 30 days old seedlings. Ten days old seedlings had significantly increased the no. of tillers/hill by 45.47%
against 17.79 tillers/hill under traditional planting (30 days old). Similarly, no. of grains/ panicle was also significantly
superior giving rise to 22.89% higher no. of grains/panicle which ultimately significantly increased the rice yield by
15.20% over traditional planting (4097 kg/ha). The increasing space between plants significantly affected the yield
attributes and yield of rice. Seedlings planted at 25x25 cm had maximum no. of tillers and grains/panicle giving rise to
137
significant yield of 4761 kg/ha against 4076 kg/ha under traditional planting of 20x15 cm (control). The increase in
tillers/hill and grains/panicle ultimately increased the yield of rice. This increase might be due to the fact that plants are
spread getting more room to grow with relatively higher amount of sunshine and air to produce higher no. of tillers and
more grains. The more space (25x25 cm) between plants further support the root system as they grow larger and are
better able to draw nutrients from the soil. Further, the young seedling (10 days old) has more power to produce fertile
tillers compared to older seedlings (30 days) and enjoys more duration in field to realize higher yield potential.
Thus SRI can be effective practice (10 days old seedling planted one seedling/hill at 25x25 cm) for enhancing
productivity of transplanted rice in Southern Rajasthan.
Performance of Rice Cultures under Sri and Conventional System

Session 1.2
Hemant Mishra, K.K. Agrwal, Sanjay Jain and A.K. Jha

Department of Agronomy, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidayalya,
Jabalpur, 482 004, Madhya Pradesh, India
A field experiment was conducted at research farm, College of Agriculture Engineering, JNKVV, Jabalpur, during
Kharif season 2008 with objective to find out suitable variety and methods for higher yield of rice under irrigated
condition. Eight treatment consisted of 4 varieties ‘JRH-5’, J’RH -8’, ‘IR -36’ and ‘Proagro -6444’ and two planting
methods (SRI- System of rice intensification and conventional transplanting ) were tested in factorial randomized block
design with 3 replications. Based on the mean data of yield, ‘IR -36’ gave maximum grain yield 85 q/ha with SRI
planting and 68 q/ha with conventional transplanting, followed by ‘JRH-8’ 80 q/ha with SRI planting and 62 q/ha with
conventional transplanting, ‘JRH-5’ ( 75q/ha) with SRI planting and 56q/ha with conventional transplanting.The minimum
yield found with variety ‘Proagro-6444’ (66q/ha ) with SRI planting and 50 q/ha with conventional transplanting.
Rainfed Pigeonpea Production with Organic, Chemical and Integrated

Inputs and Practices
K. Srinivas, M. Srinivasa Rao and K.L. Sharma

Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Santoshnagar, Hyderabad, 500 059, Andhra Pradesh, India
It is generally acknowledged that organic agriculture can contribute to socio-economic and ecologically sustainable
development. Organic agriculture is developing rapidly and is now practiced in more than 130 countries of the world.
Its share of agricultural land and farms continues to grow in many countries. According to the National Centre for
Organic Farming, India has 528,000 ha of land under certified and in-conversion organic agriculture, and this is expected
to increase to 2 million ha by 2012. Pigeonpea is an important pulse crop widely consumed in India. The crop is
attacked by several pests and farmers resort to application of heavy doses of chemical pesticides to control the pests,
as the grain commands good price in the market. There is a need to identify effective organic inputs and practices for
production of organic pigeonpea. A field study is in progress at the Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture,
Hyderabad, on evaluating chemical, organic and integrated production packages, including nutrient supply and pest
and disease management for yield and profitability of pigeonpea. In the study, pigeonpea is being grown with 6 production
packages, viz. high input chemical, low input chemical, integrated input, zero input, low input organic and high input
organic. Results so far (2005-08) show that the highest seed yields of pigeonpea were obtained with the high input
organic package (mean yield of 1435 kg/ha), followed by the high input chemical package (1392 kg/ha). The high input
organic package also managed to keep pest levels under control (mean grain damage of 17%), but the high input
138
chemical package was the most effective in controlling pests (mean grain damage of 14.9%). Although the high
organic input package kept pest damage low and gave good yields, it was highly labour and cost intensive. The low
organic input package, which kept pest levels reasonably low (mean damage of 18.9%, as against 25.4% with zero
input package), and gave a mean yield of 1170 kg with relatively less labour and considerably low input costs is more
likely to be adopted by resource-poor pigeonpea farmers of rainfed areas in India.
Effect of Conventional and Zero Tillage Practices on Crop Production

and Soil Properties under Reclaimed Sodic Soils
of North-West India
Session 1.2
Kapila Shekhawat, Gurbachan Singh, D.P. Sharma, P. Dey and K.L. Chawla
Diversified crop rotations and resource conservation technologies like zero tillage have been introduced in the pre-
dominant rice-wheat cropping system in the Indo-Gangetic Plains to sustain productivity and to upgrade soil quality.
Reduced tillage or conservation tillage is a practice of minimising soil disturbance, reducing cost of cultivation and
allowing crop residue to remain on the ground instead of being thrown away or burnt. It is becoming popular with the
farmers because of the direct economic benefits it provides to them. Keeping above scenario in the view, an experiment
involving two tillage systems (conventional and zero tillage) and eight cropping systems, viz. pigeonpea cv. UPAS120
barley cv. ‘PL 426’, pigeonpea cv. ‘ICPL 88039’, wheat cv. ‘PBW 343’, pearlmillet hybrid - gram cv. ‘HC 1’, sorhgum cv.
‘Hybrid-Jumbo’ - oat cv. ‘Kent’, soybean cv. ‘SL 525’ - wheat cv. ‘PBW 502’, mungbean cv. Asha - mustard cv. ‘CS54’
mungbean cv. Asha (summer), mungbean cv. ‘SLM 668’, mustard cv. ‘CS52’, mungbean cv. ‘SLM 668’ (summer) and
cluster bean cv. Navbahar - gram cv. ‘HK1’ was initiated at CSSRI, Karnal in 2006. Growth parameters, yield attributing
characters and yield data were recorded for all the crops in the above cropping systems. Rice equivalent yield (REY)
was calculated for all the cropping systems. Soil was analysed for physico-chemical properties including pH, EC, bulk
density, available N, P and K for each system. The results showed that among the various cropping systems studied,
fodder-based cropping system involving sorghum” oat registered the highest REY both in conventional and zero tillage
system (11.90 and 11.54 Mg/ha, respectively). Among the cropping systems involving cereals, pigeonpea-wheat was
most promising (REY, 9.55 Mg/ha) under zero tillage. In conventional tillage, soybean - wheat produced maximum
REY (8.39 Mg/ha). This may be attributed to favourable growth parameters like higher plant height and more plant
count per meter row length with zero tillage. The pulse-oilseed cropping system involving mungbean-mustard-mungbean
performed better with zero tillage than conventional tillage. Mungbean cv. ‘Asha’ and mustard cv. ‘CS 54’ responded
better under zero tillage system than their respective counterparts of cv. ‘SLM 668’ and ‘CS 52’ indicating differential
response of varieties under two tillage systems. The REY for the exclusive pulse based cropping system involving
cluster bean “ gram was at par for both zero tillage and conventional tillage (4.02 and 4.09 Mg/ha, respectively). For
different cropping systems, the pH ranged from 7.62 to 8.15 and EC from 0.21 to 0.40 dS m-1. Available N, P and K
were highest after zero tilled pulse based cropping system (131.25, 55.32 and 331.5 kg/ha, respectively). The bulk
density increased from 1.41 g/cm3 to 1.80 g/cm3 with increasing depth of the soil up to 25 cm under zero tillage. The
study also showed that a sum of Rs. 1,500 per ha (approx.) which is incurred in conventional tillage involving two
ploughings followed by planking may be saved by adoption of zero tillage without compromising on crop yield. The two
years preliminary results clearly indicated that most of the Kharif and Rabi season crops in a rotation can be successfully
cultivated with zero tillage practice in reclaimed sodic soils.
139
Effects of Foliar Application of Zinc and Boron at Different

Phenological Stages on Yield and Some Quantitative Characteristics
of Two Rapeseed Cultivars
M.B. Khorshidi1*, M. Khiavi2, M. Ismaeili2, A. Farmarzi3 and N. Najafi4

1
East Azarbaijan Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center
2
Zanjan Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center
3
Islamic Azad University, Miyaneh branch
4
Tabriz University
(*Email: mb.khorshidi@yahoo.com)
This experiment was carried out as a RCBD based factorial design with 18 treatments and 3 replicates during crop
Session 1.2
year 2005-2006 at Zanjan station, in order to investigate effects of boron and zinc foliar application on yield of two
rapeseed cultivars. Factors in the experiment were: spraying Zn sulphate in 3 levels including Zn 0 (no spraying), Zn1
(spraying with concentration of 0.003 m/v), Zn2 (spraying with concentration of 0.006 m/v) and spraying boric acid
including B0 (no spraying), B1 (spraying with concentration of 0.002 m/v), B3 (spraying with concentration of 0.004 m/v
) and the cultivars were V1 (‘SLM046’) and V2 (‘Talayeh’). Both sprayings were done in two stages (early stemming and
flowering). During the growth period usual cares were done and required information including plant height, number of
fertile and infertile capsules were recorded. While harvesting, TKW (thousand kernel weights) was determined in
addition to grain yield. Results obtained from variance analysis showed significant difference between the treatments,
meanwhile, maximum grain yield of rapeseed was obtained from treatment Zn0B1 with the cultivar SLM046 by the mean
of 4180 kg/ha. Therefore, regarding positive effects of B on grain yield and joint application of B and Zn on number of
fertile and infertile capsules and TKW and also high yield of cultivar V 1, it is recommended to use cultivar ‘SLM046’ and
joint spraying of boric acid and Zn sulphate with the concentrations of 0.0002 and 0.0003(m/v), respectively in early
stemming and flowering for climatically similar regions.
Interaction of Boric Acid and Zinc Sulphate Spraying on Some Quantity

Characters of Two Rapeseed Cultivars
M. Khiavi1, M.B. Khorshidi2*, M. Ismaeili1, A. Faramarzi2 and M. Farbudi2

1
Zanjan Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center
2
Islamic Azad University, Miyaneh Branch
(*Email: mb.khorshidi@yahoo.com)
This experiment was carried out as a RCBD based factorial design with 18 treatments and 3 replicates during crop
year 2005-2006 at Zanjan station, in order to investigate effects of boron and zinc by method spraying on yield and
some quantity characteristics of two rapeseed cultivars. Factors in the experiment were: spraying Zn sulphate in 3
levels including ZnO (no spraying), Zn1 (spraying with concentration of 0.003 m/v), Zn2 (spraying with concentration of
0.006 m/v) and spraying boric acid including B0 (no spraying), B1 (spraying with concentration of 0.002 m/v), B3 (spraying
with concentration of 0.004 m/v) and the cultivars were V1 (SLM046) and V2 (Talayeh). Both sprayings were done in two
stages (early stemming and flowering). During the growth period usual cares were done and required information
including were recorded. While harvesting in addition to grain yield and in rapeseed grains, oil and protein percentage,
concentration of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and B were measured as well. Results obtained from variance analysis showed
significant difference between the treatments, meanwhile, maximum grain yield of rapeseed was obtained from treatment
V1Zn0B1 by 4180 kg/ha. Joint spraying of Zn and B led to increase in their concentrations in plant seed that is important
from rapeseed fortification view point. Therefore, regarding positive effects of B on grain yield and joint application of
140
B and Zn on quality of rapeseed grain and also high yield of cultivar V1, it is recommended to use cultivar V1 (SLM046)
and joint spraying of boric acid and Zn sulphate with the concentrations of 0.0002 and 0.0003 (m/v), respectively in
early stemming and flowering for climatically similar regions.
Effect of Nitrogen on the Competitive Ability of Wheat and

Two Grassy Weeds
M.B.B. Prasad Babu* and Jay G. Varshney

(*Email: mbbprasadbabu@gmail.com)
Session 1.2
Crops generally require a relatively higher quantity of nitrogen compared with other crop nutrients for optimum growth.
The ability of cereals to suppress weeds may be improved by increasing the rate of application of nitrogen. However,
the effects on individual weed species differ. To study the effect of nitrogen on competition between wheat and two
prominent grassy weeds, viz. Phalaris minor and Avena ludoviciana, two field experiments one each with Phalaris
minor and Avena ludoviciana, were conducted in 1 m2 microplots during rabi season of 2005-06 at NRCWS, Jabalpur.
In each experiment, six treatments comprising three species combinations (wheat monoculture, weed monoculture,
mixture of wheat and weed in equal proportions) and two levels of N (20 and 120 kg N ha-1) were studied in a randomized
block design, with four replications. Different growth parameters including net photosynthesis ( Pn), leaf chlorophyll
content, plant dry weight, N uptake and grain yield were measured. The effects of N supply on competitive ability were
examined by calculating plant relative yields (RY), relative yield total (RYT), and relative crowding coefficient (RCC).
Lower N supply (20 kg N ha-1) significantly decreased plant dry weight of both wheat and weeds, but its impact was
more pronounced on weeds as compared to wheat. In contrast to P. minor, significantly higher amount of N was taken
up by A. ludoviciana in mixture with wheat than in monoculture at both the N levels. The grain yield of wheat was
significantly lower in mixtures mainly due to the significant decrease in number of ears/m row length. Competition due
to A. ludoviciana resulted in significantly higher reduction in the number of grains/ear of wheat at low N in comparison
to that of P. minor.
The RY (yield per plot in mixture / yield per plot in monoculture) of wheat in mixture with both the weeds was <1,
indicating that the effects of interspecific competition were greater than that of intraspecific competition. The values of
RCC (RYcrop / RYweed) indicate that wheat was more competitive than P. minor at high N, but less competitive at low N.
Avena ludoviciana is more competitive than wheat at both N levels. RYT [0.5 X (RYcrop+RYweed)] of A. ludoviciana was
close to unity at both N levels, indicating that both weed and wheat are competing for the limiting resources. The
photosynthetic rate (Pn) of wheat decreased significantly at lower rate of N application as well as competition due to
weeds. Photosynthetic rate of P. minor and A. ludoviciana decreased significantly in mixture at low N level than in pure
culture with higher N supply. A. ludoviciana exhibited higher values of Pn as compared to P. minor at both N levels
which again shows that A. ludoviciana was more competitive than P. minor with wheat. The sub-stomatal CO2
conductance (Ci) of wheat decreased in mixture with P. minor and increased with A. ludoviciana, indicating poor efficiency
of CO2 consumption of wheat in combination with the latter. There was no detectable effect of competition from the two
weeds on stomatal conductance (gs) of wheat. In contrast, the stomatal conductance of both the weed species reduced
significantly in mixtures at lower level of N supply.
The results of the study showed that the competitive ability of wheat in mixture with Phalaris minor can be improved
by the application of higher level of nitrogen (120 kg N ha-1).
141
Studies on Organic Farming of Rice-based Cropping Systems with

Respect to Nutrient Management
Mohamadreza Davari and S.N. Sharma

Rice-wheat cropping system is the key for India food security and self-sufficiency. Modern production system has
emphasized the widespread use of chemical like fertilizers and pesticides at higher levels over a prolonged period,
which has not only polluted our water and air but also deteriorated physical, chemical and biological properties of soil.
Our soils are now showing the sign of fatigue and decline in yields. Therefore, the use of organic sources for nutrients
needs, and biopesticides and bioinsectsides for controlling the pest and diseases under organic farming is an alternative
approach to potentially sustain the productivity of the cropping system. An experiment was, therefore, conducted to
evaluate the different combinations of organic manures, crop residue and biofertilizers for nutritional need of rice
Session 1.2
based cropping systems.

The experiment was laid out in strip-plot design with three replications. Treatments consisted of two cropping
systems (rice-wheat and rice-wheat-mungbean) in rows, and seven combinations of organic manures, crop residues
and biofertilizers [control, farmyard manure equivalent to 60 kg N ha-1 (FYM), vermicompost equivalent to 60 kg N ha-
1
(VC), FYM + crop residue @ 6 t ha-1 (CR), VC+CR, FYM + CR + biofertilizers and VC + CR + biofertilizers] in
columns. All the crops were grown with recommended package and practices.
Rice-wheat-mungbean cropping system gave higher productivity than rice-wheat cropping system. The combinations
of FYM + crop residue + biofertilizers and vermicompost + crop residue + biofertilizer gave highest productivity (8-9 t
ha-1) of rice-based cropping systems, and resulted in highest increase in protein content in rice grain (8.6-9.7%) and
wheat grain (11.5-12.6%) over control. These values were significantly higher than those were obtained with FYM or
vermicompost alone. The results of this study suggest that crop residues can be used in organic farming in rice-based
cropping system by blending it with FYM or Vermicompost.
Economic Analysis of Seed Spices under Good

Agricultural Practices
M.A. Khan, O.P. Aishwath and M.M. Anwer

National Research Centre on Seed Spices, Tabiji, 305 206, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India
Seed spices are important export-oriented commodities and about 10% of the production is exported in raw as well as
value-added products realizing foreign exchange worth Rs 362 crores. Few decades back, agriculture was mainly for
livelihood security. Now agriculture becomes a business like others. Hence, it is imperative to have study on cost of
production with per unit area, time and per unit investment. This study was undertaken to find out the benefit and cost
involved in improved agricultural practices using new technologies compared with traditional as well as among the
seed spices. To find out the high-value crop among the seed spices, comparative study on various seed spices
production and their cost:benefit ratio was studied. The highest benefit:cost ratio was found with cumin (Rs. 4.94)
subsequently coriander, ajowain and anise. By investing Rs.14800 in production of cumin crop, the net profit achieved
was Rs. 72,900/ha. However, least benefit:cost ratio was observed in dill (Rs. 0.41) with standard practices. The per
unit capital return was also highest with cumin (Rs. 5.94). The per day return was the highest with cumin (Rs.582/day)
followed by coriander, nigella and ajowain. The least per day return was with dill (Rs. 54). Seed spices have poor
germination percentage as well as initial growth of these crop is very slow. This causes rapid infestation of weed,
which cause significant yield loss. It has been observed that without weed management condition, the highest B:C
ratio of cumin shrinked as 1.75 against 4.94 with good agricultural practices. It shows that 65% loss occurred traditional
142
practice of cultivation and per time return was Rs. 203/day. Under the improper disease management condition, the
B:C ratio of cumin was 1.36 against the 4.94. The return per rupees investment was 2.36 under traditional management
of wilt, and with current disease management technology the per Re return goes to Rs. 5.94. The per day return also
followed the similar trend as that of per Re investment. Hence, it can be concluded that among the seed spices cumin
is the high-value crop and under improper disease and weed management conditions 40-65% loss of crop occurred.
Therefore, it is recommended that good agriculture practice should be adopted by the growers to achieve highest
returns per unit area and time.
Conservation of Organic Carbon in Organic Cropping Systems
P. Devasenapathy, S. Thiyageshwari and P.M. Shanmugam
Session 1.2
Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, 641 003, Tamil Nadu, India
Organic farming is a production system, which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetically compounded fertilizers,
pesticides, growth regulators and livestock feed additives. To the maximum extent possible, organic farming systems
rely upon crop rotation, crop residues and animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes etc. to
maintain soil productivity and tilth to supply plant nutrients and to control insects, weeds and other pests. Organic
farming is an approach for sustainable and productive agriculture.
Organic carbon build-up in the soil is one of the prime objectives of organic cropping systems. Different organic
and inorganic farming packages were tried in various treatment combinations as T1: 50% N as inorganics + 50% N as
FYM; T2: 100% N as FYM + bio-compost + neem cake; T3: T2 + intercrops (green chillies +onion)- (bengal gram
+coriander)-(baby corn +vegetable cowpea); T4: T2 + agronomic practices for weed and pest control; T5: 50% N as
FYM +bio fertilizer + phosphobacteria ; T6: T2+ biofertilizer + phosphobacteria; T7: 100% NPK + secondary and
micronutrients based on soil-test values; T8: dummy plot as T2. The field experiment was conducted in the mixed
black calcareous soils (Periyanaickenplayam series) of the garden land of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
with green chillies-bengal gram-baby corn cropping sequence.
The soils were analyzed for organic carbon and the SOC status was monitored for the past three years from 2004
to 2007. Among the treatments, application of 100% N as FYM + bio compost + neem cake + intercrops registered the
highest SOC status of 0.72%, which is 22% increase over that in 2004. This could be due to the addition of organic
matter through FYM, bio-compost, neem cake and additional leaf litter from the intercrops. The application of 100% N
as inorganics recorded the lowest SOC of 0.46% registering an increase of 18.2%.The yield of the test crops was
comparable with the package of 100% N as FYM +bio-compost +neem cake + intercrops as that of 100% inorganic
fertilizers.
The results of this study revealed that the continuous adoption of organic farming packages will improve the
organic carbon status of the soil in the long-run and promote conservation of soil health with comparative yield advantage
and quality produce of the crops raised.
143
Assessment of Spatial Variation of Groundwater Pollution in Parts of

Western Delhi: A Geo-statistical Approach
Partha Pratim Adhikary1 and H. Chandrasekharan2

1
Central Soil & Water Conservation Research & Training Institute, Research Centre,
Datia, 475 661, Madhya Pradesh, India
2
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, New Delhi, 110 012, India
Over-exploitation and unscientific management of ground water resources in the National Capital Territory (NCT) of
Delhi, India have posed a serious threat of reduction in quantity and deterioration of quality. The objective of the study
was to determine the spatial variation of groundwater quality in part of Western Delhi. The groundwater samples from
93 locations were collected and the important cations (sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium), anions (bicarbonate,
chloride, sulphate and nitrate), heavy metals (iron, manganese zinc and copper), EC and pH were measured. Specific
Session 1.2
irrigation water quality criteria like Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) and Mg:Ca
ratio were computed from the above chemical parameters. The spatial variability maps were generated using geo-
statistical concepts. The variability map using the ordinary kriging method showed that all the groundwater quality
parameters exhibited an increasing trend from the northern and western part of the study area towards the southern
and eastern part, and the concentration was highest at the southernmost part of the study area. The cation chemistry
suggests that the groundwater is of Na+ > Mg +> Ca+ >K+ type and the anion are as Cl- > HCO3- > NO3- > SO4=. Using
the main contributing hydro-chemical parameters (EC, chloride, RSC and SAR), interpreting them through Arc GIS®
and USDA classification revealed three classes of groundwater as class I (good), class II (moderate) and class III
(poor) quality. From the multi-criteria map it is found that groundwater of 92.6% (175.01 km2) area are of poor quality,
4.4% (8.32 km2) are of moderate quality and only 3.1% (5.86 km2) are of good quality. The heavy metal pollution in
groundwater is discrete in nature and mostly concentrated at few pockets. The multi-criteria map of the heavy metals
revealed that groundwater of 19% (35.91 km2) of the area is coming under good quality. The moderate and unsafe
zones are of 80% (151.2 km2) and 1% (1.89 km2) of the study area. Thus, the assessment of spatial variation of
groundwater pollution is useful for proper management of groundwater resources and minimizing the pollution.
Assessment of Soil Nutrient Status under Arecanut Cropping Systems in

Dakshina Kannada District - A Case Study
Parashuram Chandravanshi, N. Srinivas, K.M. Rajesh, K.V. Veerendrakumar and H. Hanumanthappa

Krishi Vigyan Kendra, (D.K.) Kankanady, Mangalore, Karnataka, India
Available soil nutrient status was assessed under arecanut cropping systems in Dakshina Kannada district of coastal
zone of Karnataka (zone - 10). Study was carried over two seasons in the year 2007-08 at pilot site of adapted village
i.e., Panaje of Puttur taluk, Dakshina Kannada district, Karnataka state, from Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kankanady,
Mangalore. Soil samples at random were collected in arecanut orchards of the study area twice in the year (Sept-2007
and May-2008) for two seasons at two depths (0-30 cm, 30-60 cm).
Data on soil pH over two seasons indicate that the soils under study were acidic and non-saline with pH ranging
from 4.22 to 6.58 and 4.32 to 6.68 at surface and sub-surface layers with low water soluble salts. Organic carbon
content of the surface soils was higher (0.53 to 0.64%) than that of sub surface soils (0.48 to 0.55%) with decreasing
trend over the seasons. Available nitrogen contents of the arecanut plantation soils are generally low to medium,
Surface soil sample contents of N were higher (180-420 kg/ha.) than that of sub surface soils (175-409 kg/ha.) with
decreasing trend over the seasons. Majority of the study area depicted low P status that ranged from 3.36 33.49 and
3.00 to 30.71 kg/ha. at surface samples and sub surface samples respectively. Majority of the area was low in available
144
‘K’ content that ranged from 73 to 237.50 and 68 to 223 kg/ha at surface samples and sub surface samples
respectively with decreasing trend over the season. Hence integrated nutrient management approach is the only
solution to maintain the sustainability in production system of the study area.
Assessment of Surface and Groundwater Resources of Jhunjhunu

District, Rajasthan
R.K. Goyal
Session 1.2
A detailed survey has been carried out to assess the surface and groundwater resources of Jhunjhunu district (Raj).
Groundwater level in the district is generally deep to very deep with average water level of 60.5 m below ground level
(bgl). About 77% area has water level >40 m bgl. The water level in younger alluvium is relatively shallower with
average of 40.63 m bgl. Quality of ground water in the district is generally good with an average EC value of 1.885 dS
m-1. About 63% of the district area has EC value <2.0 dS m-1. About 63% of the district area has EC value <2.0 dS m-
1
. Quality is much better in the Younger alluvium with average EC value 0.780 dS m-1. Exceptionally higher rate of
ground water depletion in the range of 7-15 m year-1 (2001-2006) have been observed in Sephraguar, Sior, Mewara,
Dudwa (Khetri Tehsil), Lambijat and Kuthaniya (Buhana tehsil) villages. Average rate of ground water level decline in
district is 1.46 m year-1 (2001-2006). The discharge from the wells is highly variable and vary from negligible to 120
m3day-1. The net ground water availability, existing total draft for all uses, present ground water balance and stage of
ground water development was 274.61 mcm, 525.84 mcm, (-) 251.18 mcm and 191.5% respectively for the whole
district.
The surface water resources mainly consist of Johads, nadis and Kunds. Presently these resources are in very
bad shape due to encroachment in catchments and influx of sewage water in Nadis near settlements. Siltation and
consequently reduction in capacity were also observed in nadis. There are total 1571 nadis located in different hydro-
morphological units with a total storage capacity of 67.35 mcm. Out of total 1571 nadis 334 (21.26%) are of large
storage capacity (>50,000 m3), 449 (28.58%) of medium capacity (25,000-50,000 m3), and 788 (50.16%) are of small
capacity (<25000 m3).
Some area in Jhunjhunu district lies under hills, so district has many large and small streams originated from these
hills. Potential of these streams can be harnessed through watershed / Index catchment approach. In this respect 18
watersheds and 12 index catchments covering an area of 1631.96 km2 were delineated. These watersheds can be
treated with Nala bunding, contour bunding and other measures for soil and water conservation, and groundwater
recharge.
System of Rice Intensification – a Viable Alternative for Conservation of

Inputs in Irrigated Rice Cultivation ?
R. Mahender Kumar, K. Surekha, Ch Padmavathi, V.R. Babau, S. Ravichandran, A. Ram Prasad,

S.P. Singh and B.C. Viraktamath
Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India
(Email: kumarrm213@gmail.com)
Rice is the staple food for more than half of the world’s population, and thus it plays a pivotal role in food security of
many countries and more so in India. Enhancing the rice production from the current 95 million t to the projected
145
demand of 125 mt by 2025 is a gigantic task. Plateuing yield trend of high-yielding varieties, declining resources
like land and water and highly expensive and non-availability of labour are some of the major challenges which are
confronting our efforts to enhance rice production. Protection of the fragile environment and our mother earth from
degradation is also to be kept in mind while enhancing the production and productivity of rice. Among above stated
constraints water scarcity appears to be a major challenge affecting rice production across the globe. Water, which
was abundant earlier, will become scarce and scarce in the years to come. Therefore, future rice production
depends on how we improve the water-use efficiency of the rice crop. Production of “more rice crop from every drop
of water” would be the guiding principle for the future rice production.
System of Rice Intensification (SRI), a resource conservation technology based on principles of better
management of crop with defined practices to enhance production productivity of rice is gaining momentum in India
with its introduction in more than 50% of rice growing districts. The SRI method was evaluated in comparison to
integrated crop management and conventional transplanting method at about 25 locations spread across the
country from 2004- 2007 during past 4 wet seasons. The results obtained over the last 4 years indicated that SRI
method gave an yield increase of 7-42% over conventional method, irrespective of soil type and location. However,
Session 1.2
SRI could not perform well at Kapurthala and Malan over the years due to specific local situations. There is a scope
for saving irrigation water (25-30%), besides improving growth and production. However, water saving could be
attributed to reduction in water losses through percolation/seepage/runoff / evaporation that are common with
flooded rice culture. Increased productivity is associated with plant growth, chlorophyll content at vegetative stage,
higher productive tillers per unit area, yield attributes and higher grain output. The field trials carried out at 5
locations during wet season indicated lesser incidence of stem borer, gall midge and whorl maggot as compared to
conventional method. The leaf folder incidence is higher in SRI. With little external application of chemicals, the soil
microbes stimulated by the root exudates from the dense rhizosphere and aided by good supply of oxygen,
become active in releasing nutrients for uptake by rice plant. An interactive and synergisitic influence of soil and
micro flora was observed to increase brown plant hopper and stem borer in SRI fields. On the contrary, traditional
flooded rice culture receiving exogenous chemical inputs for the supply of plant nutrients and for suppressing pests/
diseases and depleted oxygen levels due to flooding together have negative impacts on soil micro flora, biological
populations and their activity. Socio-economic studies and frontline demonstrations have indicated the superiority
of SRI as a sustainable method of rice cultivation. The absence of transplanting shock, quick crop establishment
and vigorous growth not only lead to higher yields but also reduced crop growth by 7-10 days. SRI method recorded
an yield of (0.98 – 2.4 t/ha) 9.4 kg /ha/day to 21.7 kg /ha /day increase of per day yields over normal practice in clay
loamy soils during wet season of 2005 and 06 at DRR farm.
Hence it is concluded that SRI method has the potential not only to increase the grain yield but also productivity
with reduced duration of the crop, water, seed, pesticides and fertilizer. Further due to use of organic manures, it
enhances the soil health in long run and sustains the productivity. If at least 5% of rice irrigated area in India ( 1 mha)
converted to SRI method of cultivation will increase the production by 1 mt ( 1 t/ha benefit) apart from reducing the use
of critical inputs especially seed ( 90%), water ( 20-30%). The total factor productivity of rice will be enhanced with
adoption of SRI across the country in feasible areas.
Response of Mineral Gypsum on Soybean, Mustard and Sugarcane

Crops in Different Districts of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh
Rajeew Kumar, Vineeta and Ramphool Puniya

Soybean, mustard and sugarcane crop was grown in districts of Nainital (Soybean), Bareilly and Udhamsingh Nagar
(mustard) and Rampur and Bareilly (sugarcane) at farmer’s field. In treated plots 100 kg mineral gypsum ha-1 was
applied in addition to recommended package of practices in respective crops.
146
On the basis of average, the highest response of mineral gypsum application was obtained in mustard followed
by soybean and sugarcane. In soybean cop, the mineral gypsum application responded better and increased the
yield and yield contributing characters such as number of pods/plant, number of grains /pod, test weight and yield.
On an average 14.70% higher yield of soybean was obtained due to mineral gypsum application.
Like soybean, in mustard, higher number of siliquae/plant, number of seeds/siliqua, test weight and seed yield
were obtained in mineral gypsum treated plot compared to control. The yield response in mustard varied from 12.05 to
20.90%. The application of mineral gypsum increased the number of milleable cane as well cane yield. In sugarcane,
on an average, 4.26% yield response was obtained due to application of mineral gypsum.
Response of Mineral Gypsum on Rice Varieties in Farmer’s Fields of

Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh
Session 1.2
Ramphool Puniya, Rajeew Kumar and Vineeta
An experiment was conducted on farmer’s field in four districts (Rampur, Bareilly, U.S. Nagar and Nainital) with an
objective to find out the response of mineral gypsum in rice crop and its different varieties. In each district, four farmers
were selected during kharif season of 2007 and 2008. Recommended package of practices was adopted by each
farmer other than this, mineral gypsum was applied in treated plots at the rate of 100 kg ha-1. Soil of experiment site
was slightly alkaline in reaction, rich in organic carbon and medium in available P and K.
The highest no. of panicles/m2 was obtained with variety ‘PD–4’ in treated plots and ‘HKR–147’ in control plots,
while variety ‘Pusa Basmati–1’ has recorded lowest no. of panicles/m2. Variety ‘Pusa Basmati–1’ obtained highest no.
grains/panicle in treated plots and variety ‘PD–12’ in control plots while Govind variety had the lowest no. of grains/
panicle. Mineral gypsum application increased grain yield of rice crop as highest grain yield was obtained with ‘PD–4’
and ‘PD–12’ variety in treated and control plots, respectively while the lowest grain yield was obtained with variety
‘Pusa Basmati–1’. ‘PD–4’ responded 16.37% increase in yield due to mineral gypsum application. Application of mineral
gypsum resulted higher panicles/m2, grains/panicle and grain yield over control.
Soil Solarization Effect on Weeds and Yield of

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea )
R.K. Bhatt1*, B.J. Patel, A.M. Patel, V.K. Bhatt and C.G. Patel
Department of Agronomy, Sardarkrushinagar, Dantiwada Agricultural University,
Sardarkrushinagar, 385 506, Gujarat, India
1
Centre for Watershed Management, Participatory Research & Rural Engineering,
Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar, Gujarat, India
(*Email: rikeshbhatt@yahoo.co.in)
A field experiment was conducted during the Kharif season of 2006 at Sardarkrushinagar.. The soil of experimental
field was loamy sand, low in organic carbon (0.18%), medium in available phosphorus (38.9 kg ha-1) and medium in
available potassium (185.1 kg ha-1). Significantly the higher mean maximum soil temperature was realized with TPE
0.025 mm for 45 days i.e. 56.4 0C and 52.6 0C which were 10.5 0C and 8.8 0C higher over control at 5 and 10 cm of soil
147
depths, respectively. This helped in effective controlling of weeds with better release of nutrients particularly available
N, P2O5 and K2O in soil. The minimum count of total weed was recorded in weed-free followed by soil solarization with
TPE 0.025 mm for 45 days along with one hand weeding and the same solarized treatment alongwith quizalofop-p-
ethyl @ 25 g ha-1 at 20 DAS. These treatments also followed the same trend for dry weed biomass. Pod (2548 kg ha-
1
) and haulm (4875 kg ha-1) yields of groundnut were higher under TPE 0.025 mm for 45 days alongwith one hand
weeding, but there were at par with TPE 0.025 mm for 45 days along with quizalofop-ethyl @ 25 g ha-1 and weed-free.
Studies of Nutrient Uptake, Growth and Yield of Pearlmillet

(Pennisetum glaucum) and Soil Organic Carbon Change as
Influenced by Water and Nitrogen in Soil
Session 1.2
R.K. Singh, Debashis Chakraborty* and R.N. Garg

(*Email: debashis@iari.res.in)
Pearlmillet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) is one of the major cereal grain crops grown extensively in the arid and semi-
arid regions of India. Despite having very high production potential, the yield of this crop is low due to low soil fertility
and scarce water availability in these regions. Field experiments have been conducted during kharif 2003 and 2004 to
study the growth, nutrient uptake and yield of pearlmillet under different combinations of irrigation water and nitrogenous
fertilizer treatments. In both the years, days of maturity increased with increasing nitrogen doses in irrigated plots.
Application of nitrogen induced higher LAI, but the difference in 80 and 120 kg N ha-1 levels was only found to be
significant. There was steady increase in biomass from 30 to 40 DAS during both the seasons. Then from 40 to 50
DAS, there was a steep increase in biomass accumulation. Again after 50 to 60 DAS, the increase was not so steep as
that of earlier growth period. The steep increase in biomass during 30 to 50 DAS was due to the maximum leaf area
development, during which there was maximum photosynthetic activity. Thereafter, the decrease was due to reduction
in leaf area development. The increase in biomass accumulation was faster in irrigated plots than rainfed plots and it
increased with nitrogen treatment. Among the different treatments, highest biomass (1080 g m-1) was recorded under
irrigation and 120 kg ha-1 treatment compared to 742 g m-1 in control treatment.
The test weight increased significantly with successive N levels, but the increment was pronounced only up to 40
kg N ha-1 in rainfed and up to 120 kg N ha-1 in irrigated treatment. Grain yield varied significantly with nitrogen application
rates as compared to those plots that received no N. Mean yield in irrigated plots was also significantly higher than the
un-irrigated plots. Nitrogen content in pearlmillet grain was more in irrigated plots and also increased with N doses but
no such relations could be established with irrigation as well as nitrogen doses for P and K. During both the seasons,
the soil organic carbon (SOC) increased at harvest in comparison to that at sowing of the crop, in surface (0-0.15 m)
and sub-surface (0.15-0.30 m) layers; whereas no change in SOC content was found in the deeper (0.30-0.45 and
0.45-0.60 m) layers. The increments were more in irrigated plots as compared to rainfed plots, possibly due to more
use efficiency of the fertilizers. It can be concluded that response of pearlmillet was optimum at a dose of 40 kg N ha-
1
under rainfed and 120 kg N ha-1 under irrigation in the specific soil and agro-climatic conditions of the study area.
148
Rainwater Management In-situ through Vegetative Barriers for

Resource Conservation and Productivity Enhancement in Ravine
Lands of Gujarat, India
S.P. Tiwari and R.S. Kurothe

Research Centre, Datia, Madhya Pradesh, India
In-situ management of rainwater particularly in fragile rainfed ravine system plays key role in conserving precious
soil resource as well as to sustain crop yields, as these marginal lands above gully heads are subjected to severe
water erosion and frequent moisture stresses during crop growth period. Long-term average annual soil loss (25
years) from such a cultivated fallow plot having 2-3% slope representing mixed calcareous hyperthermic typic
Session 1.2
ustifluvents soils of Mahi ravines in Gujarat, India has been recorded to the tune of 14.1–22.2 t ha-1 yr-1. This
accelerated further to 45.5 t ha-1 yr-1 when slope increased to 6%. Most of the agricultural lands in ravine tract of the
state fall in this slope range and suggest the vulnerability of the system and warrant for resource conservation
techniques on such lands for sustained production.
Vegetative barrier technology involving two fodder species ( Dichanthium annulatum and Cenchrus ciliaris),
three commercial grass species (Vetiveria zizanioides, Eulaliopsis binata and Saccharum munja) and one medicinal
plant species (Aloe barbadensis) were tested during four consecutive years with pigeonpea-based monocropping
system on 2% sloppy reclaimed agricultural lands of Mahi ravines to assess their effectiveness in controlling runoff,
soil and nutrients losses as well as on production.
Closely spaced staggered paired rows of each vegetative barrier were established across slope with pigeonpea
crop (cv ‘BDN-2’) at 11 m spacing through root slips. Recommended agronomic practices along with fertilizers usage
(18 kg N and 46 kg P2O5 ha-1 ) followed. The annual analysis of trend of soil retained by barriers suggested that atleast
two rainy seasons are required to establish an effective vegetative barrier in the agro-climatic conditions of the region.
Vegetative barriers significantly reduced the runoff (19.7 to 50.1%) and soil loss (51.1 to 80.3%) over control.
Rainwater retained in situ by different barriers over control varied from 116.9 to 297.5 mm and sediment from 7.0 to
11.0 t ha-1 yr-1 indicated the usefulness of barriers in conserving the resources.
Dichanthium annulatum barrier was found most effective, which produced least runoff (32.4%) and soil loss (2.7 t
ha-1) and N, P and K losses (5.9 kg N, 0.8 kg P and 4.0 kg K ha-1) against 65.0% runoff, 13.7 t ha-1 soil loss and 22.5
kg N, 2.9 kg P and 7.9 kg K ha-1 losses, where no vegetative barrier was planted. It means that there was a net saving
of 32.6% in runoff and 11.0 t ha-1 in soil loss by just having two rows of barriers across the slope. In fact vegetative
barriers usually compete with crop for light nutrients and moisture, especially in the dry habitats. However, practically
no adverse effect was noticed in pigeonpea yield (16.7 qha-1) grown with D. annulatum barrier as against 17.0 qha-1
without barrier. In addition 26.9 qha-1 air dry good quality fodder was obtained from the barrier.
The study highlighted that in-situ management of rainwater can successfully be done through vegetative barrier
technology in rainfed farming system at low cost. This would lead to conservation of precious natural resources and
sustained production in the ravine region of Gujarat, India.
149
Effects of Uranium on Growth Performance of Cowpea
Brijesh Pathak and Archana pathak

Baba Farid Institute of Higher and Foreign Studies, Muktsar, Bathinda, Punjab, India
Plant physiologists have shown that uranium is a necessary nutrient for plant growth. Effects of different concentrations
(12.5, 25, 50, 100 and 200 uM) of uranyl acetate conditioned with garden soil on growth parameters cowpea were
studied. The shoot and root length, shoot and root fresh weight and shoot-root dry weight showed significant negative
correlation with the applied uranyl acetate concentrations. Yellowing of leaves was recorded in all the higher
concentrations.
In the present studies, the effect of uranium concentrations on root elongation reduction at least in part is due to
elevated uranium concentration present in high treatment concentrations. Roots seem to be particularly affected both
in length and biomass as they accumulated large amount of uranium in relatively shorter period of time than shoots.
Session 1.2
The growth of whole plant and plant parts is frequently employed as an index to monitor the effect of stressful
environment. Among plant parts, roots are the organs, which have the first and direct contact with noxious substance,
and show rapid and sensitive changes in their growth characteristics. Plants require many essential elements for their
growth which are mainly absorbed from the soil by the root system and transported to the upper parts of plant. Uranium
concentration in any plant exceeding 2 ppm may be indicative of a geologically favourable situation for uranium
deposit. Plants readily take up elements essential for plant growth when substrate concentrations are low (deficient)
whereas plant uptake of non-essential elements is generally constant in this substrate concentration range.
Production and Evaluation of Phosphocompost on Groundnut (Arachis

hypogaea) in Acid Soil of North-East India
Subhendu Bandyopadhyay*, Partha Sarathi Patra and Asok Choudhury
Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
P.O. Pundibari, 736165, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India
(*Email: subhenduubkv@gmail.com)
The investigation was carried out to evaluate the optimum dose of rock phosphate to prepare phosphocompost
from green biomass of local weeds and the locally isolated PSB, and to study how far the phosphocompost was able
to substitute the chemical source of phosphate in terms of growth and yield of groundnut in acid soil (soil pH 5.1) of
north-east India. Percentage of total organic carbon, total nitrogen and total potash significantly decreased with the
increase in rock phosphate levels of 2.5, 5 and 7.5 over the control at all stages of composting. Inoculation with locally-
isolated PSB and Trichoderma viridii significantly increased total nitrogen, phosphorus and organic carbon of the
compost. The C : N ratio exhibited a decreasing trend with the increase in rock phosphate level and with the microbial
inoculation at subsequent stages of decomposition. On the basis of laboratory analysis, phosphocompost (Grade-I)
contained highest phosphate percentage (7.21% total P) with lower percentage of organic matter and was prepared by
adding 7.5% P2O5 through rock phosphate and phosphocompost (Grade II) contained 3.85% total P and was prepared
by adding 2.5% P2O5 through rock phosphate and they were applied to groundnut. Phosphorus 150% through
phosphocompost grade-I recorded the highest value in terms of number of nodules plant-1, nodule weight plant-1 150%
phosphocompost grade-I improved the pod yield by 15.46% over 100% recommended dose through sole application
of chemical fertilizer through single super phosphate. Soil pH and available phosphorus were the highest in 150%
phosphocompost grade-I. Total phosphorus uptake by plant increased consistently with crop age up to 90 days after
sowing, wherever phosphocompost grade-I was applied in higher doses (100% and above) over sole application of
chemical fertilize,r and the picture was more prominent with the aging of crop. So far as the treatment 150%
phosphocompost grade-I is concerned, the most pronounced positive result was reflected in the yield of groundnut
due to the coincidence of P demand of the crop and releasing of maximum amount of available P to the plants.
150
Effect of Urea, Vermicompost and Pendimethalin on Nitrogen

Transformation in Lateritic Soil
C.S. Parida, Suchhanda Mondal and Sumana Roy1

Institute of Agriculture, Visva-Bharati, Sriniketan, 731 236, West Bengal, India
1
G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, 263 145, Uttarakhand, India
A laboratory experiment was conducted at Siriniketan, West Bengal to study the effect of pendimethalin on nitrogen
mineralization from urea and vermicompost in lateritic soil. The treatments comprised two levels of pendimethalin (0
and 1 kg a.i. ha-1) and two nitrogen sources (urea and vermicompost). A control was also there for both the levels of
pendimethalin. After application of all the treatments, the soil was incubated for 8 weeks in test tubes maintaining the
soil moisture level at field capacity. The soil was taken out and was analyzed for NH 4-N, and NO3-N contents on 0, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8th week of incubation. The contents of NH4-N were decreased with time. Urea treatments contained
Session 1.2
higher amounts of NH4-N compared to others. Application of pendimethalin caused reduction in NH4-N contents during
the initial periods. After 6th week, the inhibitory effect of pendimethalin was not observed. NO3-N contents, however,
increased with time and urea treatments contained higher amounts of NO3-N. Pendimethalin application increased the
NO3-N contents. Total mineral nitrogen was decreased with time and urea treatments contained higher amounts of
total mineral nitrogen. Although total mineral nitrogen contents in soils receiving vermicompost were lower compared
to that of urea, there was a steady release of mineral nitrogen from vermicompost throughout the incubation period. On
the other hand, a fluctuating trend of the release of mineral nitrogen was found in control and urea treatments. There
was a net mineralization of nitrogen from soils receiving urea. In soils receiving vermicompost as nitrogen source,
there was a net immobilization of nitrogen without application of pendimethalin. However, with the application of
pendimethalin, there was a net mineralization of nitrogen.
Microbial Population is the Mirror of Soil Health
Trilok Nath Rai*, Kedar Nath Rai and Janardan Yadav

(*Email: tnrai_78@rediffmail.com)
Pot experiments were conducted with 12 treatments comprising recommended dose of NPK (120, 60 and 60 kg ha-1)
in addition to 10 kg N through various organic sources, viz. FYM, carpet waste (CW) pressmud (PM) digested sludge
(DS) and poultry manure (PyM), followed by alone treatments of these organic wastes equivalent to 120 N ha-1 in an
incubation study at BHU, Varanasi during 2005-06. The content of N in above organic sources was 0.5, 12, 1.0%, 1.0
and 2.5%, respectively. Microbial population were maximum under alone treatments of above five organic sources of
nutrients. Maximum build-up of microbial population in the soil was recorded in the pots treated with FYM (T 8) and with
pressmud, respectively. At different days of incubation the microbial population was maximum recorded at 60 days of
incubation but in the case of bacterial population, maximum activity was recorded at 90 days of incubation.
151
Permanent Raised-Bed Planting of Pigeonpea-Wheat System

on a Typic Ustochrept: Effect on Soil Fertility, Yield, Water and
Nutrient Use Efficiency
V.K. Singh and M.S. Gill

Project Directorate for Cropping Systems Research, Modipuram, Meerut, 250 110, Uttar Pradesh, India
The major constraint, which restrict pigeonpea productivity in Indo-Gangetic plains is poor crop stand, which is
often vitiated due to water stagnation or poor drainage, leading Phytophthora blight infestation. Permanent raised
bed (PRB) system has been proposed as a means of efficient water use, improving soil properties and reducing
cost of establishment. We, therefore, conducted field experiments at Modipuram, India, for 3 consecutive years
(2001-02 to 2003-04), to study the conservation of soil organic carbon, improvement in nitrogen and phosphorus
Session 1.2
use efficiency, increase in system yields and economics through PRB of pigeonpea-wheat system in place of
conventional flat bed (FB). Pigeonpea grown on raised-bed had lower plant mortality (4 to 7%) and higher grain yield
(1.l6 to 2.1 t ha-1) compared with FB (26 to 36% and 1.3 to 1.8 t ha-1, respectively). Growing pigeonpea on PRB had
greater N and P recycling (11-23% N and 8-14% P) through its residue (root, stable and leaf litter). The economic
optimum doses of fertilizer N and P for wheat on PRB were smaller (128 kg N and 28 kg P ha-1) than those on FB
(152 kg N and 31 kg P ha-1), owing to increased N and P supply, greater N and P use efficiency, and a better crop
growth environment under PRB. The use-efficiency of applied N and P fertilizers in wheat, measured as agronomic
efficiency and apparent recovery, was increased with use of N and P fertilizer at recommended rate, and also under
PRB. Compared to flat bed, a statistically significant (P < 0.05) positive effect of PRB on root mass density of
wheat was also recorded. Growing wheat on PRB saves irrigation water (9.5 to 11.2 ha- cm ) and improved irrigation
application efficiency (9.5 to 13.5%) over FB. The post-wheat harvest nitrate N (NO3-N) at 20-40 cm soil depth in
plots fertilized with 120 or 180 kg N ha-1 was greater under FB (23%) than that of PRB, suggesting PRB may help
to minimize NO3-N leaching to deeper soil layer. After three crop cycles, soil Olsen P content in 0-20 and 20-40 cm
depth was greater compared to initial but the magnitude of increase was greater under PRB. The economic analysis
indicates that the net economic returns of pigeonpea-wheat system were greater under PRB, which requires less
specific energy compared to FB grown crop.
Effect of Resource Management Practices on Soil Erosion and

Productivity in KG-4-1 Watershed, The Nilgiris
V. Selvi*, D.V. Singh, A.K. Sikka1 and B. Chandran

Udhagamandalam 643 004, Tamil Nadu, India
1
National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA), NASC Complex, Dev Prakash Shastri Marg, Pusa,
(*Email: sel_121968@yahoo.co.in)
The study was conducted under National Agricultural Technology Project on Watershed Technology in KG-4-1
watershed belonging to Kundha catchment in the Nilgiris. This watershed is subjected to heavy soil erosion due to
the cultivation of annual vegetables on ill maintained outward sloping bench terraces. However, for the Nilgiris, it has
been recommended that the cultivation of annual crops should be followed on inward sloping (2.5%) bench terraces
with proper drainage and riser protection. It is given to understand that initially bench terraces in this area were
made as per this recommendation. With the passage of time, these terraces have become steeply outward sloping
due to faulty management practices. In order to address this problem, demonstrations on land and nutrient
management were conducted at farmers’ fields in KG-4-1 watershed. Land management treatment in the form of
152
renovation of steeply outward sloping bench terraces was carried out in the areas identified as critically erosion
prone, viz. one acre, 1.5 acres, 5 acres and 5 acres during the years 2001, 2002, 2003 and 2004, respectively.
Nutrient management practices for potato crop were also demonstrated at the sites of the renovated terraces to
counter the apprehension of the farmers that crop yield will be reduced due to the exposure of sub-soil. It has been
found that there was substantial reduction in runoff (20.5 to 67.0%) and soil loss (29.5 to 80.3%) and also increase
in crop yield due to terrace renovation. Further increase in potato yield (97.5%) was observed when proper nutrient
management was integrated with terrace renovation. The results of this study suggest that integration of proper
resource management practices can lead to a crop production system in the Nilgiris which is not only more
productive but also protective in nature.
Effect of Mineral Gypsum on Wheat Crop in Different Districts of
Session 1.2
Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh
Vineeta, Rajeew Kumar and Ramphool Puniya

Department of Agronomy, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
A field experiment was conducted in hills as well as plain areas covering Nainital, Dehradun, Pauri Garhwal,
Almora, Bageshwar, Rampur, Bareilly and Haridwar districts to find out the effect of mineral gypsum on wheat crop
in different district of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh. ‘PBW-373’ variety was grown with recommended package of
practices in the farmer’s field. In addition to this, 100 kg mineral gypsum ha-1 was applied in treated plots. Soil of
experiment site was slightly alkaline in reaction in plains, while slightly acidic in hills, rich in organic carbon and
medium in available phosphorus and potassium.
The highest no. of spikes/m2 was recorded in district Pauri Garhwal, no. of grains/spike in Nainital district and
grain yield in Deharadun districts while lowest no. of spikes/m2, grains per spike and yield was recorded in district
Almora. On an average, the highest response of mineral gypsum was recorded in Almora district.
In plain areas, the highest yield and yield attributing characters were recorded in Rampur district. The lowest no.
of spikes/m2 was recorded in Haridwar district and grains/spike as well as grain yield were recorded in Bareilly district
while highest yield response was obtained in Haridwar and Bareilly districts, and lowest in Rampur. On an average,
crop response was better due to mineral gypsum application in plains in comparison to hill areas.
Straw Mulch, Irrigation Water and Fertilizer N Management Effects on

Yield, Water Use and N Use Efficiency of Wheat Sown after Rice in the
Indo-Gangetic Plains of India
Yadvinder-Singh1, H.S. Sidhu1, Manpreet-Singh1, Balwinder-Singh2, Amanpreet Kaur1 and J. Blackwell2

1
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, Punjab, India
2
International Centre of WATER for Food Security, Charles Sturt University,
Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia
Recent developments of machinery (Happy Seeder) for simultaneously mulching rice straw while sowing wheat provide
the option of surface-applied rice residue rather than burning. Field experiments were conducted during 2007-08 to
study the effect of straw, irrigation and nitrogen management on yield, soil water content, water productivity and
153
nitrogen-use efficiency in wheat following rice. Treatments in the first experiment were-rice straw much and no
mulch as main plots, and subplots consisted of six irrigation schedules. Second experiment included 10 different
N management strategies in mulched wheat. Fourteen on-farm experiments were also conducted comparing three
rates of N applied wheat sown into rice residues. Straw mulch lowered the maximum soil temperature by 1.5-20C
and increased the minimum soil temperature by 0.5-1.0 0C. In on-farm trials, direct drilling of wheat into rice
residues increased average wheat yield by 15.6% over farmer’s practice of straw burning, followed by conventional
tillage. Different irrigation schedules had marked effect on wheat yield but no interaction effect was observed
between mulch and irrigation schedule. On silt loam, wheat yield ranged from 3150 kg to 4340 kg ha-1 under
irrigation schedules and mulching increased the yield by 6% compared with no mulch. Total number of irrigations
was not influenced by mulching except in soil matric potential (SMP)-based irrigation scheduling on silt loam,
where mulched wheat needed only two irrigations compared with three under non mulched treatment. But on sandy
loam, wheat received a similar number of irrigations under non-mulched and mulched treatments. While minimum
applied water productivity of 1.1 kg ha-1 m-3 was observed under non-mulched plots with irrigation based on SMP on
silt loam, maximum water-use efficiency of 2.1 kg ha-1 m-3 was noted in mulched plots receiving irrigation at crown
rot initiation stage only. Similar results were obtained on sandy loam. The use of SMP-based approach showed that
Session 1.2
with the application of straw mulch, time of first irrigation can be delayed by 7-10 days compared to no mulch as
mulch reduces soil evaporation and conserves soil moisture. Wheat direct drilled into rice residues responded to
the application of 120 kg N ha-1. Application of 24 kg N ha-1 as DAP at sowing and top dressing of remaining half N
(as urea) in two equal splits before first and second post-sowing irrigations gave maximum yield and N-use efficiency
in mulched wheat.
Target Oriented Irrigation Scheduling of Agricultural Crops with Micro-

Irrigation Systems
Biharilal R. Patel 1, Kuldeep B. Patel2* and Madhusudan M. Parikh1

1
Department of Soil & Water Engineering, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari, 396 450, India
2
Water Resources Engineering & Management Institute, M. S. University of Baroda,
Samiala, 391 410, India
(*Email: kbp_9999@yahoo.co.in)
In the new era of agriculture where everything is limited (water, land, and other inputs), the target oriented agriculture
must be adopted in India. Considering every drop of water or each g of grain is precious for the mankind, any kind of
wastage of water or loss of crop production can not be afforded. The existing irrigation schedules of agricultural crops
recommended by the scientists either under- or over- irrigate the crops many times resulting in either a lot of wastage
of water or reduction in crop production. Also owing to their too many problems, farmers do not adopt these irrigation
schedules as such as they neither result in increase in crop production nor save any water. Looking to the preciousness
of water and importance of increasing crop production, the need of the hour is to reschedule the existing irrigation
recommendations keeping in view the problems faced by the irrigators. An attempt has been made in this paper to sort
out the irrigation problems faced by the irrigators with microirrigation systems and also to solve these problems by
rescheduling existing irrigation schedules keeping in view the targets of either the water saving or crop production. The
target irrigation scheduling also aims at providing flexibility to the irrigators for irrigating their crops.
154
Opportunities and Challenges for Water and Nutrient Management in

Conservation Agriculture Farming Systems of Asia and Africa
Christian H. Roth1*, Merv Probert2, Jack McHugh3 and Greg Hamilton4

1
Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research ACIAR, Canberra, Australia
2
CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, Brisbane, Australia
3
University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia
4
Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia, Perth, Australia
(*Email: roth@aciar.gov.au)
Building on the positive experiences in Brazil, Australia and the USA, over the past decades conservation agriculture
(CA) has seen increasing acceptance by farmers in Asia, and to a lesser extent in Africa. Research in these evolving
systems has generated a considerable amount of data and knowledge about the contribution of CA to increased water
Session 1.2
and nutrient use efficiency. In order to more systematically evaluate how effective the different CA systems in Asia and
Africa, we propose a framework to broadly categorise the main types of CA systems, before we take a water and
nutrient balance approach to discuss the performance of these systems with respect to key water and nutrient (mainly
N) fluxes. The outcome of this analysis is that while there are major opportunities for a range of CA systems to increase
water and nutrient input efficiencies, there are also some long-term environmental risks. In addition, we argue that
there is a discrepancy between a large proportion of the body of work and the theoretical benefits in water and nutrient
savings on the one hand, and the reality on the ground on the other hand.
We attempt to illustrate this in a greater depth by presenting the results of two case studies. One study looks at the
role of residue retention in the long-term evolution of organic matter in no-tillage systems for a range of semi-arid
rainfed soil and climate conditions. Using a cropping systems modeling approach, we demonstrated that there are
significant interactions between water and nutrients that determine whether CA in these conditions will or will not
contribute positively to soil health and crop productivity as well as water and nutrient use efficiency. Importantly, failure
to recognize that most semi-arid systems are in fact low-input, mixed crop-livestock systems with low levels of residue
retention, can lead to an overestimation of organic matter build-up and water and nutrient efficiencies to be gained
from CA in these farming systems.
In the second case study, we investigated irrigated, permanent raised bed maize-wheat systems in Pakistan and
China. We demonstrated that measured and modeled savings in irrigation water can potentially lead to salt accumulation
in the beds. Managing the salt build-up is relatively straight forward, but requires maintaining higher leaching fractions,
at the expense of the water savings and with the risk of higher N leaching rates. This in turn diminishes the perceived
benefits of CA in these conditions.
Conservation and Management of Rainwater for Improving Productivity

of Nagpur Mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) in
Central India
P. Panigrahi, A.K. Srivastava and A.D. Huchche

National Research Centre for Citrus, Nagpur, 440 010, Maharashtra, India
(Email: pravukalyan@rediffmail.com / pra73_nag@yahoo.co.in)
Nagpur mandarin, a well-known citrus cultivar in India is extensively grown on around 4.85 lakh hectares area under
dry sub-tropical climate of central India. The crop is basically irrigated by bore well or dug well through basin or furrow
irrigation method in this region. For the last few years, water level in bore-wells and dug-wells has declined alarmingly
creating water shortage in summers for sustaining the crop. Thus, keeping the above problem in view, a field experiment
155
was carried out at Nagpur during 2003 to 2007 to develop an integrated approach to conserve rainwater and reuse
the harvested rainwater through tank in efficient way in Nagpur mandarin. Various in-situ conservation treatments
viz., continuous trenching, continuous bunding, staggered trenching between the rows across the slope (4.2%) and
control (without any soil and water conservation treatment) were evaluated. The continuous trenching produced the
best response conserving 38% runoff, 32.28% soil, 32.44% N, 27.67% P, and 28.95% K over control, besides 18%
higher fruit yield (17.2 kg plant-1) with better fruit quality over control. Moreover, rainfall runoff from 3.2 hectares was
harvested in a tank of size (35m×35m×3m) and successfully recycled at the best level of irrigation i.e., 60% of
alternate day cumulative pan evaporation (PE) through drip irrigation with black linear low-density polythene mulch
of 100 micron thickness. Overall, by adopting continuous trenching and tank-based drip irrigation with black plastic
mulch, the tree growth and fruit yield were enhanced over control (without irrigation).
Effect of Zinc Sulphate Application and the Cyclic Incorporation of

Session 1.2
Cereal Straw on Yields, Tissue Concentration and Uptake of Zinc by

Crops and Availability of Zinc in Soil under Rice-Wheat Rotation
Rama Dwivedi* and P.C.Srivastva

G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, 263 145, Uttarakhand, India
(*Email: rama_soil@indiatimes.com)
Field experiment was carried out during 2005-2006 and 2006-2007 to evaluate the effect of zinc sulphate application
and the cyclic incorporation of cereal straw on the yield, the tissue concentration and uptake of Zn by rice and wheat
crops and the availability of Zn in soil. There was a serious attack of brown spot disease on 2 nd year rice crop especially,
in control plots. Application of 25 kg ZnSO4 ha-1 to 1st year rice crop increased the grain yield of rice by 24.3 and 56.3%
over control during 1st and 2nd year, respectively. Among the different combinations of ZnSO4 levels applied to 1st year,
rice crop and the levels of cyclic incorporation of cereal straw, the application of 25 kg ZnSO4 ha-1 to 1st year rice crop
+ cyclic incorporation of 1.5 t straw ha-1 increased the grain yields of rice by 21.4 and 87.4% over control during 1st and
2nd year, respectively. In 1st year, the grain yield of wheat crop was not significantly influenced by the different treatments.
However, the treatment receiving the application of 25 kg ZnSO4 ha-1 to 1st year rice crop + cyclic incorporation of 6.0
t cereal straw ha-1 gave the highest grain yield of 2nd year wheat crop which was 22.2% higher over the control. In both
the years, the straw yields of wheat were not significantly influenced by the different treatments. In both the years, the
application of ZnSO4 to 1st year rice crop or along with the cyclic incorporation of different rates of cereal straw
increased the concentration of Zn in flag leaves, grains and straw of rice; the effect was more pronounced with the
application of 25 kg ZnSO4 ha-1 to 1st year rice + cyclic incorporation of 1.5 t straw ha-1. For the wheat crop, a significant
increase in the concentration of Zn in the plant tissues, especially in the grains was noted with the application of 25 kg
ZnSO4 ha-1 to Ist year rice crop + cyclic incorporation of 1.5 t straw ha-1. The cyclic incorporation of 1.5-3.0 t cereal
straw ha-1 helped in ensuring a better availability of ZnSO4 applied to 1st year rice crop to the subsequently grown
crops. The disease score of brown spot in 2nd year rice crop had a negative correlation (r = -0.582, significant at P =
0.05) with the DTPA extractable soil Zn after the harvest of 1st year wheat crop.
156
Evaluation of Land Configuration, Methods of Irrigation and

Intercropping for Improving Water Productivity in Spring
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.)
D.S. Rana
(Email: dsrana554@yahoo.com)
A field experiment was conducted with the objective to enhance the productivity of spring sunflower and reducing
the irrigation water requirement through changing land configuration, methods of irrigation and intercropping with
cowpea and mungbean. The experiment was conducted during spring seasons of 2005 and 2006 in a split-plot
design assigning combinations of land configuration and methods of irrigation to main plots and intercropping
Session 1.2
systems to the sub-plots. ‘MSFH 1’ sunflower as base crop, and ‘Pusa Vishal’ mungbean and ‘Pusa Komal’
cowpea as intercrop were sown in the third weak of February during each year of experimentation. Three land
configurations viz. flat bed planting at 60 cm normal spacing and paired-row sowing at 45/75 cm, ridge planting at
60 cm spacing and raised bed and furrow land configuration (75/45 cm) with paired row planting at 45 cm spacing
on the raised bed, received bed irrigation in flat bed planting, regular and alternate furrow irrigation in ridge planting,
bed irrigation and furrow irrigation in raised bed and furrow land configuration (75/45cm), respectively. Crop received
5 irrigations including irrigation just after dry sowing of the crop for germination. In ridge and raised bed planting,
intercrop was sown in the furrow.
Results indicated that bed irrigated raised-bed and furrow land configuration (75/45 cm) being at par with furrow-
irrigated raised bed and furrow land configuration and flat bed planting at 60 cm inter-row spacing recorded significantly
higher seed yield of sunflower and sunflower seed equivalent than other methods of planting and irrigation. Methods of
irrigation imposed on different land configurations caused marked variation in irrigation water requirement. Furrow
irrigated raised bed and furrow land configuration (75/45 cm) recorded 23.7% saving in irrigation water over flat bed
planting without reduction in seed yield. This system of land configuration and irrigation also recorded the lowest weed
dry weight. However, saving in the irrigation water requirement under regular as well as alternate furrow irrigated ridge
and furrow planting compared to flat bed planting was at the cost of marked reduction in the seed yield of component
crops. Methods of planting and irrigation caused marked variation in irrigation water use efficiency. Alternate furrow
irrigation recorded the highest irrigation water use efficiency, closely followed by furrow-irrigated raised bed and furrow
land configuration (75/45 cm). Cowpea and mungbean as inter-crop recorded the highest seed yield under flat bed
paired-row planting at 45/75 cm. Intercrops caused no reduction in the seed yield of sunflower compared to sole stand.
Contrary to this, sunflower seed equivalent yield was significantly higher due to intercropped stand than sole stand.
Intercropping system reduced weed dry weight significantly over sole stand. It can be concluded that in spring season,
sunflower cultivation on furrow irrigated raised bed (75/45 cm) can save irrigation water to the tune of 20-25% without
reduction in yield compared to flat bed planting. Intercropping of mungbean or cowpea with sunflower were found to
improve productivity.
157
Productivity, Profitability and Sustainability of Integrated Nutrient

Management Practices in Yam (Dioscorea esculenta) + Maize
(Zea mays) Intercropping System
B. Behera1, S.K. Mohanty, P.K. Mohapatra1, D. Swain and D. Mishra1

All India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture, Orissa University of Agriculture and
Technology, Phulbani, 762 001, Orissa, India
1
Present address: Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, OUAT, Bhubaneswar, 751 003, Orissa,
India
(*Email: bbehera1@rediffmail.com)
Field experiments were conducted at Phulbani, Orissa for 5 years during 2002-03 to 2006-07 to optimize integrated
Session 1.2
nutrient management (INM) practice for yam + maize (1:2) intercropping system under rainfed condition for higher
productivity, profitability and sustainability. Yam (100% population) and maize (45% population) received nutrient dose
of 80 kg N + 26.2 kg P + 66.7 kg K and 36 kg N + 7.9 kg P + 15 kg K ha-1, respectively. Nutrient sources included
various proportions of chemical fertilizer (CF), farmyard manure (FYM) or green leaf (GL). Integrated nutrient management
practices influenced yield of both yam and maize significantly during all the years. Integration of 50% chemical fertilizer
with 50% N as FYM proved significantly better than all other nutrient management practices and registered maize
green cob yield of 3.81 t ha-1, yam tuber yield of 8.81 t ha-1 and yam tuber equivalent yield of 10.97 t ha-1 and net return
of Rs.14,815 ha-1. This was followed by 50% chemical fertilizer + 50% N as greenleaf with maize green cob yield of
3.45 t ha-1, yam tuber yield of 8.35 t ha-1, yam tuber equivalent yield of 10.2 t ha-1 and net return of Rs. 10,112 ha-1. Both
the INM practices were equally and highly sustainable with SI value of 0.57. After five years of experimentation, INM
practices and Farmers’ Practice (FYM only) recorded higher organic carbon content and available P in soil as compared
to application of chemical fertilizer only. Application 50% chemical fertilizer (40 kg N + 13.1 kg P + 33.3 kg K and 18 kg
N + 3.9 kg P +7.5 kg K ha-1 for yam and maize, respectively) coupled with 50% N as FYM (11.6 t ha-1) or greenleaf
(Glyricidia leaves @ 14.5 t ha-1) may be recommended for sustained higher productivity and profitability of yam +
maize (1:2) intercropping system under rainfed conditions.
Site-specific Nutrient Management of Wheat in Rice-Wheat Cropping

System with Particular Reference to Soil Fertility, Nutrient Uptake and
Targeted Yield
Asha Sahu and A.P. Singh

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, 221 005, Uttar Pradesh, India
Site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) is a concept which aims at the maintenance of soil fertility and nutrient
supply in an optimum amount for sustaining soil health and crop productivity through real-time management. SSNM
strives to enable farmers to dynamically adjust fertilizer use to optimally fill the deficit between the nutrient needs of the
high yielding crops and nutrient supply from the naturally occurring indigenous sources such as soil, organic amendments,
crop residues, manures and irrigation water. The SSNM approach does not specifically aim to either reduce or increase
fertilizer use; instead it aims to apply nutrients at optimal rates and times to achieve high yield and high efficiency of
nutrient use by the rice crop leading to high cash value of the harvest per unit of fertilizer invested. Rice (Oryza sativa
L.) (R) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) (W) are now grown in sequence on the same land in the same year over 26
Mha of South and East Asia to meet food demand of a rapidly expanding human population. Focussing to this problem,
this paper reveals the results of laboratory analysis of the soil and plant samples drawn from experimental plots of a
158
long-term field experiment, being carried out under All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Long-term
Field Experiments (LTFE) at the research farm of the Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, with an aim to (i) develop
suitable nutrient supply system involving primary, secondary and micronutrients for wheat in R-W system to achieve
targeted yield and fertility status at a specific site, (ii) study the effect of long-term application of fertilizers on the crop
production and soil fertility, and (iii) determine nutrient uptake by wheat under site-specific nutrient supply system. The
experiment is being conducted on randomized block design with four replications, each having twelve treatments.
Accordingly, the experimental field has been divided into forty-eight equal-sized plots. Some of the treatments (S, B,
Cu, Mn and Zn) were applied to rice crop and their residual effect was studied on wheat. The results indicated that the
yield target of 6.95 t ha-1. in rice and 3.72 t ha-1 in wheat (Rice-wheat cropping system) could be achieved by the
combined application in kg ha-1 of primary i.e. N, P2O5, and K2O (150:30:120); secondary i.e. S (40); and micronutrients
i.e. borax (5), CuSO4 (20), MnSO4 (20) and ZnSO4 (40).
Session 1.2
Allelopathic Effects of Cynodon dactylon on Wheat (Triticum aestivum)
Germination, Growth and Yield
M. Yarnia1, E. Farajzadeh2, V. Ahmadzadeh2, N. Nobari2, M.B. Khorshidi3

1
Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz branch, Iran
2
Islamic Azad University, Malekan branch
3
Agricultural and Natural Resources Center of East Azarbaijan, Tabriz, Iran
(*Email: yarnia@iaut.ac.ir)
Because of abundance and importance of Cynodon dactylon population in wheat fields two experiments were conducted
in a factorial in three replicates in labratory and green house in 2007. Different parts extract of Cynodon dactylon in five
levels (control, leaf, shoot, root, and total parts extract) and different extract concentrations in 4 levels (1:5, 1:10, 1:15,
and 1:20) were tried. Data showed that effects of Cynodon dactylon parts extracts and interactions on some attributes
were significant. All extracts decreased germination. Root and total parts extracts showed highest prohibition. Comparison
of means showed that 1:5 extract concentration decreased the radicle and plumole length, seedling dry weight,
germination percentage and velocity by 81.38, 79.37, 73.75, 97.33 and 70.31%, respectively. Field studies showed
significant effect of Cynodon dactylon parts and concentration extract and interactions. Increasing extract concentration
from 1:20 to 1:5 decreased all the attributes significantly. Comparison of mean values showed that decrease in rate of
plant height, spike length, leaf nomber, pedancle length, biomass, seed nomber, 1000 kernel weight, and yield in 1:5
to control was 53.88, 40.42, 52.80, 63.85, 82.84, 88.63, 76.10 and 95.84%, respectively. Based on this experiment, it
can be said that Cynodon dactylon by producing allelopatic chemical materials drasticaly decreased germination,
growth and yield of wheat. Allelopathic negative effects of Cynodon dactylon in wheat fields by suitable cultivate
management beside sustainable agriculture principles not only decreased weed competition but also decreased the
weed growth and production.
Input Use and Resource Conservation in Barley
A.S. Kharub* and R.P.S. Verma

Directorate of Wheat Research (ICAR), Kunjpura Road Karnal, 132001, Haryana, India
(*Email: askharub@yahoo.com)
Despite area reduction in barley cultivation, productivity gains through research efforts on varietal development and
production technology have been satisfactory. Use of conservation tillage has been increasing over the past several
159
years in different crops including barley. It may change the soil physical environment resulting in higher productivity
and quality. Input use efficiency in new barley varieties is also influenced by seed, water, nutrients etc. There is a
stagnation in productivity of barley in India due to decrease in effective nutrient supply, organic matter status, and
imbalanced use of other inputs and less potential existing genotypes. Integrated application of nutrients has manifold
beneficial effects as this besides acting as the storehouse of nutrients, improves soil health, and activates and increases
microbial population. Keeping above facts in view, the field experiments on resource conservation and input use in
barley were conducted during 2007-08 at DWR, Karnal.
The performance of four varieties, two each of 6-row (RD 2035 and RD 2552) and 2-row (DWRUB 52 and RD
2668) were evaluated in three tillage systems (zero, reduced and conventional tillage). Data revealed that there was
no significant difference in yield in different tillage options, though the highest yield was obtained in conventional tillage
followed by reduced and zero tillage. Three varieties (RD 2035, RD 2552 and DWRUB 52) were at par in different
tillage options and were significantly superior to RD 2668. The interaction effect was not significant. Both 6-row varieties
were at par in different tillage options but among 2-row varieties, DWRUB 52 was superior under all tillage options.
Although earhead/m2 were more in low yielding variety RD 2668 but more grains/ ear in other high yielding varieties
Session 1.2
resulted in more grain yield. The hectolitre weight was not affected by tillage options but it was higher in DWRUB 52 as
compared to other varieties. The percent bold grains were found to be higher in zero tillage as compared to conventional
tillage, conversely, the thin grains were less in zero tillage and more in conventional. Protein content was found to be
more under reduced tillage and 2-row varieties were superior under reduced and conventional whereas all varieties
were at par under zero tillage.
Experiment on integrated nutrient supply in malt and feed barley to increase productivity on sustainable manner
was conducted with seven nutrient treatments in two varieties one each of malt (DWRUB 52) and feed (RD 2552)
barley. Results showed that the highest yield was observed in the treatment where 100% inorganic fertilizer was
applied. It was closely followed by 75% inorganic fertilizer application + 5 t FYM ha-1 and both were statistically at par.
The 100% organic fertilizer application gave 15% less yield as compared to 100% inorganic nutrient supply. Both the
varieties (DWRUB 52 and RD 2552) were at par in yield under all the treatments of nutrients application. Tillers m -2
were found to be more under inorganic and integrated use of fertilizers as compared to organic nutrient supply whereas
1000 grain weight was higher under 100% organic fertiliser application. The bold grains were found to be more under
integrated nutrient supply.
Productivity and Quality of Cereals under Organic and Integrated

Nutrient Supply in Sub-tropical Environment
A.S. Kharub*, S.C. Gill and R.P.S. Verma

Directorate of Wheat Research (ICAR), Kunjpura Road, Karnal, 132 001, Haryana, India
(*Email: askharub@yahoo.com)
Conservation and sustenance of organic matter remains the mainstay of soil and crop quality in the 21st Century. In
the wake of the negative fallouts of the high-tech farming based on costly and ecologically disruptive chemical fertilizers
and pesticides, the concept of sustainable farming is picking up. It is, therefore, pertinent to arrest decline of soil
organic matter to fight against the unabated soil degradation. In view of poor adoption of green manures and limited
availability of farmyard manure and composts, use of other easily and locally available organic matter prepared from
municipal waste and bio-organic waste of fruits, vegetables and leaves, sugarcane factory compost and vermicompost
needs to be encouraged. With this background, field experiments were conducted at the Directorate of Wheat Research,
Karnal with an objective to increase organic and integrated use of nutrients in wheat, rice and barley and to enhance
the soil fertility.
Three sources of organics FYM, SOM (sugarcane waste compost) and Bhudan (municipal waste compost) and
three combinations of organic + inorganic fertilizer (100+0, 75+25, 50+50) along with 100% inorganic fertilizer were
tried in wheat (PBW 343). Similar wheat yields were obtained in all the plots, irrespective of the nature of organic
160
source. The wheat yield decreased following increased substitution of N through organic source. The decrease in
yield to the extent of 13.0, 26.0, and 38.5% was obtained when 50, 75 and 100% N was substituted through organic
fertilizers, respectively. Earhead m-2 which decreased with organic fertilizers, resulted in lower yield. The 100%
deep placement through the supergranules or neem coated urea and addition of biofertilizer/crop residues/ FYM
produced rice and wheat equivalent to 100% inorganic fertilizer applied in splits as per recommendation. In case of
coarse rice, the yield was 20-25% less with full organic compared to inorganic fertilizer whereas no yield reduction
was recorded in basmati rice and yield was at par under organic and inorganic fertilization in the succeeding year.
In case of barley, where low input is required, 45kg N ha-1 + 5 t FYM ha-1 and 30 kg N ha-1 + 5 t FYM ha-1 yielded
at par with 100% inorganic fertilizer but was significantly higher as compared to 100% organic application in the
initial years. On long-term basis, 100% organic application might produce better results due to low crop requirement
like basmati rice. Among cereals, quantity and quality of wheat was inferior to inorganically produced wheat whereas
basmati rice and barley were comparable in both yields and quality.
Effect of Different Utilization Methods on Gum Yield and Regeneration
Session 1.2
in Order to Conserve Ferula assa- foetida
habitats, in Iran
Barat Ali Gholami* and Ali Gazanchian

Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center of Mashhad. P. B. 91735-1148, Iran
(*Email:gholamiam@yahoo.com)
Ferula assa-foetida is a medicinal and industrial plant and occurs extensively in arid and semi arid areas of
Khorassan province. The gum is extracted for medicinal industry and its export is considerable. At the present
time, area under F. assa-foetida is limited due to over-exploitation and lack of suitable methodology. The objective
of this study was to evaluate the effects of different cutting methods (conventional, cut of crown part, concave and
surface) and harvest intervals (5, 10 and 15 times) on gum yield in two different habitats (Chalpo in Kashmar and
Mazar in Bajestan). The experiment was conducted using factorial combinations as completely randomized design
with three replicates on 10 plants for each treatment. The results showed that significant differences occurred
among cutting methods and harvest intervals (p<0.01). The highest and lowest percentages of gum harvested were
17.76 and 9.77, respectively under concave and surface methods in Mazar habitat.
The gum yield was related to harvest interval; the minimum and maximum were 6.35 and 20.93 g per plant for
5 and 13 harvests, respectively. In Kashmar, the highest (14.94 g) and the lowest (7.56 g) gum yields were measured
under cutting by conventional and concave methods, respectively. Also, the gum yield averaged 3 g for 5 harvests and
16.5 g for 15 harvests. The results suggest that conventional harvest must be forbidden because of the death of the
target plants whereas other methods tested are better with respect to suitable yield and production.
Conserving Water in Rice Cultivation - Its Potential and Prospect under

Looming Crisis of Water Resources
A. Ghosh1, K.S. Rao1, O.N. Singh1, R.N. Dash1, P. Samal1, M.P. Pandey1, A. Kumar1 and D. Zhao2
1
Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, 753 006, Orissa, India
2
IRRI, Philippines
(*Email: riceghosh@yahoo.com)
Agriculture, as on today, advances from traditional wisdom towards future conviction of food, nutritional and
environmental security. Food security in our country is challenged by the dwindling natural resources. Looming
crisis of water, one of the important resources, seems to become the major threat in future of rice cultivation. In
161
absolute terms, annual withdrawals of water are the greatest in Asia, where agriculture accounts for 86% of total
withdrawals as compared with 38% in Europe and 49% in North and Central America. In Asia, irrigated rice occupying
75% of total Asian rice production consumes 50% of total amount of fresh water diverted for irrigation. In India, the
ultimate irrigation potential feasible is estimated to be 140 Mha; while, irrigated rice ecologies occupying an area of
20.5 m ha contributes 70% of the total rice production. Concurrently, water requirement demand for irrigation would
be increased from 48.9 to 57.6 Mha-m in 2010 to 61.9 to 73.4 Mha-m in 2025. As a consequence, agriculture is
likely to suffer from 10-15% reduction in available water by 2025. This reduction will have a far-reaching consequence
on the future of rice production. Therefore, it is imperative to formulate viable strategies to conserve water in rice
cultivation.
Both genetic and agro-management appear to become the prime concern for efficient utilization of water in rice
cultivation. Studies both at on-station and on-farm locations have been carried out to identify genotypes performing
better at limited water condition under (1) aerobic and (2) alternate wetting and drying (AWD) cycles of irrigation.
Advance yield trials (AYT) of short to medium duration (100 to 120 days) genotypes showed some entries to be
promising like B6144F-MR-6-0-0, WR-3-2-6-1, IR78877-181-B-1-2, IR-74963-262-5-1-3-3, IR-72176-140-1-2-2-3, IR-
Session 1.2
71700-247-1-1-2 and IR-72875-94-3-3-2. Observational yield trials (OYT) of genotypes were also carried out and got
encouraging results with some genotypes SCP-24-62 and IR 81432-B-B-116 under limited water condition.
Improved crop management constituted mainly with nutrient management, irrigation management and weed
management were also developed. Nitrogen application using SPAD device was found to be effective resulting into N
use efficiency of 40.4 kg grain/kg N. Studies on water management showed that in aerobic rice, 40-50% water could
be saved at the expense of 30 to 60% yield decline while providing irrigation at -20 and -40 kPa soil moisture tension.
In alternate wetting and drying cycles of irrigation, 20-25% water could be saved at the expense of 14-21% decline in
yield. In both the cases, some genotypes responded better to deficit water stress. Studies on weed management in
aerobic rice showed that significantly higher grain yield of 4.45 t ha-1 could be obtained while applying pre-emergence
herbicide followed by manual weeding at 5 weeks.
The paper describes production technology of aerobic and AWD cycles of irrigation in conserving water and its
judicious utilization for sustaining the rice and its water productivity.
Effect of Vermicompost and Inorganic Nutrients on Productivity of Baby

Corn-based Cropping Systems and Soil Health
Ravi Chandra Sharma and Pabitra Banik*

Agricultural and Ecological Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, 203 Barrackpore Trunk Road,
Kolkata, 700 108, West Bengal, India
(*Email: pbanik@isical.ac.in )
A two-year (2006–2007) experiment was conducted at Agricultural Experimental Farm, Indian Statistical Institute,
Giridih, Jharkhand, India. An attempt was made to investigate the direct and residual effect of vermicompost (VC)
alone and the combination of VC and inorganic source of nutrients on production of baby corn-baby corn/rice-baby
corn cropping systems. Another aspect of our study was to assess the effect of the above on soil health. Vermicompost
(@ 10 t ha-1) was applied only to rabi crop with fertilizer (V1) and without (V0) fertilizer treatments. The fertilizer treatments
were namely, absolute control (F0), 50% recommended dose (RD) of NPK applied only to rabi baby corn (first) (F1),
100% RD of NPK applied only to rabi baby corn (F2), 150% RD of NPK applied only to rabi baby corn (F3), 50% RD to
both rabi baby corn and kharif baby corn/rice crops (F4), 100% RD of NPK applied to both rabi baby corn and kharif
baby corn/rice crops (F5), and 150% RD of NPK applied to both rabi baby corn and kharif baby corn/rice crops (F6). The
experiment was carried out in a split-split plot design having vermicompost treatments in main plot and fertilizer treatments
in sub-plot and replicated thrice. Each sub-plot was further divided into two sub-sub plots to accommodate the kharif
crops (baby corn and rice). Baby corn was grown on residual soil fertility after harvesting the kharif baby corn/rice
crops.
162
Application of vermicompost with or without RD of fertilizers had a significant effect on the production of baby corn
cob yield as well as on grain yield of rice and their yield-attributing characters. In both the seasons and years significant
improvement was noticed on soil available nitrogen, mineralizable phosphorus, exchangeable potassium, urease
activity, acid phosphatase activity, microbial biomass, soil respiration, cation exchange capacity, and organic carbon,
but negative impact was recorded on soil reaction and electrical conductivity due to the application of vermicompost.
Recommended dose of fertilizers supplied along with vermicompost proved to be superior to without vermicompost
treatments. On the contrary, in the second year, there was a significant depression in yield of both rabi and kharif crops
when grown under 150% NPK along with vermicompost applied to rabi and kharif crops. Baby corn grown on residual
soil fertility under 150% NPK applied to both rabi and kharif crops with vermicompost treatment registered maximum
cob yield. Maximum soil residual fertility values in term of available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium were recorded
under the same treatment.
Session 1.2
Integrated Nutrient Management for Sustainable Crop
Production and Soil Health
Subhash Chand*, Tahir Ali and J.A. Wani

Division of Soil Science, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agriculture Sciences and Technology of Kashmir,
Shalimar Campus, Srinagar, 191 121, Jammu and Kashmir, India
(*Email: subhashphd2002@yahoo.com)
The continuous and imbalanced use of fertilizers adversely affects the sustainability of agricultural production besides
causing environmental pollution. The major issue for the sustainable agricultural production is the management of soil
organic carbon and rational use of organic inputs such as animal manure, crop residues, green manure, sewage
sludge and wastes known as integrated plant nutrient resource management. However, since organic manure cannot
meet the total nutrient needs of modern agriculture, hence integrated use of nutrients from fertilizers and organic
sources will be the need of the time. The possible reasons for the apparent decline in returns from the increased
fertilizer applications include imbalanced N, P and K application, increasing deficiencies of secondary and micronutrients,
increased intensity of cropping together with changes in crop sequences e.g. cereal-cereal rotations in place of cereal-
legume rotations, and decrease in soil organic matter status of soils.
Balanced fertilization supplemented with organic nutrient sources helps in overcoming the hazards of nutrient
depletion and of mining soil fertility. Integrated nutrient management (INM) provides excellent opportunities to overcome
all the imbalances besides sustaining soil health and enhancing crop production. The concept of INM is the maintenance
or adjustment of soil fertility and of plant nutrient supply to an optimum level for sustaining the desired crop production
through optimization of the benefits from all possible sources of plant nutrients in an integrated manner. The INM as
defined by Harmsen, here differs from the conventional nutrient management by more explicitly considering nutrients
from different sources, notably organic materials, nutrients carried over from previous cropping seasons, the dynamics,
transformations and interactions of nutrients in soil, interaction between nutrients, their availability in the rooting zone
and during growing season in relation to the nutrient demand by the crop. In addition it integrates the objectives of
production, ecology, environment and is an important part of any sustainable agricultural production system
163
Effect of Different Soil Fertilizing Systems (Chemical, Organic

and Integrated) and Barvar Phosphate Biofertilizer (BPB) on
Seed Yield, Essence Content and P Concentration in Black
Cumin (Nigella Sativa L.)
Asghar Rahimi1, Majid Puryousef2, Mohadeseh Shamsaddin Saied1 and Azin Daha1
1
Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Agriculture College,
Vali-Asr Rafsanan University, Rafsanjan, Iran
2
Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Agriculture College, Zanjan University, Zanjan, Iran
A greenhouse experiment was carried out to investigate the effects of chemical fertilizers including N and P (Chemical
fertilizing system), animal manure (Organic fertilizing system), combined use of manure and chemical fertilizers
Session 1.2
(Integrated fertilizing system) and Barvar phosphate biofertilizer (BPB) on seed yield, essence content and seed P
concentration in black cumin at the Agriculture Research Center, Vali-Asr Rafsanjan University, Rafsanjan, Iran. The
results showed that the BPB inoculation significantly increased the seed yield, essence content and seed P concentration.
The results also showed that seed yield and essence content were significantly affected by fertilizing systems. Animal
manure and combined use of manure and chemical fertilizers resulted in a higher seed yield, essence content and P
concentration than solitary application of chemical fertilizer. Totally, the most seed yield (4.58 g pot-1) and essence
content (0.2%) were observed under integrated use of animal manure and chemical fertilizer with BPB inoculation.
Tillage and Nutrient Management in Napier-Bajra-Hybrid + Leucaena

leucocephala alley-based Food-Fodder and Fuel Production under
Diversified Cropping Systems
Banwari Lal Suman

(Email: blsuman2004@gmail.com, blsuman@igfri.ernet.in)
The present investigation was carried out under field conditions at the Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute,
Jhansi for three years 2003-06. Twenty treatment combinations were tried in the experiment using 5 cropping systems
i.e. CS1 sorghum (fodder) + pigeonpea, CS2 sorghum (fodder)–chickpea, CS3 sorghum + cowpea (fodder) – wheat,
CS4 sorghum (fodder)-berseem + mustard (fodder)and CS5 sorghum + cowpea (fodder)- oats (fodder) and four depths
of cultivation and application of nutrients viz. AN1-shallow cultivation with 100% nutrients through fertilizers, AN2
shallow cultivation with 50% nutrients through fertilizer + 50% nutrients through organic (FYM), AN3 deep cultivation
with 100% nutrients through fertilizers, and AN4, deep cultivation with 50% nutrients through fertilizer + 50% nutrients
through organic (FYM) in split-plot design with three replications. In addition to this napier-bajra-hybrid (IGFRI-3) was
also planted at 8 m interval and alley of Leucaena at 2 m for continuous supply of green fodder for the livestock.
Treatment CS3 i.e. sorghum + cowpea (fodder)–wheat was significantly superior to other treatments and produced
maximum green (100 t ha-1) as well as dry (47.1 t ha-1) from one cut of sorghum + cowpea and three cuttings of napier-
bajra-hybrid. The yield levels of other treatments were low. Further, this rotation gave a sum of 537458 MJ ha-1 output
in terms of energy in three seasons. Further, CS4 rotation gave a sum of 523640 MJ ha-1 energy, CS2 (421190), CS5
(484655) and least energy produced by CS1 (393322 MJ ha-1). In terms of economic yield and net profit CS3 rotation
gave a sum of Rs. 54373 ha-1 followed by CS2 (Rs. 47480 ha-1) CS1 (Rs. 44213), CS4 (Rs. 43915), and least in CS5
(Rs. 37355). However, maximum B:C ratio of 2.34 was observed in CS1 that was followed by CS2 (2.27), CS3 (1.88),
CS5 (1.19) and least in CS4 (1.14). Among the depth of cultivation and application of nutrients AN3 produced highest
164
output and profit (497237 MJ ha-1 energy and net profit of Rs. 50319 that was followed by which AN2. AN4 gave
486302 MJ ha-1 energy with 50425 Rs ha-1 net profit and least in AN1 produced 478018 MJ ha-1 energy and net profit
of Rs. 46938. The highest energy output -input ratio may be attributed to more output of energy with less input
32.59 in CS2. In the existing crops/cropping systems input energy was tested as per requirement and tractor-
drawn machinery was used to complete the operations. It was found that field was prepared with the help of tractor
drawn farm implements like disc harrow, cultivator for shallow tillage and mould board plough for deep tillage on
research farms as well as on farmers fields. The FYM was transported and mixed in the soil on tractor-drawn four
wheel trailer. Fertilizers were applied with the help of ferti-seed drill. However, harvesting was partially done with the
help of machines and partially with the help of manual labourers. Transplanting of napier-bajra-hybrid were transplanted
in rows at 8 m interval and 1 m spacings and subabool (Leucaena leucocephala) in between rows at 2 m interval
with the help of manual labourers. Spreading of FYM was done manually due to lack of farm tools. Mechanization
of irrigation - still on research farm as well as on farmers fields flood irrigation - is popular that otherwise requires
saving of water and modern tools/implements.
Session 1.2
Water Saving Planting Techniques for Summer Groundnut (Arachis
hypogaea L.) under Rice-based Cropping System
K.G. Mandal*, H. Chakraborty, A.K. Thakur, S. Mohanty, M.K. Sinha, D.K. Kundu and R. Singh
Water Technology Centre for Eastern Region (ICAR), Bhubaneswar, 751 023, Orissa, India
(*Email: kg_mandal@sify.com; mandal1981kg@yahoo.co.in)
Water is the most limiting factor for crop production in canal command areas of eastern India especially during dry
season. Thus, saving of irrigation water and enhancing water use efficiency (WUE) of crops is extremely important for
crop production. Crop management viz. efficient planting techniques compared to flat method is a potential option for
saving of water and increasing irrigation water use efficiency. A field experiment was conducted at the WTCER Research
Farm, Deras, Orissa to study the improved planting techniques on groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) var. TAG-24 with
the aim of saving of irrigation water and enhancing WUE. The soil at the study site was sandy clay loam (46% coarse
sand, 17% fine sand, 16% silt and 21% clay), with bulk density of 1.44 Mg m-3, saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks)
1.14 cm hr-1, maximum water holding capacity (θs) 0.47 cm3 cm-3 and available water capacity (θAWC) 0.18 cm3 cm-3 in
the 0-15 cm soil. Three planting techniques viz. planting at 30x10 cm spacing on flat-bed (FB); planting on ridges
spaced at 30 cm on ridge and furrow system (RF) and paired row planting on ridges/ beds spaced at 45 cm (PR) were
superimposed on four irrigation treatments viz. one, two, three and four irrigations. The irrigations were scheduled at
critical growth stages. The crops for each treatment were grown with common agronomic practices. The preceding
crop was rice during rainy season. The total rainfall received during the crop growing period was 14.09 mm.
Results revealed that the pod yields (adjusted to 15% moisture) in RF (2. 07 t ha-1) and PR (2. 04 t ha-1) were
significantly greater than FB (1.78 t ha-1) method. Total dry matter (TDM) production (adjusted to 15% moisture) was
also significantly influenced by the planting techniques. The TDM was 5.08, 6.38 and 6.27 t ha -1 in FB, RF and PR,
respectively. However, the harvest index (32.9-35.2%) was statistically similar. About 15-18% higher pod yield in RF
and PR was attributed to better interception of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) by the crop canopy. The
intercepted PAR on 99 through 122 Julian day ranged from 46.3 to 57.7% in FB, 52.8 to 61.8% in RF and 64.5 to 74.4%
in PR. The soil moisture extraction (0-90 cm) by the crop was more in PR and RF than FB method, as was evident from
changes in soil moisture (∆θ) values. In PR, rate of photosynthesis (Pn) and transpiration (E) was 21.6 µmole m -2 s-1
and 7.2 mmol m-2 s-1, respectively. The estimated irrigation water depth was 12.48 and 9.98 cm in RF and PR, respectively
compared to 17.37 cm in FB; implying a significant reduction in irrigation water requirement by 28 and 42% in RF and
PR, respectively compared to FB. The crop WUE was significantly greater in PR (7.07) than RF (6.68) and FB (5.09 kg
pod ha-1mm-1ET); the corresponding irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) was 12.6, 20.8 and 25.1 kg pod mm-1 depth
of irrigation in FB, RF and PR planting method, respectively. Thus, it is inferred that with the paired row planting on
ridges/ beds it would be possible to save a significant amount of irrigation water and enhance both IWUE and WUE of
summer groundnut.
165
Effect of Distance and the Number of Seedling on Yield and Yield

Components of Rice in North of Iran
Naser Mohammadian Roshan

Islamic Azad university, Lahijan Branch, Iran
(E-mail:nasermroshan@gmail.com)
In order to select the best pattern of planting (distance and the number of seedling and its effect on the yield and
yield components of land race (Local) rice of Guilan (Rezajo) an experiment was conducted in a field of the village
of Roshan Absar a Suburb of Rudsar as split blocks in the form of fully accidental blocks in four replications in a
farming year of 2005. Treatments consisted of three distances of planting 15×15, 20×20, 25×25 cm as horizontal
factor and four levels of number of seedlings 1, 3, 5 and 7 in hill as vertical factor. The varieties were surveyed for all
the subcharacterstics. Four characteristics measured had significant association with each other. Statistical analyses
Session 1.2
showed that the distance of planting and the number of seedlings per hill and their interaction on the yield of grain yield
were signification as the highest yield was obtained on the distance of 15×15 cm with 5 seedlings per hill was obtained.
The level a1b3 with the average of 4299 kg of paddy had the highest yield and after that was the level a1b2 with 4175 kg
of paddy.
An Ecofriendly Management Practice for the Control of Bacterial Blight

of Anthurium (Anthurium Andreanum Linden)
M.K. Dhanya* and C.A. Mary

Kerala Agricultural University, Kerala, India
(*Email: dhanya_mk2000@yahoo.co.in)
Anthurium (Anthurium andreanum Linden) the major cut flower crop and an inevitable part in floriculture is facing a set
back by number of diseases. Bacterial blight incited by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv dieffenbachiae (Mc Culloch and
Pirone) is one of the major diseases of anthurium (Anthurium andreanum Linden.). It was reported from Brazil in 1960
and is prevalent in almost all anthurium-growing regions of the world including the state of Kerala. Antibiotics such as
streptomycin sulphate and oxytetracycline are frequently recommended for its control. However excessive use of
these chemicals may impair the environment. Therefore, the relative efficacy of four ecofriendly management practices,
namely the application of tumeric powder, neem oil, Pseudomonas fluorescens (proprietary product) and cowdung
extract for the control of bacterial blight of anthurium was compared with that of spraying with 100 ppm streptocyclin
and 0.3% captan. The optimum doses of each treatment in the study were selected based on an in vitro experiment. It
was observed that the use of 0.15% tumeric powder impregnated in sodium bicarbonate was most effective and the
extent of disease control achieved after a schedule of five sprayings at one week interval was on par with that of 100
ppm streptocyclin.
166
Optimizing Productivity of Mungbean-Sunflower Cropping Sequence

through Integrated Nutrient Management in Vertisols
G. Suresh* and B.N. Reddy

(*Email: sureshdor@gmail.com)
The experiment was conducted to assess the requirement of major, secondary, micronutrients and organic source
of nutrients in different combinations to achieve sustainable sunflower productivity vis-a’-vis maintaining soil health
in mungbean (kharif)-sunflower (rabi) sequence under rainfed conditions.
The trial was conducted during 2007-08 under rainfed conditions with mungbean (WGG-2) during kharif and
sunflower (KBSH-1) during rabi under fixed plots. The mungbean crop was raised on broad bed and furrows (BBF)
Session 1.2
method of planting. Twelve treatment combinations for mungbean consisted of application of 100% recommended
dose of fertilizers with two sources of P supply i.e through DAP and SSP, inorganic fertilizers substituted with 5 t FYM
ha-1 and sunflower crop residue incorporation. Similarly, for sunflower during rabi, in addition to the above treatments
application of N only, NP only, application of sulphur and limiting micronutrient, 50% of the recommended inorganic
fertilizer substituted with 5 t FYM ha-1 or seed treatment with Azotobacter and Azospirillum and mungbean crop residue
incorporation were imposed. The experiment was conducted in RBD with three replications.
The performance of kharif mungbean did not show any significant variation due to different treatments imposed.
Numerically higher seed yield and biomass was resulted with the application of 100% recommended dose of fertilizers
through single superphosphate. During rabi, the plant height and head diameter of sunflower ranged between 163-176
and 11.8-13.7 cm, respectively. Application of 100% recommended dose of fertilizers to both the crops recorded
highest seed yield of sunflower (2006 kg ha-1) as against lowest seed yield (1524 kg ha-1) in control and application of
N only (1755 kg ha-1). Statistically, seed yield, stalk yield and 1000 seed weight of sunflower did not show significant
variation due to application of different nutrient supply systems. At the end of cropping cycle there was no appreciable
change in pH and organic carbon content of soil.
It can be concluded that in a pulse-oilseed crop sequence reasonable yield levels could be maintained in Vertisols
with substitution of plant nutrients through FYM, crop residue incorporation and seed treatment with biofertilizers. The
economics of nutrient management need to be considered for practical recommendation to the farmer.
Effect of Integrated Nutrient Management on Crop Productivity under

Pearl Millet –Groundnut System in Rainfed Agriculture
K.N. Akbari*, G.S. Sutaria, V.D. Vora and D.R. Padmani

Dry Farming Research Station, Junagadh Agricultural University, Targhadia, 360 003, Gujarat, India
(*Email: knakbari@yahoo.com)
A field experiment on integrated nutrient management (INM) for pearl millet-groundnut cropping system was taken
during kharif 1999-2007 at Main Dry Farming Research Station, Targhadia (Gujarat) to study the effect of compost,
green leaf manure and chemical fertilizer alone or in combination on soil productivity on Vertic Ustochrepts under
rainfed condition. The experiment consisted of nine treatments viz.T1: Control, T2: 100% recommended N through
inorganic fertilizer, T3: 50% of recommended N through inorganic fertilizer, T4: 25 kg N through compost, T5: 15 kg N
through compost + 10 kg N through inorganic fertilizer, T6: 15 kg N through compost + 20 kg N through inorganic
fertilizer, T7: 15 kg N through green leaf manure +10 kg N through inorganic fertilizer, T8: 15 kg N through green leaf
manure +20 kg N through inorganic fertilizer and T9: 15 kg N through compost + 10 kg N through green leaf manure
with three replications.
167
The results revealed that grain and fodder yield of pearl millet were significantly affected under mono as well as
rotational system. The application of 100% recommended N (80 kg N ha-1) through inorganic fertilizer produced maximum
grain yield of pearl millet which were higher by 83.00 and 46.81% as compared to control under mono as well as
rotational system, respectively. Maximum fodder yield of pearl millet was recorded due to application of 100%
recommended N through inorganic fertilizer and 15 kg N through compost + 20 kg N through inorganic fertilizer under
mono and rotational systems, respectively. The pod and haulm yield of groundnut were significantly affected due to
residual effect of different treatments. Maximum pod yield was obtained under residual effect of application of 25 kg N
ha-1 through compost which was higher to the tune of 29.55 and 36.34% as compared to control under mono and
rotational system, respectively. Maximum haulm yield of groundnut was recorded due to application of 15 kg N ha-1
through green leaf manure + 20 kg N ha-1 through inorganic fertilizer and 15 kg N through compost + 20 kg N through
inorganic fertilizer under mono and rotational systems, respectively, The rotation of pearl millet and groundnut was
found to be beneficial as compared to mono cropping of either crops.
Maximum total income, net realization and C:B ratio were recorded when pearl millet was fertilized with 100%
recommended dose of N (80 kg ha-1) through inorganic fertilizer followed by 25 kg N ha-1 through compost. The
Session 1.2
maximum total income, net realization and C:B ratio of groundnut were recorded due to application of 25 kg N ha-1
through compost. The optimum N ranged from 44 to 84 and 29 to 69 kg ha-1 for maximum and economic yield,
respectively under rotation strip, whereas the optimum N ranged from 26 to 29 and 25 to 29 kg ha-1, respectively for
maximum yield.
Water Binding Characteristics and Germination Traits of Magnetically

Exposed and Unexposed Maize (Zea mays L.) Seeds Equilibrated at
Different Relative Humidities at Two Temperatures
Ananta Vashisth1* and Shantha Nagarajan2

1
2
Nuclear Research Laboratory, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110 012, India
(*Email: khaliananta@rediffmail.com)
Number of chemical and physical pre-sowing treatments have been used to increase the rate and uniformity of emergence
in many seeds. Magnetic seed treatment is one of the physical pre-sowing seed treatment reported to enhance the
performance of crop plants. In our earlier experiment, maize seeds subjected to magnetic fields increased germination,
speed of germination seedling length / seedling dry weight over control. These enhancement effects were explained
by the increased activities of germination related enzymes, α-amylase, protease and dehydrogenase in magnetically-
treated seeds over untreated seeds during germination. However, all enzymatic reactions take place in aqueous
environment and their activity depends on the availability and status of seed water. The binding characteristics of seed
water influence its quality and subsequent germination and emergence characteristics. Understanding the differences
in water binding status of seeds exposed and unexposed to magnetic fields may explain the mechanism of improvement
in magnetically treated seeds. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to characterize the water sorption properties
of maize (Zea mays L.) seeds exposed to static magnetic fields of 100 mT and 200 mT for 2 and 1hr, respectively.
Water sorption isotherms, germination and vigour parameters were evaluated for magnetically exposed and unexposed
seeds equilibrated over the wide range of relative humidities at 25 and 35 °C. Moisture content increased with increase
in relative humidity and decreased with increase in equilibrium temperature. The germination and vigour reduced at
high and very low humidities. Magnetically exposed seeds maintained (6-20%) higher germination, (33-65%) higher
vigour I, (15-31%) vigour II at 25 °C and (6-23%) higher germination, (25-46%) higher vigour I, (16-38%) higher vigour
II at 35 °C and at all relative humidities, which indicated the better quality of the magnetically exposed seeds. The
leachate conductivity of magnetically-exposed seeds was 3-12% lower than unexposed seeds at all relative humidities
at 25 °C and 6-10% lower at 35 °C, which indicated better membrane integrity in magnetically exposed seeds. Analysis
of the isotherms using D’Arcy –Watt equation revealed that irrespective of the temperature, in magnetically-treated
168
seeds weak binding sites were 56 and 36% more, strong binding sites were 10 and 27% less and multimolecular
binding sites were 20 and 15% less compared to the unexposed seeds at 25 and 35 °C respectively. Hence, the
modification of binding properties of seed water and the increased seed membrane integrity in magnetically exposed
seeds might have played role in enhancing the germination traits and early seedling growth of maize.
Effect of Integrated Nutrient Management on the Availability of

N, P, K and Cationic Micronutrients in Soils Growing Cabbage
(Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.)
D.K. Das*, Pintu Sur and Mitali Mandal
Session 1.2
Mohanpur, 741 252, Nadia, West Bengal, India
(*Email:dkdas1231@sify.com)
A field experiment was conducted in a Haplaquept (pH, 7.70; organic carbon 0.58%) to study the effect of integrated
nutrient management (INM) on the availability of N, P, K and cationic micronutrients in soils in relation to cabbage
(Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.) cv. Green Express under different treatment combinations. The overall results
show that the adoption of integrated nutrient management practices helped to build up the soil nutrient status with
respect to N, P, K, Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn contents. The results suggested that the treatment receiving recommended
levels of N, P and K, 4 t ha-1 organic manures and 0.5 kg ha-1 Zn as Zn-EDTA proved superior in augmenting soil
fertility. However, the highest organic carbon content (0.88%) was observed in treatment where 4 t ha-1 organic manure
was applied along with recommended levels of NPK and zinc at 0.5 kg ha-1. The results further concluded that the
amount of cationic micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn) in soil were increased with treatments where OM at 4 t ha-1 + Zn
at 0.5 kg ha-1as Zn-EDTA and OM at 10 t ha-1 + Zn at 0.5 kg ha-1+ NPK as basal were applied, respectively.
Effect of Nitrogen and Chlormequat Chloride on Grain Yield, Phytomass

and Water Use Efficiency of four Dryland Wheat Cultivars under
Agroclimatic Conditions of South Iran
Hojjatolah Miranzadeh* and Yahya Emam

College of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
(*Email: hm_miranzadeh@yahoo.com)
It appears that the risk of crop production under dryland conditions would be increased due to climate change in the
next few decades. It is suggested that cultivars of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) with regulated growth and development
which would be able to produce acceptable yield are crucial in future food production. Water stress during grain filling
affects many physiological processes involved in wheat yield. Water use efficiency (WUE) should be improved if the
grain yield is to be increased. In this study effects of different levels of nitrogen fertilizer and plant growth retardant
(Chlormequat chloride = CCC) on yield and WUE of four dry land wheat cultivars was examined in a field experiment
during 2006-07 and 2007-08 growing seasons in College of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Iran. The results showed
that differences between cultivars for grain yield, phytomass and WUE were significant. In the first year the highest
grain yield and phytomass production (192.4 and 431.2 g m-2, respectively) were obtained from Niknezhad cultivar,
CCC application and using 80 kg ha-1 nitrogen, and in the second year from Azar-2 cultivar (121.5 and 333.5 g m-2,
169
respectively). The CCC and nitrogen had significant effects on WUE in both the years. Interaction effects of CCC
and 80 kg nitrogen ha-1 application in both the years on WUE were significant (0.95 and 2.35 g m-2 mm-1, respectively).
It appears that CCC application increased the root branching of the treated plants and this improved the WUE.
Nitrogen and CCC application could improve wheat grain yield under dry land conditions via beneficial effects on
root penetration and proliferation with increased soil water uptake. Application of CCC and nitrogen fertilizer could
improve WUE and exercise beneficial effects on grain yield of cereals under similar agro-climatic conditions.
Resilience and Return Improvement in Arid Farming

with Organic Inputs
A.K. Sharma* and J.C. Tewari

Session 1.2
Low and erratic rainfall in arid areas has promoted traditional multi-component farming systems. These systems
included annual, perennial and animal components. Such systems not only mitigate the risk of rainfall uncertainty but
also facilitate efficient utilization and recycling of limitedly available local resources. However, with the advent of high
external inputs based production system in irrigated areas, the practice of using these external inputs has been
gradually increased in arid areas too. This negligence or inefficient use of local resources resulted in evolution of high
cost but low resilience agriculture. Moreover due to effect of changing climate this resilience is further decreasing. The
traditional practice of conservation agriculture arid zone is known for default organic; however, productivity is going
down due to reasons mentioned above. With the objective of improvement in traditional organic farming system, an
experiment was started in 2005. Major treatments were, use of improved compost, crop rotation with legumes and use
of local species of crops and trees. Natural population of P. cineraria (a native MPTS) was protected in the field. After
3 years of experiments the resilience of system due to use of organic inputs was found to be improved, as crops
survived and yielded even with the dry spell of 35 to 57 days, while crops failed in control (where no organic input was
given). Production of legumes and non-legumes was increased by 42-54% over control. Use of neem (Azadirachta
indica) based bio-pesticides kept pest population below economic threshold level. Therefore, it can be concluded that
efficient use of local organic inputs not only provided resilience to climatic variations but is also a cost-effective method
for enhancing productivity of the arid farming system.
Response of Aqueous Leaf Extracts of Walnut (juglans regia Linn) on

Germinating Wheat in North West Himalayan Agri-silvi System
Birendra Prasad*, V.K Sah and Rajendra Prasad

GBPUA&T Hill campus, Ranichauri, Tehri Garhwal, 249 199, Uttrakhand, India
Walnut is a large deciduous fruit tree with long fragrant leaves, distributed in the Himalayas between 1375-3350 m.asl,
extending in the west to Afganistan and east to Bhutan. In the Himalayas, the walnut is one of the first species to lose
its leaves, tree becoming leafless from September to October i.e. the right time of rabi crop sowing in the hills. Presence
of trees in a agri-silvi system results in direct exposure of associated crop to continuous release of chemicals, that
influence environment, germination and growth of plants. Dried fallen leaf of walnut ( Juglans regia Linn) were collected
from near by area of GBPUA&T,Hill campus Ranichauri, Tehri Garhwal. Aqueous leaf extract was prepared by crushing
the dried leaves, then soaking in distilled water at room temperature for 48 hours and mechanically stirred for one hour
then filtered.100 g of crushed dried leaves were soaked in 1000 mL of distilled water for preparing 100% concentration
of stock solution. Treatments consisted of five concentrations of leaf extract (20,40,60,80 and 100%)along with control
170
on 6 hill recommended varieties of wheat. Fifty seeds of each treatment of each variety were placed separately in pre-
sterilized petri dishes with two fold filter paper at the bottom.The experiment was laid in CRD with four replications.10
mL each of control and five concentrations of leaf leachate were added in each petridish on first day and 5mL later on
as and when required. The petridishes were placed in an incubator at 20 °C. The germination was found to be decreasing
with increase in leachate concentration. Invariably there was a decrease in root, shoot and total seedling length,
number of secondary roots, fresh and dry weight of seedling and ultimately vigour index with increasing leachate
concentration in almost all hill varieties of wheat. These results might be due to presence of a germination inhibitor and
growth retardant chemical known as Juglans. However, the extent of phytotoxicity varies among different varieties,
which provides suitable choice for selecting appropriate varieties for such agri-silvi situation under hill agriculture.
Land Modification for Improving Water Productivity in
Session 1.2
Saturated Soils*
Ravender Singh, D.K. Kundu and Ashwani Kumar

Field experiments were conducted at farmers’ fields during wet and dry season 2002, 2003 and 2004 in three different
villages at four sites, viz. Biswanathpur, Khamang and Barillo site-1 and site-2 of Balipatna block in Khurda district,
Orissa, India to study feasibility of growing different vegetable crops adjacent to lowland rice (Oryza sativa) in the
same field by modification of soil physical environment. The experimental sites were located in the command area of
Nimapara Branch Canal under Puri Main Canal Irrigation System of Mahanadi Delta Irrigation Project of Orissa. Soils
of the area are deep, poorly drained, fine, mixed, loamy, hyperthermic, Aeric Tropaquepts of alluvial origin. Fields were
modified into alternate raised and sunken beds by digging soil of one strip (5 m x 30 m) to a depth of 0.30 m and putting
the dug-out soil over the adjacent strip (5 m x 30 m). Elevation of the raised beds thus was 0.6 m higher than that of the
adjacent sunken beds. Top 0.20 to 0.30 m soils of the raised beds remained in unsaturated condition. Aeration status
of such soils allowed growing of several vegetable crops. Rice-rice and colocasia (Colocasia esculenta) were grown in
the sunken beds and different vegetable crop sequences viz. cabbage (Brassica oleracea), brinjal (Solanum melongena),
pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioica), pointed gourd + bitter gourd (Momordica charantia), pointed gourd + papaya
(Carica papaya), pointed gourd +snake gourd (Trichosanthes cucumerina) were grown on the raised beds. The highest
rice equivalent yield (51.16 t ha-1), water use efficiency (262.49 kg ha-1 cm-1) and gross and net water productivity
(Rs.10.50 and 7.88 m-3), respectively, were achieved in alternate raised and sunken bed system with colocasia in
sunken bed and pointed gourd + papaya in raised bed. Conventional rice-rice cultivation on unmodified land yielded
the least (7.68 to 8.18 rice t ha-1) with lowest water expense efficiency (33.59 to 36.16 kg ha-1 cm-1) and water productivity
(Rs.1.34 to 1.45 and 0.51 to 0.56 m-3, gross and net). The highest B:C ratio of 4.01 was also recorded for the same
cropping system and the lowest 1.61 to 1.67 was recorded in conventional rice-rice cultivation on unmodified land. The
best cropping systems for modified raised and sunken beds are as follows: For sunken beds growing of colocasia in
sunken beds in stead of growing of rice. For raised beds: in raised beds brinjal-okra, okra-brinjal or tomato-cowpea,
pointed gourd + snake gourd or pointed gourd +bitter gourd, cabbage + snake gourd or pointed gourd +papaya were
observed to be the best cropping system. Raised and sunken bed technique for improving water productivity in lowlands
proved very effective compared to the conventional system of rice cultivation. For modification of land into raised and
sunken bed system Rs.36000 ha-1 was required, which may be recovered within 1 to 2 years in most of the cases.
171
Enhancing Growth and Yield of Bold Seeded Groundnut by

Application of Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria
R. Dey*, K.K. Pal, D.M. Bhatt, S.M. Chauhan, S.P. Singh and P. Dash
National Research Centre for Groundnut, Ivnagar Road, Post Box No. 5, Junagadh, 362 001, Gujarat, India
(*Email: rinku_dy@yahoo.com; rinku@nrcg.res.in)
In India, groundnut is cultivated mostly under rainfed conditions in marginal soils which are deficient in available
phosphorus, iron, and nitrogen. Biological nitrogen fixation is not sufficient to meet the demand of the growing crop
because of the ineffective nodulation by native rhizobial/bradyrhizobial population. Bold seeded groundnuts have high
export potential as well as good demand in the domestic markets. The nutritional requirements of high yielding bold
seeded groundnuts are also naturally more. Thus, it is essential to enhance the efficiency of the externally applied
nutrients and make them available to the crop. This can be achieved by the application of efficient strains of plant
Session 1.2
growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) having different attributes for nutrient transformation as well as other traits
which can suppress the deleterious microorganisms in the rhizosphere. To achieve this, a number of rhizobacteria
(Pseudomonas aureofaciens PGPR1, Pseudomonas fluorescens PGPR2 and Pseudomonas fluorescens PGPR4)
having multiple plant growth promoting traits besides ability to suppress major soil-borne fungal pathogens like Aspergillus
niger, Aspergillus flavus and Sclerotium rolfsii, were identified.
Field trials were conducted during the kharif seasons of 2003, 2004 and 2005 to study the effect of inoculation of
PGPR on the growth, yield and nutrient uptake of bold seeded groundnut varieties. A total of five bold seeded groundnut
varieties viz. Somnath, B 95, TKG 19A, M 13 and BAU 13 were taken to study the inoculation effects of three plant
growth promoting rhizobacterial strains, namely, PGPR1, PGPR2 and PGPR4. In general, inoculation with PGPR
cultures resulted in a significant increase in root length, shoot length, nodule number and mass, haulm yield, shelling
outturn, hundred kernel mass, N and P content in plant and seed. Inoculation with PGPR cultures resulted in a significant
enhancement in the pod yield of groundnut (11-14%). During the kharif season of 2004, significant increase in the pod
yield of bold seeded groundnut was recorded with PGPR4 and PGPR1; both were at par with each other (9.3%). The
five bold seeded varieties differed with one another significantly with respect to the parameters tested. The maximum
pod yield was obtained with variety M 13 (2541 kg ha-1) followed by B 95 (2286 kg ha-1). The cultivar M13 yielded
highest followed by B 95, which yielded significantly higher than the other three varieties which were at par with each
other. The highest haulm yield was obtained in B 95 and M13. The maximum shelling outturn was obtained in TKG19A.
There were also significant differences in the parameters studied for the interaction of variety and culture. The best
culture and variety combination was PGPR4 and M13, which resulted in significantly higher pod yield as compared to
other combinations followed by PGPR1 and M13. The best culture and variety combination, which resulted in highest
oil content, was PGPR2 and B95. For haulm yield, the best combination was PGPR2 and B95. All other combinations
were at par.
Similar trends were also observed during kharif 2005. Inoculation with all the PGPR cultures resulted in significant
enhancement in the pod yield of groundnut; the maximum was with PGPR2 (13.5%). Thus, application of plant growth
promoting rhizobacteria as biofertilizer would be beneficial in enhancing the production of bold seeded groundnut in a
sustainable manner.
172
Application of Efficient and Competitive Strains of Groundnut Rhizobia

for Enhancing the Growth and Yield of Groundnut
K.K. Pal, R. Dey and A. Agarwal

National Research Centre for Groundnut, Ivnagar Road, Post Box No. 5, Junagadh, 362 001, Gujarat, India
(*Email: kamalk_pal@yahoo.co.in; pal@nrcg.res.in)
One of the most important factors limiting crop productivity is low availability of nitrogen. In legumes, however,
almost 80% of the required nitrogen is biologically fixed. But in groundnut, the nitrogen fixation is highly erratic
because of the promiscuity of the crop to rhizobial strains. Moreover, application of Bradyrhizobium is not always
sufficient to meet the demand of N required for groundnut crop because of the ineffective nodulation by the native
bradyrhizobial population which is generally more competitive. In case of groundnut, the problem is further compounded
by the fact that the host is usually infected by strains of rhizobia that nodulate other species of tropical and sub-
Session 1.2
tropical legumes, Thus, erratic biological nitrogen fixation affects the production of the crop badly. Therefore, an
urgent need was felt for identification of highly efficient and competitive strains of groundut rhizobia to enhance BNF
in groundnut vis-à-vis yield.
Work was initiated with the aim to isolate and select new, efficient and competitive strains of groundnut rhizobia
in the Saurashtra region of Gujarat. After rigorous examination of all the BNF parameters and yield attributes, two
cultures viz., NRCG 4 and NRCG 9 (out of 263 tested), were found most consistent. Inoculation with NRCG 4 and
NRCG 9 resulted in 12-18% higher pod yield than the control. Demonstration trials were conducted at the selected
farmers’ fields at two different locations. The newly selected and identified groundnut-rhizobial strains NRCG 4 and
NRCG 9 were tested against NC 92, the standard culture. Analyses of the pooled data over locations indicated that
inoculation of rhizobial isolates, NRCG 4, NRCG 9 and NC 92 significantly enhanced the pod yield over control and
maximum pod yield was obtained with the inoculation of NRCG 9 isolate (16% more than the farmers practice).
These two strains were also tested against cultivar GG 2 under field conditions along with well known groundnut
rhizobial strains NC 92, IGR 6 and IGR 40. Groundnut rhizobia NRCG 4 and NC 92 performed at par and enhanced the
growth, nodulation and yield significantly over control and other strains. During summer 2005, inoculation resulted in a
significant increase in pod yield with IGR 6 (18.8%), NC 92 (10%), NRCG 4 (13.6%) and NRCG 9 (14.7%), which were
all at par with each other. Similar results were also observed during summer 2006; the maximum yield was obtained
with IGR 6 followed by NRCG 9, NRCG 4, etc. Thus, these two strains, NRCG4 and NRCG9 would be useful for
enhancing BNF in groundnut vis-à-vis growth and yield.
Enhancement of Resource Productivity through Introduction

of Green Manure, Azolla and Organics in a Rice-Rice Cropping System –
A Field Study
K Ramesh* and B Chandrasekaharan

Department of Agronomy, Centre for Soil and Crop Management Studies,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, 641003, Tamil Nadu, India
(*Email: ramechek@yahoo.co.in)
Field experiments were conducted at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore during 2000 - 2002 to
study the influence of intensive manuring in rice-rice cropping system on earthworm abundance, fresh and dry weight
through pre-season as well as intercropping of Sesbania rostrata Berm. with different organics/bio-species. Rice cv
ASD 18 (June to September) and CO 43 (October to February) were selected. The treatments consisted of Factor A
(Cropping systems): A1 : Fallow - rice - rice; A2 : GM-rice - rice; A3 : GM-rice + GM - rice; A4 : GM-rice- rice + GM; A5 :
173
GM-rice + GM - rice + GM and Factor B (Organics and bio-species): B1 : Control; B2 : Farmyard manure (FYM) 12.5
t ha-1; B3 : Poultry manure (PM) 5 t ha-1; B4 : Azolla hybrid (AH) 500 kg ha-1 (Dual cropping as self-regenerating
system). System evaluation was done from total grain production in systems (System productivity) and total
biomass production (including GM and AH) (biomass productivity). The Solar Energy Conversion Efficiency (SECE)
was worked out for annual cropping cycle.
Cropping systems and organics significantly influenced the system productivity. Cropping systems A5 and A3
significantly influenced the system productivity, the per cent increase over traditional cropping system (A 1) in respect
of A5 was 22.28 and 23.67 during 2001 and 2001-2002, respectively. Raising of pre-season GM alone (A2) could raise
the system productivity to the tune of 11.72 and 10.98% during the respective years. Further, when an intercrop of GM
was raised only during kharif (A3), productivity was increased by 20.43 and 19.93%. Green manure only in rabi enhanced
the productivity by 12.73 and 13.00%. System without GM provided statistically low productivity than the other systems
involving GM. Poultry manure (B3) enhanced system productivity significantly by 15% over no organic manuring. Rice-
based GM cropping systems significantly converted higher solar energy into utilizable products, through photosynthesis.
Pre-season GM followed by rice-based intensive GM intercropping systems (A5) significantly enhanced the SECE to a
Session 1.2
magnitude of 61.84 and 57.85% over traditional rice–rice cropping system (A1) during 2000-2001 and 2001-2002,
respectively. This was followed by A3 which involved green manure-rice 2-2 (kharif) system. The B3 and B4 could
convert solar energy into utilizable biomass more efficiently than the unmanured plots.
Performance of Open Pollinated Varieties of Okra under Reduced Level

of Chemical Fertilizers Supplimented with Organic Manures
P. Tripathy1 and T.K. Maity

Department of Vegetable Crops, Faculty of Horticulture, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Mohanpur, 741 252, West Bengal, India
1
SMS in Horticulture, KVK, OUAT, Sambalpur, Orissa, India
(Email: prof_tapanmaity@rediffmail.com/drtapanmaity@yahoo.co.uk)
Studies were conducted at Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, West Bengal, India during summer and
kharif seasons of 2004 to screen out the open pollinated (OP) varieties of okra under reduced chemical fertilizers
supplemented with organic manures. Eight OP varieties namely Utkal Gourav, Parbhani Kranti, Pusa A4, Arka Anamika,
Indam 821, Sansar Selection, Pankaj and Kamala Improved were grown under reduced level of chemical fertilizers,
i.e. 50% of recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF= 90:60:40 kg NPK ha-1) with two sources of organic manures such
as cowdung manure (CDM) @ 25 t ha-1 and neem cake (NC) @ 2.5 t ha-1 by adopting factorial randomized block
design with three replications. Seeds were sown in the middle of March for summer crop and on 1st week of July for
kharif crop, respectively. All the recommended packages of practices were followed equally to all the treatments in
time, except the nutrional aspects. Observations over two seasons of experimentation were taken on the vegetative
growth parameters viz. plant height, number of primary branches/plant and nodes/plant; reproductive behaviour viz.,
days to first flowering and 50% flowering; reactions to pests and diseases viz., infestation of jassid, fruit borer and
yellow vein mosaic virus (YVMV) as well as yield attributing parameters viz., length, girth and weight of fruits, fruits/
plant and total fruit yield ha-1 were significantly influenced with respect to varieties, organic manures and cropping
seasons. The results showed that the OP varieties like Pusa A4 (7.62 t ha-1) followed by Indam 821 (7.21 t ha-1), Utkal
Gourav (6.81 t ha-1) and Arka Anamika (66.8 t ha-1) performed better significantly in all the parameters studied under
reduced levels of inorganic fertilizers over seasons. They also showed relatively better tolerance to jassid injury (6.44-
7.13 jassid/ 3 leaves), fruit borer (4.96-5.55%) and YVMV (2.78-3.60%). Application of neem cake was beneficial not
only in reducing the pest load (4.96 jassid/ 3 leaves, 6.59% fruit borer infestation and 21.38% YVMV infestation), but
also in increasing the yield (6.60 t ha-1) than cowdung manure (7.22, 26.05%, 7.74% & 5.35 t ha-1, respectively) under
reduced level of chemical fertilizer, irrespective of the varieties over seasons. The study also showed significantly
better results under kharif (6.63 t ha-1) than summer (5.32 t ha-1) season, except earliness, irrespective of OP varieties
and sources of organic manures.
174
Effect of Different Sources of Boron on the Maintenance of Boron in

Soils in Relation to Rape (Brassica campestris L.)
Mitali Mandal* and Nihar Ranjan Roy

P.O.-Mohanpur, 741 252, Nadia, West Bengal, India
(*E-mail: mitali_mandal@rediffmail.com)
Field experiments were conducted during rabi seasons of 2005 and 2006 in an Aeric Endoaquept taking rape
(Brassica campestris L.) as a test crop using different sources of boron (calbor and borax) integrated with organic
manure. The results show that the maximum amount of 0.02M CaCl2 extractable B content in soil was maintained
(0.70 mg kg-1) in the treatment receiving calbor at 1 kg B ha-1 along with recommended doses of NPK (80:40:40)
fertilizers as basal excepting N in two equal splits. The highest amount of B content was recorded (11.56 mg kg -
Session 1.2
1
) at 90 days of crop growth in the treatment T4 where integrated application of 0.5 kg B ha -1 as calbor, organic
manure at 5 t ha -1 and NPK as recommended dose was made. The yield of rapeseed and stover was highest i.e.
0.89 and 2.68 t ha -1, respectively in the treatment where combined application of boron at 1 kg ha-1 as calbor and
NPK as recommended dose had been applied compared to borax as a source of B.
Evaluation of Efficiency of Vermicompost Enriched with

Rockphosphate on Yield and Uptake of Nutrients in Cowpea
(Vigna unguiculata L.Walp)
M.S. Sailaja Kumari* and K. Usha Kumari

Kerala Agricultural University, Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
(*Email sailajaakum@yahoo.com)
The success of sustainable agriculture is very much dependent upon the availability of good quality organic manures.
Among the sources of available organic manures vermicompost is a potential source due to the presence of readily
available plant nutrients, growth enhancing substances, a number of beneficial organisms like nitrogen fixing, P
solubilising and cellulose decomposing organisms. On adding rock phosphate to biowaste at the time of preparation
vermicompost P solubilising organisms present in vermicompost will react with rock phosphate and convert insoluble
rock phosphate to plant available forms. Such vermicompost will have an added advantage in crop production. Thus a
field experiment was conducted in a Rhodic Haplustox to study the efficiency of vermicompost enriched with
rockphosphate on the yield and uptake of nutrients using cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.Walp) as a test crop. The soil
of the experimental site was sandy loam with pH 5, available N 219 kg ha-1,available P2O5 10.5 kg ha-1 and K2O 167.33
kg ha-1.The nutrient content of vermicompost was 1.83% N,1.37% P 2O5 and 2.42% K2O while that of enriched
vermicompost was 1.95% N, 2.15% P2O5 and 2.66% K2O. Different treatments included FYM and vermicompost @ 20
t ha-1 and FYM and vermicompost with P2O5 applied at two levels 15 and 30 kg ha-1 vermicompost enriched with
rockphosphate and absolute control. Enriched vermicompost was prepared by adding rockphosphate at the time of
preparation of vermicompost using earthworm species Eudrillus eugeniae. Among the different treatments tried,
vermicompost enriched with rockphosphate showed superiority over other treatments for yield and uptake of nutrients
in cowpea. Study concluded that application of enriched vermicompost increased the grain yield in cowpea.
175
Efficacy of Film Coating Technique in Maintaining Pesticide Efficacy

during Seed Storage
R.J. Sherry1, M.B. Arun Kumar1, Madhuban Gopal 2, Chitra Srivastava2 and S.N. Sinha2
1
Directorate of Seed Research, Maunath Bhanjan, Uttar Pradesh, India
2
(*Email: sherryrechel@yahoo.co.in)
The need for an efficient delivery system for seed protectant chemicals is imminent, owing to the several disadvantages
of the conventional seed treatment method. In this context, the efficacy of film coat application in maintaining the
persistence and potency of imidacloprid (Gaucho 70WS, Bayer Crop Science) was evaluated on Lycopersicon
esculentum L. seeds, after simultaneous storage under ambient and regulated environment, in paper and aluminium
packages. Film coating was carried out using the commercial hydrophilic polymer, discoclear (Incotec International
Session 1.2
B.V.Ltd, The Netherlands) and the efficacy of the treated seed was compared with that of slurry treated seeds, which
is the conventional method. For estimating the residual pesticide content, high performance liquid chromatography
was carried out on treated seeds and its thirty-day old seedlings. The efficacy of each treatment in maintaining pesticide
potency was evaluated through biological assay experiment conducted on the thirty-day old seedlings, with Bemisia
tabaci (white fly) as the test insect and insect mortality counts were recorded after 24 and 48 hours of exposure to the
adult insects. Both the chemical and bio-assay experiments were conducted prior to, and after the end of the one year
storage period.
The HPLC results revealed that beyond a threshold residual pesticide content of 0.135 mg kg-1 of herbage material,
100% insect mortality was assured. In film coated treatments, this level was attained even from the half dosage
treatment where it was found to give on par performance with the recommended dosage, in the biological assay. Film
coat technique was also found to provide early protection to the crop, which is of great relevance as it considerably
reduces the possibility of virus transmission by the insect for which spray application of imidacloprid has been reported
to be ineffective.
Post-storage studies indicated that the film-coated seed treatments in both the packaging materials could absolutely
maintain the biological efficacy of the pesticide, whereas in case of slurry treatments there was a significant reduction
in pesticide efficacy in either cases. This observation is of high practical significance since it denotes the applicability
of this technique for effective storage of farm-saved seeds using routine practices.
From the study it could be concluded that, other than serving as an effective binder and thus reducing dust off
loss, the film coat facilitates effective persistence of the pesticide throughout storage and thereby facilitates achievement
of superior pesticide dosage, at a remarkably lower level than the recommended dose. Hence the technique may
facilitate formulation of revised standards of pesticide doses, which would not only lower the pesticide contamination
in the soil environment but will also provide early protection for the crop even when used after storage under ambient
condition and with routine packing.
Carbon Management Index – A Tool to Evaluate Integrated Nutrient

Management Interventions for Cotton on Vertisols
D. Damodar Reddy*, D. Blaise, B. Kumrawat and A.K. Singh

Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal, 462 038, Mahdya Pradesh, India
(*E-mail: ddreddy132@yahoo.com)
Carbon management index (CMI), a product of carbon pool index and carbon lability index, serves as a yardstick in
evaluating different management practices for their impacts on soil organic carbon and soil quality. Vertisols supporting
176
rainfed cotton are generally low in organic carbon and available nutrient status resulting in crop productivity. Variable
integrated nutrient management (INM) options based on farmers’ access to and availability of nutrient resources are
advocated for improving soil and crop productivity. Our knowledge about the effects of these INM interventions on
SOC quality (lability) is very limited. In a 2-year field study conducted under Technology Mission on Cotton (TMC),
some INM interventions involving phosphocompost and poultry manure as components (intended to reduce dependency
on FYM and simultaneously do away with the need for PK fertilizers) were compared with the recommended INM (5 t
FYM + 80-40-20 N-P2O5-K2O kg ha-1) for their effects on cotton productivity and soil quality in terms of CMI. The INM
interventions involving 2.5 t ha-1 of phosphocompost or poultry manure proved as effective as recommended INM with
respect to cotton yields, nutrient uptake and soil fertility. The labile organic carbon (LOC) in soil (permanganate oxidizable
organic carbon) was found sensitive to nutrient management practices. The CMI, computed on the basis of soil C
fractions, was relatively higher for all the INM practices (1.3 – 1.8) than for the inorganic fertilizer treatments (1.1 – 1.2).
The INM interventions with phosphocompost resulted in relatively higher CMI values compared to those with poultry
manure. The higher CMI value is indicative of an improvement in soil organic carbon quality and thus reflecting on the
sustainability of management practice.
Session 1.2
Increasing the Productivity, Soil Fertility and Nitrogen Use Efficiency in
Rice-Wheat-Mungbean Systems using Resource Conservation
Technologies in Bangladesh
M. I. Hossain1, N.C.D. Barma1, C. A. Meisner2, J. Lauren2, J. Duxbury2, E. Haque3 and K. Sayre3

1
Regional Wheat Research Centre, BARI, Rajshahi, Bangladesh
2
Professors, Cornell University, USA
3
CIMMYT Bangladesh and Mexico
(*Email: iliasrwrc@yahoo.com)
A three-year field experiment was conducted to study the productivity, soil fertility and N-use efficiency of intensified
RW systems by adding a third pre-rice crop of mungbean under five N levels (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200% N of
recommended doses), two straw managements (straw retention and straw removal) and two tillage options (raised
bed and conventional practice). System productivity, soil fertility and N-use efficiency were increased with increasing
N levels up to 150% (150 kg N ha-1) in wheat, 100% (80 kg N ha-1) in rice and 100% N (20 kg N ha-1 ) in mungbean with
bed planting system for all three years. Straw management showed slightly increasing effect on these aspects. After
three years of cropping, organic matter, organic carbon, exchangeable K and available P, S, Ca, Mg, Mn and B were
slightly increased, while available Zn, Fe and Cu slightly decreased with straw management system. Bulk density,
infiltration rate and per cent total pore space slightly decreased with 0-10, 10-20 and 20-30 cm depth. System levels of
grain, straw and total N uptake by mungbean were significantly influenced by straw incorporation compared with straw
removal with both tillage options. However, physiological efficiency decreased with increasing N-rates up to 200% N
application for all crops. But recovery and agronomic efficiency were increased with increasing N rates up to 100% N
in rice and wheat with permanent bed system. Partial factor productivity for 3 crops and RE and AE were decreased
with increasing N rate up to 200% N application under conventional system.
System level grain, straw and total N uptake increased with increasing N rates up to 200% for all crops with bed
planting system but they were statistically similar to that with 150% N. The inclusion of mungbean in the cropping
system greatly increased the total system productivity and soil fertility. Between the two straw managements, straw
retention with permanent bed showed better performance for all parameters. The best performance in respect of crop
productivity, soil fertility and N-use efficiency were observed with 150% N for wheat and 100% N for rice and mungbean
under raised bed system. While farmers may also improve their diet with mungbean grain, however, the residual effect
of mungbean, even with straw as mulch, is not significant in short-run, but total system productivity has improved
greatly through the inclusion of mungbean in the RW system. Long-term experiments are required to establish the
potential benefits of legumes in increasing TSP, soil fertility and system-level N-use requirement and efficiency of
intensified RW systems of Bangaldesh.
177
Impact of Bio-inoculation on Microbial Activity and Disease Incidence

under Conservation Tillage in terai agro-ecological zone of West
Bengal
P. M. Bhattacharya, A.K.Chowdhury, P.Mukherjee,, S.Kundu1, D.Mandal1 and B.Rudra2

1
KVK, Uttar Dinajpur, UBKV, Chopra, 2KVK, Malda, UBKV, Ratua, Malda, India
As a principle of conservation agriculture, the use of sensible and profitable rotations has progressed and adopted
in worldwide scenario. Cereal -legume rotations and green manure cover crops have been a major topic of research
and development efforts. The beneficial effects and practicality of crop residue mulches have been well researched
worldwide, and they are widely used by farmers in more productive areas, largely, however, where animals form only
Session 1.2
a minor component of the system. On the other hand, the depletion of soil fertility by the intensive cereal-cereal
production systems is considered to be a major cause of the yield decline. A rice-wheat system removes huge
quantity of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and significant amounts of micro-nutrients. Refinement of nutrient
management strategies would help to maintain the crop productivity and soil fertility, but other rotational strategies
could also help especially in situation where exhaustive cropping system are not proving well and yield are stagnating.
Therefore, under such situations inclusion of legumes, commercial crops, oilseeds, aromatic and medicinal crops
plays a pivotal role in the rationalization of the resources use and to break the yield barrier. Legumes are known to
increase soil fertility through their capacity to fix atmospheric-N and hence the soil fertility can be improved by
inclusion of a legume in the cropping system. Yield of cereals following legumes are reported to be 30 to 35%
higher than those following a cereal in cropping sequence. Beside N-fixation, legumes also help in solubilization of
P, increase in soil microbial activity, organic matter restoration and improvement of physical health of soil. The
benefits of legumes in rotation are not solely due to biological nitrogen fixation, but result from improved soil
structure, reduced disease incidence. Under the light of these findings an attempt was taken to include legumes
namely cowpea and green gram in rice-wheat cropping system following the principles of conservation agriculture.
The legumes were grown within the wheat residue with the help of a punch planter with and without bio-fertilizer
treatments. Bio-fertilizers included Rhizobium and Acenitobacter (as phosphate solubilizer) delivered as seed
pelleting as well as soil application through vermicompost. After 5 crops taken in two different tillage systems
namely continuously zero tillage and alternate zero and conventional tillage, the bio-fertilizer treated plots not only
yielded higher biomass of legumes but also enhanced the soil properties relating to soil health. Apart from increased
plant performance under biofertilizer treatments in zero tilled system, lower incidence of foliar blight of wheat
(Bipolaris sorokiniana), Cercospora leaf spot of cowpea and green gram were also observed.
Shifting of Weed Flora and their Management in Rice-Wheat Cropping

System under Conservation Agriculture in terai
Agro-climatic Region of West Bengal
P.K. Mukherjee, P.M. Bhattacharya, S. Kundu1, D. Mandal1, B. Rudra2 and A.K. Chowdhury
Uttar Banga Krishi Viwavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India
1
KVK, Uttar Dinajpur, UBKV, Chopra, India
2
KVK, Malda, UBKV, Ratua, Malda, India
Terai region of West Bengal has characteristic of high rainfall (300 cm/annum) coupling with low soil productivity
because of low soil organic matter, wide spread deficiency of micronutrients (Zn and B) and aggressive growth of
weeds considering the limiting factors of crop production. Zero tillage rice in upland situation was severely infested
178
with several grasses Digitaria ciliaris, D. sanguinalis, Cynodon dactylon, Echinochloa colona, sedges Cyperus iria,
C. difformis, C. flavidus, Fimbristylis miliacea F. dichotoma and broadleaved weeds Ludwigia parviflora and Spilanthes
paniculata offering strong competition to rice at seedling stage. However, medium and lowland situation dominant
weed flora were sedges Cyperus iria, C. difformis, Fimbristylis miliacea and broadleaved weeds like Ludwigia parviflora
and Enhydra fluctuans. In transplanted rice culture the dominant weed flora were grass Echinochloa cruss-galli sedges
Cyperus iria, C.difformis, Fimbristylis miliacea, Scirpus maritimus, S. juncoides and broadleaved weeds Ludwigia
parviflora, Monochoria hastata and Sphenoclia zeylanica. Combination of cowpea residue mulch, brown manuring in
which seeding of dhaincha (Sesbania rostrata) was done along with rice seeding and dhaincha was destroyed at 23
days after sowing (DAS) with 2,4-D application and further application of 2,4-D @ 0.50 kg ha-1 at 40 DAS was found to
be effective in controlling weeds in medium and low land zero tillage rice recording weed control efficiency to the tune
of 82 and 86% at 30 and 60 DAS, respectively. However, in upland zero tillage rice the herbicide bispyribac sodium
could play a key role in controlling grasses, sedges and some broad-leaved weeds. Continuous adopting of zero
tillage for two successive years reduced seed bank potential to the tune of 8%. In conventional wheat the major weed
flora were broadleaved weeds like Polygonum pensylvanicum, P. orientale, P. persicaria, Stellaria media and Oldelandia
diffusa. In zero tillage, wheat emergence of Polygonum was very less only at intra-row spaces as undisturbed soil
Session 1.2
restricted its germination and further establishment; however, Stellaria emerged at inter-row space with less population
compared to conventional wheat. Weed control practice comprising gluphosate @1.50 kg ha-1 as pre-plant desiccators
+ pendimethalin @ 0.50 kg ha-1 as pre-emergence+2,4-D @ 0.50 kg ha-1 as post-emergence at 32 DAS controlled the
weeds effectively with the values of 89 and 81% weed control efficiency at 30 and 60 DAS, respectively. Continuous
adopting of zero tillage for two successive years reduced seed bank potential of Polygonum to the tune of 14%.
However, shifting of weed flora to Hydrocotyl ranunculoides, H. vulgaris, Solanum nigrum, Physalis minima and other
broad-leaved weeds is taking place while moving from conventional wheat to zero tillage wheat.
Integrated Resource Management on Water Saving and

Production of Rice
Abdhesh K. Singh, S.S. Singh1, A.R. Khan1 and J.P. Singh

Department of Soil Science, Rajendra Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, 848 125, Bihar, India
1
ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region, Patna, 800 014, Bihar, India
(E-mail: shab_patna@yahoo.co.in)
High energy is used in rice for land preparation, irrigation and nitrogen management. In eastern India, rice transplanting
is delayed due to many reasons including paucity of rain/canal/groundwater at proper time. Tillage and water management
in rice are highly interrelated. Tillage, water management and nitrogen use have varying interactive effect on crop
growth, grain yield and water expense efficiency (WEE) under timely and late planting. To improve WEE and nitrogen
use efficiency, the study of their relation with tillage is highly important. A field experiment was carried out to optimize
the doses of nitrogen as well as for increasing efficiency of these inputs under both the situations.
Field experiments were conducted for two consecutive wet seasons at Rajendra Agricultural University, Pusa,
India to investigate the integrated influence of tillage (main), irrigation (sub) and nitrogen (sub-sub plot), each having
three levels on loamy sand soil in split-split plot design with three replications. Rice cultivar was transplanted during
two consecutive wet seasons on loamy sand soil of eastern India under timely (24th July) and late (16th August)
condition in split-split design in three replications, having tillage in main while irrigation and nitrogen were kept in sub
and sub-sub plot, respectively. Each treatment had three tillage trials, viz. wedge plough twice + planking (T1), wedge
plough four times + planking (T2) and mould board plough + cultivator twice + planking (T3), irrigation at initial tillering
and flowering (I1), I1 + panicle initiation (I2), I2 + maximum tillering and milk stage (I3) and 0 (N1), 60 (N2) and 120 kg N
ha-1 (N3) as the levels of nitrogen. Among the 27 treatment combinations maximum grain yield of 3.80 and 2.93 t ha-1
was recorded under T3I3N3 combination at the water expense efficiency (WEE) of 43.9 and 34.6 kg ha-1cm-1 under
timely and late transplanting situations. Significant interactions of tillage and nitrogen (T x N) and between irrigation
and nitrogen (I x N) on grain yield of rice were observed under timely sown crop for better input efficiency.
179
Manipulating Plants to Increase Water Use Efficiency

in Dryland Areas
B.A. Stewart
Dryland Agriculture Institute, West Texas A&M University, Canyon, TX 79016
(Email: bstewart@wtamu.edu)
Conservation agriculture strategies, particularly leaving more crop residues on the soil surface, have significantly
increased the amount of precipitation stored as plant available soil during fallow periods and increased yields of
subsequent crops. Even so, dryland crops grown in semiarid regions such as the southern Great Plains of the United
States are severely constrained nearly every year by scarcity of growing season precipitation. Limited water during
later growth stages becomes particularly critical for grain crops such as wheat (Triticum aestivium L.) and grain sorghum
(Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench). The latter stages are the reproductive and grain filling stages and when water is
Session 1.2
severely limited, yield and quality are drastically reduced. An abundant supply of plant available soil water at time of
seeding can result in excellent germination and plant establishment, but often results in more tillers and vegetative
growth than can be sustained. The challenge is to keep some of this early growing season precipitation and soil water
for use during the critical grain production period. Strategies such as reduced plant populations, different spacing
between rows, and skip row configurations have been tried by many researchers with mixed results because no two
growing seasons in semiarid regions are ever the same. The amount, intensity, and timeliness of precipitation during
the growing season are so erratic that cultural practices successful one year often fail in subsequent years. In principle,
plant spacing can be varied in a way that influences the time when stored water is used. Roots can explore all of the
soil volume earlier in the season with uniformly spaced plants than with clumped plants. The development of approaches
to manipulate plants to increase water use efficiency is a promising area for research. Results from studies at Bushland,
TX, and Tribune, KS showed that planting grain sorghum in clumps of three to six plants reduced tiller formation and
early season vegetative growth, increased mutual shading, and increased grain yield compared to plants spaced
uniformly in rows. Grain yields were increased with clump planting by as much as 100% when yields were in the 1000
kg ha-1 range and 25 to 50% in the 2000 to 3000 kg ha-1 range, but there was no increase or even a small decrease at
yields above 5000 kg ha-1. There were also marked differences in plant architecture. Uniformly spaced plants produced
more tillers and the leaves on both the main stalk and tillers grew outward, exposing essentially all of the leaf area to
sunlight and wind. In contrast, clumped plants grew upward with the leaves partially shading one another and reducing
the effect of wind, thereby reducing water use. This strategy is somewhat similar to growing plants in skip rows
because skip rows also keep plants closer together than uniformly spacing the plants in all rows. In both of these
strategies, however, shading of the soil surface is reduced because the plants are concentrated over a smaller area of
the soil surface. Therefore, the evaporation portion of evapotranspiration may be higher in such systems, particularly
if there are numerous small precipitation events during the growing season. However, the combination of clumping
practices or similar strategies that keep plants close together at low plant populations with conservation agriculture
practices that leave crop residues on the surface to minimize evaporation has potential for significantly increasing
water use efficiency in dryland areas.
Crop Yield with Biochar in Conservation Agriculture along Climatic and

Soil Gradients in Zambia
Lydiah Gatere1*, Rob Delve2, Peter Hobbs1, Steve DeGloria1, Johannes Lehmann1
1
Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, USA
2
TSBF-CIAT, Uganda
(*Email: gatere@gmail.com)
Soil degradation and nutrient mining is one of the most important challenges for agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa.
Crop responses to fertilizer additions, should they be available, are often limited due to low nutrient retention and poor
180
soil structure. Conservation agriculture is a strategy to improve soil fertility, often by using a combination of reduced
tillage, crop residue return, and organic amendments. Integrated in conservation agriculture, biochar may offer an
approach for sustainably increasing organic carbon in soils that are typically poor in organic matter such as in Southern
African savanna woodlands. However, it is not known under what climatic and soil conditions biochar additions will be
effective in increasing crop yields. This study investigates yield of maize in conservation agriculture with biochar
additions across a climatic gradient from about 500 to 1500 mm annual precipitation, and from sandy to clayey soils.
Field experiments were installed on about 300 farmers fields in Eastern Zambia, comparing biochar as an alternative
to animal manure (both with full fertilization) as an addition to planting holes both at rates of 6 C DM t ha-1. Biochar was
prepared locally from rice husks using mounds covered with grass and soil. Data from the first season 2006-2007
indicate overall similar yield increases with either animal manure or biochar additions, suggesting that maximum yield
can be achieved with biochar as a soil conditioner as well as with manure as a fertilizer. Differential yield responses to
either biochar or manure additions with varying rainfall regimes and soil properties warrant further investigations.
Session 1.2
Effect of Nitrogen Levels on Growth and Yield Attributes of Mustard
(Brassica juncea L) under Different Cropping Systems
Vinod Kumar*, Arvind Kumar1 and Mukesh Kumar2
Department of Soil Science, Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology,
Modipuram, Meerut, 250 110, Uttar Pradesh, India
1
National Research Center on Rapeseed – Mustard, Bharatpur, 321 303, Rajasthan, India
2
Directorate of Extension, Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology,
Modipuram, Meerut, 250 110, India
Mustard (Brassica juncea L.) is mainly grown as a single crop and also after a cereal or legume crop in sequence. The
inclusions of legumes in rotation have been reported to improve soil fertility. In intensive cropping system, the production
of mustard can be sustained by inclusion of legumes and green manuring crop in sequence. Keeping the above aspect
in mind, the study was carried out to assess the role of legumes in influencing seed yield of mustard grown in different
cropping sequences.
The field experiments were conducted during winter seasons of 1996-97 and 1997-98 at the Crop Research
Centre of G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Distt. Udham Singh Nagar. The treatments
comprising of 6 cropping sequences (maize-mustard, soybean-mustard, moong-mustard, cowpea-mustard, fallow-
mustard and dhaincha-mustard) and 5 rates of nitrogen (0, 40, 80, 120 and 160 kg N ha-1) were laid out in split-plot
design with three replications. The soil of experimental field was medium in available nitrogen, available phosphorus
and available potash and neutral in reaction.
The different growth characters of mustard plant, viz. plant height, no. of branches/plant, dry matter/plant were
found to be higher in cow-pea-mustard cropping sequence with 120 kg N ha-1, during both the years. The yield attributing
characters was also observed, viz. no. of siliquae per plant, no. of seeds per siliquae and 1000-seed weight, were
found significantly higher in cowpea-mustard sequence with 120 to 160 kg N ha-1. Significantly higher seed yield of
mustard was recorded in cowpea-mustard sequence during both the years however, during 1997-98, dhaincha-mustard
sequence and cowpea-mustard sequence remained at par in seed yield. Yield attributing character and seed yield
increased significantly with increase in N rates up to 120 kg N ha-1. Therefore, cowpea/dhaincha-mustard sequence
and application of 120 kg N ha-1 was found to be optimum for achieving higher production of mustard crop.
181
Management of Water Resources in Punjab
G.S. Buttar
PAU, Regional Station, Bathinda, 151 001, Punjab, India
(Email: buttargs@rediffmail.com)
Punjab has achieved top position in the country by increasing agricultural production during the last 40 years. This
became possible only due to large scale adoption of paddy-wheat cropping system, assured irrigation facilities and
high input use. During the period from 1971 to 2007, the productivity of rice increased from 1.8 t ha -1 to 5.6 t ha-1.
Similarly, the wheat productivity increased from 2.2 t ha-1 to 4.5 t ha-1.However, rice-wheat cropping system in general
has resulted in reduction in the area under other crops like pulses and oilseeds. The area under pulses and oilseeds
is negligible in the state. Similarly, the area under cotton crop is dwindling and not increasing in south-western region
of Punjab. Farmers are growing paddy even under poor quality water conditions of south-western region and further
Session 1.2
deteriorating the health of soil along with depleting water table. This paddy-wheat cropping sequence has led to over-
exploitation of under ground water and resulting in decline in water table. This problem of depleting water table is more
severe in central Punjab as compared to southern Punjab. In southern Punjab, the blocks where cotton is the main
crop during kharif, the less decline in water table was recorded as compared to blocks where paddy is the main kharif
crop. The irrigated area increased from 71% to 96% in 35 years (1970-71 to 2005-06). However, the water supplying
capacity of canals decreasing day by day, which decreased from 42% to 28% in 35 years (From 1970-71 to 2005-06).
There is a deficit of 1.37 MHM (million hectare meter) in Punjab and more than 12.32 lac tubewells are working in the
Punjab state to meet this mismatch between demand and supply which results in depleting the water table at alarming
rates. Shrinking water resources threaten the sustainability of present level of agricultural production. So, there is an
urgent need for rational and efficient use of water resources. In order to maintain the agricultural productivity on a long-
term basis, there is a need to minimize ground water pumping through crop diversification, increasing water use
efficiency, minimizing seepage losses, adopting improved agronomic manipulations i.e. time of transplanting in paddy,
water saving methods of irrigation viz. furrow, drip, sprinkler etc and augmenting recharging of under ground water with
surplus rain water. The water saving technologies will become meaningful only when the farmers are aware of the
wastage of irrigation water, which becomes common due to free supply of electricity.
Integrated Weed Management – A Key for Success of Direct Seeded Rice
Samar Singh1*, R.S. Chhokar2, Ravi Gopal3, Virender Kumar4, and M. Singh 5
1
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, RRS Uchani, Karnal, 132 001, Haryana, India,
Present address: University of Florida, CREC, Lake Alfred, FL- 33850, USA
2
Resource Management Unit, Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal, 132 001, Haryana, India
3
CIMMYT India, NASC Complex, Pusa, New Delhi, 110 012, India
4
IRRI India/Rice-Wheat Consortium, NASC Complex, Pusa, New Delhi, 110 012, India
5
University of Florida, CREC, Lake Alfred, FL- 33850, US
(*Email: samar1949@rediffmail.com)
Water scarcity, labor shortage, escalating fuel prices and soil fertility issues are causing increasing interest in shifting
from puddled and transplanted rice (traditional system) to direct-seeded-rice (DSR). Weed control is a serious challenge
in the success of DSR. Therefore, development of effective weed management program for DSR is needed. Field
studies conducted at Research Station and on farmers’ fields in Indo-Gangetic Plains (Western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana
and Bihar states of India) from 2002 to 2007 revealed that complex weed flora caused the yield losses in DSR to the
tune of 65-92%. For the success of DSR, weeds can be managed by integrated weed management (IWM) approaches,
which include stale seed bed technique, use of competitive varieties, water management, use of weed free seed, hand
weeding, mulching, co-culture of Sesbania and application of recommended herbicides. Competitive cultivars of rice
182
(basmati group) effectively smothered the weeds compared to short statured high yielding varieties. Stale seed bed
technique and straw mulching were found effective in reducing the density of grass and broad leaf weeds. Brown
manuring (broadcasting of Sesbania along with rice seeding and killing Sesbania by spraying 2, 4-D around 30 days
after seeding) or mulching reduced the weed density by 37-42% compared to rice crop without brown manuring and
mulching. Rice yield was greater when Sesbania was seeded 0 and 5 days after rice seeding compared to10 days
after rice seeding and sole rice crop. Some herbicides found effective in DSR are pendimethalin, cyhalofop-butyl,
fenoxaprop-ethyl, propanil, bispyribac, penoxsulam, triclopyr, carfentrazone, halosulfuron, bensulfuron, azimsulfuron,
quinclorac, clomazone, 2,4-D, chlorimuron+metsulfuron, and molinate. Integration of herbicides with one hand weeding
around 45 days after seeding (DAS) found effective in reducing weeds and improving the yields. For season long and
broad-spectrum sustainable weed management, integration of different herbicides and weed control measures is
needed as part of IWM strategy. Continuous monitoring of weed flora is needed to identify shifts in weed flora due to
shift from conventional puddled transplanted rice to DSR and to focus on the emerging problematic new weed species
which are even more difficult to control and competitive in nature, such as weedy rice.
Session 1.2
Evaluation of Resource Conservation Techniques in Reclaimed
Sodic Soils
D.P. Sharma*, Gurbachan Singh, Ranbir Singh, S.K. Sharma and P.K. Joshi
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, 132 001, Haryana, India
(*Email: dpsharma@cssri.ernet.in)
Rice-wheat systems are critical in Indo-Gangetic plains, yet valuable information has remained underutilized by the
farmers. Improved tillage and crop establishment practices show real potential for improving the productivity and
profitability of rice-wheat systems. Targeted resource conserving technologies offer newer opportunities for better
livelihood for the resource poor, small and marginal farmers of the region. Keeping the above facts in view an experiment
was conducted for 2 years (2006-08) at Central Soil Salinity Research Institute to address some of the problems faced
by the farmers in managing the natural resources for increasing the rice-wheat productivity. There were 10 treatments
viz. conventional rice transplanting with and without residues, direct seeded rice with and without residues, direct
seeded rice in zero tillage with and without residues, rice transplanting on raised beds, rice transplanting in un-puddled
condition, direct seeded rice with Sesbania as co-culture and conventional rice transplanting after Sesbania green
manuring. In wheat the treatments were: conventional sowing with and without residues, sowing in reduced tillage with
and without residues, sowing in zero tillage with and without residues, sowing on permanent beds, sowing in fresh
beds etc.
Results indicated that in kharif (rainy) season, Basmati rice (CSR-30) cultivated with different crop establishment
techniques, maximum yield was obtained in conventional transplanting with and without residue incorporation (3.68
and 3.72 Mg ha-1, respectively) followed by direct seeded rice without residue (3.67 Mg ha-1). Direct seeded rice (DSR)
with sesbania co-culture as a brown manuring yielded (3.50 Mg ha-1). However, yield decreased significantly when
transplanting was done on raised beds (3.15 Mg ha-1) because of less plant population/unit area. Water productivity
was more in direct seeded rice compared to transplanted rice. The maximum water saving was recorded in direct
seeded rice with sesbania co-culture as brown manuring (39.4%) followed by direct seeded rice (34.7-35.4%). In rabi
(winter) season, the maximum yield of wheat (PBW-343) was recorded in zero tillage sowing where Sesbania was
grown as a brown manure during the kharif season (4.93 Mg ha-1) followed by zero tillage without residue (4.86 Mg ha-
1
). Conventional sowing with and without residue incorporation yielded 4.62 and 4.73 Mg ha-1, respectively, whereas
sowing on permanent and fresh beds recorded 4.39 and 4.78 Mg ha-1 yield. Weed population of P. minor was less in
zero tillage than in conventional tillage, whereas broad leaf weed population increased in zero tillage.
Sesbania green manuring during rice cultivation followed by zero tillage in wheat seems to be a promising option
for sustained and economic wheat yield. Direct seeded rice in different treatments yielded almost at par, compared to
conventional transplanted rice and saved 34-35% of applied water.
183
Combining Ability of Grain Yield and Protein Content along with Some
Other Attributes in Maize (Zea mays L.)
C.G. Patel*, D.B. Patel, N.H. Patel, V.K. Bhatt and R.K. Bhatt
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, B.A. College of Agriculture, Anand Agricultural University,
Anand, 388 110, Gujarat, India
(*Email: chetan15884@yahoo.co.in)
Eight maize inbred lines and their 21 F1 produced through half-diallel scheme were assessed for their combining
ability analysis. The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design with 3 replications at Agronomy farm,
Anand Agricultural University, Anand during rabi 2006-07. The general and specific combining ability variances were
highly significant for all the traits. Thus, both additive and non additive gene actions played an important role for the
inheritance of all these characters. The dominance ratio (δ2sca / δ2gca) indicated the preponderance of non-additive
Session 1.2
gene effects for inheritance of all these characters. The gca effects revealed that parents GWL-2 and GWL-8
appeared to be good general combiners for grain yield per plant and some of the other related attributes and quality
parameters. Estimation of sca effects indicated that cross GWL-2 x GWL-12, GWL-2 x GWL-8 and CML-260 x
GWL-17 were significant for grain yield and some of its related traits.
Conservation Strategies for Endangered Medicinal Herb Species
Anju Singh Thakur

Department of Basic Sciences, University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, 173 230, Himachal Pradesh,
India
(E-mail: thakuranju2004@yahoo.com)
The purpose of this study was to standardize suitable methodologies for conservation and enhancing germination
ability of seeds of endangered medicinal herbs, inhabitant of Western Indian Himalayas. Several medicinal and aromatic
herbs, the source of traditional herbal medicine, play crucial role in daily health care worldover. But the unscientific and
over-exploitation and loss of herbal plants from their natural habitats over the years is one of the main reasons as to
why medicinal plants, their evaluation, cultivation, utilization and conservation have found place in programmes of
national and international organizations. Thousands of tonnes of medicinal and aromatic herbs are harvested each
year from the forests and alpine meadows, disturbing biodiversity and threatening several precious herbs by putting
some of them at risk. The serious efforts and planning at regional/national/international levels are essential to develop
suitable methodologies for cultivation as well as conservation for large number of medicinal herbs used by man, which
are in great demand by the pharmaceutical firms. Several medicinal and aromatic herb species have been threatened
due to their unscientific exploitation. Some of these species inhabit far-flung upland forests making seed collection
difficult. Further, these species exhibit late, poor and erratic germination with rapid loss of viability and germinability,
hampering commercial cultivation. Seeds of some endangered medicinal herbal species were collected from their
natural population, cleaned, air-dried, sorted and used understand their germination physiology. Several pre-sowing
seed treatments were tried to improve seed viability, germination and storage of seeds. The findings suggest that pre-
sowing seed treatments are beneficial for better storage and germination improvement.
184
Potential Use of Some Plant Extracts against Xanthomonas

campestris pv. campestris
Surender Kumar Bhardwaj
Horticulture Division, M.D. University, Rohtak, 124 001, Haryana, India
(E-mail: skbmdu66@gmail.com)
In order to maintain the productivity of various crops, more and more synthetic chemicals are being added in the
natural environment by the farmers, which enter the food chain through water, soil and air; resultantly these seriously
affect the human health. According to the WHO survey, more than 50,000 people in developing countries are annually
poisoned and 5,000 die as a result of the effects of toxic agents used in agriculture. In India 35,000 – 40,000 t of
hazardous chemicals are sprayed on the crops every year. Instead of helping the poor, these chemicals are causing
cancer, sterility and death. So there is an urgent need to develop sustainable methods for these horrible diseases. As
Session 1.2
plants and their products are known to possess various secondary metabolites, which show inhibitory effect against
the growth of pathogens, such plants and their products could be utilized to combat the diseases causing pathogens.
Keeping these problems in view, efforts are underway to search the economical and safe phytochemicals, which could
be utilized for disease control.
The aqueous extracts from twenty plants were screened by agar diffusion methods for their antibacterial activity
against Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris, a causal organism of black rot of cabbage and cauliflower. The
Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris was found to be most sensitive to the leaf extract of Camellia sinensis. Some
of the other plants such as Acacia arabicae, Aegle marmelos, Acacia catechu, Achyranthus asper, Asparagus racemosus,
Azadirachta indica, Callistemon lanceolatus and Acacia fernesiana, also showed the inhibitory effect against the test
bacteria.
Groundwater Study of Priyadarshini Watershed in

Ratnagiri District, Maharashtra
Dilip Mahale* and Harshal Bhange

Department of Soil and Water Conservation Engineering,
Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli, Maharashtra, India
(*Email: mahaledilip@rediffmail.com)
Very high annual rainfall about 2500-3500 mm during monsoon, but lack of availability of water in summer season is
the main constraint in Konkan region of Maharashtra state, India. Water table reaches almost ground level in rainy
season but February onwards water table depletes very rapidly and leads to scarcity of groundwater. Due to lack of
availability of water in rabi season, second crop becomes almost difficult. The research studies entitled “Groundwater
Study of Priyadarshini Watershed” was undertaken to understand groundwater recharge and groundwater movement
of the watershed. Priyadarshini watershed is typical representation of Konkan region of Maharashtra state. In order to
increase the ground water recharge various drainage line treatments were super-imposed in Priydarshini watershed. A
network of nine wells was selected for study. Wells were located inside and near surrounding area of watershed.
Reduced levels of all wells were determined. Weekly water level data of nine wells was recorded during the period of
study. Isobaths map of Priydarshini watershed was plotted from the weekly water level data. The pumping test was
conducted to determine the aquifer properties for Priyadarshini watershed and transmissivity and specific yield were
estimated as 89.25 m2 day-1 and 14.89%, respectively. Flow net was constructed and drainage rate of Priyadarshini
watershed was estimated to be 3.73 mm day-1. The total ground water depletion from September to April was estimated
to the tune of 41.60 ha-m. It is also observed that water table was higher by 2.34 m in treated zone, relative to the
untreated zone at the end of April.
185
Agronomic Effects on Irrigated Spring Wheat under Conservation

Agriculture using Permanent Raised Bed in Northwest China
Ma Zhongming, Zhang liqin and Lian Caiyun

Institute of Soil, Fertilizer and Water-saving Agriculture, GAAS, China
(Email: mazhming@sohu.com)
Based on the water shortage and lower water use efficiency, the agronomic effects of irrigated spring wheat on
permanent raised bed (PRB), fresh raised bed (FRB), zero tillage (ZT) and conventional tillage (CT) were studied
from 2005 to 2007 by combining conservation tillage with furrow irrigation and control traffic. The results showed
that the yield of spring wheat on permanent raised bed reached 6.35 t ha-1 which increased by 7.91%, 6.27% and
1.28% compared to ZT, FRB and CT, respectively. In term of the decrease in irrigation capacity and water leakage,
the WUE reached 15.15 kg mm-1 which increased by 44.7, 33.83 and 16.27% compared to CT, ZT and FRB,
Session 1.2
respectively.
The yield of spring wheat on conservational agriculture using permanent raised bed was not increased but its
WUE was increased remarkably over other options. The PRB increased the weight of 1000-seeds, especially in 2-
edge rows on bed. The weight of 1000-seeds increased by 3.5-9.5%. The height was decreased and stem became
thick. The stem diameter was increased by 0.03-0.06 cm and stem thickness was increased by 0.04-0.06 mm; the
capacity of lodging resistance and root disease resistance was also increased. In the beginning of wheat growth, the
soil temperature of PRB was lower than FRB, but in middle growth the difference of soil temperature between PRB and
FRB was reduced and it was higher for PRB than CT and ZT.
During the wheat growth period, the total irrigation was decreased by 18.47, 66.75 and 92.45% than FRB, ZT and
CT, respectively. Compared with CT and ZT, the soil water content in 0-120 cm for PRB was higher than the other
options. The soil water content in 0-20 cm was increased by 11.51 and 35.03% compared to ZT and CT, respectively.
The water consumption from planting to first irrigation reached 53.24, 59.36,67.52 and 105.68 mm for PRB, ZT, FRB
and CT. It decreased by 11.49-98.49% for PRB compared to other options.
Rotation in Conservation Agriculture Systems of Southern Africa; Effects

on Soil Quality and Water Relations
Christian Thierfelder* and Patrick Wall

CIAT and CIMMYT, P.O. Box MP 163, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
(*Email: c.thierfelder@cgiar.org)
Conservation agriculture (CA) systems are based on minimal soil disturbance, crop residue retention and crop rotation.
Initially successful no-tillage systems in southern Africa can be managed with continuous maize production, incorporating
crop rotations into the system when and if pests and diseases become important. Although the capacity of rotations to
break pest and disease cycles is generally recognized, other benefits of crop rotations in CA systems are seldom
acknowledged and little understood. We monitored different conventional and CA cropping systems over the period
from 2005 to 2008 in a multi-season trial in Monze, Southern Zambia. Both monocropped maize and different maize
rotations including cotton and the green manure cover crop sunnhemp (Crotalaria juncea L.) were compared under CA
conditions, with the aim of elucidating the effects of crop rotations on soil quality, soil moisture relations and maize
productivity. Infiltration, a sensitive indicator of soil quality, was significantly lower on conventionally ploughed plots in
2007-2008 compared to CA plots in different rotations. Higher water infiltration rate led to greater soil moisture content
in CA maize treatments seeded after cotton. Earthworm populations were also significantly higher on CA plots with
highest earthworm numbers found in maize seeded after sunnhemp in a three course rotation (maize-cotton-sunnhemp).
186
In the 2007-08 season, highest yields were obtained from direct seeded maize after sunnhemp, which yielded 74%
more than maize in the conventionally-ploughed check with a continuous maize crop. However, even in a two
course rotation (maize-cotton), without a legume green manure cover crop which may have contributed to higher
yields, 47% higher maize yields were recorded compared to maize in the conventionally-ploughed control. This
suggests that there are positive effects from crop rotations apart from any disease and pest factors and, therefore,
crop rotation should be included in CA system from the onset. However, the overall profitability of each system will
depend on markets and prices which will guide the farmer’s decision on which, if any, rotation to choose.
Effect of Sowing Times, Plant Growth Regulators and Nitrogen Levels

on Chlorophyll Content in Leaves of Coriander (Coriander sativum L.)
Session 1.2
S.S. Meena*, R.S. Mehta and M.M. Anwer
National Research Centre on Seed Spices, Ajmer, 305 206, Rajasthan, India
(*Email: ssmnrcss5@yahoo.com)
A field experiment was conducted during rabi season of 2003-2004 and 2004-05 in a randomized block design with
three replications. The experiment comprised of sowing dates (15th October, 30th October and 15th November) and four
levels of growth regulators (NAA 25 ppm at 30 and 75 DAS, GA3 50 ppm at 30 and 75 DAS) along with water spray
(control). The results indicated that 15th October-sown coriander crop recorded significantly higher chlorophyll content
over 15th November sown crop. The corresponding increase was to the magnitude of 11.88%. Foliar spray of 25 ppm
NAA and 50 ppm GA3 at 30 DAS significantly recorded higher content of chlorophyll content in coriander leaves. The
corresponding increase in chlorophyll content was 19.19 and 18.09% by 25 and 50 ppm GA3 at 50 DAS treatments,
respectively over control.
Bioefficacy of Rynaxypyr 20% SC (Brand name: Coragen), a New

Molecule, against Brinjal Shoot and Fruit Borer
N. Karam, A. Das* and S. K. Mandal

Department of Agricultural Entomology, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
(*Email: arupento@gmail.com)
Field investigation was undertaken for two consecutive crop seasons to study the bio-efficacy of rynaxypyr 20%SC
(Brand name: Coragen), the only representative of a new class of insecticide, anthranilic diamide against brinjal shoot
and fruit borer at B.C.K.V., West Bengal, India. Cypermethrin 10% EC @ 60 g a.i. ha-1 and cartap hydrochloride 50%
SP @ 350 g a.i. ha-1 were taken as standard checks. Rynaxypyr @ 20-60 g a.i. ha-1 significantly reduced shoot and
fruit infestation by the pest than the untreated control and cartap hydrochloride and increased the yield significantly.
However, 40-60 g a.i. ha-1 dosages of the insecticide showed better performance and gave significantly higher yield
than it’s lower dosages and to some extent higher than cypermethrin. Cartap hydrochloride showed higher percentage
of fruit damage than the control. Considering the bio-efficacy of the insecticide and yield of brinjal, rynaxypyr @ 40 g
a.i. ha-1 is suggested for effective management of brinjal shoot and fruit borer. This insecticide even at dosage of 300
g a.i. ha-1 did not produce any phytotoxicity to the treated brinjal crop.
187
Role of Alternate Wetting and Drying Technology in Resource

Conservation for Rice Cultivation in Bangladesh
M.A. Hamid Miah1* and M.A.Sattar2

1
IRRI, Liaison Scientist, Dhaka, Bangladesh
2
IWM Division, BRRI, Gazipur, 1701, Bangladesh
(*Email: miah@irribd.org)
“Rice is life” is the popular slogan of IRRI and BRRI. But “water” is synonymous to life, because both scarcity and
excess of water affect life. So, judicious use of water everywhere particularly in irrigated rice production is a major
concern. For producing one kg of rice a farmer generally uses 3000 – 5000 liters of water, whereas, rice plants hardly
need 1500 liters of water. In view of these IRRI and BRRI scientists started research and devised alternate wetting and
drying technique to save irrigation water. Following research at Bangladesh Rice research Institute (BRRI) and Rural
Session 1.2
Development Academy (RDA) in Bangladesh, three organizations namely Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI),
Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation (BADC), Barendra Multipurpose Development Authority (BMDA)
validated the technique in their farms during 2007-2008 boro season. BRRI through 90 farmers in three districts with
diesel operated power pump, BADC over one acre in each of its 22 farms and BMDA with 26 farmers in three districts.
At present, 4.5 Mha is covered by irrigated boro rice in Bangladesh. In all these cases, water was applied through
monitoring water level in the rice field with 30 cm plastic pipes of which 20 cm at one end was perforated and placed
vertically, keeping only perforated portion under the ground to facilitate horizontal movement of water. The operation
was started 15 days after transplanting of boro rice and continued till booting stage. Water applied during this period by
all these three agencies was measured and records were kept on irrigation frequency, water use efficiency, fuel use
either diesel or electricity, labour cost, extra weeding cost and yield of grains. Based on different paramemeters and
facts water savings calculated at national level on the basis of their findings were variable because of management
systems in different organizations and ecosystems representing soil physical conditions, soil moisture retention capacity,
humidity in air and atmospheric temperature. The national savings as per BADC stood at US$ 178.82 millions, as per
BMDA US$ 78.02 millions and as per BRRI US$ 109 millions (based on saving 30 liter of diesel ha-1). The advantages
and benefits of AWD were discussed in a workshop at Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council where 10 points
were identified which has been described in the text. Most important of these are savings of : a) Fuel for irrigation due
to reduced irrigation frequency, b) underground water, which otherwise would have been lost, c) life expectancy of
irrigation equipment, and d) extra labour for irrigation management. Crop productivity per unit of water was 3056 litres
kg-1 in conventional practice and 2082 litres kg-1 through AWD method. In addition there was an increase in yields by
half a t ha-1 due to about 4 extra effective tillers per hill when both prilled urea and USG were applied.
Conserving Residual Soil Moisture Left by Early Maturing Finger Millet

(Eleusine coracana) Genotypes for Increasing Cropping Intensity and
Sustainable Production under Rainfed Conditions in North-Western
Himalayas
Harsh Mehta* and P.C. Tyagi

218 Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
(*Email: harshmehta41@rediffmail.com)
Finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn] is the most important crop among millets having outstanding properties
as a subsistence food crop in the drought-prone regions of South Asia and East Africa. It is a native of Africa that
188
crossed Indian Ocean to South Asia more than a thousand years ago. It is primarily grown by marginal, small and
poor farmers practicing rainfed and subsistence agriculture, on degraded soils in dry, drought-prone and hilly
regions of India, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri-Lanka. India is the largest producer of finger millet (area 1.78 Mha and
production 2.74 Mt).
In Uttarakhand state, finger millet or mandua is a major staple cereal diet of the hilly people and the mainstay
of sustainable production under hill farming system (0.14 Mha). It contributes 0.20 Mt which is 22.2% of the total
cereal production in the state. It is primarily grown as rainfed crop at higher elevations in the month of April and
harvested in October, after which farmers keep these plots fallow as a typical hill farming practice. The basic
purpose of the study was that if some high yielding early maturing strains of finger millet were identified then one
could go for the second crop in the intervening period between October to April (rabi season), raised on the residual
conserved soil moisture of preceding finger millet crop. It will lead to sustaining the native soil fertility for the next
season. Eleven strains of finger millet comprising 8 improved strains, obtained from the All India Coordinated Small
Millet Improvement Programme, and three collected from Sainji and Gandhak Watersheds in the Garhwal and
Kumaon Himalayas were grown for five consecutive years (2000-2004). After the harvest of finger millet at the end
Session 1.2
of September or early October, stover of finger millet crop was spread over the respective plots which acted as
mulch and conserved the residual soil moisture in respective plots till the sowing of lentil crop in the month of
November. VR 708 produced 2.66 and 4.78 t ha-1 of yield and biomass, respectively maturing in 80 days. In contrast
TNAU 918 matured very late in 112 days but was the highest yielding strain recording 3.14 and 9.59 t ha -1 of yield
and biomass, respectively followed by PES 400 (3.12 t ha-1).The cultivar VR708 left double the amount of residual
soil moisture (17.0%) in comparison to the late maturing strain TNAU 918 (9.1%) and the local cultivars.
Conserved residual soil moisture in plots vacated by VR 708 finger millet was adequate to raise the next crop
of lentil under rainfed conditions. The mean lentil crop yield in the subsequent rabi seasons was maximum (0.59 t
ha-1) and significantly higher in the plots vacated by the finger millet genotype VR 708 (average of five years). Thus,
the selection of short duration finger millet genotypes makes it possible to go for double cropping under rainfed
conditions which otherwise is not possible with long duration varieties. Stable high yielding genotypes of finger
millet over years have been identified which will ensure genetic homoeostasis. Therefore, planting of early maturing
and high yielding cultivars of finger millet is an effective strategy towards increasing productivity efficiency of natural
resources.
Yield and Water Productivity of Aerobic Rice Grown in Acidic Soil

under Different Irrigation Regimes
D.K. Kundu, K. Kannan and R. Singh

Declining availability of freshwater in agriculture threatens the sustainability of traditional flooded lowland rice
production systems and calls for developing and promoting rice production systems that use less water. Among
various approaches being pursued in this direction, promotion of aerobic rice appears to be most promising.
Aerobic rice refers to high-yielding rice grown in non-puddled aerobic soils under supplementary irrigation.
Performance of aerobic rice, however, depends on number of factors like soil types, irrigation regime and varieties.
In a 2-year field study conducted during dry seasons of 2007 and 2008 in Khurda district, Orissa, performance of
four rice varieties, viz. Surendra, Lalat, Khandagiri and Apo was studied in an acid aerobic soil under three irrigation
regimes and also under flooded lowland condition. The soil was a sandy clay loam (Aeric Haplaquept) with pH 5.3,
organic carbon 0.45% and EC 0.25 dS m-1. Under aerobic culture, seeds of the rice varieties were sown directly in
the main field in the 2nd week of January. On the same day, rice seeds were also sown in the nursery to raise
seedlings for the flooded lowland culture. Transplanting of rice seedlings in flooded and puddled plots was done in
the 1st week of February. Three irrigation regimes used for growing aerobic rice were: I1, to maintain soil moisture at
80-90% field capacity (FC) throughout the growing season, I2, to maintain soil moisture at 60-70% FC during
189
vegetative and at 80-90% FC during reproductive stage, and I3, to maintain soil moisture at 60-70% FC throughout
the growing season. The aerobic plots were irrigated to maintain desired levels of soil moisture whenever moisture
level at 15-cm depth reached the critical limit. For the flooded lowland culture, 5±2 cm floodwater above field surface
was maintained throughout the growing season. Rice crop at maturity was harvested in the 2 nd week of May,
processed and yield was recorded. Irrigation water input was 710 mm under aerobic I1, 620 mm under aerobic I2,
520 under aerobic I3, and 1200 mm under flooded lowland culture. Water productivity of rice was worked out from
the grain yield and irrigation water use, and expressed as kg grain per cm of irrigation water. All the four rice
varieties yielded maximum grains (4.50 to 5.60 t ha-1) under flooded lowland condition. Under aerobic culture, grain
yield varied from 1.82 to 4.59 t ha-1. Grain yield of aerobic rice was maximum under irrigation regime I 1 and
decreased with reduction in irrigation water use. Under aerobic culture, variety ‘Apo’ performed best followed by
‘Surendra’. Compared with flooded lowland culture, grain yield reduction in aerobic rice was 13-30% and saving in
water was 41-45% under the irrigation regime I1. The productivity of irrigation water in rice increased by 19 to 48%
when flooded lowland culture was replaced by aerobic I1 culture.
Session 1.2
Interactive Effect of Molybdenum and Sulphur on the Productivity of

Soybean – Chickpea Cropping System in a Vertisol of Central India
Tapan Adhikari*, K.G. Mandal, K.P. Patel and M.V. Singh

Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabiabagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal, 462 038, Madhya Pradesh, India
(*E mail: tapan_12000@yahoo.co.uk)
The adoption of modern agricultural technology with imbalanced use of fertilizers and restricted recycling of crop
residues resulted into increase in deficiency of S and micronutrients in soils under intensive cultivation. In the recent
years, soybean (Glycine max L.) and chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) are emerging as important crops of Madhya Pradesh.
The major constraint limiting production of the crops is poor fertility status of the soil. The soils of this region are
deficient not only in nitrogen and phosphorus but also in molybdenum (Mo). In addition to major nutrients, Mo is one of
the micronutrients leading to poor seed yield of pulses and oilseeds in the Mo-deficient region. Against this backdrop,
a field experiment was conducted to investigate the interactive behaviour of Mo and S on soybean–chickpea cropping
system in swell-shrink clayey soil of Bhopal at the Indian Institute of Soil Science farm. The treatments consisted of
four levels of Mo (i.e. 0, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 kg ha-1) and three levels of S (0, 30, 60 kg ha-1). Each treatment was
replicated thrice and factorial RBD statistical design was followed. Experimental results revealed that application of S-
fertilizer increased the soybean yield significantly up to 30 kg ha-1. Although there was an increasing trend in yield of
soybean due to application of Mo-fertilizer, it was not significant. In subsequent field experiment with the same treatment,
similar result was obtained for the chickpea crop.
Studies on Growth and Fibre Yield of Rainfed Jute under Different Soil
Moisture Conservation Techniques
B.K. Saren1*, K. Mandal1, A.K. Ghorai2 and S. Saha2

1
Institute of Agriculture, Visva-Bharati, Sriniketan, 731 236, Birbhum, West Bengal, India
2
Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres, Barrackpore, Kolkata, 700 120, West Bengal, India
(*Email: bksaren@rediffmail.com)
Jute crop is being cultivated mostly under rainfed condition. The un-assured and poorly distributed rainfall during jute
growth often leads to moisture deficit and water stress to the crop, particularly during its early growth phase. This
190
ultimately reduces the yield and quality of fibre. Conservation of adequate moisture in soil and its continuous supply
to jute plants is of prime importance for achieving higher yields of the crop particularly under deficit water situation.
Hence, attempts were made to increase fibre yield under rainfed and deficit rainfall situation following different in-situ
moisture conservation and agronomic management techniques. A field experiment was conducted during pre-kharif
season, for two consecutive years of 2007 and 2008 at the Agriculture Farm (23°39/ N, 87°42/ E and 58.9 m altitude),
Institute of Agriculture, Visva-Bharati, Sriniketan, Birbhum, West-Bengal, India to find out the most effective in-situ soil
moisture conservation measures for increasing the jute fibre yield. The experiment was laid out in randomized block
design having 9 treatments with 3 replications. The experimental soil was lateritic loamy sand in texture and had pH
5.8; organic carbon 0.42%; and available N, P and K 244.3, 23.5 and 158.2 kg ha-1, respectively. The Jute crop (cv.
JRO 524) was sown at 25 cm row distance on 22 April and 1 April and harvested on 24 August and 2 August during
2007 and 2008, respectively. The fertilizer dose was N: P: K : : 60: 30: 30 kg ha-1. The nitrogen was applied in 3 splits
viz. 1/3rd as basal and rest 2/3rd was top-dressed in two splits after receiving assured rainfall to increase nitrogen use
efficiency. It was observed that under purely rainfed and deficit rainfall situation (>50% from jute sowing to onset of
monsoon) rice straw mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1 applied on seeded rows, 7.5 t ha-1 in between crop rows and one life saving
irrigation (@ 3 lakh L ha-1) performed satisfactory results and produced jute fibre yield of the order of 2.10, 2.14, 2.14
Session 1.2
and 3.17, 3.84, 2.63 t ha-1 whereas control plots recorded the yield of 1.50 and 2.01 t ha-1 in the years of 2007 and
2008, respectively. Mulching treatments also recorded the higher plant height and basal diameter (BD) as compared to
control treatment. Rice straw mulch @ 7.5 t ha-1 and 2.5 t ha-1 kept the soil cooler by 11.2 °C and 7.3 °C, respectively
at 2 P.M. than control plots. Use of rice straw mulch maintained soil moisture up to 10.87-11.40% with soil moisture
tension of 0.35-0.39 bar whereas in control treatment soil moisture content and tension were 7.93-8.02% and 0.82-
0.85, bar, respectively. It may be inferred from the experiment that mulching did not hamper the oxygen diffusion rate
and maintained better hydrothermal regime of soil and thus reduced the early drought stress which was adequately
reflected on the jute fibre yield.
Simulating Growth and Productivity of Rice (Oryza sativa L.) under

Topical Monsoon Climate
Gouranga Kar*, Ashwani Kumar and Chandra Bhaskar Burla

(*Email: kar_wtcer@yahoo.com)
In recent times simulation modeling has become one of the most powerful tools for analyzing the interactions in the
soil, plant and atmospheric system. With the advent of computer use in agriculture, utility of meteorological, soil and
plant physiological parameters has been increased to predict crop yield or dry matter. Rice is the main staple food of
the India and occupies 42 million hectares of land (23% of total cropped area) and any negative fluctuation in rice
production will have direct impact on food security of the country, Hence, assessing crop growth parameters of rice
with simulation models using meteorological, soil and plant physiological parameters and their interrelationship with
final yield will be helpful to predict rice production in advance so that precautionary measures may be taken by policy
makers of the country.
In this study two simulation models viz., CERES-Rice and ORYZA1 were calibrated and validated to predict crop
growth and productivity of five rice varieties under tropical monsoon climate of eastern India (Jatni, Khurda, Orissa). It
was revealed that simulated values of dry weight of leaves, stem weight, panicle weight, above ground biomass, LAI
and grain yield were not significantly (5% level) different for both CERES-Rice and ORYZA1 simulation models with
observed values. The probabilities of estimates for above parameters were in the range of 0.72-1.0 and 0.82-1.0, for
CERES-Rice and ORYZA1, respectively. Only simulated specific leaf weight (mg/dm2) was found to be significant
from observed values with probability values being 0.02 and 0.0005 for CERES-Rice and ORYZA1 models, respectively.
From this analysis, it is revealed that both the models can be used for simulating major crop growth parameters and
yield of rice in the region with equal importance. Based on correlation between above ground dry biomass and yield at
flowering stage, grain yield of the rice can be predicted in advance i.e., at least 30 days before the harvesting of the
crop.
191
Crop Growth and Productivity of Winter Sorghum and Chickpea as

Influenced by Integrated Nutrient Management and Winter Sorghum–
Chickpea Cropping Sequence in the Deep Black Soils of Semi-Arid
Tropics of Bellary, India
S.L. Patil
Research Centre, Bellary, 583 104, Karnataka, India
(Email: slpatil101@rediffmail.com; slpatil64@gmail.com )
A long-term field experiment has been in progress since 2000-2001 to know the effect of integrated nutrient
management and cropping sequence of winter sorghum–chickpea on crop growth and productivity of sorghum and
Session 1.2
chickpea on the deep black soils of Research Farm of the Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and
Training Institute, Research Centre, Bellary, Karnataka, India. It is laid out in a randomized block design in three
replications and in three blocks since 2000–01. In the first block, the sorghum is sown with the imposition of
integrated nutrient management treatments. In the second block, recommended rate of phosphorus is applied to
the chickpea and in the third block, sorghum and chickpea are cultivated in strips with imposition of treatments in
the sorghum strip alone. Every year, both sorghum and chickpea have been exchanged in blocks and strips.
Experiment was monitored during winter season of 2007-2008. During this season, in the sorghum block, the
treatment with 15 kg N through green leaf + 20 kg N through urea (T8) recorded significantly higher grain yield by
39% (1779 kg ha-1) over control and was on par with all the treatments except T4 (25 kg N per ha through compost)
and T5 (15 kg N through compost + 10 kg N ha-1 through urea). The higher grain yield in T8 was attributed to higher
dry matter translocation and accumulation in head, which is depicted by higher head weight and grain weight per
plant. Higher grain weight per plant was attributed to higher dry matter accumulation in individual grain, as depicted
by the higher values of 1000 grain weight. Higher dry matter accumulation in head is represented by the bigger head
size i.e. head length and head diameter. The higher yields in T8 and other treatments over control were attributed to
higher extraction of soil water and nutrient uptake from the soil profile. Higher water use efficiency (WUE) of 8.37 kg
ha-1 mm-1 was observed in T8, followed by T2 and T3 (8.17 and 8.00 kg ha-1 mm-1, respectively) and control recorded
significantly lower WUE of 6.46 kg ha-1 mm1. In the chickpea block, application of 15 kg N through green leaf + 20
kg N through urea (T8) recorded significantly higher grain yield of 1152 kg ha-1, followed by T9 (1117 kg ha-1) and lower
yield of 723 kg ha-1 was recorded in control. The WUE of Bengal gram during 2007–08 was higher with significantly
higher WUE of 6.68 and 6.38 kg ha-1 mm-1 was observed in T8 and T7, respectively over control (4.14 kg ha-1 mm-1).
In sorghum and Bengal gram. In strips block, application of 15 kg N through green leaf and 20 kg N through urea (T 8)
recorded significantly higher sorghum grain equivalent (SGE) (1723) and was on par with all the treatments except
T4 (1477). The higher SGE in T8 was attributed to higher grain and straw yields of sorghum and Bengal gram and
control recorded lower SGE of 1285.
Appraisal of Phosphate-enriched Manure from Kitchen Waste-based

Biphasic Biogas Plant for Mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) using
32
P Radiotracer Technique
Manoj Shrivastava*, Sharad P. Kale and S.F. D’Souza

Nuclear Agriculture and Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre,
Trombay, Mumbai, India
(*Email: shriman31@rediffmail.com)
Biphasic (aerobic and anaerobic) Nisargruna biogas plant has been developed at BARC to process the kitchen
wastes for methane generation and organic manure production. Low grade Indian rock phosphate from Lalitpur, two
192
phosphate solubilizing fungi isolated from two different soils viz., Aspergillus niger TMPS1 and Penicillium oxalicum
TMPS3, and Nisargruna manure (NM) have been tested for production of phosphate-enriched manure. A laboratory
study revealed that a one month incubation period was long enough to produce good quality organic P fertilizers
having higher water soluble P, lower C:P ratio, higher population of phosphate solubilizing microorganisms and
higher phosphatase activity. The relative agronomic efficiency of these products was evaluated under greenhouse
conditions for mungbean and compared with single superphosphate in a P-deficient neutral soil using 32P as a
tracer. The use of 32P allowed the quantification of P availability from the P-enriched manures to the crop. Significantly
higher dry matter yield and total P uptake, % P derived from fertilizer, and P uptake from fertilizer by mungbean
were recorded due to addition of phosphate-enriched manures over control, rock phosphate and NM alone treatments.
A significant increase in the population of rhizosphere phosphate solubilizing microorganisms and phosphatase
activity was observed in the phosphate-enriched manure treatments. Phosphate-enriched manure inoculated with
Penicillium oxalicum TMPS3 showed the highest relative agronomic efficiency as compared to other P sources.
This study demonstrated that phosphate-enriched manure inoculated with phosphate solubilizing fungus was equally
efficient as single superphosphate and improved soil biological activity by increasing rhizosphere phosphate
solubilizing microorganisms and phosphatase activity. This approach of increasing the effectiveness of RP as a P
Session 1.2
fertilizer in agricultural systems is very simple, less energy-demanding and a usable technology at field or farm
scale and helps in mitigating the present concerns of kitchen waste disposal and low P use efficiency of the Indian
rock phosphate.
Effect of Nutrient Management in Zero–Till Wheat under Rice-Wheat

Cropping System in North-West Himalaya
Narendra Kumar*, B.L. Mina, Subhash Chandra and A.K. Srivastva

Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhan Sansthan (ICAR), Almora, 263 601 Uttarakhand, India
(*Email: naren1_agro@yahoo.co.in)
In the rice-wheat system rice is commonly grown by transplating the seedlings manually in the puddled field. Still
in many Asian countries, rice is predominantly grown under rainfed conditions by direct seeding. In the Himalayan
regions of India, about 80-90% slopy agricultural lands are rainfed. Rice-wheat is a dominant cropping system in
this region and direct seeding is commonly practiced for rice cultivation. After rice harvest, field is prepared properly
for wheat sowing by repeated tillage. The intensive tillage after the harvest of rice is not only energy and time
consuming but also increases the cost of production. In general, intensive tillage after rice caused delay in wheat
sowing. Delayed sowing of wheat beyond November reduces the grain yield by 30-50 kg ha-1 day-1. Therefore, to
make the system economically viable, it is essential to reduce the cost of input per unit of output. Under such
conditions, zero tillage could be a vaible option to reduce the turn-around time, cost and establishment of good crop
stand of wheat without loss of productivity and sustainability of the natural resources. The imbalanced application
of nutrients to zero-till wheat has negative impact on wheat productivity. Therefore, a study was conducted to
evaluate the effect of nutrient management in zero-till wheat grown after rice. The experiment was conducted at
Experimental Farm, Hawalbagh of Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhan Sansthan, Almora (29°36´ N, 79°40´
W and 1250 m above msl), Uttarakhand, India. Two sets of rice cultivation practices viz. puddled transplanted and
direct sown upland were used for sowing of zero-till wheat. In each set, 5 nutrient management practices were
used. Two years of results showed no significant variation in grain yield of wheat grown after puddled transplanted
and direct seeded rice. In case of nutrient management practices, the highest mean grain yield (3.7 t ha-1) was
obtained under application of recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) + poultry manure (N equivalent to 5 t FYM)
which was at par with RDF + 5 t FYM ha-1 (3.5 t ha-1) and significantly higher than RDF (3.1 t ha-1) and 50% RDF +
5 t FYM (3.0 t ha-1) or poultry manure (3.0 t ha-1). Thus the study revealed that under zero-tillage, application of
organic fertilizer along with recommended dose of fertilizer may help in enhancement of the productivity of zero-till
wheat.
193
Yield of Rice (Oryza sativa L.) and the Properties of Soil as Affected
by Planting Methods, Sources and Levels of Nitrogen under Direct
Seeded Condition
Avijit Sen*, B.R. Bazaya1 and V.K. Srivastava

Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
1
Present address: Lecturer, Department of Agronomy, SKUAST,
Jammu, 180 009, Jammu and Kashmir, India
(*Email: bhu@gmail.com)
A field trial was conducted during the two consecutive rainy (kharif) seasons of 2002 and 2003 in the Agriculture
Session 1.2
Research Farm of Banaras Hindu University, situated at 25°18 N latitude, 83°31 E longitude and at an altitude of 75.7
meters above mean sea level. The soil of the site was sandy loam in texture and slightly alkaline in reaction (pH 7.6).
It had 0.39% organic carbon along with 217, 19.5 and 143.2 kg ha-1 of available N, P2O5 and K2O, respectively.
The trial consisting of 3 planting methods (Rotavator, zero till and conventional sowing), 3 sources of nitrogen
(Prilled urea, prilled urea + mentha spent and neem-coated urea) and 3 nitrogen doses (50, 100 and 150 kg ha -1)
making 27 treatment combinations was laid out in a split-split plot design with 3 replications by keeping planting
methods in the main plot, sources and levels of nitrogen in the sub and sub-sub plots, respectively to find out their
effects on soil properties, yield and uptake of N, P and K by rice under direct-seeded irrigated condition. Short duration
variety NDR–97, suitable for upland direct seeded rice culture, was taken.
Physical, chemical and biological properties of soil were significantly influenced by the planting methods. Bulk
density, organic carbon and soil moisture content were found to be higher in the zero-till seeding plots than rotavator
and conventional seeding. However, infiltration rate, soil temperature, pH and electrical conductivity declined under
this treatment and were found to be maximum under conventional seeding. Maximum population of bacteria, fungi and
Azotobacter was found in the plot under zero till seeding while in case of actinomycetes the highest population was
found under conventional seeding. Source as well as levels of nitrogen failed to bring about any significant change in
the soil properties. The highest grain and straw yield and nutrient uptake were recorded under conventional seeding
and were found to be significantly superior to zero-till seeding but remained at par with rotavator seeding. Among the
nitrogen sources, neem-coated urea recorded significantly higher grain and straw yield and uptake of N, P and K than
prilled urea and prilled urea + mentha spent. Application of 150 kg N ha-1 produced maximum grain and straw yield but
it was at par with 100 kg N ha-1.
Influence of Preparatory Tillage and Moisture Conservation Practices in

Rainfed Maize (Zea mays L.) of Central Plain Zone
of Uttar Pradesh
Sarvesh Kumar*, Munish Kumar and P.K. Rathi

Department of Soil Conservation and Water Management, C.S. Azad University of
Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur, 208 002, Uttar Pradesh, India
(*Email: sarvesh200517@ rediffmail.com)
Field experiment was carried out during the kharif seasons of 2000 to 2002 to evaluate the influence of preparatory
tillage i.e. one ploughing with deshi plough, two ploughings with cultivator, deep ploughing + 2 cultivator ploughing,
and summer ploughing + 2 cultivator ploughing and moisture conservation practices viz; Control, pre-emergence
194
atrazine spray @ 1.0 kg ha-1, organic residues mulch @ 4 t ha-1, and atrazine + mulch @ 4 t ha-1 on productivity,
water use efficiency, root development of rainfed maize cv. ‘Azad Uttam’. Sowing was done in 22 June 2000, 01 July
2001 and 03 August 2002. The soil of the experimental plot was Inceptisol (coarse sand 1.45%, fine sand 55.46%,
silt 23.10%, clay 19.98%) with pH 7.6, EC 0.26 dS m-1, OC 0.32%, total N 270 kg ha-1, available P 17.49 kg ha-1,
available K 160 kg ha-1, soil aggregates (>0.25 mm) percentage (11.50). The annual rainfall received during crop
seasons of 2000, 2001 and 2002 was 544.2, 498.7 and 686.6 mm.
The results showed that in case of preparatory tillage the practice of summer ploughing + 2 ploughings with
cultivator gave significantly higher grain yield of 3.31, 2.54 and 2.26 t ha-1 during 2000, 2001 and 2002, respectively.
The highest root biomass (20.90 g plant-1), water use (399.0 mm), water use efficiency (6.94 kg grain ha-1 mm-1) and
soil aggregates (>0.25 mm) percentage (14.20) and minimum of weed biomass (39.84 g m-2) and bulk density (1.39
Mg m-3) of post-harvest soil was obtained. Summer ploughing treatment also gave maximum net return of Rs. 10874,
7273 and 6760 ha-1 during 2000, 2001 and 2002, respectively.
Among the moisture conservation practices atrazine + mulch recorded maximum growth and gave significantly
highest grain yield (3.30, 2.54 and 2.18 t ha-1 during 2000, 2001 and 2002, respectively). This treatment also resulted
Session 1.2
in maximum root biomass (21.24 g plant-1), soil moisture content (136.10 mm m-1 depth), water use efficiency (7.06 kg
grain ha-1 mm-1), soil aggregates (>0.25mm) percentage (13), organic carbon (0.38%), and total N (227 kg ha-1) of
post-harvest soil, while bulk density (1.38 Mg m-3) and weed biomass (17.8 g m-2), were recorded minimum. The net
returns from maize were of Rs 9536, 6334 and 5081 ha-1 in 2000, 2001 and 2002, respectively, under atrazine + mulch
treatment. The combined use of summer ploughing followed by 2 ploughings with cultivator + atrazine followed by
mulching produced maximum grain yield of 2.96 t ha-1 and maximum net return of Rs. 8723 ha-1 with B:C ratio 1.78
based on pooled data of all 3 years.
Enhancing Canal Water Productivity through Microirrigation in

Conjunction with Secondary Reservoir
Satyendra Kumar*, Rajbir Singh, D.D. Nangare and Goutam Mandal

(*Email: skumar@cssri.ernet.in)
Water is a critical input in modern agriculture and limited water availability is the most dominant limiting factor for crop
production and diversification in canal command. Irregular canal water supply aggravates problem for diversification
with vegetable crops, as these crops require frequent watering owing to shallow root system. Microirrigation may
constitute a method for sagacious management of limited water resources in conjunction with secondary reservoir, but
there is a lack of information on its use in canal irrigated area of poor ground water quality. Secondary reservoirs are
located in irrigated areas that allow farmers to store canal water and use judiciously with water saving technology like
drip or microsprinkler irrigation system. Government is encouraging producers to shift from traditional practices of
canal water management to microirrigation system for high value crops, but vegetable growers are not much interested.
They need information about the techno-economic feasibility of microirrigation system before investing huge money
for its adoption. Investigations were carried out at the Central Institute of Post Harvest Engineering and Technology,
Abohar, India to help vegetable growers in making decision about adoption of microirrigation system in canal
command for vegetable cultivation. Producers required an investment of Rs. 205,564, 276,389, 328,860 and 284,025,
respectively in a 1 ha block of tomato, capsicum, onion and potato for installation of drip irrigation system and
secondary reservoir while an investment of Rs. 2,09,204 and 2,78,599 per ha respectively, was found for installation
of microsprinkler in onion and potato along with reservoir construction. Tomato and capsicum were grown with drip
system, while potato and onion were irrigated with microsprinkler in addition to drip system and compared with
existing irrigation practices. Drip system saved significant amount of irrigation water i.e. 39 and 46%, respectively
for tomato and capsicum and resulted into higher water production efficiency of 13.1 and 7.32 kg m-3 as compared
to 6.43 and 3.85 kg m-3 of existing irrigation practices. Though, water saving in onion and potato was little because
195
of their close spacing but results of the study revealed better water utilization in microirrigation as compared to
existing irrigation practices. Drip irrigation recorded the highest water use efficiency among all. However, microsprinkler
was found to be the most appropriate system for onion cultivation in canal command which recorded highest water
production efficiency (8.06 kg m-3). Net profit per mm of water was significantly higher in microirrigation as compared
to existing irrigation practices for all the vegetable crops. Hence, efficient utilization of scarce water favours introduction
of microirrigation system in conjunction with service reservoir for better management and higher benefits from
limited and irregular canal water supply.
Potassium and Zinc Nutrition on Yield, Nutrient Uptake and Quality in

Rice-Wheat Sequence in Inceptisol
Session 1.2
K.N. Dwivedi*, S.K. Misra, Ravi and Munish Kumar1

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, C.S. Azad University of
Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur, 208 002, Uttar Pradesh, India
2
Department of Soil Conservation and Water Management, C.S. Azad University of
Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
(*Email: kndwivedi@yahoo.co.in)
Field experiments were conducted during 2005-06 to 2006-07 at Fertilizer Research Station Uttaripura, C.S. Azad
University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur, in an Inceptisol, to investigate the effect of various doses of K (K0,
K40, K80, K120 kg ha-1) and Zn (Zn0, Zn2.5, Zn5, Zn10 kg ha-1) under direct application in rice and their residual effect in
wheat under rice-wheat cropping system. The experimental soil was deficient in N, P and S and medium in K and Zn.
The uniform doses of 150 kg N, 75 kg P2O5 and 60 kg S ha-1 were applied in rice crop. The wheat crop was fertilized
with 120 kg N, 60 kg P2O5, and 40 kg S ha-1. The wheat crop was allowed to subsist on residual amount of K and Zn.
The results indicated that yield contributing character like plant height, number of tillers plant-1, number of panicle
spike-1 plant-1, length of panicle spike-1, number of grain panicle spike-1 and test weight (1000 grain weight) and the
yield of grain and straw were significantly increased with the application of K and Zn in rice and their residual effect in
wheat crop. Grain yield of rice and wheat were increased by 55.27 and 36.03%, respectively with the application of K
and Zn over their respective control. Under direct application and residual amounts of K and Zn significantly increased
the content and uptake of N, P, K, S and Zn. The concentration of all nutrients except Zn was found to be maximum at
pre-flowering stage and decreased thereafter at post-flowering and maturity. The variations in nutrient content at
different stages were also significant due to different doses of K and Zn. These nutrients also brought about significant
improvement in protein and lysine content in grain. A dose of K80Zn5 was the best for most of the characters of both the
crops under study.
Effect of Organic Source of Nutrients on the Productivity of Rainfed

Legume–Vegetable Cropping System
H. Chakraborty*, P.S.B. Anand, M.S. Behera, P. Nanda and A. Kumar

(*Email: hritesh_99@yahoo.com)
Nutrient inputs in agriculture are becoming costly in temporal scale and more ever saving and sustainable management
of those inputs are vital tasks in the recent times. Organic source of nutrient inputs in a legume-vegetable cropping
system is important as the high market price of legume and vegetable has lured a large number of growers to change
196
their cropping pattern from traditional rice based system to vegetable – legume system in the eastern India. Water
as the most limiting factor for crop production should be effectively conserved and utilized in the eastern part of the
country specifically as here the extent and intensity of the kharif rain is large and variable. A field experiment was
conducted in the kharif season (June to October) of 2007 at the WTCER Research Farm, Deras, Orissa to study the
productivity of ladys finger and cowpea in the kharif season. The soil at the study site was sandy loam (32.5% coarse
sand, 25.5% fine sand, 30% silt and 12% clay), with bulk density of 1.51 Mg m-3, saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks)
1.78 cm hr-1, maximum water holding capacity (θs) 0.33 cm3 cm-3 and available water capacity (θAWC) 0.11 cm3 cm-3 in
the 0-15 cm soil. Five different nutrient treatments viz. Recommended dose of N, P and K as inorganic fertilizers (T1);
75% of the recommended dose of N in Ladys finger and P in cowpea as organic sources (T2) ; 50% of the recommended
dose of N in ladys finger and P in cowpea as organic sources (T3); 25% of the recommended dose of N in Ladys finger
and P in cowpea as organic sources (T4); absolute control (T0). Poultry manure and FYM were the organic sources of
nutrients used in this experiment. Manual weeding was done twice and neem oil (0.5%) was sprayed to control leaf-
eating insects and pests. Summer fallowing was practiced to conserve the soil moisture and reduce the weed population
in the advancing kharif season.
Session 1.2
Results revealed that the in ladys finger the treatment T1 gave highest yield (10.6 t ha-1) followed by T2 (9.2 t ha-1),
T3 (8.5 t ha-1) and T4 (8.0 t ha-1) and T0 (6.3 t ha-1). In cowpea the yield was similarly highest in the treatment T1 (4.2 t
ha-1) followed by T2 (3.6 t ha-1),T3 (3.2 t ha-1), T4 (2.8 t ha-1) and T0 (2.3 t ha-1). There is an increase in the organic
carbon content (5 to 11.2%) of the surface soil (0-15 cm) In cowpea there is an increase in the available phosphorus
content (8-12%) in the rooting zone of the crop (15-30 cm), respectively. The net economic return from cowpea is more
than lady’s finger for all the treatment combinations due to the high price of legumes in the market in comparison with
lady’s finger. So it can be concluded from this study that the concept of organic farming technology in a legume-
vegetable system can give higher and secured return in this agro-ecological region of the country and inclusion of
organic source of nutrients has helped in increasing the carbon stock of the surface soil The increase in the available
phosphorus content in the root zone of the legumes by using organic source of nutrients may help in better dissolution
and uptake of phosphorus which is very important for the legumes.
Site-specific Integrated Nutrient Management for Higher Sunflower

Productivity and Soil Fertility on Alfisols in Sunflower–Groundnut
Cropping System
B.N. Reddy and S.N. Sudhakara Babu

(*Email: bnreddy52@yahoo.com_
Sunflower-based cropping systems have high nutrient demand and integrated nutrient management using locally
available organic manures can reduce the inorganic fertilizer load besides improving the soil health to achieve higher
productivity and maintenance of higher soil fertility for sustainability. Sunflower-groundnut cropping system has been
found to be superior in term of biological productivity, profitability and sustainability in Alfisols in the semi-arid tropics.
The present investigation was carried out during monsoon seasons of 2005 to 2007 to standardize the site-specific
integrated nutrient management practices for sunflower-groundnut cropping system.
Field experiment was conducted at Hyderabad, India on red sandy loam Alfisol low in available N (124 kg ha-1),
P (6.6 kg ha-1) and medium in K (217.5 kg ha-1) with a pH of 6.6. The experiment was conducted in randomized
block design with three replications. The nine soil test target yield based nutrient supply treatments comprising of
integration of organic manures (Farmyard manure - FYM, goat manure - GM and poultry manure - PM) along with
inorganic fertilizers viz. 1) Control (no manure and fertilizer), 2) 50% recommended (rec.) NPK, 3) 100% rec. NPK,
4) 100% rec. N through FYM, 5) 150% rec. NPK, 6) 50% rec. NPK + 50% N–FYM, 7) 50% rec. NPK + 50% N–GM,
8) 50% rec. NPK + 50% N-PM and 9) 50% rec. NPK + 50% N (25% N-GM + 25% N-PM) were tested in a fixed plot
cropping system trial. The target yield was 1.4 t ha-1. Quantity of organic manures was calculated based on the N
content on dry weight basis.
197
The mean data of three years reveal that the maximum seed yield (1.60 t ha-1) was recorded with application of
100% rec. NPK which was comparable with 150% NPK, 50% rec. NPK + 50% N-FYM and 50% rec. NPK+50% N-GM.
The lowest seed yield was in control (1.12 t ha-1). The larger head size and higher 1000-seed weight contributed to the
enhanced yields. The treatments also recorded higher oil yield. Significant differences in N, P, K uptake were observed
among the integrated nutrient management practices. The N and K uptake was highest with 100% NPK while P uptake
was maximum with 50% rec. NPK + 50% N-FYM. The SSINM practices had substantially improved the overall soil
fertility from the initial (13% for N, 173% for P and 28% for K), thereby reducing the nutrient requirement (6% for N,
26% for P and 19% for K) to achieve the yield beyond the level of target for the site. This reduced the quantity of
external application of manures and fertilizers to maintain the target yield and thus the profitability of the system has
significantly increased besides realizing high quality produce fetching higher market value.
Yield and Water Use Efficiency of Hybrid Bt Cotton in Response to

Session 1.2
Planting Patterns and Rates of Nitrogen Fertigation in Semi-arid

Region of North-western India
H.S. Thind1*, G.S. Buttar, M.S. Aujla, Sudeep Singh and B.S. Sidhu
PAU Regional Station, Dabwali Road, Bathinda, 151 001, Punjab, India
1
Present address: Department of Soils, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 141 004, Punjab, India
(*E-mail: harmit_thind@yahoo.co.in)
Field experiment was conducted for two years to investigate the effects of different planting patterns and levels of
nitrogen (N) on yield and water use efficiency in hybrid Bt cotton irrigated through surface drip irrigation. Three levels
of N (100, 75 and 50% of recommended N, 150 kg ha-1) were tested under drip irrigation in comparison to 150 kg of N
ha-1 in check-basin. The three methods of planting tried were; normal sowing (uniform row spacing of 67.5 cm), normal
paired row sowing (35-100-35 cm) and dense paired row sowing (35-55-35 cm). Drip irrigation under normal sowing,
when same quantity of water and N was applied as in check-basin, resulted in an increase of 389 and 155 kg ha-1 in
seed cotton yield during first and second years, respectively. Normal paired row sowing in which only 50% irrigation
water was applied under drip irrigation produced similar yield to normal sowing during both the years. Normal paired
row sowing resulted in 18 and 24% higher water use efficiency than normal sowing under drip irrigation and 33 and
30% higher than normal sowing under check-basin during first and second years, respectively. Dense paired row
sowing, in which 75% irrigation water was applied as compared with normal sowing produced 5% higher mean seed
cotton yield and resulted in 18% higher water use efficiency. The decrease in the rate of nitrogen caused a decline in
seed cotton yield and water use efficiency under all the methods of planting but reverse was true for agronomic
efficiency of nitrogen.
Improving Phosphorus Nutrition of Upland Rice (Oryza sativa L.)

through Exploiting Native Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi under Rainfed
Ecosystem
D. Maiti*, M.K. Barnwal, S.K. Rana, R.K. Singh and M. Variar

Central Rainfed Upland Rice Research Station, PB 48, Hazaribag, 825 301, Jharkhand, India
(*Email: dipankar-maiti@live.in)
Upland rice, accounting for about 22% (5.8 Mha) of total rice area in India, is an important crop for the resource-poor
farmers of rainfed uplands. Inefficient phosphorus (P) acquisition resulting from predominating acidic soil conditions
198
and unpredictable drought situations is one of the important reason for poor productivity of this unfavourable
ecosystem. Upland rice is grown under aerobic soil conditions making the soil system favourable for native arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) activity which improves P acquisition of the colonized plant. Presence of AMF, predominated
by the genus Glomus and Acoulospora and their symbiotic association with upland rice in the target ecosystem
has earlier been confirmed by us. Attempt was then made to harness the advantage of this native symbiotic system
for improving P acquisition efficiency of upland rice by: (1) manipulation of agro-practices, and (2) identification of
suitable rice-based cropping systems. The following components have been identified for improving the acquisition
efficiency of added P (fertilizer) by upland rice with concomitant yield increase, mediated through the enhanced
native AMF activity:
(1) Optimizing off-season (November to June next year) tillage (a recommended practice) with minimum space of
10-12 weeks between two tillage schedules.
(2) Two years’ crop rotation of maize (Zea mays L.) relay cropped by horse gram (Dolichos biflorus L.) in the first
year followed by upland rice in the second year (‘Maize-horse gram / R’; ‘M-HG/R’).
Session 1.2
The efficacy of two years’ crop rotation (M-HG/R) with the optimum OST schedule was validated through on-
farm trials during 2004 and 2005 and 2006 and 2007 under farmer’s condition in village Banadag (Dist. Hazaribag)
and was recommended for rainfed uplands.
Water and Nutrient Management through Drip Fertigation in Protected

Cultivation of Horticultural Crops
M. Hasan and Balraj Singh

Centre for Protected Cultivation Technology, IARI, New Delhi, 110 012, India
(Email: mhasan_indo@iari.res.in)
Protected cultivation with drip irrigation and fertigation offers several advantages to produce vegetables, flowers and
planting material of high quality and yields, thus using the land and other resources more efficiently. Drip irrigation and
fertigation technology helps in increasing water and nutritional productivity of horticultural crops. Protected cultivation
also helps in increasing water and nutritional productivity of horticultural crops .The crop water productivity was found
to be 48.5 and 39.8 kg m-3 for tomato and cucumber grown in climate controlled greenhouse with drip fertigation. The
crop water productivity was found to be 420 stem m-3 of water for rose soil and 414 stem m-3 for chrysanthemum grown
in climate controlled greenhouse with drip fertigation. The crop water productivity for tomato grown in open field with
drip fertigation was 20.8 kg m-3 of water and for surface irrigation it was only 10.7 kg m -3 of water. The crop water
productivity for coloured capsicum and green capsicum grown in climate controlled greenhouse was found to be
24.6 and 37 kg m-3 of water. The crop water productivity of tomato grown in climate controlled greenhouse with drip
fertigation was 48.5 kg m-3 while the same tomato variety grown in naturally ventilated greenhouse with low pressure
irrigation was 66.7 kg m-3 of water. The nutritional water productivity of tomato grown in open field with surface
irrigation was found to be 1969 kcal m-3, protein 90.4 g m-3, fat 15.3 gm m-3 and calcium 278 mg m-3 of water. The
nutritional water productivity of tomato grown in open field with drip fertigation was found to be 3827 kcal m -3, protein
176 g m-3, fat 29.7 g m-3 and calcium 540 mg m-3 of water. The nutritional water productivity of tomato grown in
climate controlled greenhouse with drip fertigation was found to be 8924 kcal m-3, protein 410 g m-3, fat 70 gm m-3
and calcium 1260 mg m-3 of water.
199
Effect of Sulphur and Phosphorus Interaction on Yield, Nutrient

Uptake and Quality of Soybean
J.R. Kadam, M.B. Ijgude and A.S. Takate

Zonal Agricultural Research Station, Scarcity Zone, MPKV, “Krushak Bhavan”,
Near Dayanand College, Solapur, 413 002, Maharashtra, India
(Email: zarssolapur@rediffmail.com)
A field experiment was conducted during 2005 at the Post Graduate Institute Farm to study the effect of sulphur and
phosphorus on yield and quality of soybean in an Inceptisol. The field experiment was laid out in factorial randomized
block design having sixteen treatment combinations with two replications. Four levels of sulphur (0, 20, 30 and 40 kg
ha-1) through elemental sulphur along with four levels of phosphorus (0, 50, 75 and 100 kg ha-1) through diammonium
phosphate were taken in various combinations. The highest grain (2.45 t ha-1) and straw (2.86 t ha-1) yields of soybean
Session 1.2
were recorded due to the application of 40 kg S ha-1 followed by application of 30 kg S ha-1 in grain (2.10 t ha-1) and
straw (2.64 t ha-1) yield. The application of phosphorus @ 100 kg P2O5 ha-1 resulted significantly highest grain (2.22 t
ha-1) and straw (2.73 t ha-1) yield. This was followed by application of 75 kg P2O5 ha-1. Application of 40 kg S and 75 kg
P2O5 ha-1 gave highest grain (2.66 t ha-1) and straw (3.05 t ha-1) yields. This was followed by application of 40 kg S and
100 kg P2O5 ha-1 in grain (2.58 t ha-1) and straw (2.96 t ha-1) yield. The lowest grain and straw yield were recorded due
to application of 20 kg S and 50 kg P2O5 ha-1. The sulphur and phosphorus application significantly improved the
uptake and concentration of N, P, K and S by soybean. The combined application of 40 kg S ha-1 with 75 kg P2O5 ha-
1
gave the highest oil (21.52%) and crude protein content (44.95%). Also the treatment proved to be the best and
superior for significant increase in yield, number of root nodules per plant, oil, crude protein and nutrient uptake of
soybean.
Growth and Yield Performances of Potato as Influenced by Organic and

Inorganic Sources of Nutrients
Partha Pratim Das*, Chaitan Soren and A. Zaman

Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur,
Nadia, 741 252, West Bengal, India
(*Email : ppdas24@rediffmail.com)
Field experiment was conducted at the Central Research Farm, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Gayeshpur,
Nadia, West Bengal during the rabi season of 2005-06 to study the effect of organic and inorganic fertilizers on growth
and yield performances of potato. The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Block design with 8 treatment
combinations in 3 replications. The treatment combinations were T1 : control, T2 : 100% recommended dose (RD)
of organic fertilizer, T3 : 100% RD of inorganic fertilizer, T4 : 75% RD of organic + 25% RD of inorganic fertilizers, T5
: 60% RD of organic + 40% RD of inorganic fertilizers, T6 : 50% RD of organic + 50% RD of inorganic fertilizers, T 7
: 40% RD of organic + 60% RD of inorganic fertilizers, T8 : 25% RD of organic + 75% RD of inorganic fertilizers. The
tubers of potato cv. Kufri Jyoti, weighing 25-30 g, were sown at a 7-8 cm depth with 45 cm X 15 cm spacing. The
results showed a positive significant effect on leaf area index, dry matter production, crop growth rate, tuber bulking
rate and tuber yield of potato. Proper growth and development of potato plant progressively increased up to 80 days
after planting in irrespective of different treatments and thereafter increased up to harvest slowly. Potato crop
receiving 40% organic and 60% inorganic sources of nutrients produced highest tuber yield (27.71 t ha-1) and also
maintained its superiority among the all treatments.
200
Yield and Water Use of Bitter Gourd with Different Nutritional

Management under Various Moisture Regimes
Pulak Bhunia*, A.R. Mandal and T.K. Maity

Department of Vegetable Crops, Faculty of Horticulture, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Mohanpur, Nadia, 741 252, West Bengal, India
(*E-mail: pulakbhunia@gmail.com)
An experiment was carried out to study the growth and yield of bitter gourd cv. “Pusa Vishesh” under influence of
different levels of irrigation and fertilization during the period at Horticulture Research Station, Mondouri of BCKV,
Mohanpur, West Bengal with objectives of conserving and integrated management of natural resources. The field
experiment was carried out to find out proper scheduling of irrigation under different nutritional management including
bio-fertilizer to increase yield potentiality of bitter gourd. The results revealed that yield of bitter gourd substantially
Session 1.2
increased with application of irrigation at 10 days interval. Frequency of irrigation at 10 days interval, where 2 irrigations
were given, was found to be optimum for getting higher yield of bitter gourd. Application of nitrogen as 50% inorganic,
50% organic and bio-fertilizer was optimized the yield and provided better quality. Seasonal consumptive use (SCU)
was increased with increasing levels of irrigation and maximum when irrigation was applied at 10 days interval followed
by 7 days and 15 days intervals. Water use efficiency (WUE) was maximum with combination of irrigation at 10 days
interval along with inorganic 50%, organic 50% + bio-fertilizer.
Input Use Efficiency in Diversified Cropping Systems in Irrigated

Eco-system of Bihar
R.D. Singh, Shivani, N. Chandra and S.K. Singh

ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region, ICAR Parisar, Patna, Bihar, India
(*Email: srd_rds@yahoo.co.in)
Four crop cycles for all the cropping systems were studied. Pooled analysis of rice yield equivalence revealed that
during all the years of experimentation, there were significant variations among cropping systems. Maximum yield
equivalence was recorded in rice-tomato-bottle guard (40.74 t ha-1) followed by rice-potato-onion (28.47 t ha-1), rice-
coriander-ladies finger (26.79 t ha-1), rice-carrot-cowpea (24.59 t ha-1) and rice-mustard-tomato (24.44 t ha-1), respectively.
Maximum water-use-efficiency was recorded in rice-bottle gourd-tomato (166 kg ha-1cm-1) followed by rice-potato-
onion (124 kg ha-1cm-1) rice-coriander-ladies finger (113 kg ha-1cm-1) and rice-mustard-tomato (112 kg ha-1cm-1),
respectively. The DI varies from 0.299 on a medium farm to 0.903 on a small farm with an average DI of 0.643 among
all categories of farmers. Survey revealed that average DI of small farmers was found to be the highest (0.741) as
compared to those of medium (0.591) and large (0.626) category of farmers and the differences were negligible. This
seems to have reinforced the view that smaller the farm size; higher is the level of crop diversification. A perusal of crop
diversification pattern of farmers further revealed that majority of farmers were high crop diversifiers (46.4%), followed
by medium 35.7%) and low (17.8%) level of crop diversification. Similar trends were observed in case of small and
large category of farmers across their level of crop diversification, wherein it was observed that farmers were distributed
among low, medium and high levels of crop diversification evenly to the tune of 33.3% each. Soil studies indicated that
there was a significant variation in pH, EC, available nitrogen, phosphorus and potash except organic carbon after the
first crop cycle. In all the systems there was an increase in pH and organic carbon but reduction in EC, available
nitrogen, phosphorus and potash from initial status. This may be attributed to exhaustive cropping. Inclusion of black
gram in rice-wheat and lentil in rice-sponge guard cropping systems increased the available nitrogen and phosphorus
and found at par with that of initial status. There was abrupt reduction in available potassium in all the systems from
initial status of the soil after first crop cycle. This may be because of inclusion of vegetable dominated crops in the
system, whose potassium requirements are more than cereals- and pulse-dominated crops in the system.
201
Changes in Fractions of Iron, Manganese, Copper and Zinc

in Inceptisol Under Continuous Cropping for More Than
Three Decades
Sanjib Kumar Behera2 and Dhyan Singh1

1
Pusa, New Delhi, 110 012, India
2
Present address: Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road,
Bhopal, 462 038, Madhya Pradesh, India
(*Email: sanjib_bls@rediffmail.com)
The effect on continuous cropping with maize and wheat on soil characters and changes of various forms of
Session 1.2
micronutrient cations in an Incetisol, over the years was studied in an on-going long-term experiment at New Delhi,
India. The soil samples collected for the years of 1993, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2001, 2003 and 2004 were analyzed for
different fractions of Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn by following sequential extraction procedure. The pH, EC and CaCO 3
content of the soil varied from 8.28 to 8.53, 0.40 to 0.43 dS m-1 and 0.92 to 1.05%, respectively. Organic carbon
content ranged from 0.38% in control to 0.67% in 100% NPK + farm yard manure (FYM). The DTPA extractable Fe
and Mn (but not Zn and Cu) in soil declined from their respective initial (1971) values as a result of intensive cropping
for more than three decades. It also resulted in decrease in the concentrations of all the four metallic cations bound
to organic matter, in addition to Fe and Zn, associated with carbonates in all the treatments in surface soil.
Soil Organic Carbon Changes in Soybean – Wheat System in a Vertisol

under Different IPNS Options
Brij Lal Lakaria*, Muneshwar Singh, K.S. Reddy, A.K. Biswas, R.S. Chaudhary and A.B. Singh
Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal, 462 038, Madhya Pradesh, India
(*Email: brij@iiss.ernet.in)
An assessment of integrated plant nutrient supply system (IPNS) with respect to changes in organic carbon and
related parameters was carried out after five cropping cycles of soybean-wheat rotation on a Vertisol. The nutrient
management options included were: No fertilizer or manure (T1), general recommended dose (GRD) of fertilizers (T2),
soil test crop response (STCR) based nutrient dose (T3), 50% STCR dose (T4), 50% STCR dose + 5 t FYM ha-1 (T5),
50% STCR dose + 1 t poultry manure ha-1 (T6), 50% STCR dose + 5 t urban compost ha-1 (T7), 50% STCR dose +
wheat residues (T8), wheat residue + 1 t FYM ha-1 (T9), wheat residue + 5 t FYM ha-1 (T10), 8 t FYM ha-1 (T11) and 50%
STCR dose + 20 t FYM ha-1 once in 4 years (T12). For wheat crop 100% STCR recommended dose was applied under
all the treatments from T3 to T12 except T8 (100% STCR dose + glyricidia) and T11 (only 16 t FYM ha-1). Application of
manures and fertilizers for five years in soybean – wheat system in a Vertisol improved the organic carbon content in
soil. Irrespective of different IPNS options, in all the treatments an increase in the organic carbon content was observed
compared to initial value of 4.9 g kg-1; in the surface soil (0-7.5 cm) it varied from 6.0 to 8.9 g kg-1. Application of only
organic sources to the soybean-wheat system (T11) resulted in highest build up of organic carbon content at all the
three soil depths followed by T12 treatment. In 7.5-15.0 cm soil depth the organic carbon content varied from 5.6 to 7.2
g kg-1 with almost a trend similar to that of the surface soil. The 15-30 cm soil layer contained minimum content of
organic carbon, which ranged between 3.7 and 4.5 g kg-1. Similar effect of different nutrient management options was
also observed in case of other carbon-related parameters such as soil microbial biomass carbon, dehydrogenase
activity etc.
202
Performance of Wheat (Triticum aestivum) as Influenced by Tillage

Options and Fertility Levels under Rainfed Temperate Condition
of Kashmir Valley
Ummed Singh*, Badrul Hasan, A.A. Saad and S.R. Singh

Faculty of Agriculture and Regional Research Station (SKUAST-K), Wadura, Sopore,
Jammu and Kashmir, 193 201, India
(*Email: singhummed@yahoo.co.in)
A field experiment was carried out during the winter seasons of 2006-07 and 2007-08 at the research farm of Faculty
of Agriculture and Regional Research Station, Wadura, Sopore (J&K) to evaluate the relative performance of various
tillage options and fertility levels in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) after rice (Oryza sativa) harvest. Among various tillage
Session 1.2
practices reduced tillage recorded markedly higher dry matter production and yield attributes (spike m -2, grains/spike,
spike length and 1000 grain weight). Reduced tillage resulted in the highest yield of 3.5 t ha-1. The reduced tillage was
the best option and recorded highest net return (Rs 28 325/ha), followed by rotary (Rs 24 695/ha) and zero tillage (Rs
21 975/ha) and lowest with conventional tillage (Rs 18 910/ha). Markedly higher uptake of N, P and K was also
recorded with reduced tillage (86.4, 17.2 and 96.3 kg ha-1, respectively) followed by rotary tillage. Lowest weed population
and its dry weight was recorded under conventional tillage and greatest under zero tillage. Application of 100%
recommended dose of fertilizer (60 kg N, 40 kg P2 O5 and 20 kg K2O ha-1) recorded significantly higher dry matter
accumulation, spike m-2 , grains/spike, spike length, 1 000 grain weight and grain yield (3.4 t ha-1) and straw yield of
wheat over lower fertility levels but remained on par with 125% RDF. Similarly, net return/rupee investment increased
significantly up to 100% RDF. Application of 125% RDF (75 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and 25 kg K2O ha-1) recorded significantly
higher weed population, weed dry weight and N P K uptake by crop then 100%, 75% and 50% RDF.
Seed Enhancement Techniques for Assured Plant Stand
Malavika Dadlani, Pritam Y Shinde, Omkar Sharma and Shiv K. Yadav

Division of Seed Science and Technology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110 012, India
Successful field emergence and stand establishment under a wide range of conditions are the keys to assured production.
Seed enhancement treatments have the potential to alleviate stress effects and improve plant stand. Various seed
enhancement treatments like seed priming, invigoration, coating, pelleting, fortification with bioactive substances and
pesticidal treatments are known to improve seed quality in different species, but response to these treatments are
variable and crop-specific. Pre-sowing seed priming and other treatments were applied to cotton and chickpea seeds
to achieve uniform seed germination, faster emergence and subsequent establishment of the seedlings. Storability of
the treated seeds under ambient conditions was also studied.
Effect of the seed enhancement treatments varied significantly in cotton and chickpea seed lots, as well as within
the crop between the seed lots of different vigour levels. In cotton polymer coating, with pesticides and hydropriming
with fungicide dressing were found most effective in enhancing the germination and field emergence. In chickpea,
priming was not effective, but treatment with the botanicals, bio control agents, fungicides or polymer coating with or
without pesticides significantly increased germination and field emergence. Storability of the seeds was not affected
by pre-sowing treatments, though Kabuli chickpea varieties showed faster deterioration than the Desi varieties.
Thus, treatments with polymers with or without pesticides or with botanical pesticides alone can be practiced not
only for enhancing the planting value and the storability of seeds, but also to minimize the use of chemical pesticides.
While biocontrol agents like Kalisena and botanicals are environment friendly, the polymer coating provides a means
for more effective application of pesticides. A better field emergence ability of the primed seeds also means using
lesser quantity of seed per unit area.
203
Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) in Costal Saline Soils of Goa for

Sustainable Rice Production
R.R. Verma, H.M. Wasnik and B.L. Manjunath

ICAR research complex for Goa, Ela, Old Goa, 403 402, India
An experiment was conducted in saline soils at farmer’s field of Chodan having salinity of 2.08 dSm -1. A Randomised
Block Design (RBD) with eight treatments namely Control, Sesbania rostrata, Glyricidia, Farm Yard Manure (FYM),
Recommended dose of fertiliser (RDF, i.e.100 : 50 : 50 NPK kg ha-1), Sesbania rostrata + RDF, Glyricidia + RDF, Farm
Yard Manure (F.Y.M.) + RDF and RDF alone, replicated thrice. The rice variety CSR-27 was grown during kharief
season of 2007- 2008. The recommended management practices were taken care and the observation on growth and
yield parameters were recorded in different treatments.
Session 1.2
The result showed that the application of Sesbania rostrata +RDF has out yielded (4.7 t ha-1) amongst all the
treatments fallowed by FYM + RDF(3.5 8 t ha-1), Glyricidia + RDF (3.56 t ha-1), RDF (3.20 t ha-1), Sesbania rostrata
(3.06 t ha-1), Glyricidia (2.36 t ha-1), FYM (2.12 t ha-1) and control (1.78 t ha-1).
The results showed that the potential for the improvement of coastal saline soils through integrated application of
Sesbania rostrata with feriliser for higher productivity of rice (3.06 t ha-1), green leaves of Glyricidia (2.36 t ha-1), Farm
yard manure (F.Y.M.) (2.12 t ha-1), Recommended dose of fertiliser (RDF,i. e.100 : 50 : 50 NPK kg ha-1) (3.20 tan/ha),
Susbania rostrata+RDF (4.7 tan/ha), Green leaves of Glyricidia + RDF (3.56 t ha-1), Farm yard manure (F.Y.M.)+
RDF(3.58 tan/ha) and RDFC.
Soil Organic Matter Conservation for Sustainable Agriculture through

IPNS in an Aeric Heplaquept under Rice-Rice
Cropping System
A. Baishya, S. Ahmed, J.P. Hazarika and M.C. Kalita

Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, 785 013, Assam, India
The integrated plant nutrient supply (IPNS) system holds great promise in sustaining crop productivity through
humus build up in soil. To investigate the soil humus build up a field experiment was started in the year 2003-2004
with rice (winter)-rice (autumn) cropping system under AICRP on Cropping System, AAU, Jorhat. The experimental
site represents Upper Brahmaputra Plains AESR with warm to hot per humid ESR with alluvium derived sandy loam
soil with medium available water capacity and LGP>300 days. The soil initially had pH 4.66, organic carbon
0.676%, available N, P and K 241, 13 and 49 kg ha-1 respectively. Organic carbon of the soil was determined
following the method of Walkley and Black. Fractionation of humic and fulvic acid was done as per standard
method. The pH, available N, P and K were determined by standard methods. The soil samples at the active growth
stage of the 6th crop showed significant increase of organic carbon. Both humic aid and fulvic acids in the soil were
significantly increased due to IPNS both under the winter rice (T3) and autumn rice (T2). Application of only
chemical fertilizer resulted in lowering of organic carbon in soil and less humic acid and fulvic acid were recorded.
It is concluded that IPNS is suitable for improving the organic matter content in the soil. About 2.2 t of dry compost
prepared from cowdung and crop residue containing 0.9% N was required to supply 20 kg N ha-1.
204
Alternate Furrow Irrigation – a Technique for Enhancing Water Use

Efficiency in Quality Protein Maize
Ashok Kumar and R.K. Chhillar

The winter planted quality protein maize (QPM) requires frequent irrigations for its better growth and also to prevent
from the cold and frost. For irrigating the crop by conventional furrow method (CFI) huge amount of water is required,
which is scanty and costly input. Thus in the present investigation two irrigation methods viz. skip furrow irrigation
(SFI), alternate furrow irrigation (AFI) were compared with CFI under two irrigation depths (40 ad 60 mm) and four
fertility levels [Recommended NPK (RDNPK), RDNPK + 10 t FYM/ha, ¾ of RDNPK + FYM (equiv. to 30 kg N ha-1) and
½ of RDNPK + FYM (equip. to 60 kg N ha-1]. The experiment was conducted in split plot design by keeping methods
and depths of irrigation in main plot and fertility levels in sub plot with three replications during winter season of 2005-
Session 1.2
06and 2006-07. The recommended dose of N, P and K was 120, 26 and 33 kg ha-1, respectively. Improved growth and
yield attributes with higher yield and consumptive use of water by QPM were recorded with CFI method as compared
to AFI and SFI methods at 40 mm irrigation water depth. However, when crop was irrigated with 60 mm water depth,
the AFI was comparable to CFI method in terms of growth and yield. It is important to record that with AFI method, a
considerable amount (40%) of irrigation water could be saved, which resulted in the maximum value of water use
efficiency. The SFI method was the poorest method in terms of both productivity and water use efficiency. Increasing
irrigation depth (60 cm) gave higher yield over 40 mm with more water use but and water use efficiency showed the
reverse trend. The return per unit of water applied was the highest with AFI method. The results on response of QPM
to fertility levels reveals that RDNPK being at par with 3/4 of RDNPK + FYM (equiv. to 30 kg N ha-1) recorded the higher
yield and water use efficiency than ½ of RDNPK + FYM (equiv. to 60 kg N ha -1). The growth and yield attributes also
showed the similar trend. Further, addition of 10 t ha-1 FYM to RDNPK again resulted in significant increase in grain
yield over recommended dose of NPK. But data on economics indicated that for getting the more return and benefit:
cost ratio, the fertility level of RDNPK closely followed by 3/4 of RDNPK + FYM (equiv. to 30 kg N ha-1) is the best
treatment. However, with soil fertility point of view, application of RDNPK + 10 t FYM ha-1 left the maximum contents of
N, P and K in soil. Based on the two years results it can be concluded that for getting the higher return and saving of
irrigation water the QPM should be irrigated with 60 mm water depth by AFI method and crop should be fertilized
with either RDDNPK (120N, 26P and 33K kg ha-1) or 3/4 of RDNPK + FYM (equiv. to 30 kg N ha -1)
Management of Manganese Deficiency in Fodder Crops through

Mobilization of Manganese in the Rhizosphere
U.S. Sadana and Sumeet Arneja

(Email: vkaro58@yahoo.com)
To study the possibility of managing manganese (Mn) deficiency in fodder crops through mobilization of Mn in the
rhizosphere, berseem, oats, ryegrass and raya were grown in mixed cropping in a Mn-deficient loamy sand soil in an
experiment conducted in screen house. The experimental soil had pH 8.3, CaCO 3 4.7 g kg-1 soil and DTPA-extractable
Mn 2.72 mg kg-1 soil. Four cropping combinations were examined: berseem monoculture, berseem grown in mixed
cropping with oats, ryegrass and raya. Seeds of berseem (Trifolium alexandrium L. cv. BL10), oats (Avena sativa L. cv.
Kent), ryegrass (Lolium perenne L. cv. Punjab Ryegrass No.1) and raya (Brassica juncea L. cv. RLM 619) were grown
in plastic pots containing 10 kg soil. Two sets of treatments were maintained; to one set, three foliar sprays of 0.5%
MnSO4 solution were applied at weekly intervals after first cutting. In no-Mn treatment (no foliar sprays), root length
(RL) and shoot dry weight (SDW) of berseem grown as monoculture was severely inhibited as compared to berseem
205
grown in mixed cropping. In no-Mn berseem monoculture treatment, SDW and RL were, respectively, 71 and 68%
of the maximum recorded at 60 days of growth after applying Mn. Corresponding values of SDW and RL of berseem
when grown in mixed cropping with raya and ryegrass were 96 and 88% and 88 and 87%, respectively. Application
of Mn significantly increased both SDW and RL. There was 1.7 and 1.3 times increase in root length of berseem
grown in mixed cropping with ryegrass and raya, respectively as compared to berseem grown as monoculture.
Mixed cropping with spray application of Mn resulted in maximum Mn uptake in berseem grown with ryegrass as
well as with raya due to well developed root system with larger root surface area. High relative root growth rate and
low relative shoot growth rate resulted in high Mn concentration in berseem grown with ryegrass and raya in mixed
cropping. Infact, three times higher Mn influx in berseem grown with ryegrass or with raya as compared to berseem
alone may be the reason of higher Mn content in the shoots. The high Mn influx resulted from high concentration
gradient due to depletion of Mn at the root surface to a lower value in berseem grown under similar conditions.
Increase in DTPA-extractable Mn was recorded where berseem was grown in mixed cropping with ryegrass and
raya after harvest of all the crops. This study suggests that mixed cropping of berseem with raya or ryegrass leads
to sufficient mobilization of Mn in soil to counteract Mn deficiency.
Session 1.2
Soil Fertility Assessment under Dominant Land Use Systems

in Western Rajasthan
Mahesh Kumar and Pramila Raina

Detailed study was undertaken in Jhunjhunun district of western Rajasthan in order to prepare a spatial database
regarding the fertility status of soils under agriculture (rainfed and irrigated), oran (traditional grazing lands) and sand
dunes, which are by and large prevailed the dominant land use systems. About 250 georeferenced surface soil
samples (0-30 cm depth) representing the above land use systems were collected, analyzed and categorized as
low, medium and high as per the criteria followed in the soil testing laboratories. The pH and EC values of the soils
were ranged from 7.7- 9.6 and 0.02 – 2.5 dS m,-1 respectively. About 43.5% samples had pH values between 7.7 to
8.5, and 45.8% samples had pH between 8.5 and 9.0 and the remaining 10.7% samples had pH value more than
9.0. The SOC content in the soils varied from 0.03-0.62%, with the lowest content (0.07%) in sand dunes. Whereas,
soils under rainfed agriculture and open scrub were at par in SOC content (0.13 and 0.14%). Soils under irrigated
agriculture had the highest values for SOC (0.22%). Phosphorus deficiency was spread all over the district but soils
under sand dunes, orans followed by rainfed agriculture were more deficient in phosphorus (<10.0 kg ha-1). However
soils of irrigated agriculture showed the build up of phosphorus due to carry over effect of continuous use of P
fertilizers over a period of time. The available potassium content varied from 95 to 650 kg ha -1 with a mean values
195, 161 and 135 kg ha-1 in orans, agriculture and sand dunes, respectively. Deficiency of potassium (<130 kg ha-
1
) was distributed all over the district but it was more pronounced under agriculture than the orans. Thus, it clearly
indicated that there was more depletion of available potassium stock in these soils, which requires immediate
attention to maintain the potassium status. Soils of the district are adequate in available iron (4.2 - 5-30 mg kg-1),
manganese (5.5 - 40.5 mg kg-1) and copper (0.28-7.4 mg kg-1). However zinc content in the soils varied from 0.28 to
5.90 mg kg-1 and about 30 per cent of samples were found deficient. Zinc deficiency was mainly concentrated in
both under rainfed and irrigated agriculture. Based on the linear coefficient of correlation between available nutrients
and soil properties, a significant and positive correlation was observed between organic carbon and P, K, Fe, Mn
and Zn. However, the available nutrients (P, Fe, Zn and Cu) showed a negative correlation with pH and CaCO3.
206
Rock Phosphate and Waste Mica Enriched Compost: A New

Technology to Improve Low-Grade Minerals and Rice Straw as
Source of Phosphorus and Potassium on Crop Productivity and Soil
Fertility under Potato-Soybean Crop Rotation in an Inceptisol
D.R. Biswas
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110012
This study focuses on the preparation of enriched compost using low-grade mineral such as rock phosphate (RP)
and waste mica and their effect on crop productivity and soil fertility under potato-soybean cropping sequence in an
Inceptisol. Three enriched composts were prepared by mixing low-grade RP and waste mica with rice straw along
Session 1.2
with Aspergillus awamori (PSM). These are: compost-A (rice straw i.e. ordinary compost); compost-B (Rice straw
+ RP @ 2%P + mica @2% K + PSM) and compost-C (Rice straw + RP @ 4%P + mica @4% K + PSM). The
effectiveness of the enriched composts was evaluated through a field experiment at IARI, New Delhi. There were
eight treatments replicated thrice in a randomized block design. These are: T1 = control; T2 = 100% recommended
dose of NPK (120:60:60); T3 = 75% N through fertilizer + 25% N from compost-A; T4 = 50% N through fertilizer +
50% N from compost-A; T5 = 75% N through fertilizer + 25% N from compost-B; T6 = 50% N through fertilizer + 50%
N from compost-B; T7 = 75% N through fertilizer + 25% N from compost-C and T8 = 50% N through fertilizer + 50%
N from compost-C. Fertilizer materials were applied to first crop of potato during rabi season of 2005-2006 and
soybean was grown on residual fertility during kharif 2006. Crops were harvested at maturity, recorded the yield and
analyzed for their N, P and K contents. Soil samples were drawn after the harvest of potato and soybean and
analyzed for pH, organic C and available N, P and K status. Results enumerated that yield and uptake of N, P and
K by potato was significantly increased due to application of enriched compost over control. The highest yield and
nutrients uptake were observed in treatment T8 where 50% N was applied through inorganic fertilizer and rest of the
50% N was applied through enriched compost-C. The relative effectiveness on yield of potato ranged from 89.8 to
240%. Significantly higher yield and uptake of N, P and K by soybean were observed over control. The efficiencies
on dry matter yield of soybean ranged from 96 to 156%. These values for total N, P and K uptake ranged from 104.3
to 194%, 141 to 253% and 101 to 189%, respectively. Significant build-up of organic C, available N, P and K were
also observed due to application of enriched composts, than control. Among the enriched compost the build-up of
organic C, available N, P and K were in the order of compost-C > compost-B > compost-A. The results clearly
showed that preparation of enriched compost could be an alternative and cost effective technology to prepare an
enriched organic fertilizer and to utilize agricultural waste and low-grade materials such as rock phosphate and
waste mica in place of costly water soluble P and K fertilizer for crop production and maintaining soil fertility.
Breeder Seed Production in India: A saga of AICRP – NSP (Crops)
S. Natarajan and Asit B. Mandal*

Directorate of Seed Research, Kushmaur, Mau 275 101, India
(*Email: amandal2@rediffmail.com)
In enhancing agricultural productivity and profitability, quality seed constitutes the seminal step. Simply by using
quality seeds, 10-15% enhancement in productivity is possible and under optimum management, 40-45% yield
increase in different crops is a feasible proposition. In the Indian context seed replacement rate is exceedingly low
in the country side amounting 10-15% only which has been projected to be increased to 25% in self pollinated
crops, 35% in cross pollinated crops and 100% in hybrids as per National Seed Plan 2005. Upon realizing the vast
potential of quality seeds in augmenting agricultural productivity and production as a whole, Indian Council of
207
Agricultural Research launched AICRP – National Seed Project during the 1979 – 80. After successful completion
of major three phases, NSP – I, II and III substantially financed by the World Bank too, the NSP is now operating at
35 Breeder Seed Production Units and 23 seed Technology Research Units countrywide. The efforts made in this
project and its operationalization involving ICAR institutes and State Agricultural Universities has been largely
appreciated in the Project Implementation Completion Report of FAO Mission. The project has emerged as a ‘role
model’ for production of breeder seeds and for conductance of seed technological research to address existing and
emerging problems in the seed sector especially in respect of seed production and certification, seed technology,
seed physiology storage and processing, value addition, seed pathology, entomology and seed molecular biology.
The breeder seed production has touched an all time record of 77666 quintals during 2007- 08 from a meager
production of 3914 quintals in 1981 – 82. A bunch of useful technologies has been developed from seed technological
research which has been conducted in consortium mode involving many centres across locations. Those technologies
are being adopted by various state governments as well as by other public and private entrepreneurs in seed
endeavours. Being one of the most vibrant and biggest AICRP in the country NSP is expected to be retaining its
pride and glory in the days to come in discharging the responsibility of breeder seed production and in development
of sound technological backstoppings to support and enhance seed sector for a productive and remunerative
Session 1.2
agriculture in the country. The present paper encompasses finer details of the achievements made during the last
five years under AICRP – NSP (Crops).
System of Rice Intensification (SRI) and Plant Growth Promoting

Rhizobacteria (PGPR) Effects on Growth and Yield of Rice Hybrids
Ram Lal Choudhary*, Dinesh Kumar and Nain Singh

(*E-Mail: rl.iari@yahoo.co.in)
Rice is the staple food of more than half of the world’s population. In Asia, rice is the most important and extensively
grown food crop. There is much evidence that water scarcity already prevails in rice-growing areas, where rice
farmers need technologies to cope with water shortage and ways must be sought to grow rice with less water. SRI
appears to be a viable alternative of rice cultivation that saves the expensive inputs, improves soil health/ quality and
protects the environment substantially. PGPR are able to exert a beneficial effect upon plant growth. These bacteria
may be important for plant nutrition by increasing the nutrient uptake by the plants. Therefore, keeping the above
facts in view, a field experiment entitled “Performance of rice hybrids grown by system of rice intensification (SRI)
with plant growth promoting rhizobacteria” was conducted in a sandy clay-loam soil at Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi – 12, India during kharif season of 2007. The objectives of the study were i) to evaluate the
agronomic performance of different rice hybrids grown by system of rice intensification (SRI), and ii) to study the
effect of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) on productivity and nutrient uptake of rice hybrids. The
treatments (18) comprised of combination of 6 rice hybrids (KRH 2, Arize 6444, PHB 71, Indam 100-001, PRH 10
and Indam 100-003), and 3 kinds of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (Non-inoculated control, Azospirillum
brasilense CD4 and Bacillus subtilis RP24). Treatments were laid out in a factorial randomized block design with
three replications. Results of this trial indicate that the highest grain yield was obtained in KRH 2, being at par to
Arize 6444 and PHB 71, but significantly higher than that obtained in Indam 100-003, PRH 10 and Indam 100-001.
The lowest grain yield of rice was recorded with Indam 100-001, which was significantly lower than all the other 5
hybrids. Rice hybrids KRH 2, Arize 6444 and PHB 71 produced 74.7%, 65.5% and 56.0% more grain yield,
respectively over Indam 100-001. Although, inoculation of rice with Bacillus subtilis did not increase the grain yield
significantly over control, but inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense increased the grain yield of rice significantly
over both control (non-inoculated) and Bacillus subtilis inoculation. The increase in grain yield due to inoculation of
Azospirillum brasilense over control and Bacillus subtilis inoculation was to the tune of 15.2 and 15.8%, respectively.
208
Efficient utilization of Water and Nitrogen in Bt Cotton using a Generic

Simulation Model Infocrop
K.K. Bandyopadhyay, A.H. Prakash, K. Shankaranarayanan, B. Dharajothi and N. Gopalakrishnan

Central Institute for Cotton Research, Regional Station, Coimbatore, 641 003, Tamil Nadu, India
The rapid increase of Bt cotton area since its introduction in 2002 has a significant role in increasing the cotton
productivity of India. Optimization of irrigation and nitrogen requirement for Bt cotton to improve the input use efficiency
assumes a great relevance in this connection. Simulation models can serve as a useful tool in taking critical decision
with respect to optimization of input use. A field experiment was conducted in a mixed red and black calcareous soil
(Vertic Ustropept) of Periayanaiken Palayam Series in the Central Institute for Cotton Research, Regional Station,
Coimabtore (110N latitude and 770E longitude and 426.7 m above mean sea level), Tamil Nadu, India during the years
2006-07 and 2007-08 to study the effect of irrigation levels (protective irrigation and irrigation at 0.6 IW/CPE, 0.8 IW/
Session 1.2
CPE, 1.0 IW/CPE) and N levels (control, 60 kg N ha-1, 90 kg N ha-1 and 120 kg N ha-1) on soil water dynamics,
productivity and input use efficiency of RCH2 Bt cotton hybrid under winter irrigated situation. Protective irrigation
refers to irrigation at sowing and 7 and 45 days after sowing in the absence of rainfall. The experimental data were
used to validate an indigenous generic simulation model “INFOCROP”. It was observed that the seed cotton and lint
yield under different irrigation treatments were statistically at par with the protective irrigation but increased significantly
due to N application compared to no nitrogen control. However, there was no significant difference among 60, 90 and
120 kg N ha-1 with respect to seed cotton and lint yield. There was significant reduction in water use efficiency of cotton
with the increase in the level of irrigation but there was increase in the water use efficiency due to N application over no
nitrogen control. However, there was no significant difference in the water use efficiency due to 60, 90 and 120 kg N
ha-1. The partial factor productivity of nitrogen decreased significantly with the increase in irrigation and N levels. The
validation of the generic simulation model INFOCROP showed that the root mean square error between the observed
and simulated yield was 284, which corresponds to 13.7% of the mean observed seed cotton yield. The index of
agreement (D index) between the observed and simulated seed cotton yield was 0.67. The prediction of soil moisture
content by the model was better in upper layer than the lower soil layer. It was observed that there was a trade-off
between the cotton production and global warming potential estimated by the model. This calls for efficient use of
water to reduce the global warming potential. Thus, RCH2Bt cotton hybrid may be grown with protective irrigation and
60 kg N ha-1 to achieve higher water and nitrogen use efficiency without significant yield reduction in winter irrigated
situation in the southern zone of the country. The simulation model INFOCROP can be used for the integrated assessment
of cotton production opportunities and associated environmental impacts under different water and nitrogen management
scenarios and can serve as a useful tool for taking critical decisions for efficient input management.
Nitrogen Conservation Mechanism in Humid-Tropics
C.B. Pandey
Central Agricultural Research Institute, Post Box 181, Port Blair, 744 101, Andaman, India
Present address: Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal-132001, Haryana, India
(E-mail: cbpandey5@rediffmail.com)
Reciprocal relation between microbial biomass C and net soil N-nitrification is argued to protect nutrients from leaching
losses, hence regarded as a mechanism of nutrient conservation in the seasonally dry tropics. However, a precise
mechanism of nutrient conservation in the humid tropics, where high rainfall (average annual 3000 mm, distributed
over 8-9 months) occurs and season does not prevail, is rarely known. Objective of the present study was to know how
incessant rainfall (33 ± 9 mm h-1 for 3-8 days) influences water filled pore space (WFPS), net-nitrification and net-
ammonification rates, pool sizes of NH4+-N and NO3--N and microbial biomass C in three major land use systems
(moist-evergreen, semi-evergreen forests, and homegarden) in the equatorial humid tropical climate of south Andaman,
209
India. Ultimate objective of the study, however, was to find out a precise mechanism of nitrogen conservation in the
humid tropical soils. Water filled pore space is synonymous with relative saturation and it was calculated as: WFPS =
[(gravimetric soil-water content x soil bulk density) / total soil porosity], where soil porosity = [1- (soil bulk density /
2.65)] and 2.65 equals the assumed particle density of soil (Mg m-3). Nitrogen-mineralization was measured by a
modified buried bag (glass bottle) technique. Across the land use systems, WFPS ranged from 68 to 84% during the
incessant rainfall and 25 to 47% during dry spell (48 to 72- h after the incessant rainfall). Rate of net-nitrification and
No3- - N pool declined 10 to 17 times and 4 to 6 times, respectively during the incessant rainfall in all the land use
systems compared to that during the dry spell. On the contrary, ammonification rate and NH4+-N pool increased 7 to 34
times and 2 to 3 times, respectively during the incessant rainfall invariably in all the land use systems. Microbial
biomass C was positively correlated with the net-nitrification rate, but it was inversely correlated with the NH4+-N pool.
The above observations suggest that nitrate nitrogen is possibly reduced to ammonium via a dissimilatory pathway
during the incessant rainfall (anaerobic conditions), which conserves nitrogen in the plant available form (NH4+) in the
soils of the humid tropics.
Session 1.2
Molecular Markers for Genetic Purity Tests in Seeds
P. Ray Choudhury, Amardeep Nath, Sohanlal Srivastava and Asit B. Mandal

Directorate of Seed Research, Kushmaur, Mau, 275 101, Uttar Pradesh, India
Genetic purity of a crop variety must be kept extent possible pure in natura for use to its full potential. To compete
aggressively in the global seed trade, quality and cost of seeds are obviously the key parameters. Seed testing for
assessment of genetic purity makes foundation of high quality seeds. Grow-out test (GOT) through detection of off
types is a popular and very often used methodology in detecting genetic purity. However, it is land and labour intensive,
time consuming, tedious empirical and costly. Therefore, use of other methodologies like biochemical and molecular
markers came in vouge. Biochemical markers involve nutrient profiling, chemotyping or banding profile for polypeptides/
isoenzymes and has been described in the Association of Seed Analysts’ Cultivar Purity Testing Handbook (1991).
However, biochemical markers lack ample polymorphism to discriminate genetic stocks and found to be inaccurate
often because environmental conditions during seed or seedling/plant development mask expression of such traits.
Molecular markers, however, bear tremendous potential to overcome all such limitations. Those are growth stage
and environment independent, profuse in number, unambiguous and highly reproducible. Among suitable molecular
markers, hybridization based restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) or PCR based random amplified
polymorphic DNA (RAPD), microsatellites/SSRs (simple sequence repeats)/STMSs (sequence tagged microsatellites),
amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) are very important. RFLPs are
simply inherited naturally occurring Mendelian characters. However, the use of RFLP is handicapped owing to
requirement of large amount of DNA for restriction digestion and Southern blotting. Further, necessity of radioactive
isotope makes the analysis relatively expensive, time consuming and hazardous. RAPD is a multi locus marker,
simplest and fast method detects nucleotide sequence polymorphism by using single primers of arbitrary nucleotide
sequence (8-10 mer). On an average, each primer directs amplification of several discrete loci in the genome. These
are dominant markers, have limitations in gene mapping. However, RAPD has been used by several groups as efficient
tools for identification of markers linked to agronomically important characters and in genetic purity test. Microsatellites
are tandem repeats consisting of 1-6 bp long monomer sequence repeated several times. In STMS, primers are
designed from upstream and downstream flanking sequences of the repeats, whereas, SSR, primers are designed
within the repeat regions. Microsatellites are co-dominant and therefore is considered to be the best marker for genetic
purity studies and for mapping. Moreover, those are highly reproducible and detect maximum polymorphism. ISSR
markers take advantage of SSR or microsatellites that are abundant in all eukaryotic genomes. ISSR in contrast, does
not require any prior knowledge of genome sequence. ISSR uses primers that are anchored at 5’ or 3’ end of a repeat
region and extend into flanking region. ISSR is highly repeatable but dominant in nature. AFLP is based on detection
of genomic restriction fragments by PCR amplification and is used for DNA of any origin or complexity. Number of
fragments detected in a single reaction can be optimized by selection of RFLP and PCR techniques and is immensely
210
sensible in detection of polymorphism between closely related genotypes, thus can be considered as a high value
marker for genetic purity studies. All details about these molecular markers with special reference to genetic purity
test will be presented in the congress.
Rain Water Use Efficiency of Tea (Camellia sinensis) under Different

Conservation Measures in High Hills of South India
M. Madhu* and D.C. Sahoo

Research Centre, Udhagamandalam, 643 004, Tamil Nadu, India
(*Email: madhupmd@gmail.com & madhupmd@rediffmail.com)
Session 1.2
India is a monsoon dependant country for its water resources and agriculture. Rain water is a critical input in rainfed
area for the economic and social development. Improving rainwater use efficiency through suitable conservation
measures are essential to enhance the agriculture productivity. In India, tea is grown over an area of 1.34 lakh ha and
south India accounts for 41% of the total area (0.55 lakh ha) in the three states viz., Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka.
The Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu alone accounts for an area 0.47 lakh ha (85% of total tea area of south India.
Soil and water conservation measures are very much essential in new tea plantation to increase the rain water
use efficiency and to overcome land degradation. A field experiment was conducted at Central Soil and Water
Conservation Research and Training Institute, Research Centre, Udhagamandalam (TN) from 1995 to 2002 to study
the effect of different conservation measures viz., Contour Staggered Trenching (CST), Cover crop of beans (Phaseolus
vulgaris) and the combination of CST +cover crop on rainwater use efficiency in new tea plantation. The treatments
were tried in randomised block design with five replications on 25% land slope with very deep and well drained soil.
The CST (2.0 X 0.45 X 0.3 m) with a trenching density of 1250 per ha were taken during 1995 after planting and
desilting was done every year before monsoon. Cover crop of beans was taken for the first three years after planting.
Tea clones were planted in double hedge rows along the contour with spacing of 1.35 m between paired rows, 0.65
m between the rows and 0.75 m between plant to plant in a row. Total annual rainfall, runoff, initial and final soil
moisture in the active root zone were used in water balance equation to arrive the net water used. Rain water use
efficiency (RWUE) was calculated from annual yield of green tea leaves and annual net water use.
Rain water use efficiency (RWUE) of tea differed significantly due to different conservation measures up to fifth
year of planting. The RWUE of tea was high with the cover crop of beans (4.69 to 16.7 kg/ha-mm) followed by CST+
cover crop (4.69 to 16.7 kg/ha-mm) and CST alone (3.71 to 15.4 kg/ha-mm) as compared to control (3.37 to 16.9 kg/
ha-mm). The average increase in RWUE of tea was 6.24, 16.9 and 13.3% under CST, cover crop and CST+ cover
crop, respectively over control. The conservation practices enhanced the productivity of green tea leaves through
conserving rain water and top fertile soil. The average (1997-2002) productivity of green tea leaves per cubic meter of
rain water was higher in cover crop (1.01 kg) followed by CST + cover crop (0.98 kg), CST (0.92 kg) and control (0.86
kg). The productivity of green tea leaves was in increasing trend and attained maximum after sixth year of planting
under different conservation measures (1.37 to 1.81 kg m-3). The CST+ cover crop of bean is recommended in new tea
plantation to increase the productivity of green tea leaves through increasing rain water conservation and use efficiency.
211
Relationship Between Soil Quality and Crop Yield: a Case Study

of Short-term Legume Cover Crop Maize-Based System in Humid
Savanna of Ivory Coast
Jerome Ebagnerin Tondoh1*, Armand Wowo K1, Pascal Angui2, France Bernhard-Reversat3, Gladys
Loranger-Merciris4, Didier Bruner5
1
UFR des Sciences et da la Nature/Centre de Recherche en Ecologie,
Universite d’ Abobo-Adjame, 02 BP 801 Abidjan 02, Cote d’Ivoire
2
UFR des Sciences et Gestion de 1’Environment, Universite d’Abobo-Adjame,
01 BP 109 Abidjan 01, Cote d’Ivoire
3
UMR 137 BIOSOL, IRD, Laboratoire d’Ecologie des Sols Tropicaus,
32 Avenue Henri Varagnat 93143 Bondy Cedex, France.
4
EA 926 DYNECAR, University des Antilles et de la Guyane, Laboratoire de Biologie et de Physiologie
Session 1.2
Vegetales, BP 592, 97159 Pointe a Pitre Cedex, Guadeloupe, France.

5
UR SeqBio, IRD B.P. 64501, 34394 Montpellier, France
(*E-mail: tondohj@yahoo.fr)
Although many studies have emphasized the prominent role of legume cover crops in soil fertility and maize
productivity in sub-Saharan Africa, very few studies assessed the relationship between soil quality and maize yield,
an indicator of sustainable agriculture. In this study, we used a single General Indicator of Soil Quality (GISQ),
which combined subindicators of the physical quality, chemical fertility, organic matter content, macrofauna biodiversity
and productivity of a subsequent maize test-crop after a one-year legume-based and continuous cropping system.
The aim was to test the potential of short-term legume cover crops to improve soil quality and increase maize yield.
The experimental design consisted of a one year field trial using legume cover crops (Mucuna pruriens, Lablab
purpureus, Pueraria phaseloides, mixed legumes) and continuous maize cropping with and without chemical fertilizer
in humid Savannas areas of Ivory Coast. The values of GISQ were significantly higher in legume-based (0.50±0.13
to 0.96±0.04) as compared to that of non-legume systems (0.29±0.1) to 0.37±0.04), with mixed legume and
continuous maize fertilized with urea, showing respectively, the highest and the lowest value of GISQ. Multiple
regressions showed that organic matter-related parameters, as well as the physical and chemical characteristics,
and maize production, were important factors responsible for soil quality improvement. In addition available phosphorus,
total clay and silt content, organic carbon, mineralized carbon, nitrate, net mineralization and rachis were the most
sensitive parameters of soil quality change. The indicator value (Indval) approach used to analyse macrofauna
assemblage, showed that earthworms and to some extent arachnida were specific to the legume-based systems,
whereas no specific macrofauna were found in the continuous maize cropping systems. On the other hand, there
was a significant (R2=0.55, F=8.33, P=0.0009) multiple regressions between the GISQ and maize yield, specifically
with the number of grains per plant and on cob. Underlying mechanisms explaining this relationship and opportunities
to use short-term legume cover crop fallows to promote sustainable agriculture in himid savanna area of Ivory Coast
are discussed.
Yield and Economics of Onion (Allium cepa L.) as Affected by Source

and Rate of Organic Manures
R.N. Meena and Kalyan Singh

Institute of Agricultural Sciences, B.H.U., Varanasi , 221 005, Uttar Pradesh, India
A field experiment was conducted during summer season of 2004 and 2005 to find out the effect of various sources
(farmyard manure, vermicompost and poultry manure) and rates of organic manures (100%, 125%, 150% recommended
212
nitrogen dose, RND) on yield and economics of onion variety Pusa Red on a sandy clay-loam soil low in available
N and medium in available phosphorus and potassium. Pooled data analysis revealed that the application of
organic manure significantly influenced the yield attributes and bulb yield of onion over 100% RND as urea (control).
Progressive increase in dose of all the organic manures significantly increased the bulb and haulm yield. Application
of 150% RND as poultry manure gave higher bulb (27.1 t ha-1) and haulm yields (3.51 t ha-1) than other sources and
levels of organic manures. All the organic treatments recorded higher economic returns over control and the highest
net return of Rs. 74, 233 ha-1 was obtained due to 100% as poultry manure followed by 125% RND as poultry
manure (Rs. 72,195 ha-1) which was 105% higher than control (Rs. 36,202 ha-1). The net benefit-cost ratio was also
highest with 100% RND applied as poultry manure (2.33 Rs Re-1).
A Conservation Agriculture Experience in San Juan of
Session 1.2
Castrovirreyna – Huancavelica (PERU)
Jimmy Ocana Reyes

Antonio Raymondi 282 – Huancavelica (Peru)
(Email: jaor_44@hotmail.com)
Agriculture in Peruvian Andes is characterized for small farms mostly located on steep lands, with low access to
external inputs due to poverty, missing technical direction and wrong management of the natural resources, damaging
the soil through tillage and straw burning, leading to soil degradation, low crop yield and high crop production costs.
The intensity of tillage and weeding has led to an expensive agriculture, requiring too much labour and time, and
increasing migration of young people to urban zones. This context worries Caritazs Diocesan Huancavelica, who
has committed itself to the conservation agriculture (CA), with the main aim of reducing crops production cost,
saving time and adapting agricultural practices to face the climatic change.
The project implementation started in June 2008, through ten demonstration plots and farmers field school in
San Juan. In the plots that have shown on its surface corn residues, have sowing “Canario” common bean and in
which have had only weeds, have applied herbicide and sowed corn intercropped Dolichos lablab. For this case,
Cartias has provided farmers herbicides, fertilizers, corns, bean and vegetal cover seed.
With the change from tradional agriculture (TA) to CA, demonstrative plots farmers have already reduced crop
production costs by 40% compared to no-till, less number of waters and easy management of the weed, because of
less labour and time. Also, the farmers have started the getting the soil healthy. In the TA, farmers usually practice the
straw burning and the till. For a hectare, they employ who persons and two horses (horse-drawn), at least ten days,
which a mean cost of 400 soles (1dollar = 2.9 soles). But with the new method, they stopped burning staw and till,
saving money and time. In addition to reducing soil erosion and avoid CO2 emision. Water frequency in the TA is each
7 days, meanwhile in the CA is each 12 days, saving waters number in the crop cycle, water volume and money (15
soles/water). In the CA the use of water became efficient, by staying longer soil moisture due to straw on the soil
surface, achieving to reduce drastically the soil temperature at midday, 21 °C versus 41°C in a tilled soil, when
environment temperature is 30 °C.
Another crucial point that made difference was the weeding. In the TA after-sown crop, farmer needs 5 men/
hectare in 5 days for weeding, which means 325 soles. Now with CA, the no-till and the straw have played a decisive
paper for control weeds, declining hugely the weeds germination conditions. In the case of bean, farmer needed a man
(15 soles) for weeding occasional weeds in a hectare. In the case of corn, weeding was far easier due to sprayed
atrazine (80 soles). Then in the weeding there was a substantial saving of money, for the bean, 310 soles and for the
case corn 220 (also it is much more practiced).
We conclude that saving of money, labours and time, 635 soles in 20 days, in the demonstration plots is less
tedious labour than TA, interest from neighbours and farmers field school are important for predicting the attractive
adoption of the CA principles. Now, we will evaluate and compare the crop yield.
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Improving and Maintaining Soil Productivity in the Tropical Savanna

through Adoption of Appropriate Cultural Practices
E.C. Odion, T. Peter, B.E. Sambo and U.L. Arunah

Agronomy Department, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmandu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
(*Email: ecodion@yahoo.co.uk)
Soils of the tropical savanna are generally deficient in nutrients, owing to high temperatures and rates of organic
matter decay, soil mining and the inability to replace lost nutrients annually. Two field trials were therefore conducted
on the research farm of the Institute of Agricultural Research, Samaru, Nigeria during the 2001-2005 wet seasons to
evaluate the effects of a relay pigeonpea green manure crop in 2001, 2002 and 2003 and of clipped cowpea fodder in
2002, 2003, 2004 and 2005 on soil fertility maintenance. The pigeonpea green manure improved soil organic carbon
(OC) by 30.9%, soil nitrogen by 93.2% and soil available P by 38.9% though exchangeable K decreased by over
Session 1.2
50.0%. The improvement resulted in higher harvest index, total N-uptake and the yields of maize and soybean in
mixture. Plots without pigeonpea green manure had reduced content of these elements. Soil incorporation of clipped
cowpea fodder improved soil organic carbon by 18.4%, soil organic matter by 19.6%, soil nitrogen by 52.9% and
the cation exchange capacity (CEC) increased from 4.9 to 18.0 cmol(p+)kg-1. Cowpea leaves and stems decomposed
in 18-24 and 27-35 days respectively with soil surface placement and 32-40 and 43-53 days respectively with soil
incorporation. The results of these investigations have demonstrated that through biological nitrogen fixation, major
soil nutrients can be supplied to cultivated crops even within the same season and that soil productivity constraints can
be alleviated by using appropriate cultural practices.
Performanc Evaluation of Polymer-coated Urea in a Lowland Rice Field
Mukund D. Patil, Bhabani S. Das, Eran Barak, Pratap B.S. Bhadoria and Amir Polak
Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology,
Khargpur, West Bengal, 721302, India
Polymer-coated urea (PCU) is an important alternative to uncoated urea for improving nitrogen use efficiency (NUE).
Only a few studies discuss its utility for lowland rice systems. A two-year field study was conducted to examine if
nitrogen loading may be reduced in lowland rice ecosystem by mixing polymer-coated urea with conventional (uncoated)
urea without sacrificing yield. Five treatments involving uncoated urea at 100% recommended dose (80 kg N ha-1) and
two mixtures (50-50 and 70-30%) of polymer-coated and uncoated urea at 70 and 50% of recommended dose were
laid out in a completely randomized design with four replications. Selected plant growth parameters and readily available
N contents (NH4-N plus NO3-N) in soil solution and ponded water were measured over a period of 65 days after
transplanting. Results showed no significant difference among different treatments suggesting that treatments receiving
lower doses of nitrogen exhibited higher nitrogen use efficiency. Correlation analysis on nitrogen contents in aboveground
biomass, ponded water, and soil solution suggested that soil water regime might significantly influence the nitrogen
content in plant tissue, which ultimately influences yield. Thus, real-time monitoring of nitrogen dynamics within the
whole soil-plant-water continuum is a key element for improving NUE even for the slow-release urea such as PCU.
214
Plant Nutrient Values of Wastewater Sludge Biochar
Mustafa K. Hossain1*, Vladimir Strezov1, Yin K. Chan2 and Peter F. Nelson1

1
Graduate School of the Environment, Macquarie University, NSW 2109, Australia
2
NSW Department of Primary Industries, Locked Bag 4, Richmond, NSW 2753, Australia
(*E-mail: khossain@gse.mq.edu.au)
Biochar is the carbon, rich material produced from the pyrolysis of various materials in the absence of oxygen.
Biochar is now attracting international attention because it can be applied as a soil amendment for improving crop
yields, soil properties and also can provide carbon sequestration. Biochar can be produced from any biomass
feedstock (wood, rice husk, maize residues, poultry litter, wastewater sludge etc) with the elemental composition
of biochar being dependent on the feedstock origin. Little is known about the nutrient status of wastewater sludge
biochar. In this study we investigated the agronomic value of wastewater sludge biohar and apply the biochar to the
Session 1.2
cultivation of tomatoes (sweet F 100, cherry tomato) to determine the effects of biochar on plant growth, plant yield
and soil properties. The biochar was produced through pyrolysis of wastewater sludge in a fixed bed reactor at a
temperature of 550 °C and a heating rate of 10 °C min-1.
The pot experiments for cultivation of tomatoes were carried out in a temperature-controlled glass house (20-26
°C) with six replications and three treatments. The experimental design used was factorial randomized block design.
The soil used in this experiment was a NSW typical hardsetting Alfisol (Chromosol). The treatments were control (soil
only); soil and biochar; soil with a mixture of biochar and fertilizer. The pots were watered when necessary with de-
ionised water to maintain the field capacity throughout the duration of the trial. The elemental composition of the
biochar used in this experiment was EC 1.9 ds/m, pH (CaCl2) 8.1, organic carbon 11%, total N 2.3%, Colwell P 1100
mg/kg, KCl extractable ammonium N 11 mg/kg, KCl extractable nitrate N 0.49 mg/kg and CEC 35 cmol(p+)/kg. The rate
of biochar was applied at 10 t/ha. Applcation of wastewater sludge biochar in to hardsetting soil increased plant growth
and yield of tomato, due to the presence of plant nutrients in biochar.
Deriving Homogeneous Soil Fertility Unit Through GIS for Site- specific
Nutrient Management by QUEFTS model
D. Barman1, N. Kalra2, R.N. Sahoo2, D. Chakraborty2 and K. Kamble2

1
CSWCR&TI, Research Centre, Sunabeda, post Box No. 12, Koraput, 763 002, Orissa, India
2
Division of Agricultural Physics, IARI, New Delhi-110012, India
(Email: danbar@rediffmail.com)
If the nutrient supplying capacity of a soils is known, then the application of optimum dose of nutrients leads to a good
harvest. Supplement to this, homogeneous fertility status of soil is necessary for optimization of fertilizer dose. Hence,
soil fertility map was generated in GIS (Geographical Information System) environment on the basis of the plant
available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in soils of Karnal district. The organic carbon content in soils was used
as an indicator of plant available nitrogen as soil organic carbon content itself is an important indicator of soil fertility.
By using the inverse distance weightage interpolation technique, the representative point data of organic carbon
content, phosphorus and potassium of soils were used to make thematic maps. All the thematic maps were categorized
to low, medium and high as per the available ranges of the nutrients. For phosphorus it was very low (12 to 16 kg
P2O5 ha-1) and low (17 to 20 kg P2O5 ha-1) but in case of potassium it was medium (235 to 300 kg K2O ha-1) and high
(301 to 340 kg K2O ha-1) categories. In the Karnal district nearly 70 per cent area is under very low category of
phosphorus content and 78 per cent area is under high category of potassium. Overlaying of the organic carbon,
phosphorus and the potassium maps resulted composite soil fertility map which yielded eight homogenous fertility
units. It is clear that due to intensive cultivation in some blocks particularly Assandh and Nissang blocks, they were
215
very low in organic carbon and phophorus and medium in potassium content in soils. For these eight soil fertility
units, fertilizer recommendation was computed using QUEFTS model for targeted yield of rice (6.5 t ha-1), wheat (6
t ha-1) and maize (6.5 t ha-1) crops, respectively. The computed result showed that for all the crops potassium
requirement was less as the soils have high potassium content. Computed doses for targeted yield of rice crop
varied between 153 and 168 kgha-1 for N, 37 and 41 kg ha-1 for P2O5 and 30 and 35 kg ha-1 for K2O. Similarly, in case
of wheat crop required doses varied between 160 and 171 kg ha-1 for N, 80 and 91 kgha-1 for P2O 2 and 28 and 29 kg
ha-1 for K2O. For maize crop, it was from 160 to 184 kg N ha-1; 85 and 90 kg P2O5 ha-1 and 55 and 84 kg K2O ha-1.
The general fertility status of the soils, in this region, is low to very low in nitrogen, low to medium in phosphorus and
high to medium in potash. Leibig’s law of minimum governs the production, which implies that the nitrogen and
phosphorus application play a crucial role to determine the yield.
Impact of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potash and Sulphur on Productivity

Session 1.2
and Returns for Rice-Wheat System in

Sub-humid Region
Rajendra Kumar, S.C. Sharama1, Gyan Singh, Ashok Kumar and S.P. Bhardwaj
Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, India
1
Department of Statistics, Janta Vedic College, Baraut (Baghpat), Uttar Pradesh, India
Crops need at least sixteen nutrients for normal growth. Three of these nutrients, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium,
have traditionally been known as the major nutrients. Crops need large amounts of these elements and fertilizer
programmes are designed to supply them in adequate amounts. Another nutrient, sulphur, is also needed by crops.
Many crops contain as much sulphur as phosphorus and it ranks in importance with nitrogen and phsphorus in the
formation of protein. It is an integral component of certain vitamins and enzymes. In short, sulphur is an element
without which plant and animal life as we know would soon cease. On sulphur-deficient soils both the yield and quality
of crops are reduced unless sulphur is included in the fertilizer treatment. Demand for sulphur-containing fertilizers is
increasing, and many fertilizer manufacturers now provide materials which contain this nutrient.
In order to examine the production potential and economics of rice-wheat cropping system under sub-humid
ecosystem, the data of the period of 2003-2006 to 2005-06 of the Bihar Agricultural College, Sabour (Bihar) have been
analyzed. Result of analysis of these experiments revealed that the grain and straw yield increased due to application
of sulphur. Maximum grain and straw yields for both the crops in kharif and rabi season were found to be significant
when higher dose of sulphur at 60 kg ha-1 as basal with fertilizer dose of 150 kg ha-1 of Nitrogen+30 kg ha-1 of
phosphorus and + 100 kg ha-1 of potash in kharif season and 120 kg ha-1 of Nitrogen + 60 kg ha-1 of phosphorus + 40
kg ha-1 of rabi season. Total return of grain yield for both the crops in kharif and rabi seasons were also found maximum
at 60 kg ha-1 of sulphur with recommended dose of NPK. The grain yield of rice recorded under application of 20, 40
and 60 kg ha-1 of sulphur. recommended dose of NPK was significantly higher by 7.7, 16.2 and 18.5% higher over
without application of sulphur with recommended dose of NPK in kharif. Similarly the grain yield of wheat recorded
under application of 20, 40 and 60 kg ha-1 of sulphur with recommended dose of NPK was significantly higher by 5.9,
11.6 and 14.7% higher over no application of sulphur with recommended dose of NPK in rabi. The results also indicated
that application of all levels of sulphur progressively increased with recommended dose of NPK in straw yield in both
seasons of kharif and rabi.
216
Seasonality and Conservation of Natural Enemies through IPM in Brinjal,

Solanum melongena L.
H.R. Sardana and O.M. Bambawale
National Centre for Integrated Pest Management, IARI, New Delhi, 110 012,India
Large–scale IPM validation trials were carried out in a farmers’ participatory mode in brinjal fields in village Raispur,
Distt. Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh during 2004-05 and 2005-06 seasons over 12 acres with a view to reduce pesticide
load in cropping system and to study its impact on the seasonality and population build up of natural enemies. IPM
components mainly comprised of raising healthy nursery using raised seed bed, treatment with Trichoderma mixed
with FYM, releases of egg parasitoid Trichogramma brasiliensis based on pheromone monitoring of shoot and fruit
borer, application of 5% neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) alternating with need based application of chemical pesticides.
Farmers’ practices (FP) consisted entirely of pesticidal sprays. Significantly higher average population of 6.74, 1.76
Session 1.2
and 1.62 predators viz; coccinellids, predatory spiders and Chrysoperla per plant was observed in IPM fields as
against lower population i.e. 0.97, 0.26, 0.077 per plant, respectively in FP fields during both the years. Coccinellids
and predatory spiders were present throughout the crop season starting from September till mid March however;
Chrysoperla appeared from September to mid December. As a result of use of IPM components, pesticide use was
reduced from 5-6 to only 1-2 sprays and led to build up of natural enemies and this build up in turn helped in natural
reduction in pest load in IPM.
Pros and Cons of Conservation Agriculture on Pests, Plant Pathogens

and their Natural Enemies
Neelam Chaudhary, Pradyumn Kumar, Meenu Aggarwal, Naroem Sumorjit Singh and M.L. Jat
(*Email: n.chaudhary@rediffmail.com)
The demand for agricultural production continues to increase for ever increasing human population and better quality
of life. The much discussed fatigue of green revolution has led to the development of various concepts like conservation
agriculture, precision agriculture, integrated pest management and the like. In conservation agriculture, the ecosystem
is least disturbed, hence the diversity and intensity of flora and fauna get enhanced in comparison with conventional
agriculture. Conservation agriculture based technologies like zero tillage provide safe abode for hibernating pests
even after harvest and prevent their mortality by solar radiation and desiccation, thereby presenting a relatively higher
initial population for next crop. The undisturbed moist soil covered by crop residue is conducive for the rapid growth of
soil dwelling pests like termite, white grub, mite, nematode and plant pathogens. Zero tillage also enhances the
biological control agents since they find alternate hosts on changed weed scenario. The nectar and pollen of weeds
act as the food supplement of natural enemies. Further, the crop residue provide them shelter and also some neutral
insects which act as prey to the predators. The moist soil is also conducive for fungal antagonists. Practicing conservation
agriculture for some years increases the biodiversity which offers stable pest scenario thus preventing the pest epidemics.
The increased number of natural enemies in zero tillage provides a quicker colonization in the next crop thus bring
down the pest population faster as compared to the conventional agriculture.
217
Integrated Nutrient Management in Rainfed Maize-Wheat System

through Farmers’ Participatory Approach under Mid-hill Sub-humid
Agroclimate of Himachal Pradesh
D.R. Thakur and R.C. Thakur

CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Hill Agricultural Research and Extension Centre, Bajaura,
175 125 Dist. Kullu, Himachal Pradesh, India
(*Email: thakur.dr@rediffmail.com)
Maize (Zea mays L.)-Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the most important cereal based crop sequence of Himachal
Pradesh and constitutes 69.5% of the total cropped area in the state. More than 80% of the total area under these
crops is rainfed. The productivity of both the crops in the state is low because of practically less as well as imbalanced
Session 1.2
use of plant nutrients in addition to other production constraints. The productivity of maize and wheat can be increased
considerably if proper nutrient management practice is demonstrated to the farmers through participatory approach
right in their fields. Hence, 20 field experiments, 5 in each season were conducted at different locations in Kullu and
Mandi districts to assess the impact of integrated nutrient management on yields of maize-wheat system under rainfed
conditions during winter 2001-02 to rainy 2003 with 4 treatments. Both the crops were grown with recommended
package of practices but fertilizers application, which was applied as per treatments. The data were analyzed over
locations for individual years and pooled over years as the Bartlett test of error variances was found to be homogeneous.
The application of FYM @ 5 t/ha (Oven Dry) + 100% RD of NPK (RD = 90:45:30) resulted in 61.68% higher maize grain
yield than Farmers’ Practice (FYM + 40% RD of N only at knee high stage). Even the application of 50% RD of NPK
along with FYM @ 5 t/ha (OD) resulted in 35.24% higher grain yield than Farmers’ Practice of fertilizers application.
The maize plots supplied with 100% RD of NPK without FYM gave statistically equal grain yield to that of plots
receiving FYM @ 5 t/ha + 50% RD of NPK. In wheat also, the application of FYM @ 5 t/ha (Oven Dry + 100% RD of
NPK (RD = 80:40:40) resulted in 40.47 q/ha grain yield which was 39.41% higher than Farmers’ Practice of fertilizer
application (FYM + 40% RD of N only at maximum tillering). The application of 50% RD of NPK along with FYM @ 5 t/
ha (OD) resulted in 25.32% higher grain yield than Farmers’ Practice of fertilizers application. Wheat crop supplied
with 100% RD of NPK without FYM gave statistically at par grain yield to that of crop receiving FYM @ 5 t/ha + 50% RD
of NPK. The wheat crop grown as per recommended agronomic practices and supplied with Farmers’ dose of fertilizers
application gave 35.93 q/ha grain yield. The application of FYM @ 5 t/ha + 50% RD of NPK to both the crops resulted
in almost equal grain yields to that of plots receiving 100% RD of NPK and no application of FYM indicating that half
dose of NPK can be saved if farmyard manure is applied to both maize and wheat crops without significant reduction
in yields.
Effect of Nutrient Management in Rice-Lentil (Paira)-Sesame Cropping

System under Coastal Saline Zone of West Bengal
K. Brahmachari*, S. Pal, Rajib Kundu, T.K. Roy, Suborna Roychoudhuri and Arpita Das
741 252, Nadia, West Bengal, India
(*E-mail: brahmacharis@gmail.com)
Presently fertilizer application is based on the nutrient requirement of individual crop and the carry-over effect of the
manures or fertilizers applied to preceding crop are generally ignored. Further, application of inorganic fertilizers even
in balanced amounts does not sustain the soil fertility and crop productivity under diversified continuous cropping or
monocropping and as a result of these things agriculture is now facing a lot of stress. Integrated nutrient management
involving conjunctive use of organic and inorganic sources of nutrient may improve the soil productivity, and system
218
productivity becomes sustainable, rather to say, the soil-water-plant-animal-human continuum is maintained i.e the
agriculture is thus conserved to a large extent. Again inclusion of grain legumes in rice based cropping system
improves the soil health as a whole. Preparation of well decomposed fishmeal (WDFM) from dry fish, easily and
amply available at low cost in the coastal saline zone of West Bengal and application of WDFM increases the yield
of crops vis-à-vis improves soil health. Keeping this view in the background, a field experiment was undertaken at
Regional Research Station, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya during rainy season (kharif), winter season
(rabi) and summer season (pre-kharif) of 2005-06 and 2006-07 under coastal saline soil (pH-7.6, organic carbon-
0.53%, total nitrogen-1140 kg ha -1, available phosphorus-281.80 kg ha-1 and available potassium-486.21 kg ha-1
respectively) of Kakdwip (Latitude-21090/N, longitude-88010/E and altitude-5.5m), West Bengal. The experiment
was laid out in Randomized Block Design (RBD) with 9 different nutritional treatments each replicated four times,
to evaluate the growth, yield, productivity and economics in rice-lentil (paira)-sesame sequence. Starting with the
staple cereal grain of West Bengal, the kharif rice (cv. khitish), one popular grain legume lentil (cv. asha), widely
cultivated as a rabi pulse in the coastal saline zone of West Bengal, was grown as a paira crop and it was followed
by a short duration and low water requiring oilseed crop, sesame (cv. Tilottama). The growth parameter, yield
components and seed yield of all the crops in sequence were the maximum when organic manure was applied
Session 1.2
along with inorganic fertilizer at 75% of the recommended dose (RD). The effect of WDFM was as good as farm yard
manure (FYM) vis-à-vis vermicompost and sometimes it showed better result over FYM and vermicompost. The
maximum rice equivalent yield (7958.7 kg ha-1), net returns (Rs.32356.58 ha-1) and net production value (1.38) in
rice-lentil (paira)-sesame sequence was obtained from the crops treated with 75% RD of NPK+2 t WDFM ha-1 only
to rice.
Conservation Tillage and Modified Crop Establishment Techniques for

Improving Resource-Use Efficiency and Productivity in Different
Cropping Systems
A.R. Sharma and U.K. Behera

Fertilizer, water, energy and other agro-chemicals are the major inputs in intensive cropping systems. Indiscriminate
and injudicious use of these inputs for achieving potential yield of crops has not only enhanced the cost of cropping but
also threatened the degradation of environment. High costs and limited availability of these monetary inputs, and
concern about the environment necessitate that such inputs are used in the most efficient manner. Continued adoption
of rice-wheat system for over 3 decades has posed a serious threat to the sustainability of the system due to emerging
problems like deterioration of soil structure, build-up of obnoxious weeds, declining factor productivity, receding water
table, and development of multiple nutrient deficiencies. There is now a growing demand for crop diversification and
reorientation of our research strategies with emphasis on resource conservation technologies for improving productivity
on a sustainable basis. There is a greater emphasis on crop diversification with replacement of rice with crops like
maize, soybean, pigeonpea, groundnut, cotton etc. in kharif; and introduction of mustard and chickpea beside wheat in
rabi season. Conservation tillage and modified crop establishment practices are being suggested with the availability
of new machinery and herbicides for weed control in intensive cropping systems. Modern concept of conservation
tillage aims at improving resource-use-efficiency with minimum soil disturbance, soil cover through residues, and
adoption of spatial and temporal crop sequences.
Different crops require different tillage practices following different crops in the preceding season. In a series of
studies conducted at New Delhi during 2004-2008, zero tillage was found feasible in rabi crops viz. wheat, mustard,
linseed and chickpea following kharif crops of maize, greengram or soybean in the first cropping cycle. However, in the
second and successive cropping cycles when no tillage was adopted for both the crops grown in sequence, there was
decrease in yield of all crops, the decrease being more pronounced in kharif than in rabi season crops. There was no
effect of residue application in the first cropping cycle but in the subsequent cycles, some improvement in productivity
219
of crops was noticed. Maize grown on ridges or on flat surface following stale seed-bed technique proved better than
conventional practice. However, the crops of mungbean and soybean in kharif; and wheat and mustard in rabi
performed similarly under conventional flat and bed planting systems. Interaction between tillage/crop establishment
and weed control practices was not found significant in maize-wheat cropping system, suggesting thereby that
different weed control measures had a similar effect under varying tillage. Maize yield following pre-emergence
application of atrazine + hand weeding at 30 days was similar as with atrazine + direct spray of paraquat at 35
days, both of which were significantly more than atrazine alone or unweeded control under bed planting (ridge and
furrow), conventional flat and zero tillage. Similarly, application of isoproturon and sulfosulfuron was equally effective
in wheat, and superior to 2,4-D application and unweeded control under zero-tilled conditions on flat and bed
planting systems.
Based on the results of 5 years, the following conclusions can be made: (i) zero tillage is suitable for crops in
rabi season in specific situations; (ii) zero tillage alone caused large decreases in yield of most kharif crops, and
the loss widened further in successive years; (iii) double zero i.e. zero tillage for both the crops in the system was
not beneficial; (iv) zero tillage increased weed infestation in successive cropping cycles, particularly perennial
Session 1.2
weeds; (v) residue recycling caused no effect in first cropping cycle but beneficial effects were observed from the
second cycle onwards; and (vi) bed planting may result in resource conservation but the yield advantages over the
conventional flat system are not pronounced in all crops.
The constraints in adoption of zero tillage were: (i) increase in pest infestation such as perennial weeds
(Cyperus, Cynodon), rodents and bird damage; (ii) increase in bulk density and poor root growth; (iii) interference of
loose residues, stubbles and weeds in sowing; and (iv) requirement of precise/ideal conditions such as proper
leveling, optimum soil moisture, weed-free condition, light-textured soil, careful handling of machine etc. The
constraints in bed-planting were: (i) requirement of perfect conditions at sowing such as deep well pulverized soil,
proper leveling, optimum soil moisture, more care in sowing; (ii) permanent bed system causing non-uniformity in
crop stand; (iii) early first irrigation and more frequent irrigations in crops like wheat; (iv) non-compatibility of the
machine with undecomposed residues / weed biomass present in field; (v) more weed infestation in furrows; and (vi)
requirement of a relatively heavy tractor (>40 HP).
There is a need for further research on long-term basis to resolve these constraints and some myths that these
resource conservation technologies result in less weed infestation, require less water, improve nutrient-use efficiency,
cause less lodging of crops and produce higher yields than conventional systems under different soil and climatic
conditions.
Effect of Planting Methods and Salt Stress on Cactus Pear
Gajender Yadav and Gurbachan Singh

Cactus [Opuntia ficus-indica], commonly known as prickly pear, is a new crop in India although its spiny type, bearing
very small fruits (locally called nagphani), is found wild in arid and semiarid regions. Owing to its xerophytic characteristics
and capability for greater conversion of water to dry matter than by either C3 or C4 plants through a specialized
photosynthetic mechanism called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), it was considered as a potential crop species
for the water-scarce arid parts of India. Recent research revealed that this plant is also able to thrive in high CO2
environment. Cacti have received attention as a crop to fight global pollution and desertification. However, incredible
as it may sound, the cactus is not merely a hardy ornamental plant, as is commonly believed; it is a storehouse of
virtues that have been commercially unexploited so far in India. Different parts of the cactus can be used as fruit and
vegetable for human consumption, fodder for cattle, and raw material for various industries to prepare plywood, soap,
dyes, adhesives and glue, pharmaceutical products for treating blood sugar and various other disorders, and cosmetics
such as shampoo, cream, and body lotions, etc. To evaluate its performance in arid and semiarid parts of India, five
most promising clones from Texas A&M University were introduced at Karnal. Keeping in view the potential uses of
220
cactus and its low water requirement an experiment was started at Hisar (Haryana) farm of the Central Soil Salinity
Research Institute, Karnal. For standardizing planting methods and irrigation requirement, four clones (1270, 1271,
1280 and 1287) have been planted. The clones were planted by three methods viz; Ridge, Flat and Furrow method
with in a 3x2 m spacing. The clones are being irrigated with two water quality of different salinity. The area represents
dry land salinity. The annual rainfall at Hisar is 30-40 cm and the groundwater is saline. The experimental farm offers
good scope for biosaline agriculture research. The acclimatization of plant in Hisar type climate was very encouraging.
Despite of attack of foot rot, the survival percentage was more than 50 in all the four clones. The highest survival was
found in clone 1270. The infected clones were tested in Pathology lab. at CCSHAU, Hisar and fungi Phytophthora
nicotianae was identified as causal organism . In order to manage this disease a nursery raising of cladodes and
systemic fungicide, Carbendazim (Bavistin, 0.1%) were tested. Nursery raising and soil drenching and dipping the cut
ends minimize the disease upto 85%. With regard to studies on relative performance, clone 1270 has taken minimum
i.e. 70 days to sprout and produce maximum number of cladodes. One clone (1280) have been planted in 30 kg
capacity ceramic pots at Karnal for studying the critical limits of salinity and alkalinity tolerance of Cactus. Three
salinity levels viz. (normal, ECe ~ 4 & 6), four levels of pH and three fertilizer levels were maintained. The clone is
performing at all the salinity levels but unable to sprout at pH more than 9.0. The initial observations indicate that plant
Session 1.2
is responsive to NPK application. The impact of salt stress on physiological attributes of these plants and thereby
adaptation mechanism is under study.
Protecting Torrent Affected Lands in Shiwaliks of India through Bio-

Engineering Measures
G.P. Juyal, B.N. Ghosh, Bankey Bihari and A.C. Rathore

Central Soil and Water Conservation Research & Training Institute, Dehradun, 248 195, Uttarakhand, India
Shiwaliks and Himalayan foothills of India are badly affected by flood related damages to land and property due to
torrents (seasonal streams with flash flows). These torrents travel down the steep slopes (generally forested) and
when enter the valley area downstream, which are heavily cultivated and populated, over top the ill defined low banks
causing floods in the adjoining lands. Though the flood storms are 4-5 only in numbers during the rainy season (June-
September), they cause immense damage and put the people in great difficulties. In the Shiwaliks region of India,
1517 km2 area comes directly under the course of such torrents affecting about 7500 km2 in the states of Uttarakhand,
Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab and Union Territory of Chandigarh. Efforts were made in the past
on torrent training works but they were either inadequate or very costly.
A comprehensive multilocational project for evolving a cost effective technology for torrent training was therefore
taken up including the one at torrent affected Sabhawala watershed (area – 1175 ha) in Uttarakhand Shiwaliks. The
project was taken up in participatory mode involving the local community and using eco-friendly bio-engineering approach.
Watershed Committee and User Groups were formed which were actively involved in planning and execution of the
programme. The traditional wisdom was appropriately blended with modern technology for torrent treatment. The
structural measures such as spurs, protection walls, earthen embankments were complemented with locally adapted
soil conservation species for greater strength and sustainability. Bio-fences using hardy and flow resisting species
were erected along torrent banks to shield the land from the fury of torrent floods. A low cost ‘Katta – crate’ technology
was evolved which used locally available torrent bed material for construction of structures. The torrent training technology
was field tested and constantly refined as per feed back of local community. The improved technology was 8-33%
cheaper than the conventional one besides being more effective and eco-friendly. To reduce the pressure on forest for
local fodder requirements, Napier grass was planted on field bunds. As poverty is one of the major causes of land
degradation, income generation programmes were also undertaken in the form of diversified landuse of agri-horticulture,
mushroom cultivation and sericulture development.
The torrent control measures were found highly cost effective (B:C = 2) even while we take into account the value
addition to the land protected only. The treatment measures induced farmers to cultivate the reclaimed land and sense
of security against torrent floods resulted in construction of permanent houses.
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Estimation of Surface Runoff using SCS Curve Number (CN) Method,

Remote Sensing and GIS from Manesar Nala Watershed in
Gurgaon (Haryana), India
A.K. Mishra, K.S. Rawat, N. Ahmed, R.K. Sharma and K.R. Koundal
Runoff generated plays a very important role in watershed management planning for treatment of any catchment
and therefore, its correct estimation is very crucial. The present study envisages the possibility of using remote
sensing and geographical information system for the estimation of runoff using a well established model namely
SCS curve number method. The Manesar Nala Watershed (MNW) (study area) is located in Gurgaon district of
Haryana state. MNW lies between 28o15/N to 28o 26/ N latitudes and 76o52/ to 76o60/ E longitudes. The total area of
the watershed is approximately 73.945306 km2 (7394.5306 ha). The data used for the present analysis consisted of
Session 1.2
NOAA satellite derived daily rainfall data for 2006 ; soil map generated from the extensive field surveys and laboratory
analysis, IRS-1D (LISS-III) sensor data classified using standard Digital Image Processing tools and techniques
and SOI, topographical sheet No. H43W15 of 1: 50,000. ILWIS Ver. 3.4, that has a very good RS & GIS operation
capability, and has been specially built for spatial analysis for Land & Water resources, was the main software
used for compiling, collating and analyzing the various data layers.
The daily precipitation maps for the study period 2006 for MNW were derived from the downloaded data form
NOAA climate prediction center (ftp://ftpprd.ncep.noaa.gov/pub/cpc/fews/S.asia/). The daily weighted rainfall for the
study region was computed and converted into antecedent moisture condition (AMC) values. The soil map was digitized
to extract the different soil types and finally converted into hydrological soil group maps (HSG) based on their infiltration
property. Land use map was prepared from IRS 1D (LISS-III) data by supervised classification method (SC). The SCS
Curve Numbers were computed using the SCS-CN formula for the MNW and by using the different thematic layers
after combining them in GIS environment (ARC View 9.1, ESRI). The SCS-CN model (NRC-SCS_CN, 1972) was
applied to estimate the event wise runoff from the daily rainfall finally cumulated for the whole year to get the annual
runoff. The maximum rainfall was derived for the month of October (380.61 mm) whereas, a minimum was recorded for
the month of September (12.7 mm) and the annual rainfall for the watershed was estimated to be 1117.3 mm. The
maximum runoff was estimated for the month of March (14.4 mm) whereas none was seen for the month of September
(0.0 mm). Significant runoff discharge was seen only for the months March May, October and November while other
months showed negligible or no runoff discharge. Rainfall-Runoff curves were plotted for the different months and their
relationship was developed.
Integrated Weed Management in Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.)
B.B. Sharma1, V.K. Singh1, Ashutosh Singh2 and Vivek Dixit1

1
Department of Agronomy and 2 Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture, G.B. Pant University of
Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, 263 145, U.S. Nagar, Uttarakhand, India
In India, pigeonpea is one of the major pulse crops accounting 12% of total area under pulses and about 18% of the
total pulse production. The average productivity of pigeonpea is rather low as compared to world average productivity.
The studies revealed that main reasons for low productivity are the cultivation of this crop on marginal lands under
poor management conditions and mounting pressure of several weeds. A field investigation was conducted in C-2
block of Crop Research Centre, GBPUA&T, Pantnagar (Uttarakhand) during kharif season 2007-08 to know the efficacy
of different weed management practices on grain yield. The soil of the experimental site was sandy loam in texture with
neutral in reaction (pH 7.6) having medium organic carbon (0.57%) and available phosphorus (15.5 kg ha-1) and high
available potassium (256 kg ha-1) contents. Twelve treatments (Alachlor 2 kg ha-1, Alachlor 1.5 kg ha -1 + HW 50 DAS,
Alachlor 1.5 kg ha -1 + Paraquat 2 lit. ha-1 8 WAS, Pendimethalin 0.75 kg ha-1, Pendimethalin 0.45 kg ha-1 + Paraquat
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2 lit. ha-1 6 WAS, Pendimethalin 0.45 kg ha-1 + Paraquat 2 lit. ha-1 8 WAS, Pendimethalin 0.75 kg ha-1 + Paraquat 2 lit.
ha-1 6 WAS, Pendimethalin 0.75 kg ha-1 + Paraquat 2 lit. ha-1 8 WAS, Pendimethalin 0.75 kg ha-1 + HW 50 DAS, HW
25 and 50 DAS, weed free and weedy) were tested in randomized block design with three replications. The recommended
dose of fertilizer was applied at time of sowing. The pigeonpea variety (UPAS-120) was sown at a row distance of 45
cm on July 3 and harvested on December 21, 2007. Other agronomic practices were adopted as per recommendation
of the crop.
All the weed control practices except alachlor 2 kg ha-1, yielded significantly higher than weedy check. Weed free
followed by pendimethalin 0.75 kg ha-1 + paraquat 2 lit. ha-1 applied either at 6 WAS or WAS were on par and recorded
significantly higher grain yield than alachlor 2 kg ha-1 and pendimethalin 0.45 kg ha-1 + paraquat 2 L ha-1 (6 WAS).
However, weed free, which was the maximum yielder, maintained its significant superiority over rest other treatment.
Session 1.2
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Session 1.3: Diversified Farming Systems
Cocoa and Coffee as Intercrops in Rubber Plantations for Improved

Soil Fertility, Moisture Availability and Microbial Activity
Sherin George*, C. Lisha, Shankar Meti, A.N. Sasidharan Nair and N. Usha Nair
Rubber Research Institute of India, Kottayam, 686 009, Kerala, India
(*Email: sherin@rubberboard.org.in)
Session 1.3
Competitive interactions in a rubber based agro-ecosystem were studied in a field experiment conducted to identify
suitable perennial intercrops for mature rubber in a small holding at Ponkunnam, Kottayam District, Kerala, representing
the central region of the traditional rubber growing tract in India. The treatments comprised two varieties of coffee viz.,
robusta (Coffea robusta) and CxR and cocoa inter planted in mature rubber (clone RRII 105) in combination with two
doses of fertilizers viz., 100 and 50% of the recommended dose for the intercrops. The soil nutrient status was improved
due to intercropping. Soil physical properties like bulk density were also favourably influenced. Rubber in the intercropped
fields maintained a higher N and K status compared to monoculture rubber, indicating the absence of competition for
major nutrients among rubber and intercrops. The intercropped fields retained a higher soil moisture status at surface
and subsurface layers. Studies on light interception showed that PAR under rubber canopy ranged from 14.4-17.4%.
The available radiation was more efficiently utilized by cocoa than coffee. Microbial studies indicated that the rhizosphere
population of bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes were higher in the rhizosphere of cocoa followed by rubber in cocoa
and coffee. The rhizosphere regions of monoculture rubber recorded the least microbial population. The growth and
yield of rubber did not vary significantly between the treatments indicating that perennial crops like coffee and cocoa
did not adversely affect the performance of rubber. The yield of coffee ranged from 30-35% of that of monoculture
where as that of cocoa ranged from 40-60%. The data on soil and leaf nutrient status indicated that the nutrient
requirement of the intercropping system was less and the fertilizer dose for intercrops could be reduced to half. The
study indicates that cocoa is a potential intercrop for mature rubber.
Diversified Farming Systems for Food Security and Sustaining

Livelihood of Marginal Rainfed Rice Farmers
A.L. Rathore and K.K. Sahu*

Department of Land and Water Management, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
(*Email: kksahu_igau@yahoo.com)
Resource-poor small and marginal farmers dominate in rainfed farms of India. Majority of small and marginal farmers
cultivate low value subsistence crops. In absence of adequate farm and non-farm employment opportunities, they are
forced to-live below-poverty-line. In eastern India including Chhattisgarh, majority of small farms traditionally practicing
diversified farming by growing rice in mid-and-lowland and oilseed and pulse in upland with livestock, but the crops are
not economical owing to adoption of local varieties of low-value subsistence crops with poor management practices.
Almost every farm has a big herd of livestock, which are not productive, both in terms of draft power and milk yield.
Looking to the above problems, present study was undertaken with view to supply sufficient food, income and employment
opportunities round –the- year on sustainable basis to marginal farm families by diversified farming, proper integration
of available resources and modern agricultural technology. Two farming system models i.e. (i) crop-livestock-poultry-
fish-farm pond (IFS 1) and (ii) crop-livestock-poultry-fish-farm pond-shallow dug well (IFS 2), were evaluated for three
years (2005-06 to 2007-08) to 1.0 ha land holdings. Availability of water, supply of fodder for animals, production of
224
sufficient food for domestic use, income and employment opportunities to farm family were the major apprehensions
for assessment of suitability models. Rice, soybean, ladyfinger, maize, pigeon pea, marigold, drumstick (intercropped
with brinjal and tomato) and multi-cut sorghum were grown during rainy season and mustard and gram during post
rainy season. Of the total area of different farming system models, 30-32% lower area was devoted to rice to meet-out
domestic requirement of the farm family. Ponds and/ or shallow dug well were constructed in 8-13% area of different
farming system models. Livestock shed was constructed in 3-5% areas of the models. Green fodder (multi-cut sorghum)
was grown in 9-12% area. In upper 24-32% area soybean/maize and ladyfinger and in 11-17% area drumstick was
grown. Pigeon pea and marigold were grown on bunds of field and pond in both models. The IFS models are based on
the hypotheses that diversify the land without sacrificing current average rice production of the farm by adopting
improved practices and supplemental irrigation.
By adopting improved practices of rice cultivation and application of supplemental irrigation in IFS model 1 and 26,
61-95% of the state average productivity was harvested from 0.34 ha. Soybean, pigeon pea, maize, mustard gram,
Session 1.3
ladyfinger, tomato, brinjal, marigold and drumstick produced in both the farming system models were as bonus. Three
years average rice equivalent yield of different crops in model 1 and 2 was respectively 366 and 380% more, compared
to yield of traditional rainfed rice. Green fodder requirement for two cows and calves was about 12t and the fodder
supply was 10t with shortage of 22-23% green fodder. Availability of dry fodder was sufficient to feed the animal round-
the-year. Gross return was Rs. 176125 from model 1 and Rs. 179592 from model 2. Net income of all the enterprises
was Rs. 109589 in model 1 and Rs. 114175 in model 2. After establishment of the models; a farm family was employed
for 511 in model 1 and 540 man days in model 2 which is 3.7 times more than traditional rainfed rice. The returns can
be enhanced by growing vegetables (brinjal / tomato/ ladyfinger) or marigold in entire upland areas and rice and multi-
cut sorghum in existing areas of all the models. Market availability at approachable distance is prerequisite for growing
vegetables and flowers. Otherwise, soybean or maize is the alternative and remunerative cropping system for maximizing
income of the models. Under traditional crop-livestock farming in Bagbahra watershed, Chhattisgarh, earning of a farm
family possessing 1.0 ha land was Rs. 36837/- and Rs. 22509/- as annual gross and net income, respectively. This
indicated that the returns from IFS models were 5 times more than the traditional farming systems. The IFS model 2
was tested on farmers’ field, gave Rs. 83098 to 107384/- as gross returns and Rs. 65307 to 74558/- as net returns
annually. The higher returns on farmers field is the indication of economically viable and socially acceptability of the
model. Farm yard manure produced from crop-livestock enterprises, was applied in the farm every year that helped in
buildup of soil fertility vis-à-vis nutrients saving in production of crops.
Integrated Wetland Management - A Holistic Sustainable Approach for

Development of Diversified Farming System for Productivity and Rural
Sustainability in Indian Sub-Continent
A.M. Puste*1, B. Ray Pramanik1, K. Jana1 and D.K. Das2

1
Department of Agronomy and 2Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science,
Faculty of Agriculture, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya (Agricultural University),
(*Email: ampuste_bckv@yahoo.co.in)
Wetlands including coastal biosphere comprises of 25-30% that intersected with the main river system ( The Ganges,
Brahmaputa, Padma, Mahanadi, Mahananda etc.) in the country and it’s so many tributaries like oxbow lakes (mauns,
chaurs, jheels, beels, nayanjali - as they are called locally), are immense valuable, useful for fish variables, aquatic
crops, fish-crop diversity, preserved carboniferous environment of the ecosystem as sources, sinks and transformers
of a multitude of chemical, biological and genetic materials, which served as ‘natures kidney’ and ultimately sustained
for economic stability to millions of people of the regions. These are predominantly exists in similar countries in south-
eastern Asian sub-continent. Besides, diverse tracts and uncounted scattered deltas subtropics possess high productive
ecosystem comprising diverse assemblage of flora and fauna, contrary, the stability of the ecosystem is often subjected
225
to varying degrees of stresses and degradation caused by different man-made activities and natural factors. This
paper deals greatly with number of case studies through the implementation of TOT, TDET based research projects
(NWDPRA, ICAR, DoLR, Ministry of Rural Development, Govt. of India) on integrated management programmes
suited to bio-diversity of the zone-specific, are thus imperative to make productive, resulting uplift of rural economy as
well, as the mounting pressure of this area poses a threat to the ecosystem and makes it vulnerable for their normal life
support. In the study, emphasis were paid in utilizing divergence of waste wetland ecosystem (deep, semi-deep,
temporary) as well as aqua-terrestrial ecosystem on improved agro-techniques (methodology, management, nourishment,
system approach etc.), fish genotypes (energy-rich live-fishes, carp variables etc.), fish cum aquatic food crops [starch
and protein-rich popular crops like deep-water rice (Oryza sativa L.), water chestnut (Trapa bispinosa Roxb.), makhana
(Euryale ferox Salisb.), water-lily (Nymphaea sp. Linn.), Colocasia etc.] through the unique approach of watershed
plans implemented through excavation and renovation of watershed basins, which were integrated formulated for
upright production system, exhibited economic outturn due to wide use of natural resources as well without any further
Session 1.3
degradation. Comparative advantages of diversified mixed farming system (GMP, NP and B-C ratio over subtracting
the cost of production) than monoculture, which is being economically viable to the resource poor farm families, even
exhibited >2 folds, gained to its sustainable level of the regions as a whole. This has gained over the system applicability
through their value-added decorative, remunerative products using women and aged communality of the rural areas.
The study concludes that it is imperative to utilize this vast unused wetland ecosystem of the country with impetuously
for food, livelihood, engagement of household labours and ultimately, economic stability that are inextricably linked
with rural economy and sustainability as well.
Agro-Pastoral Based Farming System for Small and Marginal

Farmers of North-East India
A.S. Panwar*, K.K. Satapathy, Anup Das, G.C. Munda and S.V. Ngachan
(*Email: panwar_as@rediffmail.com; draspanwar@gmail.com)
The north eastern hill region of India represents 7.79% of the geographical area and 3.8% of national population. The
land of this region is the most limited and scarce. Secondly, heavy precipitation, sandy loam soil and undulating
topography coupled with traditional shifting agriculture have done enough damage to the ecosystem with respect to
the soil health and overall productivity. There is no scope to increase the farm income and employment through crop
production alone, necessitating the need of integrated farming system in which live stock and crop diversification are
the important components. Keeping this fact in view, the investigation was carried out for seven consecutive years at
ICAR Research Complex for NEH region Umiam, Meghalaya, India. An area of 0.64 ha having 32 % slopes was
converted into 60 terraces of 1-1.5m width. The cropping system for lower terraces adopted were rice-toria, groundnut-
frenchbean- buckwheat, for middle terraces groundnut-radish-toria, maize-frenchbean-toria and groundnut-toria and
for upper terraces maize-toria and maize - frenchbean. These cropping system were evaluated as crop enterprises
alone and agro-pastoral based enterprises consisting of crop enterprises and one dairy unit, one milch cow and one
heifer along-with fodder grasses on terrace risers. The dairy unit was maintained on 17th and 18th number terrace in the
micro-watershed area. The guinea grass was planted in the lower terrace risers while broom grass was planted on
upper terraces. The results revealed that milch cow contributed more than 60 % of the total farm income on small farm
of 0.64 ha area and made the system more remunerative, besides it provided sufficient organic matter (20 t FYM yr-1)
to make system more sustainable and eco-friendly. The conversion of hill slops into terraces could arrest 90 % of the
total rainfall and growing guinea and broom grasses on terrace risers provided sufficient fodder (15 kg per running
meter in 4 cuttings) for dairy cow, besides it conserved soil and moisture within terraces. Inclusion of vegetables
(radish and French bean) in cropping system found to increase land use and production efficiencies. Integration of
animal with vegetable based farming system markedly improved diversity index of 1.03 and system sustainability and
on farm employment opportunities up to 280 man-days as compared to 165 with crop enterprise alone. The net income
from with agro-pastoral system was Rs. 19,256/-, while the farmer practice could earn Rs. 3160/- from the micro-
watershed. Growing of guinea and broom grass on terrace risers was a non competitive strategy for year round green
fodder production without application of fertilizer.
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Modeling Yield Prediction under Long-Term Fertility Experiments in

Rice-Wheat Rotation of Indo-Gangetic Plains
Anil Kumar*, P.K. Batra, M.S. Gill, Gyan Singh and Sanat Kumar
Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, Pusa, New Delhi, 110012, India
(*E-mail: akumar@iasri.res.in)
The rice-wheat rotation is one of the largest agricultural production systems of the world, occupying 24 m ha in South
Asia and China. Being an intensive production system, monitoring long-term changes in crop yield for identifying the
factors associated with these changes and prediction of grain yield are essential for planning for sustained productivity
on long-term basis. Keeping these in view, a long-term experiment was initiated under All India Co-ordinated Research
Session 1.3
Project on Cropping Systems during 1977-78 taking 19 fertility treatments in a 32 x 2 partially confounded factorial
design in 3 replications with 1 control (N0P0K0) in each replication. In this study, long-term (1977 to 2003) yield data of
rice- wheat cropping system of Faizabad, India were taken to predict or estimate the grain yield based upon best fitted
linear/nonlinear models. For all the 19 treatments, linear/nonlinear models have been fitted to obtain the estimated
yield as well as predicted yield (3 years). Yield trend for rice and wheat crops for a period from 1977 to 2003 has been
analyzed using curve expert package. Different non-linear models like 3rd degree polynomial fit, MMF, logistic, linear
fit, rational function, exponential fit, etc. have been fitted to all the 19 treatments. Results revealed that under balanced
fertility management practices both linear fit and user-defined models yielded similar results for predicted yield. In rice,
grain yield for years 2003, 2004 and 2005 were predicted by both models as 4.19 Mg ha-1, while as exponential fit
model predicted 4.20, 4.18 and 4.16 Mg ha-1 for similar years, respectively. In wheat, yield for 2004, 2005 and 2006
were predicted by 3rd degree polynomial fit model as 4.52, 4.86 and 5.28 Mg ha-1, respectively, whereas linear fit model
predicted as 3.90, 3.94 and 3.93 Mg ha-1 and quadratic fit model predicted as 3.42, 3.30 and 3.18 Mg ha-1 for years
2004, 2005 and 2006, respectively. It can be concluded that linear, exponential and 3rd degree polynomial fit models
can serve as best fitted models for predicting yield under long-term fertility experiments.
Resource Conservation through Multiple Land Use with Bed Planting in

Sugarcane Based Cropping Systems
B.R. Kamboj, R.K. Malik, Rajbir Garg, N.K. Goyal, Ashok Yadav and Sher Singh
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (Damla), Yamunanagar, 135 001, Haryana, India
A field experiment was carried out in Yamunanagar district of Haryana, India from 2004-05 to 2007-08. The area under
sugarcane is shrinking due to profit bias in favour of rice-wheat cropping system, thus straining the natural resources.
The parity of returns for area retention is possible through significant productivity gains and its integration with intercrops
under multiple land use system. Area shift from summer planting of sugarcane to autumn planting with wheat as
intercrop was identified as a feasible option. The simultaneous planting of both crops in optimum geometry to be
accomplished through bed planter, sugarcane setts planted in furrows and wheat on beds spaced at 75-90 cm. In this
endeavour, 75 field demonstrations on an area of 30 ha were conducted in the village Alahar, Antava and Bahadarpur.
Autumn planting of sugarcane + wheat was compared with sequential planting of wheat in rabi (winter) season and
sugarcane in summer season, and data reported as sugarcane equivalent yield for two years crop rotation involving
sugarcane ratoon and succeeding wheat as well. The yield of wheat as intercrop was at par with sole crop but yield
advantage of 17.5 Mg ha-1 obtained in planted sugarcane due to optimization of planting time. The yield of sugarcane
ratoon and subsequent wheat crop was also at par in both the systems. Results established the mean yield gain of
19.8 Mg ha-1, profit margin of Rs. 25344/- ha-1 in two years cropping sequence, consequently conserving the natural
resources on account of bed planting and sugarcane vis-à-vis rice-wheat cropping system. This resource conserving
technology was well accepted by the farmers in village Alahar and also other peripheral villages. The area in the
current year under this RCT is estimated as 2000 ha and likely to cross 5000 ha in next year. This worthwhile technology
has been identified for acceleration in whole of the sugarcane area in the state of Haryana.
227
Sunflower Oil vs. Diesel for Traction: A Life-Cycle Comparison

at Farm Level
L. Coletto*, G. Florio, S.G. Sandrini, A. Calgaro, A. Brigi and S. Bona

Dipartimento di Agronomia Ambientale e Produzioni Vegetali, AGRIPOLIS - Facoltà di Agraria -
Università di Padova, Viale dell’Università n. 16 - 35020 Legnaro (PD)
(*Email: lucia.coletto@unipd.it)
This study investigated the environmental impact of the use of sunflower oil as energy source instead of diesel fuel
using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method. The case study consisted of 19 simulated organic farms of 10 ha with
3 different crops (maize - M, soybeans - S, wheat - W) differently allocated within the farms. We hypothesized that all
Session 1.3
the farm tractors were converted for the use of sunflower oil as fuel. It was supposed to rearrange land distribution
within the crops in order to assign a part of it for sunflower cultivation in fulfilling oil supply for the energy farms need.
The sunflower surface area was defined on the basis of the energy requirements of the farm, while the surface area of
other crops reflects, where possible, the percentage distribution before the introduction of sunflower. The two
managements (sunflower oil vs. diesel) were compared with LCA methodology using SimaPro 7.18 based on Eco-
indicator 99 methods. The aspects that could influence emissions into the atmosphere from the consumption of fossil
fuels etc. were estimated; LCA was also used to estimate the consequent changes in farm organization. In the first
step, all the emissions and the consumption resources connected to the different processes were listed in the LCI (Life
Cycle Inventory). This included the processes of soil cultivation, sowing, weed control, fertilization, pest and pathogen
control, harvest and drying of the grains. Machine infrastructure and a shed for machine sheltering were included.
Inputs of fertilisers, pesticides and seeds as well as their transports to the farm were considered. The direct emissions
on the field were also included. The system boundary was at the farm gate. The process of sunflower oil production
was included in machineries inventory. Lastly a LCIA (Life Cycle Impact Assessment) was done; the inventory data
were aggregated into indicators for environmental effects, which included production of carcinogens, respiratory organics
and inorganics, effect on climate change, radiation, ozone layer, acidification/eutrophication, minerals and fossil fuels
consumption. In general, the resulting indices showed that the allocation of a portion of farm land to the cultivation of
sunflower for producing oil for energy was environmentally positive, in particular if this crop substituted maize. The
main environmental disadvantages were found for the substitution of wheat while for soybeans there was an intermediate
impact. Only one impact category showed an unexpected value: the higher carcinogens impacts registered in crops
cultivated with sunflower oil. This was due to the introduction of sunflower mill that meant a great impact for the
construction of the machineries.
Relative Performance of Rapeseed-Mustard Species under

Late Sown Condition at Different Fertility Levels under North
Western Himalayas
Anil Kumar and K.S Thakur

Shivalik Agricultural Research and Extension Centre, Kangra, 176001, Himachal Pradesh, India
Maize-wheat is predominant cropping sequence in Himachal Pradesh under rainfed conditions. However, late arrival
of rains in rabi (winter) season has put a question mark on wheat performance. Rapeseed-mustard species due to
their efficient and deep root system has been proposed as replacement for wheat. An experiment was planned to find
out the suitable rapeseed- mustard species for late sown condition and their different fertility requirements in rainfed
north western Himalayas. Experiments were conducted during 2005-06 and 2006-07 at Oilseeds Research Station,
Kangra, Himanchal Pradesh, INDIA. Treatments comprised of 3 rapeseed mustard species namely, Brassica carinata
var. ‘BCRS17’, Brassica juncea var. ‘OMK 2’ and Brasicca napus var. ‘Neelam’ and ‘ONK1’ tested at 3 fertility levels:
228
recommended (90:60:40), 75% of recommended and 125% of recommended. Under late sown mid hill conditions,
B. carinata ‘BCRS17’ produced higher dry matter at 90 and 150 days after sowing and consequently the highest
mean seed yield (2437 kg ha-1) and this was 72-77% and 56% higher than B. napus and B. juncea cultivars
evaluated. The better performance of the B. carinata compared to other two species was partly attributed to the
higher root biomass generated to a deeper depth helping to harness the nutrients and water from a deeper soil
profile which in this case was critical as the winter rains are lacking. All the varieties under late sown conditions
responded to higher level of fertility (125% of recommended) and the increase over recommended was 17.1%. It can
be concluded that for rainfed areas of north western Himalayas for late sown condition the performance grading
worked out was Brassica carinata > Brassica juncea > Brassica napus and all the species responded to higher
fertility level under late sown condition.
Session 1.3
Conservation Agricultural Production Systems - A Study of Karnal
District of Haryana State of India
Dalip K. Gosain
Krishi Vigyan Kendra and Dairy Training Centre, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132 001, India
(Email: gosaindk@yahoo.com)
Haryana State of Northern India has significant contribution in crop production but the “latent and ill-effects” of “intensive
agriculture” had called for promotion of conservation agriculture (CA). In the recent past CA has been advocated
among the farmers of different categories in Karnal district of Haryana State. In wheat production “zero tillage” technology
in the district has been adopted by a large number of farmers and in 2007, area under zero tilled wheat was 28,000 ha,
which had reduced the cost of cultivation up to U.S. $ 50 ha-1 and saving of water. In 2005, there were 1,060 zero till
machines and seeing the positive impact their number has increased to 1,795 in 2007 in the district. The Indigenous
Technical Knowledge (ITK) used in growing garlic using spreading of paddy straw is widely adopted by the farmers of
a block that saves three irrigations and reduces weeds also. Paddy and wheat are the major crops grown in this district
and since 2003 farmers have stopped growing early sathi paddy that had lowered the water table alarmingly. To
conserve the water resources that was intensively used in growing two paddy crops during ‘kharif’ season, the farmers
in place of one crop of paddy now grow Sesbania aculeate for green manure and summer pulses in place of early
paddy where by less water is used for irrigation and soil health has also improvised. In 2007, pulses were grown in an
area of 1,200 ha in the district. A few field trials on growing moong pulse from September-November have shown
larger adoption in one block of the district and in 2008 nearly 75 ha area is under this cropping pattern. The use of
vermi-compost available from thousand of beds of earth worms and dung of dairy animals in the district has reduced
the utilization of the chemical fertilizers and is gaining ample attention of the farmers in the district. The findings of the
study have been discussed in this paper and the approaches used in promoting CA could be replicated under similar
agro-climatic conditions for maintaining environment while improving crop production.
Diversifying Peri-Urban Agriculture through Baby Corn Based High Value

Intercropping Systems
D.K. Singh, M.L. Jat, R.P. Singh, Rafat Sultana, Ishwar Singh, K.P. Singh and Sain Dass
Intensive cereal-based cropping systems are central to food security and reducing poverty in India. However, these
irrigated and highly productive systems are subject to significant change particularly in peri-urban farming. On the
229
supply side they face serious natural resource management problems, including the unsustainable exploitation of
water and soils, inefficient use of chemical inputs, and emerging or worsening disease and pest problems. On the
demand side they are being transformed by market forces and changing consumer demands. Both thrusts imply an
increasing role for diversifying cereal systems through high value profitable crops. In the context of diversification, the
debate has always focused on what areas, in which season, and how to diversify. Farmers need to consider the yields
in respective areas and cropping seasons keeping in mind how to relocate the more remunerative crops over large
areas to generate employment and foster food security and health for all. Intensification through innovative crop
establishment techniques and high value intercropping systems is an option for promoting diversification.
Intercropping of baby corn, with high value crops including vegetable has a potential in peri-urban areas not only
to intensify but also to diversify for increasing farm profitability and employment generation. Therefore, the studies
were carried out at Directorate of Maize Research, Pusa Campus, New Delhi during 2007-08 using raised bed planting
technique (narrow beds-37 cm top) to evaluate potential baby corn based high value intercropping system for peri-
Session 1.3
urban agriculture. The baby corn hybrid (HM-4) was sown on southern side of the top of be raised bed and the
intercrops (beet root, peas, potato, coriander, fenugreek, radish, knolkhol) were sown on northern side of the top of
beds during last week of November. Seven intercropping systems were compared with sole baby corn in randomized
block design with three replications.
Results revealed that the baby corn yield under intercropping systems was comparable with sole baby corn.
However, the net returns varied significantly under different cropping systems. The increase in profitability of intercropping
systems was varied from US$ 2200 under baby corn+ beet root, US$ 960 under baby corn+ coriander, US$ 760 under
baby corn+ knolkhol, US$ 580 under baby corn+ peas, and US$ 280 under baby corn+ fenugreek. The profitability of
other systems was either at par or less than sole baby corn systems due to their non compatibility. Other than profitability,
there was remarkable advantage on water productivity and employment generation under intercropping systems
compared to sole cropping of baby corn or other winter crops. It can be concluded that market and technological
developments imply an increasing scope for diversifying intensive cereal systems with horticultural crops in peri-urban
interface and horticultural crops tend to have a positive poverty reduction bias, being labor intensive and small scale.
Soil and Water Conservation by Forage Plant Species in Arid Region of

Western Rajasthan State of India
S.S. Shekhawat
AICRP on Forage Crops, Centre for Forage Management, Agricultural Research Station,
Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner, 334 006, Rajasthan, India
(Email: srn_shekhawat@yahoo.co.in)
Hot arid region in western part of Rajasthan state of India covers 62% of total 31.7 m ha area of hot arid land of the
country. Soil erosion by wind is a severe problem in this area due to occurrence of strong wind storms mostly during
summer season. Similarly annual rainfall in this region is low and erratic. So, soil and water conservation measures
are an important requirement for the area. Soil conservation is required to control soil erosion and maintenance of soil
fertility. Some forage plant species in this region offer good contribution for soil conservation and judicious use of
available water. Since animal husbandry is more important than general crop cultivation in this region due to low
rainfall and available irrigation water, forage plant species are also important from that point of view. Sand dunes are
commonly found in this area. Sand dunes can be stabilized and soil erosion checked by making shelterbelts with the
help of some forage grasses, shrubs and trees. Plant roots help in stabilizing the soil. Agroforestry, silvipasture,
hortipasture etc. are some methods of farming systems which include growing of forage plant species and help in soil
and water conservation and also provide additional benefits. Grassland development and silvipasture offer sufficient
solution for checking soil erosion on wastelands in this region, which are left without any care. Plantation on such soils
improves environment also. Pasture grasses provide fodder with the limited water supply. For example, perennial
fodder grass Lasiurus sindicus grows in this region with the available water and survives for many years after
230
establishment even during the drought years. This grass also helps in checking of soil erosion and provides fodder
with the least consumption of water. In tree species, trees like Prosopis cineraria grow under the arid situation and
help in soil conservation and fodder production with limited use of water. Shrubs like Zizyphus nummularia also
grow naturally in this region and help in soil and water conservation, besides giving fodder and fruits. Some other
forage plant species also grow in this region satisfactorily and provide fodder with the available water and help in
facing the drought situation with their other uses. So, forage plant species require sufficient attention for their
growing in the region for soil and water conservation and other uses.
Development of an Input Efficient Cropping System in Banana Variety
Session 1.3
Nendran
Vandana Venugopal*, K.R. Sheela and V.L. Geethakumari

Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala, India
(*Email: vanjanil@yahoo.co.in)
An investigation was carried out to develop a sustainable cost effective and economically viable production technology
for banana variety Nendran in reclaimed alluvial soils.The influence of crop intensification in banana by modifying the
planting pattern and intercropping, on productivity enhancement and developing an optimum nutrient schedule for the
modified system of planting was evaluated by conducting two field experiments. The first experiment was laid in
factorial randomised block design with two systems of planting (Normal planting of banana at 2m X 2m spacing and
double sucker planting of banana at 3m X 2m spacing) and four intercrops (no intercrop; cucumber – amaranthus ;
colocasia and chittaratha), replicated thrice. The second experiment consisted of three levels of nutrients (recommended
dose of nutrients or RDN; 133% RDN and 167% RDN) and three sources of organic manure (FYM@10-15 kg pit -1,
vermicompost@5 kg pit-1 and fresh banana pseudo stem@20 kg pit-1) laid out in factorial randomised block design
with 3 replications. Results showed that intercrops exerted a positive response on bunch weight and yield, maximum
being recorded with cucumber – amaranthus. Economic analysis revealed that combination of modified planting pattern
intercropped with cucumber-amaranthus recorded the highest net profit and BCR. The highest net profit of Rs. 554384/
- and.615030/- were realized per ha during 1st and 2nd year. Highest net profit of Rs. 461536 ha-1 and BCR of 4.64 was
realized when farm yard manure was applied along with 1335 of recommended dose of nutrients. Soil nutrients improved
after two years of experimentation. Thus, planting banana at 3m X 2m spacing with two suckers pit-1 and raising
cucumber- amaranthus as intercrop is beneficial for getting higher yield per unit area and maximum economic returns.
The study also revealed that 133% of RDN is required when FYM or banana pseudo stem is used as organic source.
When vermicompost is used, the recommended nutrient dose is sufficient. Moreover this nutrient schedule is
economically viable and helpful in maintaining soil fertility.
Crop Diversification for Productivity and Sustainability

in the Central Gujarat
H.B. Singh, S.P. Tiwari and V.C. Pande

Research Centre, Vasad-388 306, Anand, Gujarat
Tobacco is the main crop of central Gujarat, which is erosion permitting and health hazardous. About 49% (2003-04) of
tobacco cultivated area of Gujarat is concentrated in this region (Anand, Kheda Baroda and Panchmahals districts).
An experiment was conducted at Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Research
231
Centre, Vasad for five years (2003-2008) to know the possibilities of crop diversification through horticultural crops
like drumstick and aonla in pure and Agro-horticulture systems with cover crop green gram and high value small
seed spices cumin and fennel crops as alternate land use for the prevailing tobacco crop. Six treatments (i)
tobacco (control) (ii) pure drumstick (block plantation) (iii) Pure aonla (block plantation), (iv) drumstick + green gram
– cumin (first two years) and green gram- fennel (second two years), (v) aonla + green gram- cumin (first two years)
and green gram – fennel (second two years), (vi) green gram-cumin (first two years) and green gram- fennel (second
two years) were studied in completely randomized block design with 5 replications with plot size of 21 m x 80 m.
The result revealed that cumin was not successful in this region. The plantation of drumstick as pure block plantation
was most successful and remunerative followed by drumstick + green gram – fennel cropping system. The highest
net returns Rs. 56537/- ha-1 was realized from pure drumstick with the cost of cultivation only half of that of tobacco.
This was followed by Rs. 31079/- ha-1 from drumstick + green gram-fennel and only Rs 14063/- ha-1 from tobacco.
Drumstick and drumstick + green gram – fennel was 4 times and 2.2 times more remunerative, respectively than
Session 1.3
the plantation of tobacco crop.

If tobacco is replaced by drumstick, the total gain to the tune of Rs. 280 million can be realized by replacing 20 per
cent tobacco area in middle Gujarat. Similarly, the total gain in net returns worked out to be Rs. 112 million, if 20%
tobacco area is replaced by Drumstick + green gram – fennel agro-horticulture system. The crop diversification from
the predominant irrigated tobacco cropping could reduce irrigation water requirement by 70 to 100% of the region. The
aonla has started fruiting after fourth year of plantation but we observed peculiar observation of twice flowering/ fruiting
in a year resulting in low yield. The soil of drumstick plantation recorded maximum accumulation of nutrients (OC, P 2O5
and K2O) in the soil followed by drumstick + green gram – fennel and least from pure aonla.
A Pragmatic Framework for Holistic Analysis and Development of

Sustainable Diversified Perennial Based Farming Systems for Tropics
Jacob John
Cropping Systems Research Centre, Kerala Agricultural University, Karamana,
Thiruvananthapuram, 695 522, Kerala, India
(E-mail: jacobjohnkau@gmail.com)
The increasing population pressure has made it inevitable to search for alternatives to maximise the use of agricultural
land. This has led to integrated land use practices. Policy makers in tropical developing countries, have proposed
integration of plantation crops, annual crops, livestock and forestry. In the past years, attempts to develop these
farming systems have been mainly through a piece meal approach. Improvement of this complex farming system can
be achieved only through a whole-farm or integrated systems approach. This approach is comprehensive and demands
the expertise of a multidisciplinary team of scientists. In such systems, the emphasis is on optimizing resource utilization
rather than maximization of individual elements. It would be appropriate to develop diversified cropping models specific
to each agroecological zone ensuring farmer participation throughout the process. With farmers as the focal point, due
consideration should to be bestowed to their tastes and preferences. Successful models, thus developed, can be
replicated in areas with more or less identical eco-sociological circumstances.
The objective should be to improve whole farm productivity through integration of mutually beneficial productive
elements/subsystems, enhance recycling of all agricultural waste, minimize the use of external farm inputs, especially
pesticides, adopt Integrated management of pests, weeds, diseases, maximize the use of local or locally adapted
seeds/breeds etc and associated knowledge systems and ensure food/nutritional securities for farm households.. The
fundamental issue is that any intervention must be based on their synergistic role in benefit of the whole farming
system. The paper covers a case study of development of an integrated farming model suited to tropics through farmer
participatory approach under the National Agricultural Technology Project.
Evaluation of whole-farm systems consists essentially of measuring how adequate and effective an existing system
has been in achieving its planning objectives. In most cases the evaluation refers primarily to financial criteria and to
232
factors directly underlying those criteria. This emphasis on economics alone decries the importance of several
other system attributes properties. Hence, a pragmatic and holistic approach to ascertain the sustainability of a
farm is essential. A pioneering holistic sustainability evaluation of diversified cropping systems through the extensive
two-year on-farm studies undertaken in farmers’ field as part of the research projects of the Planning Commission
of India in Palakkad and Wayanad Districts of Kerala, India which are representative of the intense and diversified
cropping systems in tropical developing counties is presented. The different facets of sustainability analysis of
diversified cropping/farming systems include level of biodiversity, quantum of external inputs, labour requirement
and employment generation, biomass generated and recycled, number of bioresource cycles, economics, temporal
changes in soil fertility, nutrient budget and balance, moisture conservation, soil microbial load especially of plant
growth promoting rhizobacteria and other beneficial organisms, pest/disease incidence and system stability, socio-
economic aspects, energetics and nutritional security.
Session 1.3
Upland Cropping Systems to Produce Staple Food and Milk on the
Malagasy Highlands
Dusserre Julie1, Douzet Jean-Marie1, Rahantanirina Alice1, Razafindrakoto Alice1,

Ramahandry Fidiniaina2 and Krishna Naudin1
1
CIRAD, URP SCRiD, BP 230, Antsirabe 110, Madagascar
2
FOFIFA, URP SCRiD, BP 230, Antsirabe 110, Madagascar
(*Email: julie.dusserre@cirad.fr)
In Malagasy highlands, increasing demand for rice led to the improvement of upland rice in the hilly areas due to
increasing land pressure in the lowland areas. To tackle the problem of sustainable upland crop production systems,
CIRAD (IGO) and TAFA (NGO) have developed Direct-seeding Mulch-based Cropping systems (DMC), which does
not only conserves soil from erosion but also increases soil fertility. In the highlands, livestock for the dairy production
is growing very rapidly with the main constraints of limited availability of the forage resources. During last years,
agriculture extension agencies like FIFAMANOR, TAFA, and other NGOs have developed an approach aiming to
integrate agriculture and livestock. In this context, studies were undertaken on some grasses and legumes for their
multiple uses as cover-crop and forage for dairy livestock. To technically support these studies, further work has been
conducted with the objective to develop sustainable upland crop production system based on rice, maize, and forage.
For this study, upland rice was cropped in double lines associated with various plants Eleusine coracana, Stylosanthes,
Cajanus cajan, Raphanus sativus and Vicia villosa with the mixtures of forage crops. Similarly, maize (in rotation with
rice) was cropped in association with Cajanus cajan, Raphanus sativus, Eleusine coracana, Crotalaria grahamiana, C.
spectabilis, Lupinus sp., Stylosanthes guianensis and Brachiaria ruziziensis with the mixtures of forage crops. These
systems are compared for the competition and complementarities between crops in terms of grain yield of rice and
maize, and biomass production.
During the wet season of 2006-07, rice cultivar sensitive to the pyricularia was used for the experiment to observe
the effect under normal incidence of the disease. But, incidence of the disease was too strong causing very low grain
yield to observe the effect of association. The best rice yield was obtained in pure culture and in association with S.
guianensis (1.50 t ha-1), while the highest total biomass was observed in the associations with R. sativus and the
mixture of forage crop (3.75 t ha-1). In case of maize, the associations with E. coracana and Crotalaria sp. were found
most effective for production of both grain and the biomass. In the wet season of 2007-08, rice cultivar resistant to the
pyricularia was used with two types of fertilizers both organic (Fu) and organic mineral (FM). But, the cyclone during
flowering stage induced high percentage of sterility (74%) and very poor grain yield. In this year, S. guianensis was left
in the field for one more year without harvesting it. The highest biomass production was obtained from R. sativus sown
1 month after rice (7.00 t ha-1) in FM treatment in which the rice grain yield was found very low because of a strong
competition between two crops. The associations with C. cajan and E. coracana were the most effective in term of rice
grain yield and biomass production. The highest maize grain yield was observed in association with Lupinus sp. sowed
233
simultaneously (2.45 t ha-1) in FM treatment. Whereas, the lowest maize grain yield was observed in association
with B. ruziziensis (1.09 t ha-1) in FM treatment. The better yield was found in FM treatment as compared to Fu
treatment. As for rice, the highest biomass production of the associated crop is linked with the lowest grain yield.
The most effective associations for maize grain yield and biomass production of the associated crop were observed
in E. coracana + C. cajan and R. sativus + Vicia villosa. These preliminary results help to estimate the quantities
of biomass produced under the stringent condition of Malagasy highland (rainfall and temperature). Further experiment
will be conducted to estimate the balance between amount of biomass needed for mulching the field and the
potential biomass that can be used for cattle feeding.
Conservation Agriculture: Indian Perspective

Session 1.3
K.G. Tejwani1 and V.P. Singh2

1
Land Use Consultants International, 25/31, Old Rajinder Nagar, New Delhi, 110 060, India
2
Regional Representative (South Asia), World Agroforestry Centre,
NASC Complex, New Delhi, 110 012, India
Conservation Agriculture is a new “Term” in vogue. Perhaps, apart from old terms of natural resource/ soil and water/
forest conservation it includes new terms of bio-diversity conservation/ watershed management/all inclusive agriculture
and technologies. Some of the new technologies could be “minimum tillage. It is not clear whether the new term
“Conservation Agriculture” takes into account the “socio-economic conditions” of a particular society in account. When
the “new technology” of “Green Revolution” came to India, it was immediately taken up because the pre-requisites
required (namely irrigation, fertilizers and agents of change) were available. However now the green revolution has
lost its steam and perhaps is beset with problems. The dryland/ rainfed agriculture is waiting for a revolution. “White
revolution”, “Yellow revolution” and “Egg Revolution” are indigenous to India as they fitted in with the local socio-
economic conditions. With respect to conservation of natural resources (soil/water/forest) India has a historical/
civilizational/traditional technologies for various agro-ecological / land/ rainfall/ geomorphologial / socio-economic
conditions.
Some of the most successful examples are (i) bench terraces/water resource development/integration of crops-
trees-animals/seed/food preservation, (ii) in high rainfall tropical/sub-tropical conditions where the soils are nutrient
poor there are a variety of shifting cultivation practices/ affluent small farmer practices of home gardens; (iii) in semi-
arid/subhumid conditions water harvesting-water conservation-water management/soil conservation systems (iv) in
arid/semiarid conditions combination of crops-trees-animals; (v) in commercial crops (coconut/arecanut) intercropping/
multiple cropping etc. In all these systems live stock are integrated and pastoral-silviculture practices have been
developed. In addition all these traditional practices take the local socio-cultural-economic conditions along with
themselves. It has been shown recently (Tejwani, 2008) that the Indian farmers have more trees outside the forest than
on there are the state forest. The farmer are contributing not only to the economic security but also to the environmental/
ecological security. India at present has large scale programmes on agricultural/natural resources/watershed water
resource development and management. These mostly address (even though they are for all) small/medium farmer’s
and are aware of the livelihood/employment/ economic/ecological/environmental issues. What these programmes are
not aware of is that all these practices are in danger of instability and destruction due to very severe pressures of
human and livestock populations. It will be presumptious to anticipate what technology the World Congress on
“Conservation Agriculture” may recommend for densely populated sub-humid/semi-arid/arid conditions of India (and
for south Asia). There could be an Indian perspective which will be part of discussion and intervention.
234
Scope and Opportunities for Adoption of Conservation Agriculture

Technologies in Horticulture Crops
K.M. Indiresh1, M. Shivamurthy1, T.B. Puttaraju1 and S.N. Rajashekar2

1
UAS, GKVK, Bangalore, India
2
DHAN Foundation, NGO, India
Adoption of Conservation Agriculture in horticulture crop production offers several advantages like, providing sustainable
crop production system, prevents air pollution, reduction in time and labour, increase in water infiltration, constant
increase in yield and decreasing in yield variations. Besides, increased humus formation and higher soil regeneration
by enhancing soil microbial activities. Interventions such as mechanical soil tillage are reduced to an absolute minimum,
Session 1.3
and the use of external inputs such as agrochemicals and nutrients of mineral or organic origin are applied at an
optimum level and in a way and quality that does not interfere with, or disrupt the biological processes. Continuous
minimum mechanical soil disturbance, permanent organic soil cover and diversified crop rotations characterize CA
technologies. Farmers in India were growing horticulture crops over the years traditionally by following conservation
agriculture technologies. To meet the growing food needs for the ever increasing population, green revolution technologies
were adopted during the last century. Undoubtedly these technologies increased production several folds, but at the
same time it resulted in several environmental problems and health hazards. There is a growing consciousness among
our farmers about the ill effects of synthetic chemicals in agriculture and demand for organic products has increased
from 1.2 Mt in 2004 to 1.6 Mt during 2007. Considering these points in view and potentialities of our farmers as they are
basically organic and eco-friendly by nature, it is easy to promote Conservation Agriculture technologies by educating
them about advantages and facilitating adoption of these technologies particularly in horticultural crops. There are
several farmers in rural areas still following sustainable technologies which are nothing but CA technologies, these
farmers can be encouraged to popularize there technologies to other farmers. Also, our extension workers can publish
case studies about their success in the local magazines, besides recognizing their gardens as demonstration plots to
educate other farmers through field visits and training centers. This paper finally illustrates creative ideas of a farmer
Sri. Gurlinganna in Tumkur district, south India, who has invented and adopted CA technologies like irrigating his entire
coconut garden with diluted and well digested cow dung slurry through sprinklers, insitu mulching with all agricultural
wastes, zero tillage for the last eight years, roof water harvesting etc,. With this, soils in his garden are rich in organic
matter, increased microbial and earth worm activities which have resulted in high soil fertility and moisture conservation
which is reflected in the presence of healthy palms with uniform and stable bearing of 200 nuts per palm per year.
Effect of Water-Saving Conservation Agriculture Technologies in Rice

Productivity and Water Use in Semi Arid Region of Uzbekistan
K.P. Devkota1*, R.K. Gupta2, A.M. Manschadi3, O. Egamberdiev1, M.K. Devkota1 and J. Lamers1
1
ZEF/UNESCO, Khorezm Project, Urgench, Uzbekistan
2
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), B-6/106, Murtazaev Street,
PO Box 4564, Tashkent, 100000, Uzbekistan
3
University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF) Walter-Flex Str. 3, 53113, Bonn, Germany
(*E-mail: kdevkota@uni-bonn.de)
Water management is the single most important issue constraining and threatening the productivity and sustainability
of rice production in irrigated drylands of Uzbekistan. In flood irrigated rice production system, farmers in Uzbekistan
used to maintain 15-20 cm standing water continuously throughout the rice growing season which involves application
of more than 60,000 m3 water ha-1. While the country is facing problems like how to produce food crop like rice with
less water, to increase water productivity, to save water and how much water is enough to maintain rice production
235
under diminishing water supply, water efficient conservation agriculture technologies like aerobic rice with optimum
residue management and reduced tillage can reduce water use sustaining the productivity. Thus, a research on water
saving potentiality through the cultivation of rice in permanent raised beds and zero tillage condition with three levels
of residue retention was conducted in Khorezm region of Uzbekistan in 2008. In this paper, productivity and water
saving potentiality through the cultivation of aerobic rice in irrigated drylands of Uzbekistan are presented.
Evaluation of Different Crop Establishment Methods on Yield and Yield

Attributes of Rice (Oryza sativa l.) under MWPZ of U.P., India
Session 1.3
L.R. Singh, Vivek Yadav and Rajendra Singh

Zonal Research Station, Nagina, SVBPUA&T, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
A field experiment was conducted during kharif 2006 and 2007 with 3 crop establishment methods SRI, ICM, standard
practice (with same dates of sowing and same dates of transplanting) keeping one treatment farmers practice as
common. On the basis of results it is revealed that SRI and ICM being at par in yield attributing characters produced
significantly higher grain yield over rest of the treatments.
Direct Seeding Mulch Based Cropping Systems (DMC) as a Means to

Improve the Economy of Small Scale Farmers in Madagascar
Rakotondramanana1*, O. Husson2 and R. Andriantahina1

1
GSDM, lot VA 26 Y Ambatoroka, Antananarivo (101), Madagascar
2
CIRAD/GSDM, lot VA 26 Y Ambatoroka, Antananarivo (101), Madagascar
(*Email: gsdm@moov.mg)
Most of the lowlands in Madagascar are used as paddy fields but the production from this system is no longer sufficient
to meet the needs of a fast growing population. Therefore, upland rice and other rainfed crops are developed by
farmers on the hillsides despite the low fertility of soils in this type of environment. Also, most of the soils are on steep
slopes and the effect of erosion may be devastating due to high rainfall intensity in many areas. For these reasons and
thanks to CIRAD backstopping from Brazil, Direct Seeding Mulch based Cropping (DMC) systems have been developed
(10 years of adaptation research) and extended since 2002 in several agro ecological zones of Madagascar. In the
hillsides (tanety) the systems mostly used by small scale farmers are the association of food crops (rice, maize,
peanut, ground nut) with Dolichos lablab, Vigna unguiculata or Vigna umbellata or rice on residues of Stylosanthes
guianensis. It was found that significant effects of DMC on yields were obtained after an accumulation of biomass
during 3 years. When the biomass is not enough due to low development of the cover crops or loss of biomass by
overgrazing, a problem of weeds is frequent during the following seasons. In such a case, farmer will be tempted to go
back to tillage. They can also use glyphosate and add some mulch from outside the plot. On the other side, when a
good accumulation of biomass is obtained, there is a rapid increase in soil fertility, a better weeds control, especially
Striga asiatica. Higher yields and lower labour costs (no– or reduced- weeding and no tillage) with DMC result in higher
profits for farmers, when high striga pressure often leads to abandon of degraded land with traditional techniques. The
analysis of more than 2000 plots shows that production and profits increase with time: the higher the number of years
of DMC, the higher the profit of the farmer and the higher the gross margin per man-day.
236
Raised Bed Technology to Replace Conventional Flood

Irrigation in Pakistan
Niaz Ahmad and Muhammad Adnan Shahid

Water Management Research Centre, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan
Agriculture in Indus Basin is a thousand’s years old episode. The civilizations like Harrapa and Moinjodharo are its
witness. The area has been blessed with a continuous flow of five rivers with the history of high floods during monsoon
period and gentle runoff during the rest of the year. British introduced canal irrigation network by controlling and
diverting river’s flow primarily for agriculture of low cropping intensity (less than 70%) without drainage system which
resulted in water-logging. The riparian of the rivers enjoyed abundance of water which was more than 5000 m3 per
Session 1.3
person on the independence of Pakistan. All above favored most inefficient flood irrigation based agriculture. Being a
sole source of dependence in Indus Basin, agriculture has been playing an important role for the survival of the
inhabitants. During the last half century, increase in population increased the cropping intensity from 70% to 150%. In
some areas, the cropping intensity has gone even more than 200% with a major contribution from groundwater; more
than 50% irrigation water is being pumped from the aquifers. Under drought like situation during last decade (1998 to
2008), the high water table (water-logging) afforded the pressure of increasing groundwater pumping of increased
tubewells from 250000 to 800,000. Under increasing demand and decreasing supply of irrigation water and greater
discharge with less recharge of groundwater, over exploitation of groundwater, secondary salinity and shortage of
irrigation water are likely threats to the agriculture of Pakistan.
Quick management to take out country’s agriculture from the on-going dwindling position to a sustainable position
needs urgent replacement of its conventional irrigation with furrow irrigated raised bed planting (raised bed technology)
and finally with high efficient irrigation systems. Raised bed technology has good potential to save enough water and
increase yield within affordable spending. Keeping all the above in view, efforts were made not only to design and
develop the local bed planter to grow multi crops on beds, but also to disseminate this technology to farmers. Planting
on raised beds with University Bed Planting Machine has shown 50% water saving with 10-25% increase in wheat
yield. This increase in yield due to raised bed planting has been found on average 30% for spring maize and 15% for
autumn maize. The intercropping of sugarcane in furrows with wheat on beds revealed 26.7% increase in yield. It was
concluded that sowing of wheat on raised beds in the month of November and sugarcane planting in furrows during
February not only helped in best utilization of crop inputs but also enhanced the water productivity of wheat and
sugarcane crops. Recently rice on raised beds has shown 30%-40% water saving while yield results of rice and cotton
are in compilation process. Detailed results of all these activities regarding raised bed technology in Pakistan are
presented in this paper.
Fisheries Interfaces in Conservation Agriculture
M. Muruganandam and V.N. Sharda

Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute (ICAR),
218, Kaulagarh Road, Dehra Dun, 248 195, Uttarakhand, India
Potential of fisheries and importance of Integrated Watershed Management (IWM) for Natural Resource Management
(NRM) and rural development as one of the potential subsectors of agriculture are constantly growing in India.
Nonetheless, the subsector is poorly understood for its possible interfaces with conservation agriculture, particularly in
northwestern Himalayan States such as Uttarakhand, Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, which are
overwhelmingly dependent on agriculture and animal husbandry besides forests and rivers for food and livelihoods.
Understanding the interfaces between fisheries and agriculture would enable farmers to reap higher production,
productivity and profit margin per unit use of natural resources including water and other factors of production. At these
237
backdrops extensive survey and experimental observations were carried out in various parts of Uttarakhand with the
aim of incorporating fisheries in existing farming systems of the State and are briefly communicated here. Though a
number of links between fisheries and conservation agriculture can be established, some of the important ones like
fish culture in paddy ecosystems (rice-fish culture), water harvesting, fish farming in harvested water, accommodative
agriculture and fish farming practices were accounted in the present studies. Additionally, required improvements in
effective WH, WHSs and IWM to accommodate fish farming were made.
Consequently, economically viable, ecologically sustainable and reproducible fish-based Integrated Farming System
(IFS) interlinking traditional water mill, poultry farming, agriculture, piggery, fisheries and other related components,
complete package of farming practices for improved composite carp culture were evolved and disseminated. The
developed IFS produced about 4850 kg ha1 yr1 fish. Poultry farming in 11.6 m2 area yielded a range of 50-70 % profit
over operational investment with an annual net profit of Rs. 8800/- depending on seasonal growth and demand from 4-
5 farming cycles. Net profit from pigs was worked out to be Rs. 2800 in 6-7 months of fattening. Irrigation with fishpond
Session 1.3
water and application of wastes from pigs and birds yielded 21-38 % additional paddy. A net profit of Rs. 2200/- from
0.2 ha yr-1 is being realized from the terraces that are irrigated with exchanged fishpond water and fertilized with pigs
and poultry wastes. Wastes from about 100 birds and 4 pigs suffice the feed and fertilizer needs of 4 pigs, 200 fish and
agriculture in 0.2 ha. Overall, a tangible net profit of about Rs. 27,600/- yr -1 (at market price of year 2008) is received
from the case system developed with the maximum contribution from water mill, followed by poultry, fish farming,
piggery and agriculture against only Rs.10,000/- yr-1 earned from traditional water mill alone earlier. Similarly, low input
and subsistence composite carp culture in harvested water yielded 3.5-5.0 t ha-1 yr-1 fish with improved management
and locally available agricultural wastes as feed for a net annual profit of about Rs. 85,000-95,000 ha -1 yr-1 as an
additional income with a Benefit-Cost ratio of up to 1.9:1 against a low yield range of 0.8-2 t ha-1 yr-1 in farmers’ ponds
with traditional practices. Rice fish culture yielded 500-900 kg fish ha-1 in 95 days with stocking of over-wintered or
stunted fish seedlings (50-75 g), as additional benefit along with higher paddy production (15-20 %) by sparing only 2-
4 % paddy production area of the fields for the exclusive trenches/fish refuges. However, prevailing problems need to
be tacked for large-scale adoption and reaping wholesome benefits.
Tailoring Conservation Agriculture to Local Conditions of Small Holder

Farmers in Africa
Marc Corbeels1*, Bernard Triomphe2, Ken Giller3 and Josef Kienzle4

1
Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility Institute of the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (TSBF-CIAT),
P.O. Box MP 228, Mt. Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
2
Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD)
Montpellier, France
3
Plant Production Systems, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University, the Netherlands
4
FAO, Rome, Italy
(*Email: m.corbeels@cgiar.org)
In the context of the continuing poor-productivity of smallholder farms in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and the alarming
reports on soil degradation, conservation agriculture (CA) is increasingly promoted by many development and research
organizations as the solution for tackling these problems. Many of the ideas and concepts on which CA is based are
intrinsically attractive. Nevertheless, adoption rates of CA in SSA remain currently low. Through examining a number
of past and on-going experiences on development of CA in SSA we identified five key questions upon which we reflect
to better understand and address the challenges that African smallholder farmers are facing when trying to implement
CA. These are: 1) Is mulching the most profitable use of crop residues? 2) Is the use of herbicides a realistic option for
smallholder farmers in SSA? 3) Do CA practices result in saving labour? 4) Can CA practices fit into communal use of
land and traditional grazing patterns? and 5) Which types of farmers are most likely to benefit from CA and why? We
apply the concept of the ‘socio-ecological niche’ that provides a framework for ‘ideotyping’ the contexts within which
CA has most to offer.
238
We also address the issue of CA-related innovation and adoption, i.e. the process by which farmers may shift over
time from their current practices to using CA. Given the need to tailor CA practices to local conditions, and the complexity
and knowledge-intensive nature of CA systems, a strong capacity in problem-solving around CA among farmers,
development agents and researchers is required. We show that development and adoption of CA is a dynamic innovation
process, involving interacting agronomic, socio-economic and cultural factors that are specific for the local conditions
and institutions. Production objectives and constraints of farmers on the one hand, and the expected benefits and
costs of implementing CA on the other hand are two important aspects that influence adoption. Farmers adapt and
implement CA technologies with their own understanding of the principles, their aspiration and possibilities to integrate
it into their farming systems, and their actual access to knowledge, advice and resources. We show that CA projects
tend to focus heavily on agronomic, field-scale matters, often to the detriment of dealing properly with issues arising at
other scales or being of a different nature. Priority is often given to “demonstrating” CA rather than to adapting it in a
participatory manner to the local context, even though the use of local group-based learning approaches such as
Session 1.3
Farmer Field Schools is increasing. Also, interventions tend to take little attention to the need of an adequate (private
sector driven) support system that would make the necessary inputs and small equipment available to farmers in
village shops.
Overall, our experience with CA development in SSA and elsewhere tells us that no blueprint or silver bullet exists,
and no dogmas or rigid prescriptions will do. One has to accept that successes of CA adoption, wherever achievable,
will depend on a complex and relatively slow innovation process which needs to be reinvented each time to tailor CA
practices to local conditions and institutions and support services. Under such conditions, CA is one management
option that can result in substantial benefits for certain types of farmers in certain locations. It is however fundamental
to realize that CA profoundly alters the flow of resources (nutrients, labour and cash) at the scale of the farm and
above, and that strong trade-offs exists when implementing CA. Often we see that benefits at field level do not overcome
the constraints at farm scale. Moreover, many of the benefits of CA are only realized in the longer term. The ex-ante
identification of opportune situations for implementing CA is a challenge that demands active research and development
from a multi-stakeholder, interdisciplinary perspective.
Evaluation of System of Rice Intensification for Enhancing Rice

Productivity and Profitability in Tamil Nadu, India
Moolchand Singh, S. Prabhukumar and C.V. Sairam

ICAR Transfer of Technology Project, Zonal Coordinating Unit, Zone VIII MRS,
HA Farm Post, Hebbal, Bangalore, 560 024, India
Tamil Nadu is one of the most important states in India for rice production because of its favourable soil and climate
conditions. In recent years, rice farmers faced increasing costs and decreasing profits because of stagnating yields,
increasing input costs, decreasing factor productivity and adverse weather conditions. Under these circumstances,
innovative crop management techniques are needed to fully exploit the potential of improved rice varieties, to reduce
cost of cultivation and to improve productivity and profit at farm level. The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) developed
in Madagascar has shown promising results and it is currently modified and tested in different rice growing countries.
It is reported that there is a significant yield advantage using SRI because of mutual interactions of management
components. On-farm trials were carried out by Krishi Vigyan Kendra during 2007 at two locations in Madurai and
Thanjavur to examine the individual and combined effect of different crop management components on rice yields in
Tamil Nadu, India. In both the locations, the trial had 13 treatments organized in a randomized complete block design
with 3 replications. Five crop management components, i.e. 14 days old seedlings, one seedling per hill, square
planting (22.5 X 22.5 cm), mechanical weeding with cono weeder and intermittent irrigation were evaluated and compared
with recommended practices, i.e. 25 days old seedlings, multiple seedlings (3-4) per hill, row planting (15 X 10 cm),
hand weeding, and continuous flooding in selected combinations. The rice variety ADTR 45 with 115 days duration
was used in all treatments. A modified mat nursery was raised with low seed rate (5-10 kg ha-1) using a mixture of soil
239
and manure enriched with di-ammonium phosphate (0.5 g kg-1) as seedbed material. All other management practices
such as nutrient management were followed uniformly at an optimal level for all treatments. Number of irrigations was
recorded and yield parameters were measured before the final harvest in each plot. Grain yield from 5 m2 plots was
determined and expressed at 14% moisture content. The cost of cultivation and gross return were determined and the
benefit cost ratio was derived from dividing the gross return by cost of cultivation for each treatment. The combined
effect of 5 crop management components gave highest grain yield of 7061 and 6583 kg ha-1 in Madurai and Thanjavur,
respectively, representing an increase of 48 and 35% over recommended practices, respectively. Increased grain
yields were a result of higher number of panicles per unit area and more filled grains per panicle. The combined effect
of crop management components resulted in the highest benefit-cost ratio of 3.2 and 2.7 in Madurai and Thanjavur,
respectively. Mechanical weeding with cono weeder and associated soil disturbance significantly increased grain yield
by 1,363 and 1,220 kg ha-1 (24 and 22%) at Madurai and Thanjavur, respectively, compared to the recommended
practice of hand weeding. This increase in grain yield may be due to improved soil aeration and profuse tillering
Session 1.3
achieved through the soil disturbance by the cono weeder operation, in addition to improved weed suppression. The
second most important component is transplanting of young 14-day seedlings increasing grain yields by 1,187 and
1,026 kg ha-1 (20 and 16%) compared to planting of 25 days old seedlings at Madurai and Thanjavur, respectively.
Using intermittent irrigation, the number of irrigations was reduced from 18 to 12 in Madurai and from 21 to 16 in
Thanjavur while grain yields increased by 663 (10%) and 704 kg ha-1 (12%), respectively. It is concluded that combined
use of SRI components increased profitability of rice farming by improving productivity and by reducing the cost of
cultivation through saving of farm inputs such as seed, water and labour. Producing vigorous rice seedlings of 14 days
using a modified mat nursery, coupled with the adoption of other components reduces the cost of cultivation considerably
and makes rice farming more profitable.
Water Conservation - Infusion of Mungbean in Rice-Wheat

Cropping System
O.P. Lathwal1*, S.P. Goyal1 and R.K. Malik2

1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India
2
Department of Agronomy, CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana, India
(*Email: oplathwal@yahoo.com)
Rice-wheat cropping system is widely practiced in Indo-Gangetic plains and this system is considered as backbone of
food security in India. In North-Western part of India, rice-wheat cropping system predominant for the last 3-4 decades
is still favored by the farmers due to assured output coupled with confirmed market procurement at minimum support
price. For this reason, the farmers had started taking one more crop of short duration rice during summer season
before main crop of rice in Punjab and Haryana, the most productive states of India. Rice-wheat-rice sequence has
made enormous damage to natural resources declining factor productivity at the same time. The declining soil fertility,
depletion of ground water, rising problem of salinity and alkalinity, increasing problem of weeds, insect pests and
disease complexes became serious issues and this system became an ecological curse and cause of concern to all.
The dependence on deep submersible tube-wells and higher doses of nitrogenous fertilizers has made the cultivation
costlier. The scientists and policy planners after analyzing the consequences of high input cereals dominating cropping
system issued fervent appeal and launched virulent campaign against summer rice cultivation to have a check on
over-exploitation of water resources. The government of Punjab passed an ordinance against transplanting of rice
before second fortnight of June. Such cautions minimized the area under summer rice but the farmers remained
dissatisfied due to prospect of loosing income, which they were otherwise getting from a third crop of summer rice.
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kurukshetra (Haryana) demonstrated mungbean as an option of third crop with an idea of
mungbean an eco-friendly superior alternative to summer rice which can improve the profits of the system and conserve
water resources. Through such action research, the farmers harvested 0.78 to 1.37 Mg ha-1 of mungbean grown
during summer season replacing summer rice. There was huge saving of irrigation water as summer rice requires 7-8
times more water than summer mungbean. The unseen advantage of including a pulse crop in cereals sequence was
240
realized in improvement of soil health reflected in enhanced productivity of following rice and wheat crops by about
10 and 5%, respectively. For dual and apparent advantage of mungbean, farmers accepted the technology seen in
area expansion under summer mungbean (13000 ha) in Haryana. Farmers’ participatory approach led to adoption
of this intervention at large scale.
Establishment and Production of Fodder through Undercropping

Bana Grass in Maize Stands
O. Tada1* and P. Mashanda2
Session 1.3
1
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources,
Africa University, Box 1320, Mutare, Zimbabwe
2
Department of Livestock and Wildlife Management, Faculty of Natural Resources Management and Agriculture,
Midlands State University, Bag 9055, Gweru, Zimbabwe
(*Email: oberttada@yahoo.co.uk; tadao@afriau.ac.zw)
Different methods of forage establishment were evaluated in a study to conserve agricultural land and optimize pasture
production to meet dairy animal requirements. A synergy by farmers of food crop and fodder crop production was
envisaged. A Randomized Complete Block Design was set with two treatments on three blocks of Bana grass pegged
down the catena. Each block had two juxta-positioned plots, measuring 20mX20m each. Three plots were mono-
cropped whilst the other three were under-cropped in maize stands. Plots of each treatment were randomly allocated
and were planted 22days after planting maize. 10% of the plants on each treatment were randomly sampled and
completely harvested to estimate the total yield and average growth rate. The data were subjected to Analysis of
Variance using GenStat 7.2 Statistical Package. The diameter of coppicing was considered as a covariate. It was
observed that under-cropped Bana grass had a significantly fast growth rate than mono-cropped Bana grass (p<0.05).
The total yield ha-1 after drying for mono-cropped Bana grass (14.4 t ha-1) and under-cropped Bana grass (17.1t ha-1)
was not significantly different (p>0.05). Bana grass can be under-cropped with maize to efficiently utilize and conserve
land.
Conservation of Rainwater and Enriched Compost Application

on the Productivity and Resource Use Efficiency of Rainfed
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (l.) Walp)
T. Ramesh and P. Devasenapathy

Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, 641 003, Tamil Nadu, India
Rainfall and soil are the two most important natural resources in rainfed agriculture. Their degradation and
mismanagement pose a great tragedy in recent times; these resources should be conserved and utilized to the maximum
possible extent. Field experiments were carried out during winter (rabi) season of 2002 and 2003 at the demonstration
fields of M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Ariyamuthupatti, Pudukottai district of Tamil Nadu to study the
effect of different in situ soil moisture conservation and nutrient management practices in comparison with farmers’
practice on productivity and resource use efficiency of cowpea under rainfed condition.
Results revealed that ridges and furrows with mulching recorded 4.8% and 2.7 % higher soil moisture over farmers’
practice of moisture conservation during 2002 and 2003 respectively. A significant increase in grain yield (715.9 and
297.4 kg ha-1) was recorded under ridges and furrows with mulching during 2002 and tied ridges with mulching during
241
2003 over farmers’ practice. Application of enriched compost (730.7 kg ha-1) during 2002 and integration 50 %inorganic
fertilizers and 50% enriched compost (284.5 kg ha-1) during 2003 registered significantly higher grain yield than
recommended dose of inorganic fertilizers and farmers’ practice of no nutrient application. Ridges and furrows with
mulching has registered higher Production Efficiency (PE) (25.11%), Energy Efficiency (EE) (13.2), Rainfall Use Efficiency
(RUE) (4.4 kg ha-1mm-1) and Solar Radiation Use Efficiency (SRUE) (1.61 g cal-1) during 2002 than other treatments.
Tied ridges with mulching showed superior than farmers’ practice and also even ridges and furrows with mulching in
PE (75.25 %), EE (7.7), RUE (2.3 kg ha-1mm-1) and SRUE (0.74 g cal-1) during 2003.
In nutrient management practices, enriched compost application during 2002 and integration of 50% inorganic
fertilizers and 50% enriched compost during 2003 registered significantly higher grain yield (730.7 and 284.5 kg
ha-1) and resource use efficiencies. Enriched compost application has improved the efficiency indices like PE (30.46
and 68.07%), EE (12.5 and 6.7), RUE (4.5 and 2.0 kg ha-1mm-1) and SRUE (1.67 and 0.69 g cal-1) during 2002 and
2003 respectively than inorganic fertilizers application and farmers’ practice of no nutrient application. Conservation of
Session 1.3
rainwater through mulching by using locally available crop residues at 2.5 t ha-1 along with either ridges and furrows or
tied ridges and application of enriched compost at 2.5 t ha-1 could be viable practice for higher productivity and
resource use efficiency of cowpea under rainfed Alfisols conditions.
Studies on Runoff and Soil Loss for Different grazing Management

Systems in Loamy Sand Soil
P.K. Sahoo1 and U.B. Choudhury2

1
Division of Agricultural Engineering, IARI, Pusa, 110012, New Delhi, India
2
CIRG, Makhdoom, Farah, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India
The grazing animals are often blamed for causing vegetative destruction, soil erosion and desertification. But agricultural
operations in general and in the arid and semi-arid lands in particular cause more soil erosion than by the livestock
grazing. Of course, indiscriminate grazing in the fragile eco-system permanently damages the soil. Present study
thrusts upon the development of sustainable pasture to the grazing animals with minimum runoff and soil loss in the
loamy sand soil of Yamuna ravine. The study area is in the semi-arid agro-climatic region with average annual rainfall
< 500 mm. The topography of the land was highly undulating with a relief difference of 5-6 m. In order to evaluate the
sustainability of the pasture under different grazing management systems (Cut and carry, rotational, deferred rotational,
continuous) mixed flock of goat, sheep and buffaloes (@1.25 ACU) were introduced for grazing. Study conducted over
4 years showed that maximum runoff and soil loss were observed in the control plot where no vegetation was grown.
The least runoff was produced in cut and carry system ranging from 165.2 to 287.4 m3 ha-1 over the years. As compared
in three grazing management systems deferred rotational grazing produced lowest runoff over the years. The soil loss
was observed to be highest in case of control plot ranging from 0.42 t ha-1 to 0.88 t ha-1. Least soil loss of 0.04 t ha-1
was observed in cut and carry system in the fourth year, as there was no animal intervention. In grazed plots least soil
loss of 0.06 t ha-1 was observed in deferred rotational system in the fourth year of study. The soil concentration per m3
of runoff was computed for different grazing systems. It was observed that for first two years the soil concentration per
m3 of runoff for the control plot was lower than the plots with developed pasture. From 3rd year, the soil concentration
in the runoff for the plots with improved pasture was less as compared to the control plot. The least concentration was
observed in cut & carry fields as there was no animal intervention. Hence, considering the runoff and total soil loss, it
was concluded that deferred rotational grazing system is best suited for the loamy sand soil.
242
Cropping Intensity Enhancement through Crop Diversification under

Organic Production System in Mid Hill Terraces of Sikkim
P.K. Panda1, R.K. Avasthe2, K. Ramesh2, H. Rahman2 and S.K. Dubey1

1
Research Centre, Chhalesar, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India
2
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Sikkim Centre, Tadong, Gangtok, India
Increasing farm production and income by improving cropping intensity through crop diversification is the most
challenging task the country is facing today. There is an urgent need to develop economically profitable, socially
acceptable, technically feasible and eco-friendly sustainable multiple cropping systems for providing food and
Session 1.3
nutritional security to the masses in a sustained basis. Organic production system is considered to be a self
sustainable production system where utilization and conservation of natural resources are ensured along with
higher production by improving soil physical, chemical and biological properties. However, for preparing a better
input management schedule in multiple cropping systems under organic set up, we need to know the production
level achieved and quantity of nutrients consumed by various crops during the entire year. Keeping these facts in
mind, an experiment was designed for mid hill terraces of Sikkim (1400 m above mean sea level) in RCBD with four
replications. All together 5 treatments comprising various crops were taken. During pre- kharif, maize, the predominant
crop of Sikkim was grown and after harvest of maize in pre-rabi, blackgram (dominant pulse crop of Sikkim) was
sown to act as restorative crop along with protein supplier to human as well as livestock sector. In winter season,
high value cash crops namely coriander (leaf), broccoli (curd), green pea (pod), cabbage and mustard were taken.
Organic equivalents of recommended dose of fertilizers were applied to various crops through farm yard manure.
The treatments comprising various crop combinations were as follows. T1- Maize-blackgram-coriander, T2- Maize-
blackgram-broccoli, T3- Maize-blackgram-pea, T4- Maize-blackgram-cabbage,and T5- Maize-blackgram-mustard. The
experiment continued for three consecutive years from 2005-06 to 2007-08 and observations on various biometric,
yield attributes as well as nutrient aspects of various crops were undertaken. From the above observations, gross
return, net return, output/input ratio, NPK uptake by the crop and NPK content of the soil after crop harvest from the
multiple cropping systems (MCS) were calculated. Among various MCS, Maize- blackgram-coriander registered
significantly higher net return (Rs. 105000 ha-1) and output/ input ratio (3.38) compared to other MCS. Similarly,
maize-blackgram-cabbage removed significantly higher NPK from the soil compared to other MCS where as the
available NPK content of soil after harvest was found to be maximum in Maize-blackgram-pea cropping systems.
Preliminary Results of Fruit and Seed Development in Oil Palm (Elaeis

guineensis, Jacq.) under Tropical Climate of South India
P. Murugesan* and H. Haseela
National Research Centre for Oil Palm, Regional Station, Palode, Pacha, 695 562,
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
(*Email: gesan70@rediffmail.com)
Oil Palm (Elaeis guineenis, Jacq) seeds display intermediate storage behavior. Fruit, seed development and maturation
were investigated in the seed garden established under the tropical climate of Kerala, South India. All the fruit
developmental stages comprising immature to ripe fruits of Dura mother palms were taken to study the pattern of
development and maturity. The stages were assigned specific codes namely, Infl1, Infl11, S00, S01, S02, S03, S1, S2,
S3, S4 and S5. The endosperm development and embryo formation occurred at S02 (90 Days After Anthesis - DAA)
where fruits had greenish brown at stylar region and light green to yellow at pedicellar region. The ability of germination
started at S2 (135 DAA). The onset of germination without fungal infection occurred when the fruit reached S3 (150
243
DAA) after the full development of endosperm and embryo in the seed under commercial dry heat method. Maximum
germination (97.6%) occurred when fruit reached S4 (165DAA), where least percentage of moisture content was
recorded. At stage S5 (180 DAA), slight decline in germination (94%) was recorded. High dry matter accumulation and
low moisture content was recorded in both stages, S4 (165) and S5 (180 DAA). Seedlings obtained from S4 (165 DAA)
showed superior quality. Mesocarp oil formation initiated (6.62%) at S01 (75 DAA) and highest content (74.93%) was
recorded at S5 (180 DAA). The morphological, physiological, biochemical and histological changes were also investigated
during the course of development. Exact Maturity Index of bunches to be used for seed production has been described.
Drip Fertigation in Maize Based Cropping

Session 1.3
System [Maize-Bhendi (okra)]
P. Muthukrishnan
Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, 641 003, India
Field experiments were conducted at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore during 2006-07 in split plot design
with three replications. The crops, Maize hybrid COH (M) 5 and Okra hybrid M-10 were used in the cropping system. In
Main plot, two irrigation regimes viz., M1 – Irrigation at 75% PE once in 3 days interval and M2 – Irrigation at 100% PE
once in 3 days interval were considered. For the sub plot fertigation factors like, S1 – Drip fertigation with 75% RDF (P
as basal), S2 – Drip fertigation with 100% RDF (P as basal), S3 – Drip fertigation with 125% RDF (P as basal), S4 – Drip
fertigation with 150% RDF (P as basal), S5 – Drip fertigation with 75 % RDF with P through WSF (17:44:0), S6 – Drip
fertigation with 100% RDF with P through WSF (17:44:0), S7 – Drip fertigation with 125% RDF with P through WSF
(17:44:0), S8 – Drip fertigation with 150% RDF with P through WSF (17:44:0).Surface irrigation (control) at 0.75% IE /
CPE with soil application of 100% RDF. For the treatments S1 to S4, P is applied as basal through soil application and
N and K through drip fertigation. For the treatments S5 to S8, Water Soluble Fertilizer (WSF) P is applied through drip
fertigation using 17:44:0 grades. The 17:44:0 grade to meet the nutrient level under various treatments in the sub plot.
N and K fertilizer scheduling through drip fertigation is based on the uptake pattern at critical growth phase.
The grain yield of maize was found to be significantly influenced by drip irrigation and fertigation levels. Drip
irrigation at 100% PE once in 3 days resulted in significantly higher grain yield (6439 kg ha-1) followed by irrigation at
75% PE (6086 kg ha-1). The surface method of irrigation recorded a grain yield of 4250 kg ha-1. Drip fertigation at 150%
RDF (225: 112.5: 112.5) with P through WSF registered significantly higher grain yield (7154 kg ha -1) followed by drip
fertigation at 125% RDF with P as water soluble fertilizer (6915 kg ha-1). Drip irrigation at 100% PE once in 3 days
resulted in significantly higher fruit yield of okra (13,606 kg ha-1) followed by irrigation at 75% PE (12,454 kg ha-1). The
surface method of irrigation recorded a fruit yield of 9,580 kg ha -1. Drip fertigation at 150% RDF with P through WSF
registered significantly higher fruit (14,434 kg ha-1) followed by drip fertigation at 125% RDF with P as water soluble
fertilizer (13,734 kg ha-1).
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Agroforestry - An Effective Option for Diversification of Existing

Farming Systems
P.S. Thakur*, Hemlata Joshi, C.L. Thakur and V. Dutt

Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, University of Horticulture and Forestry,
Solan, 173 230, Himachal Pradesh, India
(*Email: thakurps2005@yahoo.com)
Agroforestry, a practice of growing crops with multipurpose tree species on the farmland, can be a good option for
improving the availability of diversified produce from the same land. Suitable crop-tree combinations followed by
appropriate management practices will ensure better returns from the systems. Sustainable production under any
Session 1.3
agroforestry system is the main goal to be achieved through short and long term strategies. The authors have established
and tested some economically sound agroforestry models combining agricultural crops and medicinal and aromatic
herbs with fuel, fodder, fruit and timber tree species. The integration of important high value medicinal and aromatic
herbs with multipurpose tree species have been found good option for achieving diversification as well as better
economic returns from the systems. The management of agroforestry systems in general and tree component in
particular, exert strong influence on the performance and production ability of associated components. Our experience
over the last 10 years on location specific agroforestry models developed for upland terraces, indicate that suitable
combinations of medicinal or agricultural crops with trees, followed by appropriate tree canopy management are the
decisive factors for driving production processes and making upland temperate agroforestry a viable and profitable
land use system. The proper tree spacings and canopy management exerts little or no adverse effects on crop production.
Ten important medicinal and aromatic herbs, which are in great demand by the pharmaceutical industries, have been
successfully grown with multipurpose tree species. Diversification of farming systems by growing medicinal and aromatic
plant species, especially with commercial timber and fruit tree species on the farmland seems to be a viable option for
increasing income from the diversified farming systems.
Conservation of Biocontrol Agents for Enhancing

Agricultural Productivity
Sunil Joshi and R.J. Rabindra

Project Directorate of Biological Control, Post Box No. 2491, H.A. Farm Post, Bangalore, 560 024, India
Conservation agriculture aims to achieve sustainable and profitable agriculture through minimal soil disturbance,
permanent soil cover, crop rotations and ecologically sound pest management. Conservation of natural enemies and
environmental modification to improve their effectiveness is crucial to harnessing the rich biodiversity of our country.
Conservation is achieved by manipulation of the environment to favor natural enemies, either by removing or mitigating
adverse factors or by providing lacking requisites. One of the adverse factors that disseminate the beneficial parasitoids
and predators is the indiscriminate use of broad spectrum chemical insecticides. There may also be a variety of
indirect effects which reduce the effectiveness of natural enemies. Use of selective insecticides has been shown to
conserve natural enemies but satisfactorily control the target pests. Biorational pesticides like buprofezine and
pyriproxyfen when applied against the whitefly, Bemisia tabaci in an insecticide resistant management programme on
cotton conserved the parasitoids and predators. In rice indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides destroys the parasitoids
and predators of brown plant hopper or white backed plant hopper and can lead to their resurgence. It has been shown
in Adat Panchayat, Thrissur that rice can be grown in Kole lands of Kerala with yields as high as 7.0 Mg ha-1 without
using a single drop of chemical pesticide. Effectiveness of biological control can be enhanced by avoiding or modifying
adverse agricultural practices such as burning of stubbles and crop residues as many of the parasitoids and predators
hibernate in crop residues along with their hosts. The main strategy in the successful biological control of sugarcane
woolly aphid Ceratovacuna lanigera using predators Dipha aphidivora, Micromus igorotus and syrphids as well as the
245
parasitoid Encarsia flavoscutellum in states of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu recently. Environmental
modification to improve effectiveness of natural enemies can be made by establishing crop habitat diversity favouring
the natural enemies, construction of artificial structures, provision of supplementary food, provision of alternative
hosts, improvement of pest natural enemy synchronization, control of honey dew feeding ants and modification of
adverse agricultural practices. Construction of artificial structures has been done to increase the densities of predaceous
insects, birds and insectivorous vertebrates such as shrews, mice, squirrels, etc. The best known example of using
artificial structures to enhance predaceous insect populations was that of using “nesting shelters” for protection of
Polistes wasp around tobacco fields for control of the caterpillar pests. Another example is of erection of nest boxes
bird perches in groundnut and castor to enhance predaceous birds like drongo and mynha which predate upon hairy
caterpillar and Spodoptera larvae in Andhra Pradesh oilseed growing areas. Provision and manipulation of shelter
habitat features within the agroecosystem provide a strategy for enhancing the effectiveness of natural enemies for
conservation biological control. Provision of supplementary food involves adding sources of nectar and pollen which
Session 1.3
adult natural enemies often need as a source of nourishment and moisture. Inter-planting of certain crops has been
used to provide nectar and pollen sources for natural enemies. It is known that coriander and other nectar rich plants
encourage parasitoid activity and thereby reduce Helicoverpa armigera population. Marigold as intercrop or border
crop also serves as very good trap crop for egg laying H. armigera. In southern parts of our country, intercropping
safflower with chickpea was found to reduce damage caused by H. armigera though both the crops are susceptible to
this pest. Provision of alternative hosts reduces conditions of asynchrony between preferred hosts and their non-
specific parasites and predators. Planting mustard on the border of cole crop fields not only trap the aphid species viz.,
Myzus persicae, Brevicoryne brassicae and Lipaphis erysimi but also act as a source of hosts for aphidiid parasitoid
Diaretiella rapae which also parasitizes aphids on cole crops. In Gujarat Cassia occidentalis is used as border tree
around oilseed crops as it acts as “trichogrammatid bank”. The round year abundant butterfly Catopselia pyranthe
deposits large number of eggs on Cassia which are heavily parasitized by T. chilonis and T. achaeae. These parasitoids
are then directed to the lepidopteran pests affecting main oilseeds. Provision of alternative host also helps to maintain
functional natural enemy populations during low density periods of preferred hosts (use of bamboo plantation as
source of Dipha and Micromus on Pseudoregma bambusicola when main host Ceratovacuna lanigera is unavailable).
It also provides suitable overwintering hosts. In other cases providing overwintering sites have been proved to be
useful (leaving sugarcane stubbles in the harvested fields as refugia for Micromus pupae). In many cases this has
been attempted through the concept of intercropping host plants of the pest and/or alternate hosts thus preventing
total destruction of the habitat at harvest time. Also this is used as “Push and Pull” strategy in management of many
pests wherein border plants are used as oviposition attractants (use of nipper and sudan grass in maize crop) on which
the pest can not survive and repellent plants are used as intercrop which repel the pest but attract natural enemies
(use of molasses grass and silver leaf desmodium).
Ants often protect honeydew producing organisms such as aphids, mealybugs, and scales from attack by natural
enemies. Control of ants (usually with pesticides) often leads to more effective biological control. Control of ant patrolling
prior to release of predator Cryptolaemus montrouzieri for control of pink mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus is an
excellent example of this practice. Addition of organic amendments to soil is known to enhance several microbial
species like Trichoderma spp., Pseudomonas flourescens, Pochonia chlamydosporia, Arthrobotrys sp. which are
antagonistic to plant pathogens and plant parasitic nematodes. Therefore conservation of soil organic matter and
organic carbon is important not only to maintaining the productivity but also for maintaining soil health. In view of the
increased pressure on land for meeting the ever growing food requirement, a holistic approach of sustainable food
production involving sensible pest management with conservation biocontrol as one of the components should be
adapted.
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Tillage and Residue Management Effects on Soil Organic Carbon

Sequestration in Rice-Wheat Cropping System of Nepal
R. Ghimire*, S.C. Shah and K.R. Dahal

Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Tribhuvan University, Nepal
(*Email: ghimireg@gmail.com)
Soil organic carbon (SOC) is fundamental soil resource base. Limited information is available on SOC sequestration
from tillage and crop residue management in rice-wheat cropping system soils of Indo-Gangetic Plains. This study was
undertaken to study the SOC sequestration from clay loam soils of Baireni, Nepal. Two options of tillage (conventional
tillage and no-tillage) and two levels of crop residue (no crop residue and crop residue @4 t ha -1 wheat residue in
Session 1.3
mung-bean and rice crops and rice residue in wheat crops) were compared for SOC sequestration. The field experiments
were laid out in a randomized complete block design with 4 replications. Soil samples from each treatment were
collected from five soil depths (0-5, 5-10, 10-15, 15-30 and 30-50 cm) and analyzed for organic C. The soil (0-50 cm
depth) retained 8.24 kg C m-3 under no-tillage practice, which was significantly higher than 7.86 kg C m-3 from conventional
tillage treatment. Crop residue treatment in no-tillage soils sequestered significantly higher amount of SOC than any
other treatments in the top 15 cm soil depths. Thus, SOC sequestration can be increased with minimum tillage and
surface application of crop residue.
Zero Tillage Adoption in Maize – Chickpea sequence for higher

productivity in Malaprabha Command of Northern Karnataka
S. Rajkumar1, C.B. Meti1, U.K. Shanwad1, S.D. Dabali1, S.G. Patil1, Raj K. Gupta2
1
University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka, India
2
Resource Conservation, ICARDA, Tashkent
Vertisols with low infiltration are prone to soil and water erosion decreasing crop productivity. Hybrid maize-chickpea
sequence is extensively grown in Malaprabha command in area more than 0.20 m ha followed by chickpea in rabi. The
average productivity of maize and chickpea are 6 and 2.5 t ha-1, respectively. Vertisols with low infiltration exhibits
significant soil and water losses. In addition, a continuous cropping with maize–chickpea resulted in productivity
decline due to poor resource management, nutrient removal by crops etc. Entire maize stalks are burnt after harvest to
clear the space for early rabi chickpea planting. Yields of crops are declining especially due to delayed planting, which
is often as a result of greater turnaround time of 20–30 days after kharif maize harvest. Though chickpea can be
planted up to second fortnight of November without any significant reduction in the yield, farmers often plant up to the
end of January because of greater turnaround time. Loss of stored moisture from the soil due to longer turnaround time
and higher water and seed requirement in the later part of the season leads to decrease in the productivity of the crop,
higher input costs, lower returns etc.
Under these circumstances, management of resources holds key more efficiently and zero tillage appears a
viable alternative as it encourages use of crop residues, reduces turnaround time, water and nutrient requirement,
saves fuel and other input costs under irrigated conditions. Keeping in view of these, trials were conducted on farmers’
field in selected villages of Gadag, Belgaum and Dharwad districts of Northern Karnataka during 2006-07 and 2007-
08. Chickpea (Cultivar A-1) was planted in 59 farmers fields covering 107.6 ha using seed cum fertilizer zero seed drill
and Combo happy seeder in the standing maize stalks/stubbles. Zero till planted chickpea recorded significantly
higher plant population (49 m-2), plant weight (0.38 kg m-2) and test weight (16 g) over farmer’s practice. A significant
improvement yield parameters resulted in higher chickpea yield under zero tillage (1.95 t ha-1) in comparison to farmers
practice (17.32 t ha-1). The increase in yield of zero tilled chickpea was by 13% over farmers practice. There was no
significant difference in weed population between zero tilled (12 m-2) and farmer’s practice (11 m-2) indicating weeds
could be managed easily in zero till method. Adoption of zero tilled saved 15 days in turnaround time along with
irrigation water.
247
Productivity of Urdbean Genotypes under Delayed

Planting Conditions
V.K. Singh1, J.P. Sahu1, Vivek Dixit1 and Ashutosh Singh2

1
Department of Agronomy and 2Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture,
G.B. Pant University of Agri. and Tech., Pantnagar, 263 145, U.S. Nagar, Uttarakhand, India
Urdbean, being short duration crop is the most compatible pulse for diversification in rice-wheat cropping system.
It can be grown as a catch crop between wheat and rice during summer season. The crop is also most suitable for
contingent planting in the event of failure or delayed monsoon. However, selection of most productive urdbean genotypes
under delayed planting situation is an important consideration. A field experiment was therefore, carried out in sandy
Session 1.3
loam soil during kharif season 2006-07 at Crop Research Centre of G.B.U.A.&T., Pantnagar to evaluate the urdbean
genotypes under delayed planting conditions. The soil of the experimental site was neutral in reaction (pH 7.6) having
medium organic carbon (0.57%), available phosphorus (15.5 kg ha-1) and high available potassium (256 kg ha-1)
contents. Treatment consisting of three planting dates (July 25, August 9 and August 24) and six genotypes (Pant U-
19, Shekha-2, Pant U-31, UPU 97-10, UPU 99-2 and UPU 02-3) were tested in split design as dates of planting in main
plots and genotypes in subplot with three replications. Crop was planted 25 cm apart with application of DAP @ 100 kg
ha-1 as basal two per-cent urea solution was sprayed at 35 and 45 days after planting. The crop had harvested as per
maturity of the genotypes. Other agronomic management practices were adopted as per recommendations of the
crop. Each subsequent delayed planting caused significant reduction in grain yield of urdbean. July 25 planting recorded
23.87and 50.37% August 9 and August 24, respectively. Pant U-31 registered significantly higher grain yield of urdbean
than remaining genotypes, which were on par among themselves. Interaction between planting date and genotype
was not significant.
Lessons Learned from the Diffusion of Direct Seeding,

Mulch-Based Cropping Systems (DMC) in the Main Agro
Ecological Zones of Madagascar
Rakotondramanana1, O. Husson2 and A. Rakotondralambo3*

1
GSDM, lot VA 26 Y Ambatoroka, Antananarivo (101), Madagascar
2
CIRAD/GSDM, lot VA 26 Y Ambatoroka, Antananarivo (101), Madagascar
Groupement Semis Direct de Madagascar, Lot II Y 39A bis Ampasanimalo, BP 5092,
Antananarivo (101), Madagascar
(*Email: aralambo@netclub.mg)
Extension of Direct seeding Mulch-based Cropping systems (DMC) among small scale farmers have been tested in
the main agro ecological zones of Madagascar for a period of up to 7 years. These agro-ecological zones include
climates ranging from subtropical climate at sea level to contrasted tropical climate at high altitude. The extension was
decided after more than 10 years of adaptation of DMC systems by the NGO TAFA in the same areas and training of
key field extension workers and group of farmers. Reference sites testing different systems compared with conventional
tillage are maintained in these areas and are being used for training of all stakeholders.
The GSDM which is a group of institutions involved in R&D was created in 2000 and aimed at capitalizing all
knowledge on R&D related to DMC. A strategy document was written in 2004 and updated in 2007 for diffusion of
direct seeding on permanent soil cover at national scale. Main focus of the document were training of all stakeholders,
progressive diffusion based on community base level (terroir) and taking into account all aspect of the living conditions
of the base communities after a short survey e.g. main commodities, importance of livestock and main sources of
forages, use of inputs (farm manure, fertilizers, pesticides etc.) main constraints, sources of incomes, market, etc..
This strategy document has been approved by all members of the GSDM and its main partners.
248
Starting with a few farmers around the TAFA reference sites in 2001/2002, (5 ha, 29 farmers), the area under DMC
is 3.8 ha with 7.7 farmers all over the country in 2007/2008. The main DMC adopted by farmers in the hills (tanety)
under rainfed conditions are food crops (maize, rice) associated with legumes (Dolichos lablab, Vigna unguiculata,
Vigna umbellata) in Alaotra lake; food crops (rice, maize) on residues of Stylosanthes guianensis in the Middle West
and eastern coast; and cassava associated with Brachiaria sp or Stylosanthes guianensis in the eastern coast and to
a lesser extent maize associated with Vigna unguiculata followed by cotton in the dry areas; in the low lands (paddy
fields) rotation of rice with vetch (Vicia villosa) or with Dolichos lablab are very common especially in the Aloatra Lake.
In the coastal area, rice is followed by Vigna unguiculata.
The main effects of DMC are mainly observed after 3 years of good biomass accumulation The effect is seen as
an increase in yield, a drastic decrease of Striga asiatica (Middle West) and an increase in soil microorganisms
(lombrics, worms). A key issue in extension of these knowledge (and know-how) intensive techniques is capacity
building. Training on DMC techniques and farm analysis/diagnosis is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition to
Session 1.3
extension. It usually takes 3 years to build efficient extension teams able to perform a real advice at farm level, to
propose efficient solutions to actual farmers’ constraints, means and objectives. Extension is largely eased when DMC
systems can be proposed to overcome a major constraint to agriculture (like Striga infestation in the Middle West),
unreliable paddy field irrigation (Alaotra lake), possibility to reclaim uncultivated land, or systems with very limited
inputs (all zones). Inversely, some conditions may slow down their extension: unreliable land tenure, poor access to
credit and agricultural inputs, poor marketing channels, very small scale agriculture, etc. Farmers need to be helped to
improve local socio-economic situation (promoting farmers’ organizations, easing access to credit, etc.). Integration
agriculture/livestock may be seen as constraints (in case of very high cattle pressure on natural resources) or an
advantage for extension of DMC systems (increase of forages production through DMC). In all cases, the first 2-3
years of transition from conventional systems to DMC are crucial and require proper accompaniment of farmers by
extension staff to help them to face new situations. After 3 years, extension workers support to farmers can be reduced.
Ecorestoration and Conservation in NW Himalayan Region:

Biotechnological Options in Ginger and Saffron
R.K. Gupta
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Directorate of Research,
Main campus, Chatha, 180 009, Jammu, India
Ever since dawn of civilization, the biological balance was maintained through traditional agricultural practices that
looked sustainable over centuries. Today - the productivity is low in traditional agriculture present in low and mid hills
in NW Himalayan region. Modern and high input agriculture that improved crop productivity in plains looks unsustainable
since land, water and bioresources are shrinking. The J&K state has tremendous variability in spices, condiments and
herbs having medicinal potential, including Alliums, Brassicas, chillies, ginger, saffron, kalazira, and other medicinal
herbs. These crop genetic resources are adapted to its wide range of environments and farming systems. The
conservation of locally adapted bioresources of Himalayan spices/herbs and their multiplication could help in
ecorestoration in potential pockets. The agroclimatic specific sustainable ecorestoration strategies include multiplication
of quality seed and planting material through traditional and tissue culture means and replanting in potential areas
where cultivation has been wiped out.
Micropropagation protocols in various crops (including tomato, ginger, tuberose and lilium) have been standardized
in our institution. A case study on ginger that can serve as model in crops is briefly described since it is vegetatively
propagated and repeated planting in field becomes source of inoculums of pathogens for rhizome rot and other diseases
has resulted in wiping out of cultivation in potential pockets. In-vitro multiplication can be effective for elimination of
pathogens and round the year production of ginger plantlets but high cost of tissue cultured plants is hampering the
commercialization.. The major components which lead to increased costs are expensive phytogel/ agar agar (commonly
used gelling agent), sucrose (as carbon source) and high cost of initial infrastructure and further maintenance of
249
temperature and light. The cost effective micropropagation protocol of ginger has been standardized using Isubgol
(mucilaginous husk derived from the seeds of Plantago ovata) as a gelling agent, ordinary (table) sugar and tap water
in tissue culture medium. The protocol involved 3 steps. For initiation of aseptic cultures (1 st step) MS-medium
supplemented with cytokinin 5-10 mg1- + sucrose 3% is used. For further multiplication (2nd step) MS-medium
supplemented with BAP 2.0 mg1- + NAA 0.5 mg1- + table Sugar 3% along with Isubgol as gelling agent was used.
Subsequently, multiplication and maintenance of cultures in various cycles was possible on basal MS medium with
lower doses of BAP (0.5- 1.0 mg1-) or even on hormone free medium with agar or Isubgol as gelling agents. The shoot
and root formation were simultaneous and there was no need of ex-vitro rooting. The field performance of
micropropagated plantlets derived from Isubgol gelled medium was relatively better than the ones derived from Sago
or Agar gelled medium. The micro propagated plantlets resulted in production of mini rhizomes. These mini rhizomes
were uprooted, stored and again planted in field to get commercial sized rhizomes. The performance of these rhizomes
(2nd generation) derived form cost effective medium was relatively better. The crop raised from these commercial sized
Session 1.3
rhizomes produced through tissue culture cycle was also better when compared with the crop raised from conventional
seed rhizomes. With specific up scalling of these protocols conservation of bioresources and ecorestoration is possible
in NW Himalayan region.
Conservation of Spider Population in Rice Fields through

Habitat Management
R.K. Tanwar, D.K. Garg, S.P. Singh and O.M. Bambawale

National Centre for Integrated Pest Management, LBS Building, IARI Campus, New Delhi, 110 012, India
In rice fields spiders constitute over 90% of the natural enemy population which predate upon a variety of insect pests,
especially plant hoppers. Indiscriminate and injudicious use of insecticides by farmers in rice ecosystem adversely
affected their population. Straw shelters have been used by Chinese farmers for >2,000 years to provide temporary
spider refugia during cyclic farming disturbances; however the same has never been tried in India. In the present study
field trials were conducted in rice for two consecutive years, 2006 and 2007 at Atterna (Sonipat-Haryana) with Pusa
Sugandh 4 (Pusa 1121) to device the technology for conservation of spiders using straw bundles and planting of other
suitable crop on border to increase crop diversity. The technology was validated during 2008 with the same variety at
Souboli village (Sonipat-Haryana). The experiment in first two years included 5 treatments i.e. straw bundles+maize,
straw bundles+Sesbania, straw bundles+sun hemp, only straw bundles and control without any interventions. Each
plot was of 0.5 acre in size. The straw bundles were placed in sorghum field for 15 days for charging with spiders
before use in rice. In rice, these bundles were fixed vertically with bamboo sticks after 15 days of rice transplanting @
20 bundles ha-1 so that the lower portion of the bundle remained 6 inches above the water level. The observation made
on charging of the straw bundle indicated that each bundle contained 30-40 spider adults, 8-10 spider egg masses,
500-600 spiderlings and 20-30 earwigs. The results indicated that the spider population on the plant remained highest
in the treatment having only straw bundle followed by straw bundles+sun hemp, straw bundles+Sesbania and straw
bundles+maize. Population of spiders remained lowest in control throughout the season. On the plant, the maximum
spiders remained confined to lower part of the plant (upto 10 inches above the ground). On the ground, the population
of spiders remained highest in the treatment having only straw bundle followed by straw bundles +Sesbania, straw
bundles + maize, straw bundles +sun hemp and lowest in control. In all the treatments having straw bundles and the
combination of other crops on the border of rice, the population of leaf folder and yellow stem borer remained lower
than the control. Validation trial conducted in third year indicated a significant increase in the population of spiders by
straw bundle technology. The results of present study indicated that straw bundles alone or in combination with border
crops can play an important role in conservation of spiders in rice which may help to contain the insect pests and
reduce the pesticide load.
250
Intercropping – A Tool in Integrated Weed Management
R.P. Dubey and Jay G. Varshney

Intercropping, growing two or more crops in proximity to promote interaction between them has been important for
sustainable agriculture. Farmers have generally regarded intercropping as a technique that reduces risk in crop
production. There is substantial agronomic evidence that the yields of many intercrops may exceed the combined
yields of their component species grown as sole crops. Weed control is often cited as one of the benefits of intercropping.
The presumed mode of action is that one crop, through competition with weeds, provides an environment of reduced
weed biomass for the other crop. Weed population density and biomass production may be markedly reduced using
Session 1.3
crop rotations (temporal diversification) and intercropping (spatial diversification) strategies. Several field experiments
to evaluate suitable intercrops for weed suppression in major field crops were conducted at NRC Weed Science,
Jabalpur during 2002-2007. Results of these experiments revealed that (i) intercropping of cowpea as fodder or grain
crop in maize integrated with pre-emergence application of pendimethalin 1.0 kg ha-1 and a dose of 100 kg N ha-1 was
most effective in suppressing weeds and obtaining higher productivity; (ii) wheat+mustard and wheat+berseem (15/
30cm) were the best combinations for weed suppression and higher total crop productivity; (iii) barley, berseem and
oats as intercrops in mustard were found to suppress weeds and give higher total crop productivity; (iv) in direct
seeded rice growing dhaincha along with rice for 30 days and killing it by applying 2,4-D @ 0.5 kg/ha followed by one
hand weeding controlled the weeds effectively; and (iv) among the intercrops cowpea, blackgram and fodder sorghum
were found to be effective as compared to soybean and sesamum in suppressing weeds in pigeon pea and producing
higher yields.
Resource Conservation Technologies (RCT) in Drill Sown Rice (DSR) – A

study on Rice Cultivation in Hilly Region of Karnataka
U.K. Shanwad1, Y.R. Aladakatti1, S.D. Dabali1, S.G. Patil1 and Raj K. Gupta2
1
University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka, India
2
Resource Conservation, ICARDA, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
In the high rainfall areas of Western Ghats drill-sown rice is an a important crop subjected to vagaries of rainfall.
Resource conservation technologies that conserve top soil, improves water holding capacity and nutrients cycling hold
key in improving productivity. Interventions in corpora ting these technologies were adopted in 55 farmers field during
kharif 2005-06, 2006-07 and 2007-08 in Khanapur taluk of Belgaum district of North Karnataka. A substantial improvement
in number of tillers, in spite of lower plant population and grains per panicle etc. were recorded due to adoption of
principles of resource conservation practices. Besides there was a significant reduction in weed population and biomass.
Rice yields were 15% higher at much lower cost of cultivation. Zero till practices significantly reduced seed rate, weed
biomass etc. The profits under zero till were 28% higher than farmers’ practices. However, untimely and torrential rains
affect timely sowing and dry sowing remained as an alternate option. Cultivation on sloppy and terraces with small
holdings, heavy machines (tractor) drawn still provide scope for zero till practices require lower energy for farmers with
smaller holdings.
251
Conservation of Rice-Fish-Lotus Aqua-Agriculture for Food Security in

Leond Tal (Lake) Utter Pradesh, India
Sharad Kumar Singh

Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, Bhubaneswar, 751002, Orissa, India
*Present address: CSSRI, Karnal, 132001, Haryana, India
Rice (Oriza rufipogon, Tinni paddy) - fish-lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Lotus) aqua-agriculture system is an old days
practice followed as a livelihood option in the lakes of eastern U.P. In the wake of rising population, climatic change,
high drought and flood frequency, sinking water resources and high quality of food demand, its utility is questioned
often. For answering the question, economic evaluation of rice-fish-lotus in Lake Leond Tal (327 ha) has been
Session 1.3
carried out for the period of 1987 to 1996 in Siddharthnagar district of Uttar Pradesh following participatory approach.
The results showed that the revenue was the highest in the years of severe flood 1991 (Rs.2.4 lakhs) and 1996
(Rs.1.8 lakhs) inspite of lower returns from rice. The increased income amounted to 125 to 200% higher than the
revenue earned in the years of normal rainfall. Income from fish farming was the highest because higher self
stocking of fish and fish seed from riverine resources. Contribution fish production in the total income was 83.0 to
95.8%. Total income from the lake was not reduced much even in drought years 1987 (Rs.1.9 lakhs) and 1992
(Rs.1.25 lakhs). It was calculated 107 to 162% higher as compared to the income gained in the years of normal
rainfall. Bountiful production of rice on residual moisture was accounted for the higher income. Share of rice 52.1 to
72.2% in the total income further endorsed the observation. In the years of normal rainfall 1988 (Rs.1.05 lakh), 1989
(Rs.1.27 lakh) and 1995 (Rs.1.17 lakh) total revenue collection was lower than the revenue earned in the years of
drought and flood. Share of fish, rice and lotus in the total income was 62.0, 33.0 and 5.0%, respectively. The
reasons for the low economic returns were comparatively lower recruitment of fish species and prolong water
stagnation in the lakes. Latter affected productivity of rice adversely. In light of these it may be concluded that fish-
rice - lotus based aqua-agriculture in the natural water bodies should be conserved to maintain livelihood accounting
high threat for flood and drought recurrence in future. However, there is a scope to enhance the productivity of lake
following modern scientific management practices.
Input Requirement of Durum Wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) under

Varying Sowing Methods and Evaluation of Its Improved Cultivar
S.P.S. Tanwar and P.P. Jani

Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology,
Udaipur, 313 001, Rajasthan, India
In order to evaluate performance of durum wheat varieties and to workout the input levels (seed and fertilizers) under
cross sowing and furrow irrigated raised bed (FIRB) over conventional line sowing, an experiment was conducted on
clay loam soil having medium fertility status (267, 20.58 and 384 kg ha-1 of available N, P and K, respectively), EC
0.53 dSm-1 and pH 8.2 at the Instructional Farm, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Udaipur, Rajasthan during the
year 2002-03 and 2003-04. The experiment consisted of 2 durum varieties (Raj 1555 and HI 8498), 3 sowing methods
(Conventional line sowing at 22.5 cm row distance, cross sowing at spacing of 22.5 cm x 22.5 cm in both direction
with use of half seed rate in each direction, FIRB system having 2 wheat rows on each bed formed at a distance of
70 cm) and 5 input levels (Recommended 100% seed rate + 100% fertilizer dose, 125% seed rate + 125% fertilizer
dose, 100% seed rate + 75% fertilizer dose, 75% seed rate + 100% fertilizer dose and 75% seed rate + 75% fertilizer
dose of recommendation). These 30 treatment combinations were evaluated under split plot design allocating
combination of varieties and sowing methods as main plot and input levels as sub plot treatments and replicated
thrice. Results showed that durum variety HI 8498 produced significantly higher productivity in terms of grain and
252
biological yield by 7.50 and 5.20 per cent over Raj 1555. Under line sowing, increase in inputs by 25% each of seed
rate and fertilizer over recommendation failed to provide additional gains in crop productivity and profitability, while
reduction in inputs by 25% adversely affected overall productivity and profitability. Conversely, cross sowing with
higher input level of 125% realized highest productivity of the crop in terms of grain (5.69 t ha-1) and biological yields
(12.58 t ha-1). While under FIRB system, inputs levels failed to show any significant variation in crop performance as
well as productivity and profitability. Among combination of studied production factors, cross sowing of variety HI
8498 with 125% SR + 125% FD produced highest yields (5.81 t ha-1 grain and 6.69 t ha-1 straw) and fetched net
returns of Rs. 38424/- ha-1 and B:C ratio of 2.53.
Traditional Minimum Tillage: An Option for Sustainable Production in

Rice-Wheat Cropping System
Session 1.3
S.P. Banu1, A. Wahab1, C.A. Meisner2
1
Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh
2
2917 Bradfield Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
Intensive tillage is traditionally practiced in the rice-wheat cropping system of Bangladesh that prolonged turnaround
time, increased production cost and degraded soil health as well. The critical issue for wheat production in Bangladesh
is the turnaround time between monsoon rice harvest and wheat sowing as yield potential reduces 1.3% per day due
to lateness. Minimum tillage practices could be an important management option for sustainable production in rice-
wheat cropping system. We compared minimum tillage practices with bed planting and conventional tillage to produce
wheat after harvesting of short duration moon soon rice BR 32. These included (a) traditional minimum tillage: seeding
by hand as broadcasting followed by one plough with hand tractor (practiced by farmers in some part of Bangladesh);
(b) minimum tillage as line sowing: one plough and seeding at the same time as line sowing with a seeder attached to
the hand tractor); (c) minimum tillage as stripe sowing: one plough as stripe line and seeding at the same time in the
stripe with a seeder attached to the hand tractor; (d) bed planting: three ploughs followed by bed preparation with local
bed planter and line sowing on the bed by hand; and (e) conventional tillage: three ploughs followed by line sowing
with hand. Traditional minimum tillage was identified as the best option for resource poor farmers of Bangladesh. It
runs with only one plough, kept initial moisture in soil for seed germination, no use of seeder and time or cost for line
sowing which in turns reduced the production cost and reduced the turnaround time. High seedling vigor was observed
with high chlorophyll content on SPAD. The yield was highest with bed planting (2.4 t ha-1) followed by conventional
tillage (2.2 t ha-1), but the yield of traditional minimum tillage was equal to the national average (2.0 t ha-1) at late
sowing condition. The yield contributing characters (days to heading, grain head-1, thousand grain weight, percentage
of black seed and % germination after harvest) were also better. A good control of weed and seed-borne pathogens
were observed in this crop sequence. We didn’t use any fungicide, pesticide or herbicide. Therefore, major adjustments
are needed to create conditions for a more conservation-oriented agriculture in rice-wheat cropping system.
Improvement of Soil Properties under Silvipastoral Systems in the

Kachchh Region of Arid Gujarat
M. Shamsudheen1*, Devi Dayal, S.L. Meena and Bhagirath Ram

Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Kukma, Bhuj, 370 105, Gujarat, India
(*E-mail: mshamsu2001@yahoo.com )
The hot arid region covers an area of 31.70 m ha in India covering seven states that include Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra. Gujarat accounts for 19.6% of the total arid zone in
the country of which Kachchh district alone accounts for more than 70% arid area of the state. The production and
life support systems in these hot regions are constrained by low and erratic precipitation, high evapotranspiration
253
and poor soil physical and fertility conditions. In this fragile ecosystem, some grass species like Cenchrus ciliaris,
Cenchrus setigerus, Lasirus sindicus etc which are very well adapted to such climate, perform well and make a
natural rangelands. The climax tree species like Prosopis cineraria, Prosopis juliflora, Acacia nilotica, Zizyphus
numularia etc. come up in these range lands and make a silvipastoral system. Animal husbandry flourishes in such
locations and form an integral part of the prevailing farming system. A study was carried out to find out the effect of
two land use systems viz. pasture (C. ciliaris and C. setigerus) and silipasture (Acacia tortilis, Azadiracta indica in
combnation with Cenchrus and C. setigerus) along with degraded land/ culturable waste land. The pasture and
silvipastoral systems were planted in the year 1988. At the time of planting the organic carbon content of theses
soils were 0.22 % in the surface layer (0-20 cm) with pH(1:2) 8.5 and K2O - 403 kg/ha. In the sub surface layers (20-
40cm) organic C content was 0.11%, pH (1:2) - 8.4, and K2O - 188 kg/ha. With 20 years of cultivation under
silvipastoral/ pasture systems, the soil organic C under grasses improved to 0.47 to 0.58% in the surface layers
and 0.23 to 0.28% in the lower layers, K2O from 470 to 616 kg ha-1 in the surface and 197 to 284 kg ha-1 in the
Session 1.3
subsurface and pH 8.4 at the surface and 8.3 in the sub surface layers. Under silvipastoral system, the organic C
content improved from 0.39 to 0.54% in the surface layers and 0.36 to 0.47% in the sub surface layers. The amount
of K2O recorded was 390-460 kg ha-1 in the surface and 190 to 213 kg ha-1 in lower surface of the soil. The soil pH
under silvipastural system also showed improvement. The significant improvements in the organic C and K 2O in the
soil under pasture/ silvipastoral systems suggest that the present area of 18% under cultivable waste land/ degraded
land in Kachchh-Bhuj region can be improved and utilized for pasture/ silvipastoral system or even for arable
farming.
Conservation Agriculture: A Sustainable and Livelihood

System in Bihar, India
Mritunjay Kumar1* and S.S. Mandal2

1
Rajendra Agriculture University and 2Sugarcane Breeding, SRI, RAU, Pusa, 848 125,
Samstipur, Bihar, India
(*E-mail: dr_mritunjay@sify.com)
Meeting food demand for increasing population and keeping pace with natural resources base is possible through
Conservation Agriculture. Potential and constraints for increased adoption of resources conservation technology (RCTs)
has several advantages i.e. reduction in cost of cultivation, improving soil quality, enhancing water table, less water
requirement, enhancing fertilizer use efficiencies and production, crop diversity and mitigation of global warming. Bed
planting offers greater opportunity for crop diversity including the adaptation of crops such as quality protein maize
(QPM), sugarcane, pigeonpea, mungbeans, chickpea, lentil, fababeans, potatoes and vegetables.
For RCT activities, study was focused in 7 districts of Bihar (India) state namely Buagalpur, Begusarai, Darbhanga,
Muzaffarpur, Samastipur, Purnia and Vaishali. Ten farmers each from RCT and non RCT villages were selected in a
district. In case of zero tillage (ZT) moisture was higher than the conventional tillage (CT) practices at the time of
sowing. In all the seasons i.e. kharif, rabi and summer, CT did not provide equal chance to grow crop plants, whereas
ZT provided definite space to each and every plant. Less plant geometry in ZT accommodated high plant population
and added in yield. Seed requirement was almost half in ZT in comparison to CT in the areas surveyed. Lower seed
rate was also observed in wheat. Average seed requirement in CT and ZT wheat was 108.88 kg ha-1 and 80.87 kg ha-
1
. Number of irrigation requirement in ZT was about half in comparison to CT. Higher average number of tillers were
also observed in ZT practiced plot and lower in CT in paddy. High cost of weed control was involved in CT (Rs.
2919.57/- ha-1) in comparison to ZT (Rs. 650.43/- ha-1) in kharif 2006. In wheat (rabi, 2006-07) cost of weed control was
also higher in CT (Rs. 334.14/- ha-1) in comparison to ZT (Rs. 99.39/- ha-1). ZT crop was lower in height (32.45 cm) in
comparison to CT (37.46 cm) and also required less labour. Diesel requirement in CT was about 7 times more. For all
the seasons and crops, highest yield was observed in ZT crop. It was because of better opportunity to grow crops, high
water and fertilizer use efficiency, longer duration and less competition with weeds. CT produces about 7 times
more CO2 in comparison to ZT.
254
Sustainability of Rice-Wheat Cropping Pattern in Bangladesh in the

Context of Conservation Agriculture
Subash Dasgupta
Assistant FAO Representative, Bangladesh
(*E-mail: Subash.Dasgupta@fao.org )
The area under rice-wheat cropping pattern (CP), one of the eight major CPs in Bangladesh, has increased gradually
from 0.127 to 0.882 m ha during 1971–1999. At the same time, productivity has gone up from 0.89 to 2.16 t ha-1.
Modern varieties (mainly, Sonalika in the 70s and early 80s and Kanchan in the late 80s and 90s) and high prices of
wheat at local markets are considered instrumental for this success. However, acreage under this CP started declining
Session 1.3
since 1998-99 reaching 0.370 m h in 2007-2008. What is of more concern is the declining trend in wheat productivity,
in addition to its area. It fell down to 1.53 t ha-1 in 2005-06 producing 0.735 million tons (mt) which was 1.908 mt in
1998-99. Its production has jumped in 2007-08 touching 0.956 mt mainly due to cool and long winter season in that
particular year. Slow varietal replacement process, cultivation of variety Kanchan still in some pocket areas, pushing
rice-wheat CP in more marginalized lands and severe competition from other crops like maize, rice and potato for the
same lands are found, among others, to be the major reasons for existing situation. Climate change may possibly be
a factor behind it as farmers have been experiencing shortened winter season with frequent fluctuation in temperature
and rainfall, making wheat production is less attractive in spite of higher prices of produces. This is the case, when
domestic demand for wheat is on rapid rise and current annual demand is exceeding 3 mt. Now, major challenge
ahead of country is to reverse the trends in order to move towards achieving Government’s plan so as to achieve food-
grain self-sufficiency, which includes rice and wheat. Comparative advantage and competitiveness of this CP over
other CPs are the fundamental criteria that have to be taken into consideration in any future attempts to improve
productivity and acreage under it. A renewed thrust on growth of rice-wheat CP with the packages of conservation
agricultural technologies can be a viable option to ensure its sustainability. Experiments being conducted in Bangladesh
on the performance of rice and wheat under minimum/reduced or zero tillage, planting of crops on raised seedbeds,
use of leaf-colour charts and improved methods of irrigation, provide convincing results. What is required is to develop
site specific production packages of resource conservation technologies for rice-wheat CP and launch massive
participatory extension programmes under public-private partnership to promote it in the Indo-Gangetic plains and
other agro-ecological zones of the country, which will help to full fill the Government’s revised strategy to make the
country self-sufficient in food grain production and to assist farmers in their struggle to halt the current trends. On-
station and on-farm research findings on different component technologies of conservation agriculture adoptable for
rice-wheat CP and policy options are being presented in this paper.
Conservation Breeding of Native Chicken Breeds of India Monitored by

Molecular Markers
S.K. Mishra, D.P. Singh, Raj Narayan, M.C. Kataria and B.P. Singh
Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
Central Avian Research Institute has been undertaking conservation of 2 native chicken breeds of the country, namely
Kadakanath (KN) and Aseel [including 2 varieties Aseel Kagar (AK) and Aseel Peela(AP)] for more than 25 years,
through their ex-situ breeding and maintenance in undiluted form. Special emphasis has been laid over all the
generations to maintain purity of these breeds, through rotational pedigree matings with an effective population
structure of 50 sires and 150 dams, as minimum. Care is taken although for not compromising on natural behavioural
instincts unique to these breeds like aggressiveness, perching behaviour, fighting tendencies, social-order of cocks,
while propagating the flocks. Prominent among the valuable characters of these breeds are: higher immune
255
competence and innate disease resistance, which are allowed to be retained in their natural proportion, since no
deliberate selective breeding is ever practiced. Low to medium egg production characters have, nevertheless, been
the hallmarks of these breeds, which often pose a challenge to maintain these breeds, cost-effectively. As major
research initiatives in these breeds, molecular sampling is taken up, since 2 generations, for 3 key-loci having
bearing on the genetics of disease resistance, viz., the MHC, Mx gene and TVB locus. Data generated on breeders
of preceding generation (year-2007), through profiling of autosomal tumour loci: ‘TVB’ [responsible to exhibiting
disease resistance to ALV-sub group B viral infections (preventing tumours)] in KN and AK showed that the resistant
allele (allele: ‘R’ recessive to susceptible ‘S1’ represented through heterozygotes) segregated in reduced proportion
in this breed, i.e. frequency of ‘R’ 0.1 to 0.065 respectively. A repeated sampling of the KN from the current
generation (year- 2008) showed the frequency of ‘R’ to have declined to 0.035, though segregating through
heterozygotes only. The frequency of ‘Mx’-positive allele (having a genetic role in Influenza resistance putatively) in
AP and KN were recorded as 0.375 and 0.147 respectively, among 2007’s breeders. When sampled for the MHC
Session 1.3
locus through an STR based approach, the KN registered presence of 5 new alleles (in deviation to most common
MHC alleles fixed in modern-day productive chicken breeds) i.e B24, BW62 and an uncharacterized B-haplotype
(218 Bp) at allele frequency of 0.28, 0.05 and 0.23 respectively, which indicated that native breed: KN is reservoir of
many unique MHC genes and thus, is a promising resource to many uncharacterized disease resistance precursors.
It was concluded that conservation breeding of the native chicken breeds: Aseel and Kadakanath should be
continuously monitored by Molecular markers for retaining the useful alleles coding for disease resistance and
tropically-important major genes, while ensuring un-diluted bio-diversity, across generations.
Zero-Tillage: An Alternative Technology towards Sustainable

Rice-Wheat System of West Bengal
S.K. Adak1, A.N. Paul1, A. Lahiri1, H. Pathak2 and P. Bhattacharyya1

1
Department of Agriculture, Govt. of West Bengal, India
2
International Rice Research Institute, India Office, NASC Complex, New Delhi, India
In recent years efforts are being made to increase yield and farmers’ income by promoting resource conserving
technologies (RCTs), which encompass practices that enhance resource- or input-use efficiency and provide immediate,
identifiable and demonstrable economic benefits such as reductions in production costs, savings in water, fuel and
labor requirements and timely establishment of crops. The paper deals with the benefits of zero-tillage in rice-wheat
system in Indo-Gangetic plains of West Bengal in improving yield and conserving natural resources. Field experiments
on rice-wheat system were conducted in three districts namely, Jalpaiguri, Burdwan and Dakshin Dinajpur of West
Bengal, to study the effect of zero-tillage in which seeds and fertilizers are placed simultaneously in no-till fields using
a zero-till machine, on yield of rice and wheat and soil properties. Zero-tillage resulted in higher yield (8-16%) of both
the crops in most of the cases together with the savings of Rs. 4000-5000 ha-1 on inputs. It also improved soil health
by increasing water holding capacity and available phosphate and potassium and organic carbon contents of soil as
compared to the conventional system. It saved water compared to conventional system of rice cultivation, which
consumes huge volume of water besides being labour intensive. Thus, it can be concluded that zero-tillage could be a
promising technology in saving and conserving soil and water resources alongwith increasing yield, thereby contributing
towards the sustainability of the rice-wheat system of West Bengal.
256
Performance of Chilli Genotypes to Different Fertility Levels and

Seasons under Terai Agroclimatic Region of West Bengal
S. Datta* and J.C. Jana

Department of Vegetable and Spice Crops, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari,
Cooch Behar, 736 165, West Bengal, India
(*Email : suchanddatta@rediffmail.com)
Need based fertilizer management is an important and urgent task in the present scenario to restore soil fertility.
Fertilizer requirement of any crop mainly varies from genotype to genotype and growing season in a particular of
agroclimatic region. Keeping this view an experiment was undertaken at the Experimental Farm of Uttar Banga Krishi
Session 1.3
Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India. Fifteen chili genotypes (five genotypes each from local
genotypes viz. CA-29, CA-30, CA-39, CA-47 and CA-48, improved varieties viz. Chilli Philhal, Pusa Sadabahar, DKC-
8, Pusa Jwala and G-4 and hybrids viz. Diamond F1, Tejaswini, NS-1701, Jwalan, and Ulka 686 F1) were evaluated
under five fertility levels during rabi and kharif season of 2007. Five fertility levels were created by application different
doses i.e. 0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 percent of recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) of 100 : 50 : 50 Kg N , P2O5 and
K2O kg/ha. The experiment was laid out in Factorial Randomized Block Design with three replications. Mean performance
revealed that there was significant variation in different growth, yield and quality characters with respect to genotypes,
fertility levels and growing seasons. Considering yield performance genotypes Ulka 686 F1 (24.85 t/ha), Jwalan (19.96
t/ha), CA-29 (19.28 t/ha), CA-48 (18.07 t/ha) and CA-47 (17.97 t/ha) were selected for growing at 150% RDF in the rabi
season. Similarly for kharif season genotypes Jwalan (12.20 t/ha), Ulka 686 F1 (11.25 t/ha) at 100% RDF and Pusa
Sadabahar at 150% RDF (10.43 t/ha) were selected. Due to higher vegetative growth and yield the higher amount of
N, P and K uptake was recorded by most of the genotypes (except Pusa Sadabahar) in the rabi season than the kharif
season. Highest amount of N, P and K uptake of 158.55, 68.51 and 195.35 kg/ha, respectively was recorded by Ulka
686 F1 at 200% RDF followed by same genotype at 150% RDF and genotype Jwalan at 150% RDF during rabi
season. Whereas, the lowest N uptake of 20.79 kg/ha was recorded during kharif season at lowest fertility level in case
of genotype CA-30 and that for P2O5 of 7.96 kg/ha was recorded in genotype CA-39 which was also statistically at par
with CA-30 (8.26 kg/ha). The lowest K2O uptake of 23.42 kg/ha was also recorded in CA-30 which was statistically at
par with CA-39 (23.60 kg/ha). The high yielding genotypes required more nutrient for their growth and yield.
Response of Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and French bean

(Phaseolus vulgaris) Intercropping to Different Row Ratio and Nitrogen
Management in Rainfed Conditions of Uttarakhand
Rashmi Yadav and Naresh Malik

G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Hill Campus, Ranichauri, 249 199,
Tehri Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India
(*Email: rashmiyadav74@rediffmail.com)
Poor yields and uncertainty of production are twin problems of rain fed areas. The research has clearly indicated that
there still exits a lot of potential to enhance the productivity in rain fed areas which can be exploited by adopting
suitable agronomic and resource management practices. Selecting suitable cropping system like intercropping will
not only help increase production of crop but also help increase crop intensity. Intercropping minimizes risk of crop
failure and improved crop production in rain fed areas. Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is one of the important
crops of hills in Uttarakhand under rain fed farming. The soil fertility status of this region is low to medium in
available nitrogen and phosphorous. The inorganic fertilizers consumption in this region is very low. So that, the
cereal- legume intercropping systems should be advocated to take full utilization of resources of this area.
257
In order to find out the best finger millet based intercropping system and nutrient management practices under
rain fed conditions, an experiment was laid out in spilt plot design with three replications during 2007 and 2008 with
various intercropping row ratio as main plot and fertilizer levels as sub plot treatment. Among the treatments tried,
application of recommended dose of NPK gave significantly higher grain yields (21.59 and 22.46 during 2007-08,
respectively) followed by Vermicompost + Chullu cake (50% N from each source) + Seed inoculation (20.63 and
21.30 q/ha during 2007-08, respectively) which was at par with recommended dose of NPK. Among the intercropping
systems, Finger millet + French bean (3:1) gave significantly highest grain (21.61 and 24.54 q/ha during 2007-08,
respectively) than the sole crop of finger millet (16.85 and 17.77 q/ha during 2007-08, respectively). NMR and B: C
ratio was also higher with Finger millet + French bean (3:1) intercropping. It can be concluded that introducing a
new crop like French bean as intercrop with Vermicompost + Chullu cake (50% N from each source) + Seed
inoculation can increase the production of finger millet, conserve the soil moisture and it will also improve the socio-
economic condition of the farmers as French bean is used as a cash crop.
Session 1.3
Performance of Zero-Tilled Wheat in Low Land Rice Ecosystem in

Gangetic Alluvial Zone of West Bengal
Amitava Sarkar*, Partha Pratim Das, A. Zaman and Smritikana Sarkar

(*Email : amitava_agro@rediffmail.com / drazaman@yahoo.co.in)
Wheat Sowing in rice based crop sequence is very much delayed beyond November due to delayed harvesting of the
crop and high soil moisture content in the low land. Wheat sowing was possible by zero tilled seed drill machine in low
land situation where sufficient residual soil moisture persists for seed germination. An on-farm trials conducted in
farmers field after Aman (winter) rice harvest wheat was sown with Pantnagar zero tilled fertilizer seed drill in 2007.
Seed rate was high @ 150 kg/ha and complex fertilizer suphala (15:15:15) @ 150 kg/ha was used aiming seed and
fertilizer ratio of 1:1. Seed cv. UP 262 was sown at the depth of 5-7cm. Depth of irrigation for zero tilled (ZT) and
surface seeding (SS) of wheat (paira) was 4cm (3hours/bigha) against the conventional tillage (CT) 6cm (4.5hours/
bigha). Three irrigations were applied for CT and NT at CRI stage, end of maximum tillering and grain filling stage. Two
irrigations were applied to SS crop. Nitrogen @ 60 kg/ha was top dressed in the form of urea in 2 splits- one at CRI and
2nd at maximum tillering stage. Results showed that Zero-tilled wheat with three irrigations recorded 19.5-26.5 q/ha
grain yield and ZT wheat with two irrigations (F6) recorded the lowest grain yield of 17.5 q/ha. Surface seeding of
wheat in standing rice recorded 16.5 q/ha grain yield. Conventional tillage recorded the highest grain yield of 32.5 q/ha.
Two irrigations at ZT and SS reduce the grain yield by 11.8 to 35.1% over three irrigations. Conventional tillage in
clay soil was not promising due to drainage congestion made by irrigation at CRI stage, which results yellowing of
leaf at early stage. Water use efficiency (kg/ha/mm) of ZT wheat was 8.3 to 11.6 with 3 irrigations but 2 irrigations
in ZT and SS reduce the WUE (7.7). Three irrigations in CT recorded the highest WUE (12.2).
258
Diversification of potato based cropping system with Integrated Nutrient

Management for sustaining crop productivity and economic feasibility in
the New Alluvial Zone of West Bengal
Chaitan Soren*, Partha Pratim Das and Mahabir Chettri

Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Department of Agronomy, F/Ag.,
Mohanpur, Nadia, 741 252, West Bengal, India
(*Email : chaitan_agronomy@rediffmail.com / ppdas24@rediffmail.com)
The field experiment was conducted at Adisaptagram Block Seed Farm, Hooghly, West Bengal during the rabi season,
Session 1.3
2006-07 and 2007-08 to study the diversification of potato based cropping system with integrated nutrient management
for sustaining crop productivity, soil fertility and economic feasibility in the new alluvial zone of West Bengal. The
experiment was laid out in a Split-plot design with 20 treatment combinations in 3 replications. The treatment combinations
were Main plot: S1 – Potato – Cowpea – Rice; S2 – Potato – Green gram – Rice; S3 – Potato – Groundnut – Rice; S4 –
Potato – Sesame – Rice and Sub-plot: T1 – 100 % recommended dose of N, P2O5 and K2O; T2 – 75 % recommended
dose of N, P2O5 and K2O; T3 – 75 % recommended dose of N, P2O5 and K2O + FYM @ 10 t/ha; T4 – 75 % recommended
dose of N, P2O5 and K2O + Neem cake; T5 – 75 % recommended dose of N, P2O5 and K2O + Bio-fertilizers (Azotobacter
and Phophobacteria). The Kufri Jyoti, most common variety of potato was sown in rabi season at a row to row distance
of 60 cm and plant to plant distance of 20 cm. The results of the experiment showed that growth and development of
potato plant was shown significantly. The crop receiving 100 % recommended dose of N, P2O5 and K2O were produced
highest yield 29.10 t/ha, 1.56 t/ha, 1.36 t/ha, 1.65 t/ha, 1.58 t/ha and 3.75 t/ha of potato tuber, cowpea, green gram,
groundnut, sesame and rice respectively. From the experiment, it is also proved that the potato- cowpea- rice system
is one of the most important cropping system where the integrated nutrient management is practiced for the sustaining
crop productivity and economic feasibility.
Modelling the Gram (Vigna radiata) Yield under Agroforestry System
Cini Varghese, Seema Jaggi, A.S. Gill1, V.K. Sharma and N.P. Singh
Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, Library Avenue, Pusa, New Delhi, 110 012, India
(*Email: Cini_v@iasri.res.in)
Farmers and land owners today face many challenges as they seek to make their farms and forestlands profitable,
productive and environmentally sustainable. For this, new and innovative approaches to farm production are required
that are practical, profitable, and low in cost. Trees play a crucial role in almost all terrestrial ecosystems and provide
a range of products and services to rural and urban people. As natural vegetation is cleared for agriculture and other
types of development, the benefits that trees provide are best sustained by integrating trees into agriculturally productive
landscapes - a practice known as agroforestry. By growing trees and crops in harmony, the system can be biologically
sustainable. The impact of trees on crop yields over time is the most useful relationship for planning purposes.
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the behaviour of yield of gram (Vigna radiata) crop over years (1999-
2000 to 2004-2005) grown under four different fodder tree species Siris (Albizia lebbeck), Neem (Azadirachta
indica), Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo) and Babul (Acacia nilotica)], without tree and at different distances from tree
base. We examined different modeling approaches to study the impact of tree species on crop productivity and
identified model that best explains yield trend. The behaviour was polynomial in nature and cubic model was found
to be the best. Under all the tree species, the fit was found to be quite good. In case of yield under Dalbergia sissoo,
Acacia nilotica and sole, one of the outlying observations (detected through Cook’s statistic) was deleted while
fitting the model. The fluctuation in the gram yield was found to be more when grown alone, whereas the yield was
more or less stable under Albizia lebbeck. Similar is the trend in case of analysis of straw yield data.
259
Effect of Meteorology Parameters on Growth, Yield and Yield

Attributing Characters of Custard Apple Selections
D.K. Varu*, Virendra Singh and A.V. Barad

Department of Horticulture, Junagadh Agricultural Universitry, Junagadh, Gujarat
(*Email: dkvaru@yahoo.com)
Custard apple is medium sized, tropic and emerging fruit crop. Flowering and fertilization is highly influenced by
meteorological parameters like temperature, humidity and rain fall. The experiment was conducted to study the effect
of meteorological parameters on different custard apple selections during year 2007-2008. Temperature was recorded
similar during both the years, but humidity (21.72%) and total rainfall (35.99%) were decreased in 2nd year (2008) as
Session 1.3
compared to 1st year (2007). Average days to flowering at 1st reproductive flush appeared in March was earlier in year
2008 than 2007, whereas for 2nd and 3rd flush, the same was remain unchanged. Fruit setting and fruit maturity were
also found earlier and observed 16.66 and 64.45 days during 1st year and 21.48 and 70.86 days during 2 nd year,
respectively. Fruit length was decreased from 7.02 to 6.01 cm, but the girth was increased from 7.36 to 6.72 cm during
1st and 2nd year. Similarly, fruit weight, number of fruit and yield were decreased from 133.32 to 123.20 g, 195.10 to
70.71 fruit number and 22.83 to 8.71 kg/tree, respectively during 1st and 2nd years. In case of qualitative parameters,
number of seed and seed weight per fruit were slightly decreased, whereas, skin weight was increased (31.27 to 69.11
g) during 2nd year. Likewise, pulp weight was also observed to decrease (51.58 to 27.47 g), but the pulp seed ratio was
increased (2.66 to 3.04) during 2nd year (2008). Percentage of mealy bug and black spot were also recorded higher
(29.88% and 27.90%, respectively) during 2nd year than 1st year (2007).
Sustainability of Conventional and Conservation Agriculture in Small

Scale Cotton Based Regions in West and Central Africa: Lessons from
Northern Cameroon rica?
O. Balarabe*1, L. Seguy2, K. Naudin3, R. Lifran4

1
IRAD/SODECOTON, BP 302, Garoua, Cameroon
2
CIRAD-PERSYST, Goiania, Brazil
3
CIRAD-PERSYST, Antananarivo, Madagascar
4
INRA/SUPAGRO Montpellier, France
(*Email: obalarabe@yahoo.fr)
Sustainability of agricultural practises seems to be a suitable concept to evaluate both agronomic and economic
performances of conventional and conservation agriculture. In this study, the concept of sustainability is analysed
through its three main components: economic sustainability also called economic efficiency, dealing with the
ability of the farming system to ensure sufficient and competitive output production to fulfil market and population
needs; social sustainability or social equity, dealing with agricultural ability to ensure equitable revenue or return to
different stakeholders of the agricultural production chain; ecological sustainability, dealing with intergenerational
preservation of the environment referring here to the sum of natural resources used to ensure agricultural production
such as soil fertility. Ecological sustainability is commonly the only aspect of sustainability taken into account by
agronomists.
Sustainability of conventional agriculture is addressed in this study in small scale cotton based agriculture surveys
in Northern Cameroon. Economic efficiency of cotton in conventional agriculture is analysed through a several years
data base of a permanent agricultural survey of Sodecoton (Cotton Development Company), while social equity is
addressed based on different production cost distribution within cotton production stakeholders. Ecological sustainability
is analysed through agronomic variables such as yield variation over time, and mainly soil fertility evolution.
260
Results of the study revealed that economic efficiency of cotton cultivation in conventional agriculture, after
attaining acceptable levels in the years 2000’s mainly due to high yields and prices and low inputs cost, is now
declining. Fertiliser prices for example vary from 500 US $ per ton in 2005 to more than 1000 US $ per ton coming
2008. Social equity even if strongly reinforced by a perequational price and inputs cost determination system, is
limited with a high ecological differentiation between ecological areas varying from 600 mm rainfall in the far north to
1200 mm rainfall in the south of the cotton belt, hence affecting different respective yields. Considering soil fertility,
decreasing yields and increasing expenditures on fertilisers and other water harvesting and soil conservation
technologies revealed progressive weak response of soil resource to cropping systems management. Conservation
agriculture appears to be a more suitable alternative for small scale cotton based agriculture to attain the three
main objectives of a sustainable agriculture, since it can ensure economic efficiency of the farming system, a better
social equity and a better soil resource management.
Session 1.3
Enhanced Employment and Income Through Diversified Farming
Systems in Western Maharashtra
D.B. Yadav, D.S. Navadkar and P.P. Pawar

Department of Agricultural Economics, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, 413 722 Maharashtra,
India
The farming system in any locality is influenced by the ecological and socio-economic factors. Therefore, the
Farming System Research deals with the development of farm technologies through farmers participatory mode. To
evaluate and find out the technological option under real farming situations, which will provide the scope for
modifications in the existing farming systems, strengthen the better, such type of analysis is required.In Western
Maharashtra, three types of farming systems viz., Crop (C), Crop + Livestock (CL) and Crop+Livestock+ Horticulture
(CLH) were considered to workout economics of selected farming systems. The purposive sampling was adopted
for the study tahsil as a primary unit, village as a secondary unit and the sample farm as an alternative unit. Each
farming system had a sample of 30 respondents making a total of 90 respondents.
The average number of family members were 5.17, 5.77 and 4.73, respectively on C, CL and CLH farms. The
holding size was 1.76 ha. (Crop farms), 1.59 ha. (Crop + Livestock) and 1.62 ha. (Crop+Livestock+ Horticulture). The
proportion of milch animals was 45.54 per cent on crop + livestock farm and 31.31 per cent on crop+livestock+horticulture
farm. The average value of capital assets was Rs. 4.50 lakh, 6.10 lakh and 6.08 lakh for crop, crop+livestock and
crop+livestock+ horticulture farms, respectively. The average per farm cash expenditure increased from Rs. 20920 for
crop farms to Rs. 43,040 for crop+livestock farm and Rs. 44,109 for crop+livestock+ horticulture farm. The labour
constituted second major portion of total expenditure which shared 42 per cent for crop farm, 17 per cent for livestock
farm and 22 per cent for crop + livestock + horticultural farm. The cropping intensity was 107.85, 137.08 and 125.81
per cent for the crop, crop +livestock and crop+ livestock+ horticulture farming systems, respectively. The total
income of the sample farms worked to Rs. 63943, Rs. 123624 and Rs. 130406, respectively for crop, crop+livestock
and crop+livestock+horticulture farming systems. For crop, crop+livestock and crop+livestock+horticulture, crop
production activity was the major source of income contributing more than 50 per cent of the total income. The
income from livestock activity contributed 31 per cent and 22 per cent in the crop +livestock and crop+ livestock+
horticulture farming systems, respectively. The income from horticultural crop occupied the magnitude of 25 per
cent of total income in crop+livestock+horticulture farming system.The per hectare net profit generated under crop
plus livestock farming system was higher by 48.85 per cent and under crop plus livestock with horticulture by 67.20
per cent than only crops farming system.
The six variables contributing to the income of sample farms (crop area -X1, income from farming system -X2,
number of livestock -X3, off farm income -X4, other income -X5 and area under horticultural crops -X6) explained 66
per cent, 75 per cent and 82 per cent variation in income of the sample farmers for crop, crop +livestock and crop+
livestock+ horticulture farming systems, respectively.
261
The per worker employment and per hectare net profit generated under Crop plus Livestock (CL) irrigated
farming system are higher by 143.26 and 48.85 per cent, respectively and Crop plus Livestock with Horticulture
(CLH) irrigated farming system are higher by 131.65 and 67.20 per cent, respectively than only irrigated Crop
system(C). Hence, it is, recommended to have combination of enterprises under farming systems instead of a
single enterprise by the farmers, in order to minimize the risk and uncertainty and thereby sustain the irrigated
farming in Western Maharashtra.
Trends of Crop Diversification by Small Farmers in the Himalayas

Session 1.3
A. Raizada*1, B.L. Dhyani1, Pradeep Dogra1, Ashok Kumar2, S.B. Singh3 and Y. Agnihotri4
1
C.S.W.C.R.T.I., Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
2
CSKHPKVV, Palmpur, Himachal Pradesh, India
3
ICAR Research Complex, Nagaland Center, India
4
CSWCRTI Research Center, Chandigarh, India
(*Email: anurag@cwsctriddn.org)
The ecological fragility and vulnerability of the Himalayas to climatic aberrations, increasing demand for land to grow
more food have been issues of concern for quite some time. Enhancing agricultural growth is also essential for achieving
the macro objective of inclusive growth in the XI Five Year Plan.
Nearly 59% of the total work force in the Himalayas is engaged in subsistence agriculture which is barely enough
to feed the growing population for 5-6 months in a year. Hill agriculture is also heavily dependent on forests for energy
supply, fodder, water and non-timber products. Agricultural diversification is an integral part of structural transformation
of any economy and is an effective alternative to obtain the objectives of higher income, farm employment generation
and natural resource stability in developing economies. It is also a process of broadening and strengthening income
sources of rural households. Crop diversification is also recommended for small farmers to avoid risk and uncertainty
of traditional farming practices.
Crop diversification patterns were investigated in 12 completed integrated watershed development projects in the
Eastern (4) and Western (8) Himalayas and diversification index were determined. Information was collected using
structured schedules from these watersheds covering all categories of land owners. Interventions, by the implementing
agency, covered both arable and non-arable land, development of water resources, water harvesting, improved crop
production practices (including cultivation of ‘low volume – high value’ crops), and livestock development
Results indicate that assured availability of water coupled with appropriate technology, extension services and
access to markets encouraged farmers to take up the cultivation of vegetables on a large scale, except in the Shiwaliks
where farmers preferred cultivation of HYV’s of cereals and in the North East where farmers preferred cultivation of
traditional varieties of rice under assured irrigation.
In Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, the unique ‘ecological niche’ of the region, and better marketing facilities
provided opportunities for ‘off-season’ vegetable cultivation of crops like peas, cucumber, cauliflower, egg plant, ginger,
tomatoes, beans, radish, carrots etc. Production and area under vegetables increased manifold and number of
vegetables, grown on a significant scale, increased by 5 to 10 folds and annual farm income increased significantly.
Development of water resources, land consolidation and adequate marketing facilities are factors that strongly
influence crop diversification. Recent issues of ‘cartelization’ by middlemen in the marketing chain, absence of storage
and processing facilities in the region and absence of government interventions for price support may derail the initial
euphoria of farmers to diversify to low volume-high value crops.
262
Conservation Measures for Eco-restoration of

Chambal Ravines, India
A.K. Parandiyal*, S.N. Prasad, B.K. Sethy and H.R. Meena

Central Soil Water Conservation Research &Training Institute,
Research Centre, Kota, 324 002, Rajasthan, India
(*Email: akparandiyal@gmail.com)
The per capita land area in India shrank from 0.36 ha in 1960 to 0.20 ha in 1990 and is expected to further reduce
to 0.12 ha in 2028 if there is no additional loss of arable land due to degradation or conversions to non-agricultural
uses. The scenario calls for optimum utilization of all land available to us. Land in India suffers from varying degrees
Session 1.3
and types of degradation stemming mainly from unsuitable use and inappropriate management practices. Ravines
are the worst manifestation of land degradation by water. The land degradation due to ravines is a major problem
along several river systems in the alluvial zones in India. It has been estimated that in India, approximately 1.12%
of total geographical area of the country, i.e.3.7 million hectares land, has been affected due to ravines. The
National Commission on Agriculture (1976) had estimated that by not putting these lands to productive uses the
country may be loosing about Rs.1570 million worth of food grains, fodder and fire wood production. At the current
prices this figure may be much higher.
Nearly 72% area of the shallow gullies, 39.6% area of the medium gullies and 4.5% of deep gullies in ravinous
region in Rajasthan have been placed under cultivation. More or less similar land uses prevail in the ravine regions in
other parts of country and these are not always in conformity with scientifically advisable land uses and soil and water
conservation practices. Biological and biomechanical measures for checking extension of gullies and for erosion
control need preference over production goals in selection of suitable landuses in ravinous areas. Soil and water
conservation measures devised for use in agricultural and nonarable lands have been found to be effective in arresting
the expansion of ravines and improving the protection and production efficiencies of the lands in ravinous regions.
Agrostological, hortipastoral, silvicultural land uses have been found to be more ecologically and economically
suited for the medium and deep ravines. The present paper attempts to summarize the findings of various studies
conducted to evaluate efficacy of various measurers for erosion control and improved productivity in the ravine lands.
Conservation of Sorghum Genetic Resources for Sustainable Production

in the Centre of Diversity, Ethiopia: A Five
Decade Analysis
Firew Mekbib
Haramaya University, P.O. Box 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
(E-mail: firewmekbib@yahoo.com)
The Ethiopian region is characterised by a wide range of agro-climatic conditions, which accounted for the enormous
resources of agro-biodiversity that exist in the country. The most important of these resources is the immense genetic
diversity of the various crop plants in the country. Of these, one of the most on farm genetically diverse crops is
sorghum. Since the advent of formal breeding in particular after green revolution, genetic diversity of most crops has
been threatened worldwide. In order to assess on farm genetic erosion (GE), various research methodologies were
employed. These were focused group interviews with 360 farmers, on farm monitoring and participation with 120
farmers, key informant interviews with 60 farmers and development agents, and semi-structured interviews with 250
farmers. Besides, diversity fairs were done with over 1200 farmers. Notwithstanding the complexity of assessing GE,
it was assessed by various methods; namely, by temporal method (comparing 1960 and 2000 collections), area method,
263
and semi-structured interview method at individual, community or wereda level and causes of varietal loss from
other various perspectives. Farmers perceived GE as the reduced importance of the variety as indicated by lower
proportion in the varietal portfolio. The five most important factors for varietal loss at individual farmers’ level were
reduced benefit from the varieties, drought, Khat expansion, reduced land size and introduction of other food crops
respectively. GE was not affected by wealth groups and ecological regions. Farmers do not make simple replacement
as a strategic mechanism for genetic resources management. GE at regional level was quantified by temporal and
spatial method. There was a complementation not rivalry between Farmer Varieties (FVs) and Improved Varieties
(IVs). The whole process of GE is explained by three models, namely: Bioecogeographic enhanced genetic erosion
model, Farmer induced genetic erosion model and Farmer-cum-bioecogeographic genetic erosion model. As
aforementioned, sorghum genetic erosion behaviour is completely different from other food crops such as tetraploid
wheat. The prediction in the late seventies that complete erosion of FVs by IVs by the end of the eighties, the
principle of GE that competition between IVs and FVs, favours the former and results in the replacement of the
Session 1.3
latter is not valid in the context of sorghum in Ethiopia. Hence, maintenance of the on farm genetic diversity of
sorghum is a reality but GE is rhetoric.
Ecological Farming System for Sustainable Agriculture
S.K. Rautaray
Regional Rainfed Lowland Rice Research Station (CRRI-ICAR), Gerua, via- Hajo,
Kamrup, 781 102, Assam, India
(Email: sachinrautaray@yahoo.com)
Agricultural practice cannot be sustainable unless and until it is improving or at least conserving the natural resource
base. There is a need for shift in outlook of viewing only the immediate benefits of a farming practice. Rather farming
practices should be judged in terms of its effects on natural resources and environment besides benefits in terms of
yield and quality. Some principles and practices of managing external resources, natural resources and stakeholders
are discussed for resource conservation in the context of agriculture and betterment of environment as a whole.
Knowledge on natural resources for farming and means of their conservation need to be enriched and linked to stake
holders through information technology. A few success stories in natural resource management under rice based
farming around the globe are reviewed in this article. These include ‘Three reductions and three gain campaign in
Vietnam’, Seed health campaign in Bangladesh, Interplanting for blast management in Peoples Republic of China,
Utilization of host plant resistance against rice blast in Arab Republic of Egypt, System of rice intensification (SRI) in
Madagaskar and Sri Lanka, Managing water and land resources at the interface between fresh and saline water
environments in Vietnam, Rice Based Farming System Approach in South-East Asian countries, Agricultural development
in the uplands of Yunan, and Rainfed rice-potato cultivation with the use of mulches. Some successes have been
achieved in natural resource management in agriculture. However, a lot need to be achieved through research results
followed by their adoption. With the advancement in science, further development in knowledge and understanding of
natural resource is expected, if a special insight is given towards this neglected aspect. Data base on conserving and
sustaining the natural resource base for agricultural production and its link to all the stakeholders through information
technology will go a long way. “It is not difficult to manage our natural resources for us and our posterity” .
264
Processing and Value Addition to Indigenous Fruits, for Sustainable

Development in Rural India
Dheeraj Singh, M Chaudhary, H. Dayal, M.L. Meena and A. Dudi

KVK, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Pali, Rajasthan, India
A large number of underutilized fruits of Indian origin are often available only in local markets and are practically
unknown in other parts of the world. Most of these fruits have the ability to grow under adverse conditions and are also
known for their therapeutic and, nutritive value. Because of their curative properties, these fruits have been used in
traditional systems at medicine since time immemorial. In addition, quite a few of these fruits have excellent flavour
and very attractive colour. There is a great demand all over the world for new food products, nutritious and also
Session 1.3
delicately flavoured. Consumer’s today are becoming increasingly conscious of the health and, nutritional aspects of
their food. The tendency is to avoid chemicals and synthetic foods and choose therapy and nutrition through natural
resources. The underutilized tropical fruits have an important role to play in satisfying these demands. Many of these
fruits are highly perishable and difficult to store in the fresh form. Some of them are not easy to eat out of hand. A few
are not acceptable as a fresh fruit because of acidic and/or strong astringent taste. However, most of these fruits have
unlimited potential in the export market in the processed form. There is an opportunity to consumers all over the globe
to enjoy these underutilised fruits, in the, form of processed products. In addition to promote processing and market
potential a strong campaigning is required to create awareness and consciousness among the producers and consumers
of underutilized indigenous fruits. This paper deals with the processing of some of these fruits which have tremendous
export, potentialities in the world of export trade.
Cropping Systems in the Indian Thar Desert and Long-term Effects of

Continuous Cropping
N.L. Joshi, Anurag Saxena and Praveen Kumar

The Indian Thar Desert mainly comprises of the hot arid western plain region of India (21.1 Mha) is located in western
part of Rajasthan state. The climate of the region being arid, erratic behaviour of the meager rainfall, extreme temperatures
and high summer winds are perpetual. Agricultural lands are dominantly sandy, with 60-90% fine sand and 2-10% of
silt-clay in the topsoil and are poor in nutrient status. Agricultural production system in the region is severely constrained
by environmental, biotic and socio-economic factors. Traditionally rainfed kharif crops are grown in the region, but
irrigation through canals and groundwater has made vast changes in land use and agricultural production, with
mixed consequences for rural economy and environment. Pearl millet, clusterbean, moth bean, mung bean and
sesame are major crops of kharif (monsoon) season while wheat, mustard, chickpea and barley are dominant
irrigated crops of rabi (pos-monsoon) season. In canal irrigated area the groundnut, cotton, sugarcane and rice are
also taken. In rainfed areas, intercropping of food legumes in pearl millet as principal crop is extensively practiced,
mainly to reduce the risk of crop failure. Use of fertilizers in such low input farming systems was found to impart
greater sustainability to production. Both human and livestock population, in the Thar Desert is increasing at an
alarming rate. The human population density during 1961 was 37 km-1, while the livestock density was 66 km-1. By
2001, it was increased to 108 and 113 km-1, respectively. The increase in population has led to decrease in the size
of land holding from 14.6 ha in 1961 to about 6 ha at present, and is likely to decrease further to <4 ha by 2020.
Consequently the practice of fallowing is on decline and famers are constrained to practice continuous cropping on
fragile lands. Continuous cropping of pearl millet for 15 years without fertilizer application produced 735 kg grain ha-
1
(in a season having 240 mm rain), which was 59.3% lower than that with recommended level of N application. The
trend of reduction in yield was more rigorous after ten years of continuous cultivation of pearl millet. The practice of
265
rotating pearl millet with clusterbean and so also the practice of fallowing in alternate years produced significantly
more grain and stover yields than that obtained under continuous cropping, even after 15 years. Use of nitrogen
either as inorganic or as organic source could maintain productivity of land on long-term basis. Application of 2.5 t
and 5 t FYM alone giving about 20 and 40 kg N produced 2262 and 2647 kg grain ha-1, respectively, which was 35.1
and 46.5% higher than inorganic source in that season. The increase in stover yield was 36.7 and 18.8%, respectively.
The water use efficiency (WUE) was significantly influenced due to use of fertilizers, manures and traditional
practices such as rotation and fallowing. The lowest WUE (3.2 kg ha-1 mm-1) was recorded with continuous cropping
without the use of fertilizers. The traditional practice of taking clusterbean in rotation with pearl millet also enhanced
WUE significantly to 8.2 kg ha-1 mm-1 from 3.2 kg ha-1 under control. Similarly, the practice of fallowing resulted in
WUE of 8.1 kg ha-1 mm-1. There was not much change in level of soil organic carbon (SOC) in continuous cropping
without fertilizer/manure application (control), pearl millet–clusterbean and pearl millet-fallow cropping systems.
Application of 2.5 and 5 t FYM ha-1 for fifteen years led to improvement in SOC in surface soil from 0.12% (initial) to
0.20 and 0.24%. The rate of build-up in SOC was about 58 and 81 ìg C g-1 yr-1 with annual application of 2.5 and 5
Session 1.3
t FYM, respectively. Continuous cropping of pearl millet for 15 years without fertilizer application resulted in decline
in available K from its initial value of 205 to 145 ìg g-1 while the levels of DTPA-extractable Mn, Fe and Cu were either
similar or marginally higher over initial levels. For achieving sustainability in production, land management practices
involving intercropping systems with grain crops and alternate land use systems viz., agro-forestry, agri-horticulture,
agri-pasture and silvi-pasture systems have been suggested besides options of crop-enterprise substitution and
multi-enterprise systems.
Disseminating Zero Tillage Farming System: Experience of the Arab

Authority for Agricultural Investment & Development (AAAID)
Nashwan A. Abdulrazak1* and Maysoon A. Khadum2

1
Division of Applied Agricultural Research (AAAID)
2
Institute of Administration in Rusafa, Bagdad
(*Email: nashwan@aaaid.org)
For the last 31 years, AAAID has been introducing many pioneer agricultural models to improve productivity, enhancing
quality of products and to encourage other investors to apply those models and disseminate them in the the agricultural
sectors of the Arab world. Zero tillage (ZT) farming system, as a conservative agricultural system, was introduced in
the year 2000 by AAAID to develop rain-fed sector in Sudan. Outstanding results were achieved in doubling and
tripling the productivity of the main crops viz. sorghum, sunflower, cotton and sesame. As a result of the increased
productivity, ZT has been disseminated to other Arab countries in which similar good results have been achieved. The
dissemination of ZT, as a full technical package to replace the traditional farming system, in those Arab countries was
built on a strategic dimension connecting developmental concepts with investment. The success achieved in the pilot
farm of the commercial projects in Southern Sudan in years 2000 to 2003 was transferred to the local small farmers.
The project of disseminating ZT farming system to the small farmers in the Arab countries started in the year 2003 with
10 farmers at Agadi, Sudan. It was then expanded to Yemen and Syria in 2004, Tunisia and Morocco in 2006, and to
Jordan in 2007. Now the project involves 270 small farmers and an area of 8300 hectares. ZT System is supported by
research programs, precession farming techniques, capacity building, and institutionalization efforts. AAAID leadership
views the future of this farming system as the main sustainable solution to meet the internal and external challenges
that face the progress of the Arab Agricultural sector.
266
Productivity Enhancement of Mountain Farming Systems

in NW Himalaya
A.K. Srivastva, J.K. Bisht, Manoranjan Kumar, K.P. Singh, S.C. Pandey and H.S. Gupta
Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhan Sansthan (Vivekananda Institute of Hill Agriculture), ICAR, Almora,
263 601, Uttarakhand, India
(*Email:aksrivastva4@yahoo.com)
Although agriculture contributes 18 percent to the national Indian GDP, More than 60 percent population in India
derives sustenance from agriculture. In NW Himalaya, consisting of J&K, HP and UA, which spreads to 33 million ha,
habited by 25 million humans and 19 million livestock, the scenario is highly critical with only 3.2 million ha cultivable
Session 1.3
land. Investigations, integrating on-station and on-farm research have helped to quantify the hill agro-ecosystem leading
to site specific appropriate mountain farming. In mid Himalaya (altitude: 1200 m to 2500 m above msl), which has
majority of cultivable area (55 percent) in the region, slope of the land varies from 25 to > 38 percent, soil depth from
shallow to medium (<15 cm to 45 cm) and contains 18 to > 40 percent gravels. Thus, soil sink is a major constraint
contributing to the fragility of hill ecosystem. Water is highly critical natural resource, next only to soil in ensuring high
productivity. The region receives average annual rainfall of 1336 mm. Prevalence of steep hill slopes (25 to more than
100 percent) result in heavy soil erosion.
The per capita availability of cultivable land in the region varies from 0.09 ha in HP to 0.08 ha in UA and 0.07 ha in
J&K. The prevalent size of holding is only around 0.04 ha. These facts provide basis for site specific cropping in
mountains. The integration of farming system components of food crop, fodder, fruits and multipurpose trees are
specific to the terrain conditions and production potential. Runoff increased from 23 and 30 to 37 percent, and soil loss
of 12 and 17 to 24 t / ha/year under high and medium to low productivity sites. After accounting for runoff, contribution
from upstream and deep percolation losses, the estimated availability of rain water for plants was 411, 363 and 316
mm only. Similarly, the soil nutrients analysis indicated 0.21 kg, 0.18 kg and 0.13 kg of total N/ m3 (when adjusted to
gravel content). Based on the agro-ecosystem attributes, the productivity conditions were grouped under high, medium
and low productivity. The level of basic productivity was observed to be 4.3, 3.4 and 2.5 t/ ha of food grains for high,
medium and low productivity, respectively.
This level of productivity could be further enhanced with the inclusion of appropriate cropping specific to terrain
variation with in the 0.4 ha holding. Site specific studies over seasons have resulted identification of appropriate
cropping further enhanced the production. Under low producing situation, through the tonnage will be lower, but it was
more than compensated by high value pulses and oil seeds. At the farm house hold level, taking 0.4 ha as representative
holding the enterprise of mushroom and apiary is integrated in the system. This led to the development of modules for
high, medium and low production agro-ecosystems.
Thus, integrated farming system (IFS) consisting of food, fodder and fruits component has resulted in production
of 14.1 t, 11.0 t and 9.7 t/ha (wheat equivalent) for high, medium and low productivity conditions. These modules have
shown the capacity to meet the twin challenges of environment and food security in mountains, if concerted efforts are
made for their wide adoption in NW Himalaya.
267
Zero Tillage Technology in wheat for Conservation Agriculture in

Haryana
R.S. Tripathi1* and Ram Singh2

1
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal
2
CIMMYT (India), NASC Complex, New Delhi, India
(*E-mail: ram.singh@cgiar.org)
Adoption of zero tillage technology is probably one of the best ways to increase production of wheat crop along with
sustaining the productivity of natural resources like soil and water and also for reduction of per hectare cost of wheat
production. Farmers in the Indo-Gangetic Plains are rapidly adopting zero-tillage for sowing wheat after rice. Because
Session 1.3
of the benefits from zero tillage, i.e. cost effectiveness, significant saving in water, soil quality and inputs, this technology
is being adopted in more than one million ha area of the country. There is a net benefit of US$150 per ha due to
adoption of zero tillage technology through higher yields and less land preparation cost saving (Gupta, 2002, Gray,
1996 and Nagarajan, 2002). The study was conducted in Kurukshetra district of Haryana where the rice-wheat cropping
system was practiced extensively. Total sample size was consisted of forty farmers, falling in two villages namely
Gamoor Kheri and Adoni, who adopted zero tillage technology as well as the traditional or conventional method for
wheat production. Data were collected 2005-06 prices basis. To analyse the data net income over variable cost (i.e.
Cost A1) per hectare as response function was estimated by using ordinary least squares method. Functional forms
considered were linear, Cobb-Douglas and quadratic. The results of the study are quite convincing as far as economic
superiority of zero tillage is concerned and indicated economic superiority of this technology over conventional method
of wheat production. The cost of cultivation of wheat was reduced about 14% in zero tillage method as compared to
that of the conventional system whereas net return increased nearly 16%. Benefit-cost ratio showed that zero tillage
method was economically the most feasible and attractive option (2.36) as compared to conventional method of
farming (2.02). The regression analysis proved that because of the zero tillage technology adoption, the cost of field
preparation, cost of irrigation and cost of weedicides and plant protection chemicals were affecting net return of wheat
production. The results and discussion mentioned above highlight the fact that the zero tillage method of wheat cultivation
is the most economical and feasible option for farming community. The zero tillage is capable to improve the quality of
soil, increase farmer income substantially, increase per unit area farmer’s profitability, improve livelihood of the rural
people and eventually reduce poverty. Thus, the positive impacts of zero tillage technology adoption are manifold. The
changes in farm production methods from conventional to zero tillage systems have reversed the former trend of
declining crop productivity and led to an economically, ecologically and socially sustainable form of cropping in the
Indo-Gangetic Plains of the country. Since this technology is very conducive to reduce the cost of cultivation and
increase profitability, area under such technologies should be expanded widely particularly in the fertile irrigated areas
of the country like Indo-Gangetic plains where tremendous potential exists for these options. Government should
further facilitate promotion of zero tillage technology by encouraging private entrepreneurship to come forward for
production of specific implements required for this technology. Extension services should be strengthened to disseminate
the benefits of zero tillage among the farming community.
Role of Aquaculture and Animal Agriculture towards Conservation

Agriculture
Suresh S Honnappagol
Kamataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries Sciences University, Bidar, Kamataka, India
Conservation agriculture is a concept for resource saving agricultural crop production that strives to achieve
sustainable production along with conserving the environment by minimizing the adverse environmental impacts.
268
Conservation agriculture is based on enhancing natural biological processes above and below the ground and refers
to the system of raising crops without tilling the soil while retaining crop residues on the soil surface. In India,
Conservation agriculture is a new concept and its roots are only now beginning to find ground. In India, efforts to
adopt and promote resource conservation technologies have been underway for nearly a decade, but it is only in the
past 4-5 years that technologies are finding acceptance by the farmers. Similarly, at present Green fodder is the
crux of the problem of livestock production in India. Throughout the country the area under fodder cultivation is
decreased to less than 4% of the total cropped area. Further, India is blessed with inland water resources that
includes 191,024 km of rivers and canals; 2.05 million ha of reservoirs; 2.254 million ha of ponds and tanks and 1.24
million ha brackish waters. Hence, for the mutual benefit of conservation agriculture, livestock and aqua farming,
livestock farming and aquaponics can be fully integrated into conservation agriculture where recycling of nutrients
is exploited. The farmer can introduce forage crops into the crop rotation, thus broadening it and reducing pest
problems. Forage crops can often be used as fodder for livestock and soil cover for - conservation agriculture.
Session 1.3
Aquaponics is the production of plant crops utilizing the waste water and organic matter derived from the production
of aquatic animals. The process makes use of waste products from growing fish as a natural nutrient source for
plants. Thus integration of livestock farming and aquaponics with conservation agriculture not only leads to sustainable
livestock and fish farming and reduces both water and soil pollution but also reduces the environmental problems
caused by concentrated, intensive livestock production.
Studies on Enhancing Water Productivity of Farming System

Components on Saline Vertisols of Bara Tract of Gujarat, India
G. Gururaja Rao, Anil R. Chinchmalatpure, M.K. Khandelwal and Gurbachan Singh1

Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Bharuch, 392 012, Gujarat, India
1
The Bara Tract comprising Amod, Vagra and Jambusar tehsils of Bharuch district of Gujarat state is characterised by
various soil and groundwater related constraints, poor outfall and outflow conditions. The topography is nearly flat with
slope gradient of 1 : 2800 – 1 : 4500 or more. Soils of the region have sub-surface salinity, sodicity and accumulation
of calcium carbonate. The ground water is highly saline in about 90% of the area. Farmers of this region are resource-
poor and find it hard to meet their livelihood with low and insecure farm income. Thus, evolving appropriate technological
interventions with special emphasis on enhancing the water productivity of crops which would provide a basis for
staggered income to the farmers throughout the year, have immense importance. Keeping this in view, a study was
taken at the Research Farm of CSSRI Regional Research Station at Samni village (Amod taluka) to evolve strategies
to improve whole farm productivity through integration of mutually beneficial productive elements/ subsystems comprising
fruit trees/MPTS/vegetables/seed spices and aquaculture.
The components of the system (1.12 ha) comprise a farm pond (2000 m2), short duration fruit (banana, papaya)
and vegetable crops (Lady’s finger, cabbage, tomato, bottle gourd) on the dykes of the pond (900 m2), horticulture
composing fruit species like Syzygium, pomegranate and Aonla (4000 m2), seed spices like dill and coriander (800
m2), biomass species like Eucalyptus and Pongamia (3500 m2) and with on-farm compost pit. Rain water was harvested
in the pond and used during kharif season and tube well water in conjunction with pond water during rabi season.
Crop-wise water input was recorded. Apart from the growth data, the produce of banana, papaya, vegetables and seed
spices was estimated and water productivity (kg m-3) worked out. Data indicated that papaya (3.62), dill (1.02) and
coriander (0.95) had higher water productivity than banana (0.93). The B:C ratio of papaya, dill and coriander was
2.39. 2.48 and 3.63, respectively which was higher than banana (2.15). Vegetables, brinjal, tomato and gourds had
water productivity in the range of 2.12 to 2.67, with B/C ranging from 3.58 to 3.71. The studies thus indicate that the low
water requiring crops like papaya, dill and coriander along with vegetables are suitable for the saline Vertisols of Bara
tract because of their higher water productivity and B:C ratio.
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Session 1.4: Irrigated Systems
Evaluation of Drip System and Mulch in Bottle

Guard (Lagenaria Siceraria)
A.M. Patel*, R.S. Patel, J.K. Patel and R.K. Bhatt

Centre for Watershed Management, Participatory Research and Rural Engineering, Sardarkrushinagar
Field experiments were carried out during 2004-2005 to 2006-2007 at the Centre for Watershed Management,
Participatory Research and Rural Engineering, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar,
Gujarat to evaluate the feasibility of drip and mulch, and their economical viability in bottle guard during summer
season. The experiments was conducted in FRBD with four irrigation levels (0.4, 0.6, 0.8 PEF and surface irrigation of
Session 1.4
50 mm depth at 1.0 IW:CPE) with no mulch, black plastic mulch (25µm) and organic mulch (castor shell @ 5t ha-1).
Significantly higher fruit yield of bottle guard was observed under drip over surface irrigation and was higher to the tune
of 11, 39 and 15% under I, II and III, respectively. The maximum CBR was observed under 0.8 PEF drip system. The
mulch study indicated that mulching the crop either by black mulch or castor shell was found beneficial and produced
significantly higher yield over no mulch but soil covered with organic mulch produced significantly higher fruit yield as
individual years as well as pooled results with higher CBR value (1:3.01) but it was at par with plastic mulch.
Irrigation, Fertigation and Mulching Study in

Chilli (Capsicum Annum)
A.M. Patel, R.S. Patel, J.K. Patel and R.K. Bhatt

Centre for Watershed Management, Participatory Research and Rural Engineering, Sardarkrushinagar
Field experiments were carried out during years 2003-2004 to 2005-2006 (three years) at the Centre for Watershed
Management, Participatory Research and Rural Engineering, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University,
Sardarkrushinagar (Gujarat) to study the effect of different levels of irrigation, nitrogen and mulch on growth and yield
of chilli in respect to their economical viability under split plot design with four levels of irrigation (0.6, 0.8, 1.0 PEF and
surface irrigation at 1.0 IW:CPE of 50 mm depth), two levels of nitrogen (75% RDN and 100% RDN) with two levels of
mulch [black plastic (25µm) and no mulch]. Twenty per cent N and full dose of P2O5 were applied as basal and
remaining was applied as fertigation. Application of irrigation water through drip at 1.0 PEF (I3) produced significantly
the highest fruit yield during individual years as well as in pooled, but it was found at par with irrigation applied at 0.8
PEF. On an average drip system produce (I1, I2 and I3) 31, 42 and 50% higher fruit yield over surface irrigation. Fruit
yield of chilli was influenced significantly due to different levels of nitrogen when applied as fertigation. Application of
N through drip as 100% N of RDN produced significantly more fruit yield by recording 1:1.91 CBR, while the increment
in yield was to the tune of 17.61 % higher over 75 % N of RDN. Crop mulched with black plastic (25µm) produced
significantly higher fruit yields over no mulch and it was found 10% higher but looking to the cost it was not found
economically viable. The interaction effect was found non-significant on pooled basis.
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Gaps in Watershed Programme Empowering Tribal Women – A case

study of Chhattisgarh
Ayan Hazra
National Livelihood Resource Institute (KRIBHCO), Cuttack, Orissa, India
The study was evaluated the impact of watershed programme empowering tribal women conducted in Raipur district
of Chhattisgarh. The watershed programme has been marked by a gradual shift from the intervention-based method to
an approach promising tribal women’s involvement in her own development by empowering them, being a party in
decision making process. Tribal populations constitute 31.8% in Chhattisgarh state and 12.1% in the Raipur district of
Chhattisgarh. Besides poverty, low literacy rate and consequent poor awareness about watershed programme are the
root cause of hindrance in empowering tribal women. The impact assessment of watershed programme was carried
out by comparing the development indicators empowering tribal women prior and after the project period. The study
area witnessed the implementation of watershed programme (NWDPRA) but it failed to create the expected improvement
in socio economic conditions and empowerment of tribal women beneficiaries. The level of improvement was
unsatisfactory, though it created awareness, to certain degree, among tribal women, being more receptive to such
Session 1.4
programme. A series of training in various fields however, contributed to some extent knowledge empowerment to
tribal women. The work participation and association of tribal women in institution capacity building was not impressive.
It was assessed under 7 different activities. However, marginal improvement (+3.7% to +16.3%) was observed, the
highest improvement was in self-help groups (+16.3%), while small savings group (+10.3%) recorded marginal
improvement. Widow marriage and gender inequality were never a serious constraint in the way of empowerment of
tribal women. Majority of the respondents (70%) in the study area opinioned the severity of project related constraints
at low level, 20.3% respondents found this constraint at medium level and only few (9.7%) expressed it at high level.
The communication gap between the project officials and the respondents was experienced since the inception of the
project. On an average, one-third of the respondents felt, it was not a serious constraint, whole more than one third
(37.7%) felt it was of medium level while rest less than one-third (29.3%) expressed it as serious constraint. The
difficulty of language was also a big hurdle on the way of making good communication between project officials and
respondents. A good proportion of the respondents (30.3%) questioned the utility of various technologies-implemented
by watershed programme. Respondents still believed that the indigenous technical knowledge is the best option for
their economic upliftment. They restrained from the complexities of the technology.
Absence of well thought of and amicably formulated strategy to implement watershed programme was a cause of
concern, responsible for low adoption of improved technology. A large gap existed in convincing the respondents the
advantages of such technology due to poor strength of project officials and poor linkages with the respondents. Absence
of timely advice (81% cases) was also found to be big gap; contributing low level of confidence generation in the
respondents. Sometimes the project implementation committee was not able to deliver goods; as a result decisions
regarding watershed works remained pending for a long time leading to believe that the committee becomes defunct.
About one third respondent believed it so. Women’s participation can therefore take place only in enabling environment
that would have to be created through proactive policy would mean ensuring their involvement in watershed committees,
not just as members but as office bearers. Capacity building will enable to fulfill their roles and prepare them to take
greater responsibilities. The project related constraints include deficiency in administration and implementation of the
project, lack of interest of the project officials, low participation of the respondents and lack of coordination among
members of different self-help groups and user’s group.
271
Enhancing Productivity of Coastal Land through Land Shaping and

Rainwater Harvesting
B.K. Bandyopadhyay, D. Burman, Subhasis Mandal and S.K. Sarangi

Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Canning Town, 743 329, South 24
Parganas, West Bengal, India
The coastal regions of India are traditionally disadvantaged and backward. High unemployment and extremely poor
food and livelihood security are the characteristic feature of the rural life in the coastal regions of India. The agricultural
production in coastal areas is hindered by cluster of problems, which includes degraded soil and water quality due to
salinity, lack of irrigation water in dry months and severe drainage congestion in monsoon season, besides climatic
adversities. Several coastal regions of India receive high monsoon rains where cropping is predominantly mono-
cropped with traditional rice varieties in monsoon (kharif). Due to heavy concentrated rainfall in a short span of a few
monsoon months (June-September), flat topography, low infiltration rate and presence of ground water at the surface.
These areas suffer from severe drainage congestion in monsoon when most of the cultivated lands are deeply
submerged. This limits the cultivation of HYVs of rice in the area. The cultivation of low yielding tall indica rice varieties
Session 1.4
is the only alternative left with the farmers for monsoon season. Due to presence of brackish water table at shallow
depth near soil surface there is an increase in soil and water salinity in dry months. The land remains almost fallow
throughout the year after monsoon, leading to high poverty and unemployment among the rural people. In spite of the
vast resource potentials in the coastal region, the agricultural productivity of coastal lands is lagging behind.
The problems of degraded land (salinity and drainage congestion) and water quality (salinity) of the coastal region
can be considerably minimized and the agricultural productivity can be substantially improved through adoption of
appropriate management strategies. Majority of the coastal areas have great potentiality for rainwater harvesting
during monsoon, which may be utilized in dry periods. It is possible to make simple land shaping for cultivation of
different crops on degraded land having the problems of soil and groundwater salinity, drainage congestion, lack of
irrigation water, etc. The channels/ farm ponds excavated for shaping the land may be used for various purposes like,
storing of excess rainwater, drainage channels, etc. The rainwater stored in channels/ farm ponds may be used for
irrigation during the dry months as well as for fish cultivation throughout the year along with paddy-cum-fish cultivation
(kharif) for higher productivity, water use efficiency and income. Raised lands created with the excavated soils from
dug out channels/ farm ponds will have less waterlogging problem in kharif and may be used for the cultivation of
vegetables or HYVs of paddy in kharif. The farm land with land shaping will have lesser problems of soil and groundwater
salinity in dry months due to stored rain water in channels, and raising of land. The presence of channels in field will
minimize damages of crops following rains in dry months due to improved drainage condition. Suitable crops with
characteristics like less water requirement, tolerant to salinity/ drainage congestion, shorter durations, etc. may be
selected depending upon specific land situations. Crop diversification with inclusion of pulses, oilseeds, vegetables,
spices, flowers, fruits, etc. is needed for enhancing income and livelihood security of the farmers. Economic evaluation
of land shaping technologies indicated that the investments made on land shaping are economically viable.
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Influence of Irrigation and Crop Management Measures on the Trends of

Water Production Function and Crop Yield
Kuldeep B. Patel1*, Biharilal R. Patel2 and Madhusudan M. Parikh3

1
Water Resources Engineering & Management Institute, The M.S. University of Baroda, SAMIALA, 391 410
2
Department of Soil and water Engineering, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari, 396 450, Gujarat, India
(*Email:kbp_9999@yahoo.co.in )
A total of 117 Irrigation studies were conducted at multi-locations for 25 major crops at various research stations of
Gujarat Agricultural University with different methods of irrigation in the last 15 years, of which 49 studies were with
surface, 34 with drip and 31 with sprinkler irrigation methods. All the studies were monitored under a single technical
program for the sake of uniformity. Water Production Functions (WPF) were developed for all the studies by fitting the
data of total water applied and corresponding yields obtained into different established models and the best fit equation
based on the maximum correlation coefficient value ‘r2’ and minimum standard error value ‘SE’ was adjudged as the
WPF for the particular crop. In most of the cases, studies exhibited a different water production (WPF) trend. Even with
the same method of irrigation, different WPFs were observed. This is the indication of study-wise variation in terms of
Session 1.4
irrigation and crop management measures taken which ultimately affected the WPF trend as well as the crop yield.
Besides, an effort has been made in this paper to present the possible faulty measures with respect to irrigation and
crop management and analyze the effect of faulty measures on WPF trends and poor crop performance.
Enhancing Drip Adoption by Designing Low Cost as Well as Multi-Crop

Drip Irrigation Systems
Biharilal R. Patel1*, Kuldeep B. Patel2, Madhusudan M. Parikh1

1
Department of Soil and Water Engineering, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari, 396 450, Gujarat, India
2
Water Resources Engineering and Management Institute, The M.S.University of Baroda, Samiala, 391 410
(*E-mail: biharilal_pht@yahoo.co.in)
Drip is considered as the most efficient irrigation method amongst all. However, its high initial cost, and requirement of
a separate drip set for each crop keeps the small and marginal farmers away from this system. As a result, the
adoption rate of this system is still very low in the country. Various feedback survey reports received from the farmers
from time to time revealed that barring its high initial investment, people like the drip irrigation method very much for its
high degree of water saving, substantial weed control, and increasing the crop yield. Keeping this in view, efforts were
initiated at Navsari Agricultural University to enhance the adoption rate by providing the low cost drip system designs
for small and marginal farmers particularly. Besides, efforts were also made to provide multi-crop drip designs which
can be used for multi crops and also round the year in order to avoid buying of separate sets for each crop. These
designs were then verified for their suitability to the crops by conducting separate field studies. The main emphasis
was given to reduce the requirement of drippers as dripper constitutes the major cost of a drip irrigation system which
is about 35- 40% of the total cost. Various advanced designs developed so far in the past 10 years applying new
approaches and thoughts for cost reduction of the system with different crops have been presented in this paper. In
addition to this, multi crop drip sets designed for some of the major crops have also been presented.
273
The Role of Social Capital in the Adoption and the Performance of

Conservation Agriculture: The Practice of Likoti in Lesotho
Laura Silici
Institutions, Environment and Policies for Economic Development, Department of Economics,
University of Roma Tre, Rome, Italy
The objective of this paper is to assess how social capital (mainly intended as trust, reciprocity and community linkages)
influences the effective and sustainable adoption of conservation agriculture (CA) as a way to fight rural poverty and
food insecurity. The work draws on the author’s Ph.D. dissertation and on a wide dataset built under a baseline survey
implemented in Lesotho jointly by FAO, the University of Roma Tre (Rome, Italy), the Copenhagen University,
(Frederiksberg, Denmark), and the National University of Lesotho (Roma, Lesotho). The basin planting system of likoti
(a Sesotho name for “holes”) was introduced in 2000 by church organisations in Qacha’s Nek and Botha-Bothe districts
and is currently the most common CA technique practiced in the country. As demonstrated by the assessment of the
economic costs and benefits, likoti farmers obtain higher yields using fewer inputs and resources. However, since in
Lesotho agriculture is mainly subsistence oriented, the accessibility to likoti by all social categories, rather than the
Session 1.4
profitability (though recognizing its importance), is one of the most important benefit associated with its adoption. In
fact CA revealed to be a critical means to cope with scarcity of resources for those farmers who don’t own livestock
and don’t have enough money to hire a tractor or the possibility to sharecrop. Also the analysis of the food security
status suggests that CA farmers – albeit cultivating average smaller fields and employing fewer resources – rely on
their own production more than conventional farmers do.
According to a soil fertility index (SFI) based on the results of soil tests, CA fields show a better soil structure and
a higher fertility compared to conventional fields. Nonetheless, the potentials of CA in combating land degradation are
still underexploited, due to the low diffusion rate of soil cover and mulching techniques. A major constraint to the proper
adoption of these practices is customary rules that allow free access of people and animals into harvested fields. Even
when a community establishes rules on livestock grazing, these are often broken. These cultural and institutional
issues constitute social capital aspects that might lead likoti farmers to incur relational problems with the rest of the
community, hampering the diffusion of CA. On the other hand, several social capital dimensions revealed to be
significantly relevant to the adoption and the diffusion of CA. Participation into networks and social occasions is a
determinant of the technology diffusion, especially in the lowlands, where “bonding” ties have been substituted by
looser relationships. Community cohesion and trust characterize earlier CA adopters and more knowledgeable CA
farmers in the mountains. These results have been confirmed by studying the dependency relationships among the
relevant variables through Bayesian Networks. As it has been widely documented in the literature, participation at
community level of all members, and especially of the local leadership, allows a better understanding and a wider
acceptance of new ideas and practices. A “collective perception” of CA practices may support its adoption also because
it would facilitate the internalization of social benefits, such as the well-known positive environmental impacts. The
findings on the role of social capital in the (non) adoption of CA confirm the relevance of promoting participation. At the
same time, they highlight the importance of assessing carefully the cultural and the institutional context and putting it
into relation with social as well as technical issues. This would allow finding out the most appropriate forms of interacting
with all the community members in order to promote the equitable, socially sustainable adoption of conservation
agriculture.
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Advantages of Conservation Tillage for Irrigated Farming on the

Degraded Soils of Khorezm, Uzbekistan (Aral Sea Basin)
M. Tursunov1*, I. Rudenko2, J. Lamers2, C. Martius3 and A. Pulatov4

1
Center for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn, Walter-Flex-Str. 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany
2
ZEF/UNESCO Khorezm project, Uzbekistan
3
CGIAR Program for Central Asia and the Caucasus (CAC)
4
EcoGIS Center, Tashkent Institute of Irrigation and Melioration, Uzbekistan
(*E-mail: mehriddin@gmail.com)
It is well known that intensive tillage of soil leads to its fast degradation. Therefore, scientists have been turning their
attention to a more sustainable development of agriculture by the use of farming practices which could reduce field
operations. Several studies on this matter have been conducted in 2004-2006 in Khorezm, Aral Sea Basin, where soils
are mostly degraded. Production of cotton and winter wheat on loamy soil was studied under four tillage systems, with
and without crop residue: conventional, intermediate (between permanent beds and conventional), permanent bed,
and no tillage. Development and yields of crops were analyzed during three vegetation seasons with cotton-winter
Session 1.4
wheat-cotton crop rotation. In the early vegetative phase the effect of tillage systems on cotton was significant (in 2004
P<0.02 and P<0.001 in 2006). Tillage practices showed faster growth, while no till practices were more progressive at
the flowering phase. Although the yield increase was more prominent under conventional tillage in the second cotton
season, the yield gap between conventional tillage and conservation tillage systems was not significant (P<0.28).
Among farming practices on winter wheat, emergence (P<0.05) and further development (P<0.03), yield (P<0.02)
were higher under permanent beds and intermediate tillage. Simultaneously, the effect of crop residues on cotton and
winter wheat production was investigated. The height of cotton plants was lower under crop residues; the height of
winter wheat plants was on average 4% higher versus no residue plots. Cotton yield was significantly higher in the third
year after winter wheat on the residues retained plots (2844 vs. 3523 kg ha-1). Winter wheat yield was not affected by
crop residues. Conservation tillage systems, such as zero and minimum tillage under irrigated conditions showed that
appropriate crop residue management and crop rotation could improve land productivity and crop production. Financial
evaluation showed that cumulative gross margin was higher in all conservation tillage practices. Highest values of
gross margins were observed under intermediate tillage with residues (US$ 1074 ha-1) and zero tillage without crop
residues (US$ 980 ha-1), followed by permanent beds without crop residues (US$ 965 ha-1). Dominance analyses
revealed clear advantages of the conservation tillage systems, as compared with conventional tillage because of lower
total variable costs and higher gross margins. The general conclusion stated that through application of conservation
tillage systems on the degraded soils, sustainable crop production could be obtained, and it in turn, would improve
farmers’ income.
Influence of Tillage and Residual Organic Manures/ Chemical

Amendment on Organic Matter and Yield of Wheat under Sodic
Water Irrigation
N.P.S. Yaduvanshi and D.R. Sharma

Division of Soil and Crop Management, Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, 132 001, Haryana, India
The effect of no-tillage (NT) and conventional tillage (CT) practices applied either with NP fertilizer alone or in combination
with gypsum or farm yard manure (FYM) or sulphitation pressmud (SPM) were evaluated on soil organic carbon
(SOC), soil pH, sodium absorption ratio (SAR), infiltration rate, water saving and grain yield of wheat grown with sodic
water in rice (Oryza sativa)–wheat (Triticum aestivum) rotation at Central Soil Salinity Research Institute Research
Farm, Kaithal, India. In NT treatment the residual of previous rice (15 cm height) crop was left on the surface whereas
275
in CT treatment no crop residue was involved. NT practice increased SOC and infiltration rate in all treatments. The
mean organic carbon in 0-15 cm soil layer at the end of study was 3.17 g kg -1 in NT against 2.84 g kg-1 in CT treatment.
SOC improvement in NT was reflected in grain yield increment. Soil pH was lower in NT than CT. In general, wheat
yield increased with the increase in N and P fertilizer doses. The grain yield in the NT remained below the CT treatment
during the first year but was greater than CT during the next two years. However, the average yields data for the 3
years was more or less similar to CT treatment. In NT, 324.4 mm irrigation water was used each year as compared to
396.6 mm in CT practice. No-tillage thus saved 72.2 mm of irrigation water. The mean N, P, K and Zn uptake was
slightly greater in the NT treatment but the difference was non-significant. Results suggest that use of 120 and 26 kg
ha-1 N and P fertilizers application, respectively with residual of FYM or SPM or gypsum under NT treatment for
improving SOC and sustain wheat production under sodic water irrigation conditions.
Irrigation Methods to Conserve Irrigation Water in Cotton –Maize and

Sunflower-Maize Cropping System
Session 1.4
P. Devasenapathy and P.M. Shanmugam

Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, 641003, Tamil Nadu, India
Conservation agriculture has the potential to emerge as an effective strategy to the increasing concerns of serious and
wide spread natural recourses degradation, particularly water. The key challenges today are to adopt focused strategies
that will address the twin concerns of maintaining and enhancing the water use efficiency and higher or increased
productivity. By adopting various irrigation methods instead of conventional methods like flooding or entire field irrigation
may conserve the water at the same time not compromising the productivity. A field experiment was conducted at
irrigated uplands of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore during 2003-07 to study the impact of different
methods of irrigation on productivity and water use efficiency in cotton–maize and sunflower–maize cropping systems.
The various irrigation methods were alternate furrow irrigation, pair furrow irrigation, skip furrow irrigation and all furrow
irrigation (Control). The experiment was conducted in randomized block design and replicated five times. Results
showed that among the irrigation treatments, alternate furrow irrigation recorded higher yield than other irrigation
methods and all furrow irrigation recorded 2% lesser yield than all furrow irrigation. In cotton–maize and sunflower–
maize cropping systems, the alternate furrow irrigation saved water up to 18.7% compared with all furrow irrigation.
Regarding water use efficiency, the alternate furrow irrigation methods recorded higher water use efficiency in both
cotton–maize (3.88 kg ha-1 mm-1) and sunflower–maize (3.68 kg ha-1 mm-1) systems with higher B:C ratio of 1.76.
Thus, under lower water availability situations, to economize the water consumption alternate furrow irrigation can be
recommended instead of all furrow irrigation for cotton – maize and sunflower –maize cropping systems.
Constraints in Adoption of Drip Irrigation in Bikaner District of Rajasthan
Rajesh Sharma1 and Madhu Sharma2

Institute of Agri-Business Management, Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bichwal, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India
Use of drip irrigation in India can solve problem of water by making better use of available water, use of poor quality
water and soil and fertility saving etc. The increase in yield ranges from 20-100% and water saving from 40-70%. Still
there is about 1% of irrigated area is under drip as against 74% in Israel. India needs food to feed more than one billion
people with increasing needs and depleting resources in future. In India, use of drip irrigation started in 1970s without
any government support or subsidy but later on different state governments are providing high amount of subsidy on
drip irrigation. In Rajasthan, over the last five years i.e. from 2002-03 to 2007-08, the area under drip irrigation increased
276
from 441 to 16306 ha. Bikaner district had 283 ha area under drip irrigation in the year 2007-08. Rajasthan Government
provides subsidy of 70% on drip sets.
The present study was undertaken to study the constraints in adoption of drip irrigation in Bikaner district as it has
not shown promising growth in the adoption as compared to other districts. Two tehsils of Bikaner district viz., Bikaner
and Nokha were selected randomly. From a list of all the farmers using drip irrigation since at least last three years, 30
farmers were selected randomly. Measurement of constraints in the adoption of drip irrigation system was undertaken
for technical, infrastructural, operational, financial and socio-economic constraints. The constraints perceived by the
farmers were taken under high, medium and low extent and then scores were given to high (3), medium (2) and low (1)
for every aspect of major categories of constraints. Then an average overall score was calculated for all the major
group of constraints. The constraints in each category were given score of high and medium extent. The maximum
score was given to the problems related to infrastructural constraints with a score of 2.65. Inadequate network of
suppliers and unavailability of spare parts at proper time in the rural area were the major constraints faced by farmers
under this category. Financial constraints scored 2.22 points in which high initial installation cost and high cost of spare
parts were the major problems. It was followed by the technical constraints with the overall score of 2.10 in which
requirement of clean water for drip was the major problem followed by lack of technical know-how about the use of drip
irrigation system, clogging and blockage of pipes and requirement of regular maintenance were other major constraints.
Major operational constraints were damage of micro-tubes by squirrels and rats, less availability of electricity and low
Session 1.4
pressure discharge of underground water. Major socio-economic constraints were less profitability felt due to sufficient
water availability and increase in unemployment. As Bikaner is very important district, having both types of sources of
irrigation facilities i.e. canal water and ground water, the proper use of water can give great benefits to farmers.
Government should help the farmers in making better and easy use of drip irrigation in the area.
Effect of Crop Geometry and Fertilizer Levels in Medicinal Plant Coleus

(Coleus forskohlii) under Surface Irrigation Method
R.B. Singandhupe*, S.K. Chaudhari, P.S.B. Anand, A.K. Thakur, B.K. James and M.S. Behra
(*Email: rbsingandhupe@hotmail.com; rbs_wtcer@yahoo.com)
Coleus plant (Coleus forskohlii Briq.), belonging to Laminaceae family, is very important in terms of high value ingredient
forskolin present in plant root and stem to the extent of 0.07% to 0.58% of dry matter. This ingredient has medicinal
value to control heart failure, glaucoma and bronchial asthma. Considering the importance in pharmaceutical industries,
this crop was selected to cultivate in upland situation. Application of organic fertilizer to this crop is highly beneficial
with respect to forskolin; however low fertility status of upland soil inhibits both root and shoot development and hence,
this crop requires inorganic fertilizer to enhance vegetative growth and increase total biomass. Hence experiments
were carried out at Research farm of Water Technology Center for Eastern Region Bhubaneswar, Orissa (200 30’N and
87048’E) during 2005-06 and 2006-07 with different crop geometry and fertilizer levels in furrow irrigation to assess
nutrient and fertilizer requirement of coleus plant. Four levels of organic fertilizer was applied as basal dose as per
amount calculated for each treatment and inorganic fertilizer (40:80:40 N:P:K) was applied in different times. The
nitrogen was applied at 15 days interval and phosphorus and potassium was applied as basal dose only. The growth
parameters were recorded periodically after planting. For total biomass production of plant, treatment-wise root, leaf
and stem were collected and monitored total biomass production.
The overall development of root was maximum in widely spaced crop. On an average, total biomass production
was maximum with 8.31 t ha-1 in 75cm x 45cm crop geometry where individual plant was fully exposed to natural
environment and harnessed good amount of natural resources for its growth. The distribution of biomass was 16.1%,
45.6% and 38.3% in root, stem and leaf, respectively. In remaining crop geometry, the distribution of root, stem and
leaf biomass was 16, 45.6 and 38.6%, respectively out of 7.87 t ha-1 biomass produced in crop geometry of 60cm x
45cm. In very close growing spacing (45-45-45-90cm x 45 cm), total biomass production was only 3.06 t ha-1 with
distribution of 16.3, 45.2 and 38.5% in root, stem and leaf, respectively. In slightly wider row spacing (45-75cm x 45
277
cm), distribution of biomass production was 15.5, 45.6 and 38.9% in root, stem and leaf, respectively. Application of 15
t FYM ha-1 + common dose of inorganic fertilizer recorded the highest biomass production of 8.87 t ha -1. With decreasing
fertilizer application, particularly FYM, the reduction in total biomass was 20.8 and 39.2% in respective dose of fertilizer
than the highest amount of fertilizer dose adopted. But application of 10 t ha-1 FYM alone had 55.7% less biomass than
the highest amount of fertilizer applied to this crop. The distribution of biomass production in four different fertilizer
levels ranged from 13.7 to 21.0% in root, 44.3 to 46% in stem and 34.7 to 40.9 % in leaf. Reduction in N uptake in very
close crop geometry (45-45-45-90cm x 45 cm) was found to the extent of 61.4% followed by 29% in 45-75cm x 45cm
crop geometry; however in case of slightly wider row spaced crop geometry (60cm x 45 cm), N uptake was not
significantly affected and was observed at 2.6% less as compared to 75cm x 45cm crop geometry. Similar trend was
noticed in case of nitrogen uptake in root, stem and leaf. Total N uptake in highest amount of fertilizer applied was
71.26 kg ha-1 in which total N applied through inorganic and organic fertilizer were 40 and 30 kg N ha-1, respectively.
But with reduction in application of organic fertilizer with same amount of inorganic fertilizer, the declining in nitrogen
uptake was 24.04 and 45.2%, respectively. Extraction of N in roots, stem and leaf was found to be same pattern as it
was seen in different crop geometry followed in this crop. From these results it is concluded that in close growing crop,
all growth parameters are badly affected and plant can not utilize natural resources effectively for overall biomass
production. Use of 10 t ha-1 FYM and recommended dose inorganic fertilizer is highly beneficial. Adoption of wider
spacing (75cm x 45cm) with flat ridge and furrow method of cultivation is important to this crop. Drip irrigation followed
with wide row spacing may also be recommended.
Session 1.4
Reclamation and Management of Waste Lands in Chhattisgarh
R.K. Sahu1 and K.K. Sahu2

1
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and 2Deptt. of Land and Water Management, Indira Gandhi Krishi
Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
A production system can be considered sustainable in long run only if outputs produced or lost can be balanced with
inputs in to the system. Lack of sustainability in traditional low input systems mostly has roots in inadequate control
and/or supply of water for crop production. Rainwater management that improves local hydrology reduces soil erosion
and fertility loss from topsoil contributes to sustainability of production system. Watershed based experiments on
Entisols were conducted at Raipur, on community land since the year 2000. This wasteland was basically unutilized
due to severe limitations of soil depth, erosion and fertility. The 20 ha MW was selected for sustainable development
and management. As an initial step, the land was planted with various tree species such as Albizia procera, Emblica
officinalis, Gmelina arborea and Dalbergia sissoo in 7.60 ha. Part of plantations was intercropped with Vigna radiata,
Cenchrus ciliaris and Stylo scabra crop/grass respectively. Vegetables (bottle gourd, bitter gourd, cucumber etc) were
also intercropped in some area to boost the economy. A part of land was treated both by in-situ (staggered trenches,
crescent moon and saucer pits) and ex-situ (water harvesting ponds) measures. The detailed survey in respect to
topography, land use, soil characteristics and moisture conservation measures was made. MW was delineated according
to land use capability classification. The surface runoff and sediment concentration of rainstorms were measured
under different land capability classes. The harvested water was utilized for growing vegetables and plantation. Gravity
based low cost drip irrigation and pitcher irrigation were applied and tested in plantation and vegetables. Changes in
physico-chemical properties of soil were quantified. The water harvesting potential of the MW was found to be 68,598
m3 (27.7% of rainfall). The barren land (43% of MW) contributed lion share (46.4%) whereas plantations (46.5% MW)
produced lowest proportion (33%) of runoff. This signifies the role of plantations and conservation measures. The
staggered trenches were found effective in trapping sediments of runoff and supplementing moisture to young plantations
for longer period as compared to other conservation measures. The low cost locally fabricated micro drip irrigation and
pitcher irrigation saved a good amount of irrigation water over traditional basin irrigation. In vegetables grown as
intercrop in plantations. The saving of water in drip irrigation was 41-47% in plantations and 49.2-50.2% in vegetables.
Tree plantation in wastelands can be made economically attractive and socially acceptable by intercropping of legumes,
grasses, fodder and vegetables. In order to promote vegetables, micro-irrigation can best be used advantageously
over basin irrigation. The initial cost of investment can be recouped in one season. Moisture conservation measures
such as straw mulching were found useful.
278
Global Overview of Conservation Agriculture Adoption
Rolf Derpsch1 and Theodor Friedrich2

(Email: rolf.derpsch@tigo.com.py; 2Theodor.Friedrich@fao.org)e
1
No-tillage/Conservation Agriculture has developed to a technically viable, sustainable and economic alternative to
current crop production practices. While current crop production systems have resulted in soil degradation and in
extreme cases desertification, the adoption of the no-tillage technology has led to a reversion of this process. Soil
erosion has come to a halt, organic matter content, soil biological processes and soil fertility have been enhanced, soil
moisture has been better conserved and yields have increased with time. Data presented 10 years ago at the 10th
ISCO Conference in West Lafayette, Indiana, showed a worldwide adoption of the no-tillage technology of about 45 m
ha. Since then the system has continued to grow steadily especially in South America where some countries are using
the system on about 70% of the total cultivated area. Opposite to countries like the USA where often fields under no-
tillage are tilled every now and then, more than two thirds of no-tillage practiced in South America is permanently under
this system i.e. once started, the soil is never tilled again. In the last years a big expansion of the area under no-tillage
has been reported in Asia, especially in China and Kazakhstan each with more than 1 m ha. In Europe also, there is
Session 1.4
progress in the adoption. There are about 650.000 ha of no-tillage being practiced in Spain, about 200.000 ha in
France and about 200.000 ha in Finland. No-tillage based conservation agriculture system is also gaining attention in
Africa, especially in Southern and Eastern parts. In many countries the area is still low due to the high percentage of
small scale farmers, but the numbers are increasing steadily as well. Up to now no-tillage has expanded to more than
100 m ha worldwide, showing its adaptability to all kinds of climates, soils and cropping conditions. No-tillage is now
being practiced from the artic circle over the tropics to about 50º latitude South, from sea level to 3000 m altitude, from
extremely rainy areas with 2500 mm a year to extremely dry conditions with 250 mm a year. The wide recognition as a
truly sustainable farming system should ensure the growth of this technology to areas where adoption is still small as
soon as the barriers for its adoption have been overcome. The widespread adoption also shows that no-tillage can not
anymore be considered a temporary fashion, instead the system has established itself as a technology that can no
longer be ignored by politicians, scientists, universities, extension workers, farmers as well as machine manufacturers
and other agriculture related industries.
Economic Analysis of Conservation Tillage Technology for Sustainable

Agro - Ecosystems in Hill Farming System of Nepal
Romy Das and Siegfried Bauer

Project and Regional Planning, University of Giessen, Germany
Agricultural sustainability in many developing countries is under the major threat of soil resource degradation. The
problem is severe, particularly in mountainous countries. In Nepal, agriculture has expanded into marginal and sloppy
areas due to rapidly growing population, dwindling farm size and lack of non-farm income opportunities. Intensive
tillage of such lands erodes enormous amounts of fertile soil every year from the hilly region causing huge economic
losses. This has attracted the attention of the policy makers and academician alike to investigate new technological
intervention to ameliorate the problem. In this context, the present study performed an economic analysis of conservation
tillage system for rainfed maize cultivation in a typical hill farming system of Nepal. The study used bio physical model
SCUAF (Soil Change Under Agro forestry) to predict erosion induced crop yields under conservation tillage in comparison
to existing intensive systems over 30 years of time horizon. The SCUAF model results were incorporated into Cost
Benefit (CB) analysis to find the economic viability of both tillage systems at the farmers’ condition. Costs and returns
aspect of production was based on the farmers field survey conducted in the study area. The prediction of soil erosion
and crop yield by the SCAUF model was similar with the field observation showing robustness of model. The SCAUF
results showed that conservation tillage reduces current erosion rate under rainfed maize farming by 30 to 40%. As a
279
result, maize yield is maintained comparatively at higher level than intensive tillage system in long run. Similarly, CB
analysis revealed positive annual return from conservation tillage up to 18 years in contrast to 13 years by intensive
tillage system. This positive return is mainly due to onsite conservation of soil leading to higher crop yield. Although,
the return is positive only up to 18 years, positive Net Present Value (NPV) and higher Internal Rate of Return proved
that conservation tillage could be an economically promising technology for hilly farmers in Nepal. When increased
land value due to soil conservation and offsite benefit from downstream water protection were taken into consideration,
conservation tillage provided higher NPV and positive annual return over entire planning horizon. Therefore, it would
be justifiable to provide the farmers with the necessary support for wider adoption of this technology. The study has
high policy implication for resource-efficient land use systems essential to sustain agriculture production in hilly regions
of Nepal.
Validating Participatory Micro-Farming Situation Analysis: A Case of

Rainfed Rice Farming from North 24 Parganas District of
West Bengal, India
Session 1.4
Rupak Goswami1, Debabrata Basu2 and Mala Sankar Biswas1

1
Integrated Rural Development and Management Faculty Centre, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University,
Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama, Narendrapur, Kolkata-700103, West Bengal, India
2
Agricultural Extension, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Kalyani, Nadia, 741 235,West Bengal, India
(*Email: goswamirupak@rediffmail.com)
Recognition and identification of heterogeneity of farming situation is of high importance for offering suitable agricultural
technology and developing appropriate technology to the farming community. Recommendation domain identification,
an archetypal endeavour of Farming System Research and Development paradigm have been used for the similar
purpose, although mainstreaming of the approach has been far from reality in centralized agricultural research and
extension system. It is, hence, required to develop tools for recognizing and identifying homogeneous farming situations
which can be used at the community level and which is independent of the extension agency’s broad policy framework.
Two more desirable quality of such tool will be – it should be participatory in nature and time and cost saving. The
present study was conducted to test the validity of such a novel tool ‘participatory micro farming situation analysis’ in
the context of rainfed rice cultivation in a village of North 24 Parganas District of West Bengal, India. Farmers of the
village themselves classified their agricultural fields into distinct micro-farming situations through participatory mapping
exercise. A micro-farming situation may be thought as a sub-system of a relatively large farming situation, which is
relatively homogeneous in nature. For this classification, they considered their perceived attributes of farming situations
which included both agro-ecological and socio-economic factors. All the 104 farmers growing rainfed rice in this field
were then interviewed through semi-structured interview schedule for recording their rice cultivation practices. Most of
the rainfed rice cultivation practices like variety selection, time of sowing, transplanting, and harvesting, spacing, no of
tillage, plant protection practices, basal dose of phosphate, top dressing dose of nitrogen and potash and cost of
cultivation were found to be differing among these identified micro-farming situations which indicated the effectiveness
of farmers’ classification, although more empirical evidence is required to establish the validity of the tool. This tool can
help to offer appropriate technologies to the farmers for a technically precise and environmentally sound agriculture.
This may also trigger the Participatory Technology Development process effectively. Moreover, in the time when
decentralized planning at the sub-panchayat level is being experimented, such tool can be utilized for micro-level
agricultural planning.
280
Different Indices to Characterize Water Use Pattern of Irrigated

Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis) in a Hot Sub-Humid
Climate of India
S. Sarkar, M. Kundu, M.K. Biswas and M.K. Nanda

Department of Agricultural Meteorology and Physics, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Frequency and depth of irrigation plays crucial role in conservation of water resource, crop yield and use efficiency of
water. To test this hypothesis a field study was carried out in November to January of 2001-02 to 2003-04 on a sandy
loam (Aeric haplaquept) soil for quantifying the frequency and depth of irrigation on conservation of water, growth, curd
yield (CY) and water use pattern of cauliflower (Brassica oleracea L. var botrytis). Four irrigation frequencies depending
on the attainment of cumulative pan evaporation (CPE) values of: 25 (CPE25), 31(CPE31), 38 (CPE38) and 45 (CPE45)
mm were placed in main-plots, with three depth of irrigation (IW) of 35 (IW35), 30 (IW30) and 25 (IW25) mm in sub-plots.
Water use efficiency (WUE), net evapotranspiration efficiency (WUEET) and irrigation water use efficiency (WUEI)
Session 1.4
were computed. Marginal water use efficiency (MWUE) and elasticity of water productivity (EWP) were calculated
using the relationship between CY and seasonal actual evapotranspiration (SET). A continuous increasing trend in
growth parameters, yield and WUEI was recorded with the increase in SET from CPE45-IW25 to CPE31-IW30. However
with further increase in SET the same decreased. Up to CPE 25IW35 regime. Highest WUE and WUEET obtained under
CPE38-IW35 regime where SET value was 5% lower than the status of SET under CPE31-IW30. This study confirmed
that critical levels of SET needed to obtain maximum curd yield or WUE, could be obtained more precisely from the
knowledge of MWUE and EWP.
Adoption of Piped Networks and/or Micro Irrigation Systems in Canal

Command Areas
S.P. Jadhav
Jain Irrigation Systems Ltd, Jalgaon, Maharashtra, India.
Indian economy mainly depends on agriculture. Even today more than 65% of the total population stays in rural area
and associated with agriculture activities. They are directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture for their survival.
Irrigation is a vital input for increasing the productivity of crops. The irrigation potential utilized is less than the irrigation
potential created. Despite significant progress in the creation of irrigation potential, underutilization continues to persist.
In Irrigation, all the water taken from a water source do not reach the root zone of the plants. A part of the water is lost
during transportation through canals and fields. It is also observed that the productivity of crops under canal irrigated
areas is less than the productivity of crops under well irrigated areas. Reasons for lower productivity in case of canal
irrigated areas include lower reliability of water supply and lower adoption of piped networks and micro irrigation
systems in canal irrigated areas. Hence it becomes necessary to increase the area under irrigation and productivity of
crops in canal irrigated areas by adoption of piped networks and micro irrigation systems. Drip irrigation is a regulated
application of water through specially designed emitters or orifices situated close to the root zone of individual plants
whereas sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigated water in a manner similar to rainfall. It is observed that in
both these modern methods of irrigation, there is substantial saving of water and also increase in yield over the
conventional flow irrigation apart from other advantages. The On Demand Water Delivery System is the most advanced
system for large scale irrigation networks, which enables to control water delivery and to change users on the basis of
volumes of water actually withdrawn. It can be utilized both on delivery groups at plot scale and at sector level as well.
Its operation can be carried out entirely at the User Society or Association. Adoption of piped networks and /or micro
irrigation systems in canal command areas in the country would help us to increase the area under irrigation and result
281
in making the entire system economically viable. Such adoption would lead to huge water savings, increase in agricultural
productivity, considerable savings in inputs, social justice and many other advantages. This paper is an attempt to look
into all the above mentioned issues.
Intercropping of Rabi Crops with Bed - Planter in Autumn

Planted Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) for Higher Net
returns in Irrigated System
Roshan Lal1, Anil Khippal1, Samar Singh1, Mehar Chand1, Dharam Bir1 and J.K. Ladha2
1
CCS,Haryana Agricultural University, Regional Research Station, Karnal, 132001, Haryana, India
2
IRRI India/Rice-Wheat Consortium, NASC, Pusa, New Delhi, 110 012, India
Field experiments were conducted at the research farm of CCS, HAU, Regional Research Station, Karnal during 2005-
Session 1.4
06 and 2006-07 with the objectives to develop diversified cropping system which are efficient in production, productivity,
input use and income. The experiment was conducted in randomized block design with 4 replications on clay loam soil
having pH 8.2, organic C 0.36%, available P2O5 11.5 kg ha-1 and available K2O 118 kg ha-1. Different treatments viz.,
sole sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), sugarcane+wheat (Triticum aestivum), sugarcane+chickpea (Cicer arietinum),
sugarcane+lentil (Lens esculenta) and sugarcane+raya (Brassica juncea) were compared with the practices of growing
sole crops (wheat, chickpea and lentil) followed by summer planting of sugarcane and sole crop of raya followed by
spring planted sugarcane generally practiced by the farmers in the region on flat beds. The intercrops were sown with
bed-planter on beds apart 90 cm spacing (55 cm top of bed and 35 cm furrow width) in different spacing i.e. three rows
of wheat and two rows of chickpea, lentil and raya per bed. The two budded cane setts were planted in the furrows (90
cm apart) and covered with two to three inches of soil. The fertilizer requirements of both the crops were met separately
as per recommendation in intercropping system. Full doses of P2O5 and K2O were applied at the time of planting,
whereas, nitrogen was applied in split doses as per recommendations. Initially, the irrigations were applied as per
requirement of intercrops up to their harvesting. Later on, the irrigations were applied as per requirement of sugarcane
crop. Results clearly showed that cane yield in intercropping was at par with sole sugarcane, whereas, it was significantly
less in summer / spring planting of sugarcane. Intercrops’ yields were also the same in intercropping and farmers’
practice treatments. Additional net returns of US $ 1338, 978, 973 and 461 ha-1 were realized from sugarcane+wheat,
sugarcane+lentil, sugarcane+chickpea and sugarcane+raya, respectively over their respective farmers’ practice. Saving
of 30% water was observed in furrow irrigated raised bed system. In addition, in intercropping system the same
irrigations served the purpose of both the crops, hence, the total water requirement of both crops reduced further.
Saving of almost 60 lt diesel ha-1 was also realized in intercropping system due to concurrent planting over their
respective farmers’ practice.
282
Intercropping of Winter Vegetables on Beds in Autumn Planted

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) for Resource Conservation in
Irrigated System
Anil Khippal1, Samar Singh1, Roshan Lal1, Ran Singh1, R.K Gupta2 and J.K. Ladha3
1
CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Regional Research Station, Karnal, 132 001, Haryana, India
2
ICARDA, Syria
3
IRRI India/Rice-Wheat Consortium, NASC, Pusa, New Delhi, 110 012, India
Field experiments were conducted at research farm of CCS, HAU, Regional Research Station, Karnal during 2005-06
and 2006-07 with the objectives to develop new sugarcane based cropping system for higher productivity, input use
and income. The experiment was conducted in on clay loam soil having pH 8.2, organic C 0.36%, available P2O5 11.5
kg ha-1 and available K2O 118 kg ha-1. Different treatments viz. sole sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), sugarcane +
garlic (Allium sativum), sugarcane + onion (Allium cepa), sugarcane + potato (Solanum tuberosum), sugarcane + pea
(Pisum sativum), were compared with the farmer’s practice of sole crops of garlic and onion, followed by summer
Session 1.4
planting of sugarcane and sole crop of potato and pea followed by spring planting of sugarcane in randomized block
design with four replications. The intercrops were sown with bed- planter on beds apart 90 cm spacing (55 cm top of
bed and 35 cm furrow width) in different spacing i.e. four lines per bed of garlic and onion, two lines per bed of potato
and pea. The two budded cane setts were planted in the furrows (90 cm apart) and covered with two to three inches of
soil. The fertilizer requirements of both the crops were met separately as per recommendation in intercropping system.
Full doses of phosphorus and potash were applied at the time of planting, whereas, nitrogen was applied in split doses
as per recommendations. Initially, the irrigations were applied as per requirement of intercrops up to their harvesting.
Later on, the irrigations were applied as per requirement of sugarcane crop. The results clearly showed that the cane
yield in intercropping was at par with sole sugarcane, whereas, cane yield was significantly less in summer / spring
planting of sugarcane. Yields of vegetable crops were almost equal in intercropping than sole crop yield. Additional net
returns of US $ 1077, 1075, 728 and 366 ha-1 were obtained from sugarcane + garlic, sugarcane + onion, sugarcane
+ potato and sugarcane + pea, respectively over their respective farmers’ practice. Water saving of 30 % was observed
in furrow irrigated raised bed system compared to flat system. In addition, in intercropping system the same irrigations
served the purpose of both the crops, hence, total water requirement of both crops reduced further. Saving of almost
60 liters diesel per hectare was also realized in intercropping system due to concurrent planting over their respective
farmers’ practice.
Performance of Aqua-Ferti Sowing over Conventional

under Restricted Irrigation at Different Phytophases of Wheat
Subedar Singh*, R.A. Giri, S.S. Parihar and Man Singh

Water Technology Centre, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110 012, India
(*E mail: ss_wtc@iari.res.in)
In north-west plane semi-arid regions of India, low soil moisture in upper soil at sowing time in winter creates constraints
for germination of wheat seeds, apart from low nutrient availability during plant growth. Aqua-sowing is proved to have
synergistic effects in assuring better germination and efficient use of essential nutrients owing to readily availability of
the nutrients in the vicinity of rhizosphere. Later stages of wheat crop growth needs life saving irrigation due to moisture
stress to sustain the yield production. Keeping these aspects in view, field experiments on wheat were carried out at
the farm of Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi to study the performance of aqua-ferti-sowing with one
restricted irrigation at different phytophases of wheat crop on grain yield and moisture use against conventional method
of sowing in sandy-loam Typic Ustochrept during rabi season 2005 to 2008 having (0-15 cm) field capacity (16.74%),
283
permanent wilting point (7.65%) and bulk density 1.5 Mg m-3 in 0-15 cm soil layer. The available N, P2O5 and K2O were
estimated as 115.7, 20.6 and 178.8 kg ha-1. The treatments comprised 2 methods of sowing (aqua-ferti and conventional)
and 6 irrigations (one each at CRI, tillering, jointing, flowering, milk stages including no irrigation). The irrigation depth
was 6 cm measured with Parshal Flume was given as per the treatments. Wheat variety HD2865 was sown in first
fortnight of December and harvested on second fortnight of April. Water used in aqua-ferti-sowing was about 5790-
6000 lt ha-1 during 3 yrs experiments depending upon moisture content in upper soil surface (0-15cm). Results revealed
that under rainfed condition, sowing of wheat genotype 2865 by aqua-ferti gave significantly higher grain yield over
conventional method. One protective irrigation given either at tillering or jointing stage of wheat, proved more beneficial
in producing higher grain yield compared to late irrigation i.e. flowering/milk stages of the crop in all 3 consecutive
years. Aqua ferti-sowing enhanced the seasonal consumptive water use. Irrigation given at early stages of crop at CRI/
tillering/ jointing also consumed more water than later stages. Crop water use efficiency also increased over all with
aqua-ferti sowing and one restricted irrigation given at jointing followed by tillering/CRI stage and significantly decreased
in later stages of irrigation.
An Innovative Resource Conserving Technology for Sugarcane-Wheat

Session 1.4
Production System of Indo- Gangetic Plains
Ishwar Singh1, Arun K. Srivastava2, M.L. Jat1, R.L. Yadav2 and Raj K. Gupta3
1
2
Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow, 226 002, Uttar Pradesh, India
3
CAC-ICARDA, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
Sugarcane is one of the most important agro-industrial crops of Indo-Gangetic Plains. In western Indo-Gangetic Plains
sugarcane is usually planted after wheat harvest (April-may) leading to poor crop establishment due the summer heat
and limited period for tillering resulting in heavy reduction in cane yield as compared to autumn planted crop. Autumn
planted (October-November) cane with good crop management yields 20-25% higher as compared to summer planted
cane. However, farmers are reluctant to plant sugarcane in autumn as they do not sacrifice their wheat crop during this
season resulting in delayed planting of cane. To overcome this problem, we have developed a technology with
simultaneous planting of sugarcane with wheat. The trail was conducted during 2005-06 and 2006-07 cropping seasons
at IISR, Lucknow, India. The wheat (var. PBW 343) was planted by multi-crop raised bed planter during first fortnight of
November with sugarcane (var. CoSe 92423) sown (two budded setts) in the furrows opened by the bed planter. The
wheat crop was raised with recommended fertilizers and irrigation. The wheat grain yield was 5.8 t ha K 2O which was
equal to sole wheat crop. After harvest of wheat, the wheat stubbles were left in the field and sugarcane crop was
provided with 25% less than recommended N in two splits with reduced tillage (limited to cane area only). On the bed
after wheat harvest, moong bean was sown, which was later (at 60 DAP) knocked down with 2,4-D. This practice
prevented the weed growth and enriched soil with incorporation of biomass. At final harvest cane yield was 95 t ha -1,
which was 40% higher than the summer planted sole sugarcane crop. Further, the system profitability was higher by
35% over farmers’ practice. Therefore, this study suggests that sugarcane-wheat intercropping during autumn season
has a great potential to improve farmers’ profitability and has an advantage of improving resource use efficiency.
284
Soil Degradation due to Irrigation with Sodic Water and Conservation

Technology for Sustainable Crop Production in Arid Region of Rajasthan
Pramila Raina and D.C. Joshi

In arid region of India groundwater available for irrigation in more than 80% situation is sodic containing higher
concentration of carbonate and bicarbonate ions. Irrigation with such waters results in physical and chemical degradation
of soils. Severity of degradation increases with increasing concentration of residual sodium carbonate (RSC), finer soil
texture and decrease in mean annual rainfall. Studies carried out using satellite images and ground surveys in the
desert districts of Barmer, Pali, Jalore, Jodhpur and Sikar have revealed that sodic water irrigated soils have developed
high pH, unusual hardness, restricted water infiltration and decreased nutrient availability. Even after fallowing the
fields and frequent plowing farmers are able to harvest low crop yields and after 8-10 years of irrigation such land turn
unproductive and barren. This has adverse effects on socio-economic and environmental issues. To overcome this,
conservation technology has been developed through on farm research and farmers’ participatory approach. Results
for some of the sites in Narwa, Manai, Palri mangalia and Sathin villages of Jodhpur district are presented in this
Session 1.4
paper. The soils are coarse loamy, shallow to moderately deep alkaline (pH2 8.3-9.2) and slightly saline (EC2 0.4-1.1
dS m-1), low in available P, and Zn (0.6-8 mg kg-1). These soils are irrigated with water of high salinity (EC 9.9 dS m-1)
in village Palri Mangalia where as in other two villages the EC ranged from 1.7-3.5 ds m-1. The SAR of the waters
ranges from 19-22. At village Sathin the irrigation water is characterized by high EC (4.0- 8.6 dS m-1), RSC (8-12
mmoles l-1) and SAR (22-62). The technology included application of gypsum @ 100% (G2) and 50% (G1) soil gypsum
and the quantity to neutralize RSC in excess of 5 mmoles l-1 in the 1st year and application of zinc sulphate @ 25 kg ha-
1
in 2nd year. The crop was raised as per farmers practice. Yield markedly increased and there was decrease in soil pH
and ESP. The mean grain yield and B: C ratio revealed that benefit was more in G1 (7.6:1) than the G2 (4.8:1).
Residual effect of gypsum has been assesses using LEACHEM model.
Potential of Raised Bed-Furrow Irrigation System in Improving

Yield of Winter Wheat and Water Productivity in a Sierozem
Soil of Kazakhstan
A.A. Kalashnikov1*, Tulkun Yuldashev1, P.A. Kalashnikov1 and Raj K. Gupta2

1
Kazakh Research Institute of Water Management, Ministry of Agriculture, P.O. Box 480022, 12, Koygeldy
Street, Taraz, Kazakhstan
2
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas(ICARDA), Central Asia and Caucasus Regional
Office, B-6/106, Murtazaev Street, PO Box 4564, Tashkent 100000, Uzbekistan
(*E-mail: iwre@nursat.kz; niivh@tarazinfo.kz)
A field study was conducted in Baizaksky district of Zhambylsky province, Kazakhstan to evaluate the performance of
winter wheat planted on the raised-beds and in traditional strip border plots irrigated traditionally (flood irrigation) in
strip plots and furrow irrigated at constant and variable flow rates. The experimental plot under raised-bed furrow
irrigation was 12 ha (150m x 800m) and 41 ha under traditional planting. In order to improve water use efficiency in
raised bed planting system, irrigation was applied at constant flow rates (q=0.52 L s-1) and variable flow rates (0.75 L
s-1 and 0.40-0.50 L s-1). For traditional flood irrigation in strip plots, flow rate was (q= 5 L s-1). Raised bed planting at
Dostyk farm in Baizak district of Jambyl province in 2007-2008 improved the crop productivity by 0.53-0.69 t ha-1.
Compared with traditional strip plot irrigation, furrow irrigation reduced water requirements by 28-43%. Application of
irrigation water at variable flow rates in raised bed-furrow system further improved yield of winter wheat. Water productivity
(1180 m3 t-1) of winter wheat was highest with variable flow rate of water applied to raised bed furrow system. Runoff
under flood irrigation was 1150 m3 ha-1 (18% of total applied water) whereas in raised bed-furrow irrigation system, it
was just 5 to 6%.
285
Response of Wheat Varieties to Nutrient Levels and Tillage Options

under Assured Irrigation
R.K. Rai and Shiva Dhar

A field experiment was carried out during 2004-05 to 2006-07 on a sandy loam soil at Crop Research Farm, Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi to study the effect of three tillage options - minimum tillage, conventional
and FIRBS; three nutrient levels – 50 %, 75 % and 100 % recommended dose of NPK (120 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 60
kg K2O ha-1) with 5 t FYM ha-1 with each level on the performance of wheat varieties - HD 2643 and HD 2687. The
experiment was laid out in split plot design with three replications.
Under assured irrigation, FIRBS and conventional planting have shown their superiority over minimum tillage with
respect to grain yield and straw yields. Root parameters like root dry weight (g plant-1), root volume (cm3 plant-1), root
length (m plant-1) and root length density (cm cm-3) at 90 days after sowing were also found significantly superior in
FIRBS over other planting methods. Minimum tillage was found inferior in respect to yield and root parameters as
compared to FIRBS and conventional planting. Increase in yield was recorded with successive increase in levels of
Session 1.4
nutrients. Significantly higher grain yield, 1000 grain weight and grains/earhead were recorded from 100% RDF + 5t
FYM ha-1 as compared to 50% RDF + 5t FYM ha-1. However, there was no significant difference in these parameters
between 100 % RDF + 5t FYM ha-1 and 75 % RDF + 5t FYM ha-1; and 75 % RDF + 5 t FYM ha-1 and 50% RDF + 5 t
FYM ha-1. Straw yield, number of shoots m-2 and earhead m-2 increased significantly with successive increase in
nutrients from 50, 75 and 100% RDF + 5 t FYM ha-1 and highest with 100% RDF + 5 t FYM ha-1. Root length (m plant-
1
) and root length density (cm cm-3) were found higher when 75% of RDF applied with 5 t FYM ha-1, however, other root
parameters like root dry weight (g plant-1), root volume (cm3 plant-1) were found inferior under lower dose of nutrients.
HD 2643 gave significantly higher grain and straw yields as compared to HD 2687. Root dry weight, volume, length
and root length density at 90 DAS of HD 2643 were also found significantly superior than HD 2687.
Micro-sprinklers for Improving the Water Use Efficiency and to Reduce

the Labour Cost in Tobacco Seedling Production
B. Krishna Rao*, C. Chandrasekhararao, V. Krishnamurthy and P. Harishu Kumar

Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajahmundry-533105, India
(*Email: b_krishnarao@rediffmail.com)
Tobacco is an important commercial crop cultivated in about 0.4 Mha, earning about Rs. 2,000 crores as foreign
exchange and Rs. 10,000 crores as excise revenue, besides providing employment to 36 million people in the country.
There is a need to enhance productivity and reducing the cost of cultivation in order to make Indian tobacco more
remunerative and globally competitive by adopting advanced technologies for resource optimization. In tobacco cultivation
seedlings are raised in nursery beds (sandy loams or loamy sands) and transplanted in main field at the age of 60-65
days. Manually water is applied to tobacco nurseries 4-6 times in a day by rose-cans. Application of water to nurseries
through rose-cans is labor-intensive and involves high scale drudgery. Shortage of skilled labor, due to its seasonality
poses threat for raising seedlings of tobacco. Considering these, an experiment on micro-sprinklers for tobacco nurseries
was conducted during the years 2007 and 2008 to reduce the labor cost and improve water and fertilizer use efficiency,
thereby by reducing the cost of cultivation. In this experiment, observations on seedling growth, number of transplantable
seedlings, labor requirements and coverage/swath width of a given micro-sprinkler under different operating pressures
were recorded. Results showed that the optimum spacing between laterals is 2.5 -3.0 m and the spacing between
micro sprinklers is 2.5 – 3.0 m under the operating pressure 1.25 to 1.5 kg cm-2. The root volume, weight and height of
286
the seedlings were increased with micro-sprinklers compared to conventinal application. Micro-sprinklers provide
more number of roots, which is favorable for good establishment of seedlings there by reducing the number of gap fills
in the main field. Growth of seedlings under micro-sprinkler is rapid and these are ready for transplanting in 45 days as
compared to 60 days in conventinal water application. Applying water to seed-beds of tobacco through micro-sprinklers
reduces the labour cost by Rs. 1,45,000/ (90%) and saves irrigation water by 50%.
Performance Evaluation of Krishna Western Delta in

Andhra Pradesh, India
M. Venkataramana1*, T. V.Styanarayana2 and I. Muthuchamy3

1
S.V. Agricultural College, Tirupathi, 517 502, AndhraPradesh, India
2
College of Agricultural Engineering, Bapatla, 522 101, AndhraPradesh, India
3
Department of Soil and Water Conservation, AEC & RI, TNAU, Coimbatore, 641 003, Tamil Nadu, India
(*Email: ramana.v@lycos.com)
Session 1.4
Canal-irrigation efficiency in India (around 35 to 40%) is well below international standards. Reduction of water-use in
agriculture and a conscious pursuit of the objective of maximum value per unit of water (“more crops per drop”), has to
be the major elements in any future water planning. If there could be even a 10% saving in agricultural use, a substantial
quantity of water will be released for other uses. Comparative performance indicators make it possible to see how well
irrigated agriculture is performing at the system, basin or national scale. They can also see how well different areas of
the system are performing relative to each other to identify areas of inequity. With this background the research work
was carried out to see the performance of Krishna Western delta in Andhra Pradesh, India. Various performance
indicators like Intensity of irrigation, uniformity index, Overall consumed ratio (efficiency), equity, adequacy and
performance indicators related to productivity were analyzed.
Nizampatnam canal command needs more attention when compared to all other canal commands. The best
performing command is west side canal command. Performance assessment was carried out in the command. Nine
performance indicators were analyzed both at macro and micro level. Irrigation intensity is above 90% in all canal
commands. Irrigation efficiency is very low (42%). This is due to surplus availability of irrigation water. Adequacy is
142% indicating 42% excess water availability in the delta. Equity is not uniformly distributed in the delta implying poor
managerial conditions existing in delivery mechanism. Similarly uniformity is also poor indicating system lapses in
delivery system. Lowest crop water utilization index is observed (52%) indicating the necessity of crop scientists for
intervening to increase the yields in the command by advocating suitable crop management practices. Ranking has
been carried out for the existing canal commands. Ranking list has been prepared from better performing canal
commands to poor performing canal commands. West side canal command is performing better and Nizampatnam
canal command is performing worst. High water inflows and low command area are the reasons for this in Nizampatnam
canal command.
Adaptability of Brassica napus Genotype ONK1 at Different Sowing

Dates, Spacings and Fertility Levels under Rainfed Condition
K.S. Thakur and Anil Kumar

Shivalik Agricultural Research and Extension Centre, Kangra, 176 001, Himachal Pradesh, India
Maize- wheat is predominant cropping sequence of Himachal Pradesh. However in recent years due to late arrival of
rains in rabi season gobhi sarson (Brassica napus) has emerged as potential replacement for wheat due to wider
adaptability and suitability to exploit the residual from deeper layers. Depending upon the canopy structure and biomass
287
potential the spacing and nutrient requirement is worked out and there is a time limit up to which the sowing can be
under taken and after which there is drastic reduction in yield. An experiment was conducted to study the effect of
sowing date and spacing at fertility requirement on performance of recently developed Brassica napus variety‘ONK1’
under rainfed condition The experiment in factorial RBD consist of two dates of sowing (24 October and 8 November),
two spacings (30 cm and 45 cm) tested at three fertility levels (recommended fertility level (90:60:40), 75%RF and
125%RF.
Timely sowing of ONK1 (24th October) gave 16.9% higher yield over late sowing (8th November). Sowing at 30cm
spacing gave 15% higher yield over 45cm row spacing. The seed yield increased by 6.3 and 17% with increase in
fertility level from 75% to recommended and 125%, respectively. The highest yield of 1259kg/ha was obtained when
sown on 24th October at 30 cm spacing with 125% of recommended fertilizer application. However in case of late
sowing on 8 October also the statistically at par yield of 1234 kg ha-1 was obtained when 125% of recommended
fertilizer and 30 cm row spacing was followed.
It can be said that this variety will give higher yield when sown timely in October at 30 cm row spacing with 125%
of recommended fertilizer (90:60:40)application. However in case of late sowing also spacing of 30 cm with 125%
recommended fertilizer will give the higher yield.
Session 1.4
Efficient Irrigation Planning in Indian Mountainous Himalayas for

Sustainable Agriculture
K.P. Tripathi, V.N. Sharda, S.K. Dhyani and S. Patra

Central Soil & Water Conservation Research & Training Institute, Dehradun, 248 195, Uttarakhand, India
Total geographical area (TGA) of Indian mountainous Himalayas is about 18% (59.4 m ha) of the TGA of India and
which produces about 4.5% of the total food grain production and accounts for about 6.2% of the total population of the
country. The normal rainfall of these areas varies between 895.8 mm (Himachal Pradesh) to 2304.50 mm (sub-Himalayan
west Bengal and Sikkim). The percent net irrigated area (NIA) to net cultivated area (NCA) varies from 4.36 in Assam
to 44.2% in Uttarakhand with an average of 24%. Though these areas receive good rainfall however, as the case of
whole of India is, these areas also receive about 70 to 80% of the total rainfall during monsoon. This results in reduced
soil moisture for most of the non-rainy period. The source of irrigation is generally the perennial streams and rivers
which are either fed by glacier-snow melt flow or are fed from the sub-surface flow resulting from percolation of
rainwater at geologically favourable locations.
Most of the rivers are at deep valleys, thus making it difficult to divert it through gravity in the agriculture fields. The
perennial streams are tapped and diverted through open unlined/lined channels to the agriculture fields through gravity
flow. This results in higher conveyance losses. Surface storage of rainfall excess during monsoon for subsequent use
during lean period is also very limited due to unavailability of suitable site for construction of irrigation reservoir at
viable cost due to highly undulating terrain. Small lined tanks (5 to100 m3) are constructed to be fed by perennial
streams for life-saving irrigation and other important crop requirements. The flood and furrow irrigation method is
adopted, thus reducing substantially the irrigation water application efficiency. The micro and sprinkler irrigation methods
are yet to take off on large scale due to faulty planning. The irrigation planning consists of three stages, viz. (i) water
storage, (ii) water conveyance and lastly, (iii) water application. The efficient water application methods of micro and
sprinkler (both of these have over 80% of water application efficiency) can only be planned once the water storage and
conveyance has been planned suitably. Thus, there can be 3 situations for efficient irrigation water planning as (i)
where surface irrigation reservoirs/ponds can be constructed, (ii) where perennial streams can be judiciously used,
and (iii) where ground water can be exploited. The majority of the Indian Himalayan region comes under category (ii).
The above hypothesis was diagnosed in 535 ha watershed named Almas (under the category ii of above) lying
between 78°10'- 78°13' E longitude and 30°25'- 30°30' N latitude and altitude varying between 1600 to 2600 m amsl
under NATP Project of ICAR during 1998-2004. It receives about 1257 mm of annual precipitation including snow fall
288
in the higher altitude. The watershed had about 121 ha agriculture land with 7.6% under irrigation. The watershed has
a perennial stream. The farmers used to carry the water from the stream to the field through 12-25 mm plastic tube for
irrigation. Some resource less farmers used to irrigate their crops by head lifting the water from the stream to the field.
Realizing the need of the water conveyance system the matter was discussed with the farmers and three self help
groups comprising the beneficiaries from 11 to 27 were formed. A 63.5 mm HDPE underground pipe line of 1692 r m
was laid during 2002-2003 at the cost of Rs.2.85 lakhs with a contribution of Rs.0.20 lakh coming from the farmers in
the form of trench making and filling for laying the pipe line. The pipe line was provided with sediment and algae filter
so as to be used subsequently for sprinkler and micro irrigation. This pipe line brought 4.5 ha under irrigation in which
capsicum, potato, cabbage, carrot, radish and beans were cultivated. A gross income of about Rs.10.5 lakh was
generated by the farmers during the first two crop seasons of 2003-2004. Realizing the benefit the other two self help
groups came forward and two 40 mm HDPE underground pipe line of 932 r m and 1260 r m were laid at a total cost of
Rs.2.05 lakh with farmers contribution of Rs. 0.26 lakh coming in the form of trenching and laying of pipe line. This
brought another additional 12.5 ha under irrigation of above referred vegetable crops. The capital cost of the laying of
underground pipe line was received during the first two crops in the area. After successfully demonstrating the irrigation
water conveyance system, the sprinkler and micro-irrigation system have also been demonstrated.
It has, therefore, been realized that if conveyance of water is given priority in the watershed development programme
in the Indian mountainous Himalayan region through underground pipe line system, then the agricultural production
Session 1.4
can be increased manifold.
289
Session 1.5: Mechanization and Energy Management
Conservation Agriculture Using Polymicrobial Inoculants for

Enhancing Crop Productivity
C.A. Reddy
Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, USA
With the steep rise in the price of energy, a growing concern over global warming, and a quickly growing world human
population (6.9 billion in 2010), the need has never been greater for an increase in crop productivity on a long-term,
sustainable basis in an energy efficient and eco-friendly manner and compatible with conservation agriculture. Using
conventional approach, high levels of nitrogenous fertilizers are needed to increase world food production. However,
manufacture of nitrogen fertilizer requires fossil fuels, use of which releases CO2, a greenhouse gas, and contributes
to global warming. Furthermore, nitrogen fertilizers, the highest on farm cost for food crop production, are becoming
increasingly expensive. Also, high use of nitrogen fertilizers has adverse environmental consequences. Our principal
aim in this research is to develop stable, efficacious, and eco-friendly microbial formulations containing naturally
occurring diverse phylogenetic groups of microbes with complementary functions designed to enhance productivity of
a broad spectrum of plants including legumes, non-legumes, vegetables, cereals and fodder crops with little or no
input of nitrogen fertilizers and chemical pesticides. The formulation is designed to provide the observed beneficial
Session 1.5
effects by multiple mechanisms including enhancement of nitrogen fixation; direct inhibition of plant pathogens or
indirectly through induction of systemic resistance in plants; solubilization and mobilization of minerals such as P; and
production of growth stimulants.
We have been able to construct a poly microbial formulation with the desired functionalities mentioned above. It
was shown to be effective in enhancing the productivity of a broad spectrum of plants including: soybeans, garden
pea, cow pea, green gram, peanut, zucchini, squash, tomato, eggplant, rice, corn, sorghum, and okra. Green house
experiments were laid out in randomized replicated block design with 4 replications and the results were statistically
analyzed. Crop productivity was evaluated using the parameters such as plant height, shoot and root biomass, early
flowering, fruiting and total yield. Disease incidence during the crop period was also monitored. The results showed a
marked increase in plant height. For example, when compared to controls, corn height increased by 65%; egg plant
41%; wonder bush beans 40%; tomato 91%, soybeans 96%; pea purple hull 50%, and okra increased by 16%. Yield
also increased; for example, mean yield of tomato increased by 88% as compared to control. Okra yield increased
50% and rice increased by 40%. All legumes tested showed early flowering and fruiting with good root nodulation.
Corn, Rice and Sorghum showed increased number of tillers over untreated control. Eggplant and okra showed broader
and greener leaves as compared to the control. Over all, the plants were healthy and no disease was observed in both
the experimental and control plants. Field trials were conducted by the BioSoil Enhancers (a biotech. company) to test
the efficacy of the polymicrobial formulation on soybean, corn, cotton, yellow squash, tomato, green beans, and bell
peppers. The yield data obtained in field trials were consistent with results of greenhouse experiments in showing a
substantial increase in yield of all the crops tested. For example, crops treated with polymicrobial formulation resulted
in 49% increase in the number of tomato fruits picked; bell peppers showed 23.5% increase in yield; banana peppers
showed 71.4% increase; and the increase in corn yield was 30.0%. Cotton plants treated with the polymicrobial
formulation also showed increased plant height, profuse branching, and large sized healthy bolls when compared to
control. Both greenhouse and field trials support the idea that appropriately formulated polymicrobial inoculants have
the potential to enhance productivity of a broad spectrum of plants and greatly reduce the need for nitrogen fertilizers
and pesticides and substantially contribute to the conservation of soil health, conservation of fossil fuel energy sources,
and preserve and protect the quality of environment. Research progress in this area would be a substantial boost to
sustainable agriculture practices.
290
Mechanizing Harvesting Operation of Henna Crop
A.K. Singh, H.L. Kushwaha and Harpal Singh
Henna (Lawsonia inermis), popularly known as “mehandi” is a perennial shrub indigenous to North Africa. The plant
has been introduced widely throughout the tropics and sub-tropics as an ornamental (frequently as a fragrant hedge),
and commercial crop. In India it is cultivated in western Rajasthan (arid zone, annual average rainfall varying from 125
to 420 mm year-1). The cultivation of henna is very intensive in and around Sojat and Marwar Junction tehsils of Pali
district (average annual rainfall > 400 mm year-1). The cultivation of henna is spread over about 32,000 ha area, which
fetches more than 400 million Indian Rupees of revenue every year. On maturity, the stem of henna is very woody and
harvesting is performed mostly by farm women using a conventional sharp edge curved heavy sickle, which involves
human drudgery with poor efficiency. With a view to designing and developing a harvesting machine/device for henna,
laboratory experiments were conducted on cutting henna stem using a double edged pruner (edge angle 250 each) to
determine the mechanical properties of the henna stem. The data were well (R2 = 0.97) fitted in a multi-linear relationship
between age of henna plant, moisture content, stem diameter and cutting force. Results showed that the cutting force
and energy required were significantly greater at higher moisture content.
The average values of the force and energy required for cutting the henna stem were 725 N and 7.2 J, respectively,
which is much higher as compared to other crops. Further, with the use of a pruner having mechanical advantage 10,
effort required comes to about 7.5 kgf, which falls well within the limit of recommended manual force (5 to 10 kgf) for
carrying out farm operation continuously for a period of eight hours a day. This pruner can easily replace the existing
curved heavy sickle conventionally used for harvesting henna and reduce drudgery involved in the harvesting operation.
Session 1.5
Status and Growth of Energy Efficient Equipment for Conservation
Agriculture in India and Abroad
P.K. Sahoo1; A.P. Srivastava2 and S.K. Adlakha1

1
Division of Agricultural Engineering, IARI, Pusa, New Delhi, 110 012, India
2
NAIP, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, 110 0112, India
The basic goal of conservation agriculture is agricultural sustainability, conserving, improving and making more efficient
use of natural reserve through the integrated management of available soil, water and biological resources combined
with judicious use of external inputs (FAO). Conservation tillage is often preferred over the conventional tillage as
energy efficient and time reducing system without adversely affecting the yield.
Number of equipment and machines suitable for conservation agriculture have been developed and are in extensive
use in different parts of the world. Some of the benefits of conservation agriculture relevant to machinery are: (i) zero
tillage enables wheat to take advantage of residual moisture from rice, (ii) saves farmers around 1 m lt of water ha -1,
compared with conventional practices, (ii) under zero-tillage, an average 60-70 lt diesel can be saved ha -1 sown, (iv)
zero tillage reduces number of passes and thus soil compaction is reduced, (v) zero tillage reduces labour cost.
Reduction in labour cost can be felt during land preparation.
The primary focus of developing and promoting CA practices had been the development and adoption of zero cum
fertilizer drill for sowing wheat crop in rice-wheat system. Other interventions being tested and promoted include
raised- bed planting system, laser-aided land-leveling equipment, residue management alternatives, alternatives to
rice-wheat cropping system in relation to CA technologies etc. The area planted with wheat adopting zero-tillage drill
has been rapidly increasing, Rice-Wheat Consortium (RWC), which includes national agricultural research institutes
of Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan, is promoting the technology. Zero till technology has great potential of saving 10
h in Indo-Gangetic Plains and also in other cropping systems. International institutes like CIMMYT, IRRI and ICRISAT
also support RWC.
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No till drill: Zero till drills were introduced in India by GBPUAT, Pantnagar and DWR, Karnal in late eighties and
subsequently local manufacturers started making drills. With passage of times, improved designs were developed and
at much reduced cost, more affordable to farmers. The special planters required for zero tillage are now being
manufactured by about 100 companies in India. The leading manufactures are located in Punjab, Haryana and
Uttarankhand states of India. The government is subsidizing the machine, which costs more than Rs. 15000-20,000.
Though it is now being manufactured indigenously. Still, farmers find it unaffordable. Most of them custom- hire the
machine at Rs.250 an acre. It has also been reported that 20.000 acre of wheat was sown by zero till drills in Haryana
during the year (1999-2000) and the area is increasing rapidly thereafter. The seeder has reportedly been modified for
chickpea, maize and sorghum and some other crops. In the winter wheat planting season last year, 1.7 Mha in India
were farmed using zero tillage. It resulted in saving of more than Rs. 350 crores.
Investigations have revealed that compared to conventional sowing of wheat zero-till- drilling saved 70% sowing
time and 64% cost of seeding operation with overall increase in benefit of 20-25% in black soil. A typical No till drill with
11 tynes has a work capacity of 0.75 ha hr-1.
Brazil has been a major pioneer of zero tillage technique since the country adopted it in the 1970s. But its small
farmers have been lagging behind, mainly hindered by the high costs of specialized planting machines needed for zero
tillage.
No-till planters from India and Brazil were tested in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and can be used for
planting winter as well as cotton and double crops. In Uzbekistan, new conservation tillage equipment specially designed
to plant wheat on cotton field was tested. Zero- tillage planters were used for sowing spring wheat on about 100,000 ha
in northern Kazakhstan, and more farmers are keen to acquire the new equipment
Strip till drill: In strip till drill seed are placed directly in a narrow till strips in single pass. This technology has the
Session 1.5
distinct advantage as the soil is loosened in a band to allow effective crop root development besides being energy
efficient. It also reduces soil compaction.
An improvement upon zero-tillage can come if crops are grown on the ridges of a ridge- and furrow planting
configuration. Accordingly, bed planters were developed and introduced on farms for sowing of wheat crop. The main
advantage of the bed system is in water savings to the order of 30-40% using beds compared to wheat grown on flat
soil surfaces. Nine row units are in use. The working capacity of these machines are 0.75 ha h-1. In Uzbekistan, the bed
planters are being introduced with the support from Indian manufactures.
Land leveling through laser leveler is one such proven technology that is highly useful in conservation of irrigation
water. The laser leveling of fields saves 25-30% of water. Taking into consideration the paddy-wheat rotation, there is
a saving of 2625 m3 ha-1 after leveling the field. The laser leveling of fields helps in increased yield by 10%. This
increased yield helps in additional income. Besides, there is considerable saving of electricity because of reduced
irrigation. Apart from above, other benefits of laser leveling include weed control, labour saving, time saving, etc.
Resource Conservation through Mechanization in Rice-Wheat Cropping

System for Sustainable Development under
A.K. Jha, M.L. Kewat, S.K. Vishwakarma, V.B. Upadhaya, R.S. Sharma
Department of Agronomy, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidayalya, Jabalpur, 482 004, Madhya Pradesh, India
Field experiments were conducted on rice-wheat cropping system in sandy loam soils at Research Farm, JNKVV,
Jabalpur (M.P.) for 2 years during 2005-06 and 2006-07 with the objectives to conserve the labour, time, diesel and
energy with the use of efficient farm machineries for tillage and sowing of both crops in a succession under irrigated
agro ecosystem. Four tillage and sowing methods for each crop viz. for rice cv. Kranti (direct seeding in dry fields,
direct seeding of sprouted seeds in puddled field by drum seeder, manual transplanting, and mechanical transplanting)
292
and for wheat cv. GW-273 (conventional till sowing, zero till sowing, strip till sowing and bed planting) were tested in
strip plot design with 3 replications. Based on the mean data of both years, grain yields of rice was comparable (4.69
to 4.78 t ha-1) among all methods of sowing, while wheat produced significantly higher grain yields under strip till
sowing fallowed by zero or conventional till sowing and bed planting in descending order. Consequently, strip till sown
wheat after preceding rice grown under different tillage and methods produced higher combined grain yields for entire
cropping system in term of wheat equivalent yields (8.20 to 8.45 t ha-1) with greater values of NMR (Rs 37124 to 39172
ha-1) and B:C ratio (2.30 to 2.37) than other combination of tillage and sowing methods of both crops. Direct seeded
rice fallowed by strip till or zero till sown wheat consumed minimum time (32.12 hr ha-1) diesel (90.92 l ha-1) and energy
(5173 MJ ha-1) by ensuring timely and cheep sowing without sacrificing the crop yields. Direct seeding of sprouted
seeds of rice in puddled field with the help of drum seeder fallowed by strip or zero till sown wheat needed minimum
labour (152 man days ha-1 yr-1) and it proved to be an efficient tillage and sowing technique for labour scarce areas.
Activation of Defense Enzymes in Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.)

Seedlings upon Inoculation with the Bio control Agents
C. Kannan1, M. Karthik and Priya Kannan

Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Regional Station, Vittal, 574 243, Karnataka, India
1
Current address: NRCWS, Maharajpur, Jabalpur, M.P. 482004, India
Session 1.5
Biocontrol agents reduce disease incidence by inhibiting the incoming pathogens or by inducing systemic resistance
(ISR) to the host plants. ISR using native biocontrol agents is gaining importance in the present day agriculture, owing
to its numerous advantages. However, sustenance of the resistance activity in the plants and lack of knowledge of the
frequency of application of bioagents to maintain an effective defense, is an important issue in ISR. In the present
study the effect of Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus subtilis and Trichoderma viride on cocoa seedlings have been
studied with respect to the the induction, dynamics and persistence of activity of five key defense enzymes (called PR
proteins) viz., peroxidase, poly-phenol oxidase, phenyl alanine ammonia lyase, catalase and chitinase. Results showed
that the biocontrol agents differed in their ability to activate different enzymes and also their persistence in the seedlings.
T. viride was found to induce higher activity of chitinase than other bicontrol agents. The period of peak activity of the
enzyme was obtained by fitting the values in the quadratic regression model y=ax2+bx+c, where, y is the amount of
enzyme and x is the time (days). Results indicated that PPO persisted in the plants for a longer period than the other
enzymes.
Mechanizing Rice Fallows for Self Sufficiency in Pulses Production
S. Pande1, A. Verma2, S.K. Rao3, R.L. Pandey2, J.S. Urkurkar2 and C.L.L. Gowda1
1
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics (ICRISAT),
Patancheru, 502 325 Andhra Pradesh, India
2
Indira Gandhi Agricultural University, Raipur, 492 006, Chhattisgarh, India
3
Jawaharlal Nehru KrishiVishwa Vidyalaya, 482 004, Madhya Pradesh, India
South Asia is one of the major rice producing regions of the world, with around 50 m ha under the crop. A substantial
proportion of this area is under only a single crop, usually kharif (rainy) season rice, with the land remaining fallow
during the following rabi (post-rainy) season. Though this situation largely occurs for rainfed rice, where irrigation
facilities for either the crop or a post-rice crop is not available, residual soil moisture from the previously flooded rice
fields that is available well into the rabi season, can support another crop after rice. These large areas lying fallow for
293
a considerable part of the year are the cause for concern for two main reasons. Firstly, the large and growing population
of the region requires ever-increasing quantities of locally available food grains; hence these fallow lands reflect an
underutilization of agricultural land resources. Secondly, continuous cereal cropping is unsustainable over time; crop
rotation or diversification is desirable for the sustainability of the agricultural production system. Hence, increasing the
cultivation of pulses in South Asia, in these rice fallows is a solution that addresses the growing shortage of pulses in
the region and also has ameliorative effects in cereal-based cropping systems, thus contributing to their long-term
sustainability.
A review of the constraints and opportunities for pulse cultivation in subtropical South Asia reveals that the availability
of mechanization of crop establishment using zero-till seed drills, improved crop production technologies including
appropriate cultivars make increased pulse cultivation after rice more feasible and profitable. The application of
component of these technologies to promote chickpea cultivation after rainfed rice in India, Bangladesh and Nepal are
available. To assess the scope of such a move, better quantification of the area under rice fallows is now available. For
example India alone accounts for more that 70% of global chickpea production. A cheap source of protein, it is an
inseparable part of an Indian’s daily diet. Despite being the largest producer of pulses, India imports up to 1.5 m t of
chickpea alone annually to meet domestic needs. While there is little likelihood of area under chickpea and other
pulses increasing in irrigated regions, their production can be expanded by mechanization on approximately 12 m ha
of rainfed rice fallow lands (RRFL) in central and eastern India, and in similar environments in Nepal and Bangladesh.
In this paper an attempt has been made to discuss the scope of mechanization as an entry point for assured crop
establishment along with improved pulse production technology for conservation agriculture in RRFL and a step forward
in attaining self sufficiency in pulse production and enhancing goals for food production.
Session 1.5
Resource Conserving Technologies in Rice-Wheat Systems of South

Asia: Field Evaluation and Simulation Analysis
H. Pathak1*, J.K. Ladha1, Yadvinder-Singh2, A. Hussain3, F. Hussain4, R. Munankarmy5,

M.K. Gathala1, S. Verma1, U.K. Singh1 and Minh-Long Nguyen6
1
International Rice Research Institute-India, NASC Complex, New Delhi, 110 012, India
2
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India
3
Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh
4
Land Resources Research Program, Islamabad, Pakistan
5
Soil Science Division of Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Lalitpur, Nepal
6
International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria
(*Email: hpathak@cgiar.org)
Resource conserving technologies (RCTs) such as no tillage, direct-seeding and planting on raised beds have potential
to increase input (water, labor, fertilizer and energy) use efficiency, reduce input costs and improve the sustainability of
the rice-wheat (RW) systems of South Asia. The impact of RCTs on yield and N dynamics in RW systems was
evaluated in field trials conducted at Lahore, Pakistan; Ludhiana and Modipuram, India; Ranighat, Nepal; and Meherpur,
Bangladesh, for 4 years during 2002-06. The RCTs gave similar wheat yield but lower rice yield by 0.9 to 1.3 Mg ha-1
compared with conventional practices. The Crop Estimation through Resource and Environment Synthesis (CERES)-
Rice and CERES-Wheat models, embedded in the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT)
version 4.1 frame works, were evaluated using the data from the above trials. Genotypic coefficients for rice and wheat
cultivars used in these trials were derived in this study. The models simulated the phenology of rice and wheat crops
satisfactorily at all the locations. The deviation, as estimated using the root mean square error (RMSE), of the predicted
days from the observed days to flowering and maturity was only 7.0% and 5.6% for rice and 7.0% and 5.9% for wheat,
respectively. There was poor prediction of rice yield by the model (RMSE 2.0 Mg ha-1) obtained with different RCTs.
Predicted grain yield of wheat, however, agreed well with observed yield in all the tillage and crop establishment
practices (RMSE 0.6 Mg ha-1). There was poor prediction of N uptake by rice (RMSE 38.3 kg N ha-1) and wheat (RMSE
36.3 kg N ha-1). The study suggested that wheat can be satisfactorily grown with various RCTs but, for rice, the RCTs
294
need refinement in terms of water, nutrient and weed management to improve yield. The CERES model was able to
capture the phenology of rice and wheat and yield of wheat with RCTs but needs improvement for the estimation of
yield of rice and N uptake by rice and wheat.
Effects of Direct Drilling on Soil Traficability
Mokhtar Bouchendira1*, Khelifa M’hedhbi2 and Belgacem Medyouni1

1
Ecole Supèrieure des Igenieurs de l’Equipement Rural, Medj El-Beb, Tunisia
2
Centre Techniques des Céréales, Tunisia
(*Email: moktarbouch@yahoo.fr)
When applying conservation agriculture based on direct drilling (CA/DD), soil is rarely disturbed by machinery, but is
often subject to vehicle pressure that is frequent and intense. Soil compaction could be deeply modified, and DD can
improve soil sustainability during rainy seasons. The technique of cone penetration resistance stills the easiest and
most direct way to characterise soil compaction distribution of soils.
In this present work, measurements of cone penetration resistance were done on two typical agricultural soil
zones of Tunisia. At the experimental site, soils were submitted to DD during different durations in the context of the
conservative agriculture.
Session 1.5
The objective was to investigate the evolution of compaction measured by a cone penetrometer during different
time periods in order to describe the traficability of the tested soils.
Results showed that: i) soil compaction increased with time application (years) of DD, ii) soil compaction was
affected by soil depth, and iii) DD improved the uniformity of soil compaction distribution within soil profile. Consequently,
CA/DD seems to improve traficability of agriculture soils, which makes an easy access to a field during rainy times.
No-Till Wheat Planting in Rice-Wheat System of Punjab, Pakistan
Munir Ahmad
National Agricultural Research Centre, Park Road, Islamabad, Pakistan
Rice-Wheat is the second major cropping system after cotton-wheat in Pakistan. The area under rice-wheat cropping
system is about 2.2 m ha. The major problem in the rice-wheat system is late planting of wheat, especially after
basmati rice. Efforts have been made to develop and introduce no-till wheat planting technology in rice-wheat cropping
system of Punjab, Pakistan for the last two decades.
No-Till wheat planting ensures timely sowing of wheat, minimizes cost of production through land preparation,
improved water productivity, and increases uniform seed germination. This paper will concentrate on development,
adoption, and economics of this resource conservation technology. The issues hindering its wide spread adoption
have been revealed, and possible ways and means have been proposed for adoption of this technology at large scale.
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Water Economy in Rice - Laser Land Leveling
O.P. Lathwal1*, S.P. Goyal1 and R.K. Malik2

1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India
2
Department of Agronomy, CCS HAU, Hisar, Haryana, India
(*E-mail: oplathwal@yahoo.com)
Rice is the major cereal crop which consumes comparatively more water than any other cereal crop. In North-Western
region of India most of the rice is grown under irrigated conditions using underground water resources in conjunction
with little share from canal water. For this reason, the water table has gone down up to a depth of 30 m in tube-well
dependent rice growing areas. The misconception of farmers keeping ponding condition in rice fields coupled with
excess application of water in unleveled fields caused by uncontrolled tillage and puddling has worsened the situation
further. Though no-tillage cultivation of wheat in rice-wheat cropping system led to less disturbance of soil, yet the
plowing and puddling for rice cultivation create depressions making fields unleveled requiring more water for irrigation.
Under such circumstances, resource conservation technology in the form of laser land leveling can be used to save
irrigation water while increasing the productivity levels enhancing water use efficiency, simultaneously. Farmers’
participatory action research was initiated in Kurukshetra district (Haryana) using laser land leveler before rice cultivation.
The action research was done in clay loam soils (pH range 8.0-8.5) of Bhor Saida and Chhajupur villages in 10 ha. The
time consumed in irrigating one ha laser leveled field was 262 min which was 30.4% less than the unleveled field (375
min) using discharge pipe of 10 cm diameter. Consequently, the consumption of electricity for running the tube-well
was proportional to time consumed in irrigations. Thus, there was direct saving in electric energy. The laser leveled
fields required 5.5 cm depth of water per irrigation whereas the corresponding depth was 7.9 cm in the fields where no
Session 1.5
laser leveling was done. The total quantity of water needed for rice crop (20 irrigations) was 2750 and 3950 mm ha-1
under laser leveled and un-leveled fields, respectively. The rice crop grown in one ha required 24.2 lac gallons of water
in laser leveled field which was 30.4% less than the unleveled fields (34.8 lac gallons). Thus, there was saving of
52862 gallons water ha-1 irrigation-1 using laser leveling technology. Therefore, laser land leveling technology can save
the water resources used for crop cultivation, if adopted in more areas at large scale.
Intellectual Property Rights, Genetic Resources, Indigenous and

Traditional Knowledge: Does India need a Suigeneris
Protection Mechanism
Poonam Jayant Singh

NBFGR, Canal Ring Road, PO Dilkusha, Telibagh, Lucknow- 226002, India
Present Address till December 15, 2008: WIPO-TURIN UNIVERSITY-ILO LLM STUDENT, Viale Maestri del
Lavoro, 10, 10127 Turin, Italy
(E-mail: poonam_jayant@yahoo.com)
India complied with TRIPS for providing minimum standards of protection for intellectual property rights. The time
allotted for such a change was not sufficient for a developing country to fully comply with the rules. Though India had
a patent, design and copyright protection regimen before independence, it acceded to be compliant to TRIPS, the full
compliance was met on 1st January 2005. Though trips provides sovereign rights for a nation to have exemptions for
protection, as the rights are territorial, it nowhere mentions the issues related to products arising out of biodiversity and
products arising out of traditional and indigenous knowledge. The CBD came into force and biodiversity was a sovereign
right for a country, but does TRIPS and CBD have solutions to all problems? The TRIPS agreement was a byproduct
of agreement related to trade which developed countries cleverly imposed to the developing ones, assuring them
concessions for trade. But it was a double sided sword which the developing countries were forced to accede. But are
296
all treaties going to come from the developed world? The problems faced by developing countries are different, we
need tailor made solutions to deal with the problems of our country. The TRIPS provided stronger protection for wines
and spirits because developed countries lobbied for it, but the developing countries could not understand the
repercussions and signed the treaty without bargain for protection of traditional knowledge, indigenous knowledge and
genetic resources.
India is bestowed with a vast diversity of genetic resources, both plant and animal, which are the part and parcel
of the Indian agrarian economy. It is also rich in traditional knowledge heritage along with folklore. How do we protect
it is a question mark. Right now the international norms are under consideration by WIPO. The national law has to be
TRIPs plus compliant to save our traditional knowledge and products based on indeginous knowledge arising out. The
biodiversity too needs protection not by conservation by CBD but through a suigeneris protection mechanism that is
TRIPS plus, and takes into account the positives aspects of our country and thus laying a foundation for bargaining
power and protecting our wealth of knowledge.The paper would emphasise the legal provisions and options available
for India to come out with a suigeneris system that would be TRIPS plus.
In order to protect plant genetic resources, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), under the Ministry
of Agriculture, had in place a system for protecting new varieties of plant genetic resources at National Bureau of Plant
Genetic Resources (NBPGR), much before the sui-generis legislation under Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers
Rights (PPV&FR, 2001) was adopted in India for providing incentives to breeders engaged in creative work of research
which sustains agricultural progress. The Ministry of Agriculture protected plant varieties as sui-generis provision to
comply with TRIPS and to recognize the role of farmers as cultivators and conservators of traditional and tribal
communities to the country’s agro-biodiversity by rewarding them through benefit sharing and protecting traditional
rights of the farmers by providing them for compensation to communities for the contribution in evolution of new
varieties as determined by the PPV&FR Authorities . The farmer also has the right to save, use sow, resow, exchange
Session 1.5
share or sell the farm produce. However the protection was only limited to plant genetic resources
The vast range of agro ecological zones of India has helped to develop a large number of breeds of various
species of livestock and poultry due to years of evolution within specific agro climatic conditions, by selection and
animal husbandry practices ultimately culminating in the emergence of a breed. The country has a rich domestic
animal biodiversity of cattle, buffalo, goat sheep, horse, camel, pig, donkey, yak, mithun, poultry and fishes which form
the backbone of Indian agrarian economy through contributing for milk egg fiber draught power and manure. For new
/ developed animal/fish genetic material, however, there was no IPR enabling provision under the existing Indian laws
nor was there any provision for the registration and documentation of the animal breeds and strains of fish developed
by ICAR, researchers or farmers. To pre-empt any unforeseen grant of patents on animals/fish, including the improved
breeds/strains from India, ICAR has established a novel system of their registration and documentation in the same
lines as it had in place for plant genetic resources at NBPGR, at the National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources
(NBAGR) and National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources (NBFGR) for registering and documenting new and developed
breeds / strains of animal poultry and fish developed by selective breeding or using genetic tools by farmers or researchers
or communities.
The definition of breed as per FAO has been accepted by member states of FAO, which is either a sub specific
group of domestic livestock with definable and identifiable external characteristic that enable it to be separated by
visual appraisal from other similarly defined groups within same species, or a group for which geographical and or
cultural separation from phenotypically similar groups has led to acceptance of its separate identity. Standard descriptors
have been identified for each species including cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, horse, pig, chicken and fish to be
filled by the breeder /owner/ researcher. The eligibility criteria requires scientific evidence for uniqueness, reproducibility
and value as evidenced by publication in a standard peer reviewed journal or evaluation data of at least three years or
recommendation of state animal husbandary department regarding novelty and uniqueness of the breed calimed. The
registration would be valid for 25 years. A minimum population size of 1000 animals is required for registration as a
breed.
The breeds are categorized as populations within each species, wild feral, landraces, primary population,
standardized breeds, selected lines, varieties, strains and any conserved genetic resource/material is recognized as a
breed by member nations. The breeders by applying tools of genetics and breeding have produced more efficient high
producing farm animals through cross breeding between indigenous and exotic germplasm thereby giving rise to
several valuable strains. The registration system for animal genetic resources in the same lines as that of a sui generis
297
PPV&FR 2001, as implemented by India was more defined from the existing Plant Variety Registration system at
ICAR, would provide a recognized process for registration of animal genetic resources at the national level which
implies protection and conservation of genetic resources as required by CBD. It would also provide an advantage of
an additional IPR protection for animal genetic resources which is TRIPS plus and similar provision will be required by
Indian Governemnt to preserve indeginous knowledge and traditional rights of communities.
Comparative Performance of Different Resource Conserving Techniques

in Wheat Crop
Vivak Kumar1*, M.K. Gathala2, N.S. Rana1, Rajeev Kumar1 and Samsher1
1
Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel University of Agriculture & Technology, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
2
International Rice Research Institute, India office, NASC, Pusa, New Delhi, India
(*Email address: balyanv@yahoo.com)
The rice-wheat cropping system is one of the major agricultural production systems in the Indo Gangetic Plains which
contributes nearly 80% of the total cereal food production in western Uttar Pradesh. In recent years the productivity
and profitability of the rice-wheat system is threatened due to intensive tillage, deterioration of soil structure and
declining total factor productivity. The cost of production of Indian wheat is higher in comparison to the major wheat
exporting countries like USA, Australia, Canada and Argentina. Therefore, a need was felt to optimize cost of production
Session 1.5
and energy usages by employing conservation agriculture techniques. A field experiment was conducted for 3 years
on different resource conserving techniques (RCTs) in wheat at Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel University Agriculture &
Technology, Meerut. The different techniques viz. zero tillage, bed planting, rotavator, reduced tillage and conventional
practice were evaluated in terms of crop performance, energy requirement and economic feasibility. Results of the
study revealed no significant difference in crop yield except that bed planting (3.9 t ha -1) proved inferior to rotavator
(4.34 t ha-1). Effective tillers per unit area was found highest in rotavator (370 m -2) followed by zero tillage (364 m-2).
The cost of production (US$) ha-1 was maximum in conventional practice (US$ 676) and minimum in zero tillage (US$
598). Energy use was minimum (20368 MJ) in zero tillage with the saving of 13% compared to conventional practice
(23501 MJ). Cost benefit ratio was highest in rotavator (2.28) followed by zero tillage (2.21) and was lowest in conventional
tillage (1.93). Zero tillage practice was found the best among all RCTs in saving input use, energy consumption and
time. The result of the study shows that conventional practice of sowing wheat could be successfully replaced with
RCT’s for enhancing the productivity and profitability of the farmers.
Ethno-Botanical Survey of Weeds in Calciorthent Soils

of North Bihar
N.K. Sinha, D. Singh and D.K. Roy

Rajendra Agricultural University, Bihar, Pusa, Samastipur, 848 125, Bihar, India
An ethno-botanical survey of weeds in Calciorthent soils in North Bihar was done in the month of Feb-March and Sept-
Oct, respectively in rabi (wheat) and kharif (rice) season during 2001-2007 under All India Coordinated Research
Programme on Weed Control, Rajendra Agricultural University, Bihar, Pusa. The help for the assessment of weed
medicinal properties was rendered by Baidh, Hakim, Pandit, Pansari (rural herbal traders) and old innovative persons
of the village. During the study, it was observed that the weeds were widely used as folk medicine by rural people to
cure ailment and they are well acquainted with their ethno-botanical values. Common rural people use these weeds in
their daily health care programme. They have good knowledge about the cause and symptom of common human
298
diseases and then after a while, a wide range of treatments mostly using freshly or dried plant parts of weeds of
different crops of the season. It was also observed that the people get their knowledge through years of trial and error
often using upon themselves and their family members. Several of them carried this knowledge from their forefathers.
Most of weeds used by traditional folk medicine practitioners since long time proved to be great biological significance
and modern researches have convincingly established their medicinal properties and restored their credibility which
has been eroded with the coming of modern synthetic medicines. Further, research on those plants already being used
by traditional folk medicine practitioner can lead to the discovery of some valuable chemical compounds of significant
biological action yet to be unknown. In the present investigation, it may open the broad window in alternate use of
weed of great significance in curing human diseases by conserving through indigenous traditional knowledge.
Enhanced Potential Yield of Wheat with Adoption of Low-Cost Rice

Stubble Management Practices
S.K. Maity and Swaha Shee

Palli Siksha Bhavana (Institute of Agriculture), Vishwa Bharti, Sriniketan, Birbhum, 731236, West Bengal, India
The experiment on wheat crop (variety UP 262) was conducted during winter season of 2006-07 after rainy season
rice at Agriculture Farm, Institute of Agriculture, Vishwa Bharti which is located in the red and lateritic belt of West
Bengal. The objectives were to study the efficacy of soil inoculation of Trichoderma and incorporation of Gliricidia
Session 1.5
green leaves as an option of rice stubble management in succeeding wheat crop and to study the response of wheat
to the graded levels of N application under different stubble management practices and N levels and to evaluate the
economics of stubble management practices and N application to wheat. The soil at the experimental site was sandy
loam in texture, in available nitrogen (249.6 kg N ha-1) and medium in available phosphorus (39.5 kg P2O5 ha-1) and
potassium (143.5 kg K2O ha-1). Three stubble management options (no management i.e. simple incorporation of
stubbles by ploughing, soil inoculation of Trichoderma @ 12.5 kg soil based culture ha-1 and incorporation of Gliricidia
green leaves @ 1000 kg ha-1) and four levels of N (0, 50, 100 and 150 kg N ha-1) constituted the treatments with their
twelve factorial combinations. The experiment was laid out in Factorial Randomised Complete Block Design (FRCBD)
with three replications.
In wheat crop, rice stubble management with soil inoculation of Trichoderma and incorporation of green leaves of
Gliricidia showed some positive effects on growth attributes of wheat, but failed to record the same on the grain yield.
The N levels of 150 kg ha-1 registered the highest grain yield and protein content in grain.
The grain yield responded up to an economic optimum dose of N of 227 and 241 kg N ha-1 when stubble management
was aided with incorporation of green leaves of Gliricidia or soil inoculation of Trichoderma respectively. However,
under simple incorporation of stubbles without any other management, wheat crop responded to optimum level on N at
129 kg ha-1 with resultant highest return in terms of Rs/Re invested and response in (kg grain kg -1 N applied).
Grain yield of wheat can be potentially improved when rice stubbles are managed with Gliricidia green leaf manuring
or with soil inoculation of Trichoderma aided by higher dose of nitrogen as it was evidenced from the quadratic response
of wheat grain yield to graded levels of nitrogen up to with 150 kg N ha-1 under simple incorporation rice stubbles while
the responses were almost linear when either Gliricidia green leaves incorporated or soil based Trichoderma culture
inoculated into the soil at the time of land preparation. An increase in grain yield to the tune of 300 kg ha-1 is expected
with the adoption of any of the above two low-cost stubble management practices along with 150 kg N ha-1 over the
grain yield of wheat without any stubble management practices with 120 kg N ha-1 which is the recommended dose.
A. No till seed drill
This drill is structurally improved, lighter and more versatile than the original prototype. A fertilizer attachment has
now been fitted, residue clearance is improved, and the seed drill is easily adjustable for tine layout, row spacing, and
depth of seeding. Seed and fertilizer rates are easily adjusted and the machine can conveniently meter all seed sizes
from maize to mustard. Press wheels have also been fitted. Attachment hitches for both Chinese made, as well as Thai
made two wheel tractors are available.
299
B. Modified rotary tillage seed drill

This standard rotary tillage drill has been modified by the provision of a fertilizer attachment and an improved seed
metering system. Seed placement has been enhanced by the incorporation of superior tine openers. Press wheels
have also been fitted. It can be used as a 100% tillage implement, or as a strip tillage seed drill.
The no till seed drill has been intensively tested in farmer’s fields in NW Bangladesh for wheat, maize, pulses and
rice planting through moderate densities of cereal residues without plugging. Two wheel tractors can pull 4 times in
light soils and 3 times in heavy soils. It has generally performed well. However, it has done a mediocre job in some hard
setting clay soils.
The rotary tillage drill in either strip or full tillage mode has proved to be successful under practically all conditions
in Bangladesh. This seed drill generally produces a satisfactory environment for crop establishment, with good seed
placement and a fine tilth of soil, except under very wet conditions, when slot smearing by the tractor blades still
occurs. Both implements are suitable for traditional or conservation farming systems. Seed placement and depth
control in both machines is greatly improved, by the provision of superior tines and press wheels. Plant establishment
has improved by 17-25% compared to zero press wheel treatments. The seeders are simple, light in weight, and could
be fabricated by local farm machinery manufacturers. Costs are expected to be < US$500 once production scales up.
Comparison of Biological vs. Mechanical Measures for Soil and Water

Conservation and Maize-Wheat Production in Western Himalayan Region
Session 1.5
O.P.S. Khola
Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute Research Centre,
Udhagamandalam, 643 004, Tamil Nadu, India
The conservation of soil and water is very essential for sustainable production, environment preservation and balanced
ecosystem. Erosion is a serious problem in open tilled maize crop grown on slopes under high rainfall region of north-
western outer Himalayas. Comparison of biological and mechanical measures has been undertaken in this experiment
for their ultimate use on agricultural lands.
The experiment was conducted for six years on field size monoclinal runoff plots (100 x 20 m) on 4% slope
equipped with H-flume, stage level recorder and Coshocton silt sampler. The treatments consisted of 75 cm wide
vegetative bunds of Panicum maximum and Vetiveria zizenoides, live mulch, strip cropping (3:1), inter cropping (2+8
rows), graded bund, bench terrace and contour farming. Vegetative barriers, graded bund and bench terrace were laid
at 100 m vertical interval. During kharif (rainy) season, maize (cv. Naveen composite) was sown uniformly in all plots,
except in intercropping and strip cropping where cowpea (cv. K-779) was adjusted as per the specifications of treatments.
In live mulch treatment, weeding was undertaken in 30 cm wide strips along maize rows while weeds were allowed to
grow in inter spaces. Weeds were cut just before flowering stage and spread across slope in inter row spacing to
combat erosion losses and later on they were ploughed under after maize harvest. Uniform fertilizer dose of 30 + 40
+ 25 kg NPK ha-1 was applied as basal dose to all the plots, however, an additional dose of 60 kg N ha-1 was top
dressed to maize only. Wheat (cv. HD 2329) was raised during rabi season following recommended package of
practices.
The results revealed that runoff was maximum under graded bund (23.58%) closely followed by contour farming
(22.46%), though the soil loss was vice-versa i.e. maximum in contour farming (14.82 t ha-1) followed by graded bund
(10.90 t ha-1). These were minimum under bench terrace (9.02% and 2.55 t ha-1) followed by live mulch (11.98% and
3.79 t ha-1). Vegetative bunds and inter and strip cropping treatments showed intermediate response and produced
runoff and soil loss in a range of 15.31 to 18.91% and 7.40 to 8.66 t ha-1, respectively. The grain yield of maize was
maximum (2125 kg ha-1) under contour farming and it was reduced to minimum (1451 kg ha-1) under bench terracing.
This reduction was due to continued high moisture / water logging conditions. However, this reduction in maize grain
yield has been compensated with drastic reduction in runoff and soil loss and an increase in the wheat grain yield by
300
216 kg ha-1. The inter- and strip-cropping treatments have also produced 740 and 842 kg ha-1, respectively of cowpea
grain. In live mulch treatment, 2.87 t ha-1 dry biomass of weeds was harvested and spread in the inter row spaces of
maize and recycled after maize harvest. Recycling of weeds and grasses added 44 kg N, 10 kg P and 83 kg K ha-1
which in conjunction with moisture conservation improved wheat grain yield substantially (2839 kg ha-1) compared to
contour farming (2127 kg ha-1). Additional dry matter of Panicum maximum (2563 kg ha-1) and Vetiveria zizenoides
(1114 kg ha-1) was harvested for commercial use from the vegetative barriers. Analysis of returns revealed that highest
maize equivalent yield of 9713 kg ha-1 was obtained under live mulch.
From this study it is concluded that live mulching of weeds during kharif season was economically viable, socially
acceptable and environmentally sustainable practice for the sloping agricultural lands in the foothills of western
Himalayas.
Impact Assessment of Resource Conserving Happy

Seeder Technology
H.S. Dhaliwal1, R.P. Singh2, Yadvinder-Singh1, H.S. Sidhu1 and Harpreet Kaur1
1
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 141 004, Punjab, India
2
NSW Department of Primary Industries, NSW, Australia
Session 1.5
Rice and wheat are the main crops in the northwest India. In Punjab about 2.6 million hectares (60%) of net cultivated
area is under rice-wheat rotation. Timeliness of different field operations is a key element for successful farming.
Combine harvesters are mostly used for harvesting of rice and wheat, which leaves heavy straw behind. Wheat crop
residue is used as dry fodder for cattle, but the management of 20 million tons (7-8 t/ha) rice residue is a major
problem. Burning of this residue is an easy and cheap option for the farmers. It is widely practised in Punjab, India.
About 17 million tones (>80%) of the 20 million tones of rice stubble in Punjab is burnt each year. This process results
in serious threat to human, animal and soil health, reduced biodiversity, reduced soil fertility due to loss of nutrients and
organic matter, and green house gas (GHG) emissions. This is due to a lack of availability of alternative economic use
of rice straw and suitable machinery to direct drill wheat into combine-harvested standing rice stubbles without burning.
Research engineers from Australia and Punjab, India developed Happy Seeder machine under the research project
funded by ACIAR, Australia. Happy Seeder (HS) machine is a solution for these problems. It is meant for direct drilling
of wheat seed in the standing rice stubbles. It combines stubble mulch and seed & fertilizer drilling operations into one
machine. It cuts and lifts the rice straw, sows into the bare soil and deposits the straw over the sown area as mulch.
The primary aim of this study was to assess the impact of HS technology in terms of the direct financial benefits
and costs to farmers of use of the HS in comparison with the current practices of straw burning followed by direct
drilling or conventional tillage (CT) prior to sowing. The results of the evaluation showed that the HS technology is
more profitable than CT or direct drilling after burning, and that it is viable for farmers from a financial perspective. The
Net Present Value (NPV) of the total financial benefits of the HS was most sensitive to changes in yield, followed by
herbicide use, machinery costs and less sensitive to irrigation water saving. The net benefits almost doubled over CT
with a yield increase of only 5% using the HS. Furthermore, there are significant economic, community and environmental
benefits through adoption of the technology. For widespread adoption of the technology, a range of potential mechanical,
technical, social, institutional and policy constraints need to be considered and addressed in conjunction with a detailed
economic assessment of the HS technology.
301
Development of a Single Pass Bed Planter for Small Holders’ Farming,

Crop Diversification and Resource Conservation
M.A. Wohab1*, A.T.M. Ziauddin2, M.E. Haque3, K. Sayre3, M.I. Hossain4 and M.I. Hossain4
1
Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute
2
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Bangladesh Agricultural University
3
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, Mexico D.F., Mexico
4
RWRC, BARI, Rajshahi, Bangladesh
(*Email: wohabma@yahoo.com)
A two wheel tractor operated one pass bed planter was developed under Farm Machinery and Post-harvest Process
Engineering Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Gazipur in collaboration with International Maize
and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). The different functional parts that comprise the bed former-cum-seeder
were: a) high speed rotary tiller, b) bed former, c) seed and fertilizer applicator, and d) soil compaction roller-cum-
shaper. This bed planter performs very well under optimum moisture and reduced/zero till soil condition to make a 58-
60 cm bed in each pass.
In single pass, this bed planter can make about 90% of the beds, but for better shaping with proper compaction,
the bed former could be passed for second time on top of the same bed under some soil conditions. We recommend
sowing seed and applying fertilizer at the second pass if more than one pass is preferred. Width of the top of the
formed bed is 28-30 cm and the furrow’s width is 30-32 cm where the depth of furrow is 12-15 cm. This bed planter is
very useful to reshape and plant under permanent bed system with retainded crop residues. Many crops including
Session 1.5
wheat, rice, mung-bean, sesame, okra, soybean, maize, jute, etc. are suitable to plant by this bed planter. The bed
planter is used for sowing wheat, mung-bean and sesame at the seed rate of 90 kg, 30 kg and 3 kg per ha, respectively.
Two rows of seeds were sown on top of the beds with 20 cm row spacing.
Field capacity of the bed planter is 0.11 ha/hr with 82% efficiency. The operation cost of the bed planter is US$
165/ha. The break-even-point of the bed formers is 4.83 ha. The manufacturing cost of the bed planter is US$ 396.
Power requirement to operate the bed planter is 2.92 kW under clay, and 2.73 kW under sandy loam soil condition.
Crop production costs of wheat, mungbean and sesame are 13.58%, 22.47%, and 12.51%, less, respectively, compared
to conventional system. The gross return, gross margin and benefit-cost ratio of wheat is US$ 490/ha, US$ 313/ha
and 2.77, respectively. The gross return, gross margin and benefit-cost ratio of mung-bean is US$ 573/ha, US$ 450/ha
and 4.67, respectively. The gross return, gross margin and benefit-cost ratio of sesame is US$ 346/ha, US$ 203/ha
and 2.46, respectively. Mahbub Engineering Workshop, Jamalpur started to manufacturing and marketing the bed
planter locally. The two wheel tractor operated one pass bed planter is a simple, low cost and affordable planter that
could be useful for small land holders and conservation agriculture in Bangladesh.
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Laser Land Leveling for Increased Water Productivity in

Rice-Wheat System
C.K. Saxena1*, S.K. Ambast2 and S.K. Gupta3

1
Department of Soil and Water Engineering, College of Technology and Engineering,
MPUAT, Udaipur, 313 001, Rajasthan, India
2
Division of Natural Resource Management, CARI, Port Blair, Andaman and Nikobar Islands, India
3
AICRP on Management of Salt Affected Soils and Use of Saline Water in Agriculture, Central Soil Salinity
Research Institute, Karnal, 132 001, Haryana, India
(*Email: cksaxena@yahoo.com)
Effective water conserving techniques besides enhancing water productivity also help to prevent salinity build-up and
land degradation. Laser land levelling is one such technique, which is spreading at an unprecedented pace. Realizing
the potential of this technology CSSRI imported a laser land leveller some 23 years back to field-test and evaluate this
technology in the context of on-farm water savings and to judge the response of small and marginal farmers to this
technology. As such, qualitative and quantitative scientific observations were collected at the CSSRI farm on the
saving of time as well as water required for irrigation, smoothness of the soil surface achieved, uniformity of soil
moisture distribution, and yield differentials of the crops in conventionally levelled and laser levelled fields. In order to
judge the response of the small and marginal farmers, studies were conducted at 19 farmers’ fields in Pundrak, Zarifa
and Kalayat villages in Haryana together with two controlled studies at CSSRI farm, Karnal during 2003-05. The
values of Levelling Index (LI) for the fields before and after conventional levelling were observed as 3.0 cm and 2.1 cm
Session 1.5
respectively, while for the laser levelled fields, these values were 1.93 cm and 0.85 cm respectively. The water application
time reduced significantly to 3.5-4.5 hrs in laser levelled fields from generally required time of 6 hrs for conventionally
levelled fields for 0.4 ha (1 acre) land. On the basis of four closely monitored farmers’ fields, the average water
productivity in the conventional and laser-levelled fields were estimated at 1.5 kg/m3 and 2.4 kg/m3, respectively for
wheat and 0.37 and 0.47 kg/m3 for rice crops. It was observed that the irrigation application depth per irrigation ranged
from 4 to 12 cm as the leveling quality decreased. Higher application depths were associated with lower application
efficiencies. With a LI of 0.75 cm, the application efficiency was as high as 90% as compared to 45% at an LI of 6.75
cm. The economic analysis revealed a net profit in the range of Rs. 1000 – 1200 in the first year, which increased to
Rs. 4000 – 5000 for second year onwards, due to use of laser levelling. Besides the technical evaluation, the paper
highlights the constraints such as necessity of repeat application of laser land levelling once in three years. Social
constraints included the large investments required in procuring the equipments, which is beyond the purchasing
power of small/ marginal farmers. Farm equipment banks at suitably located sites and encouragement to custom hiring
services seems possible to overcome this constraints. Fortunately more than 40 custom hiring units have already
appeared in north Indian states due to sensitization through trainings and demonstrations of this technology.
Direct Energy Demand for Increasing Rice Production in

Eastern India
Dipankar De and S.K. Adlakha

Division of Agricultural Engineering, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
In order to meet the food demands of the country, the Planning Commission has envisaged food grains production
through additional 8 million tonnes (Mt) of wheat, 10 Mt of rice and 2 Mt of pulses (over triennium ending 2006-07) by
the year 2012. With natural resource base fixed, the growth is feasible by increasing land productivity through use of
improved technology.
303
Eastern India (states of Assam, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Orissa, West Bengal, eastern Madhya Pradesh, and eastern
Uttar Pradesh) with rich bio-diversity, large agricultural labour force, abundant water cultivated rice in 26.99 Mha
(61.6% of the rice cropped area in the country) produces only 50.35% of the total rice. About 79% of the rice area of
eastern India is rain fed and exposed to abiotic stresses. High yielding varieties have been adopted in about 55% of
the area, mostly in irrigated areas. Assam, Chattisgarh, and eastern Madhya Pradesh have low adoption of high
yielding varieties. The average plant nutrient consumption is about 55 kg/ha, and low compared to other regions.
Average rice yields of eastern India are thus lower than the national average, with the exception of West Bengal.
Among 534 districts in India growing rice, nearly 52% of the districts with yield less than 1500 kg ha-1 and 53.2% of
districts with yield between 1500-2000 kg ha-1 fall in this region. The average yields in the rain fed ecosystems is about
1000 kg ha-1, with the uplands having yield of 800 kg ha-1 and the lowlands 1200 kg ha-1. The rainfed lowlands are the
first-priority ecosystem in eastern India because of their area, larger dependent population and yield potential.
Irrigated rice production systems have shown sign of technology fatigue with many adverse externalities. The
situation has raised demands to exploit the untapped potential of rainfed ecosystems. Frontline trials have indicated
large gaps between potential yields at the farmer’s field with adoption of appropriate technology. For rice, more than
100% yield gap has been noted in the states of Assam, Bihar, Chattisgarh and eastern Uttar Pradesh, all in eastern
part of the country. The projected 10 Mt increase in rice production in the 4 states would require increase in rice
productivity from 1373 kg ha-1 to 2260 kg ha-1. Out of the 11.28 Mha under rice cultivation, about 7.7 M ha is under
rainfed ecology that can provide the additional production.
Under the AICRP on Energy Requirement in Agricultural Sector, the energy use patterns in farmer’s fields under
different ecological systems were determined, and optimal energy requirements assessed. The estimated direct energy
use for the present and required productivity by 2012 have been indicated. This would generate estimated additional
direct energy demand of 84 million man-day of human energy and 59,184 thousand litres of diesel for field operations.
Session 1.5
Animal energy demand would decrease by 8 million pair-day with shift to tractor/power tiller uses.
Proper uses of machinery and energy for field operations under business-as-usual cultivation practices provide
opportunity for energy savings. Studies have indicated that less than 15% of the farms follow the same. With optimal
energy resource uses, lowland irrigated farms can increase crop productivity between 19 to 71% with reduced energy
consumption ranging between 3.5 and 9.6%, while rain fed farms can increase crop productivity between 25 to 75%
with energy saving of 3.1 and 17.2%.
In direct sown paddy, rainfed farms can increase crop productivity by 18.4 to 92.3% with energy saving ranging
between 2.1 and 5.7%. Animal farms have higher opportunity of increasing crop yield with energy saving by 6%
through reduced ploughing. Mix farms can save 22% of diesel energy and tractor farms by 11.6% through reduced
passes of cultivator. Energy productivity of tractor farms would be lower than animal or mix farms due to higher energy
use for fertilizer and diesel. The additional energy demand for increasing rice production in rainfed ecologies can thus
be reduced through efficient farm practices.
Reduction of Water, Soil and Carbon Loss due to the Application of

Direct Drilling in Cereal Crops
R. Ordóñez*1, F. Márquez2, M. Repullo1 and R. Carbonell1

1
Área de Producción Ecológica y Recursos Naturales, Centro “Alameda del Obispo” IFAPA,
Apdo. 3092, 14080 Córdoba, Spain
2
Departamento de Ingeniería Rural, Universidad de Córdoba. Asociación Española Agricultura de
Conservación / Suelos Vivos, Spain
(*Email: rafaelam.ordonez@juntadeandalucia.es)
Keeping the soil unaltered by tillage and covered by plant remains in the periods between successive crops has
become one of the most effective and economic methods for reducing water and soil losses produced by the effect of
304
rain. With the reduction in runoff and erosion it is also managed to decrease the loss of substances associated with
water molecules and soil particles. This improves the quality of surface water since the sediments, and other products
(pesticides, herbicides, etc.) found in them, are some of its main pollutants.
For those reasons, during 2008 in the Alameda del Obispo farming estate located in the province of Córdoba
(Spain), a rain simulator was installed with two 25 m2 plots, one with a wheat crop under direct drilling, and the other
under conventional agriculture. In these plots, low (20 mm h-1) and high (40 mm h-1) intensity simulations were carried
out for 2-hour periods, both with the planted crop and after its harvesting and the tillage of the conventional plot. After
each simulated rainfall we took samples from the collection drums and measured total runoff, sediment loss and the
plot’s cover percentage.
The results show great environmental and agronomic benefits from conservation agriculture techniques, as they
reduced runoff by 85%, erosion by 92% and the loss of organic carbon and phosphorus associated with the sediment
by 87 and 96%, respectively.
Equipment and Technologies to Cultivate Crops with Conservation

Approach for Higher Productivity
S.K. Rautaray and M.M. Pandey

Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal- 462038, Madhya Pradesh, India
Session 1.5
Agriculture in India being a continuing priority is the livelihood of 70% of its population. 60% of cultivable land being
rainfed is critical to the food security of the country. The challenges due to stagnation in crop productivity, higher cost
of cultivation, widespread resource degradation and climate change effects have necessitated the development of
equipment and technologies with conservation approach for zero/minimum tillage while dealing with crop residues and
introducing sensible and profitable crop rotations to achieve the goals of sustainability. Today there is an increasing
awareness and concern for affordable and energy efficient equipment and technology for cost-effective production of
crops focused at increased yield, reduced cost of cultivation, prevention of losses and efficient utilization of input
resources thereby raising farm income. With the present power availability of 1.3 kW ha-1 (Tractor =03M, draught
animals = 63 M and agricultural workers = 242 M) the improved tools and equipment do the cultivation operations
expeditiously under varying conditions. Different designs of direct drilling machines (zero till drill, strip till drill, roto till
drill and slit till drill) have been developed with controlled traffic measures for energy efficient and cost-effective seeding
of crops without tillage. Laser guided land leveler and roto tiller helped to retain in-situ soil moisture longer and reduced
thereby the irrigation demand. Package of equipment and technology for residue-incorporated cultivation of crops was
developed. Raised and broad bed planters were developed for cultivation of crops on beds for higher productivity. The
farmers are in the process of adoption of the conservation equipment in rice-wheat system covering nearly 03 Mha(2006-
07) by modifying their conventional practices (wheat yield, kg ha-1 4000 and net return, Rs/ha = 20,000/-) to manage
the resources more productively with harvest of 5-10% increased yield and 25-30% increased net return. Adoption of
conservation practices have saved 65% time and fuel and 30% irrigation water over the conventional practices (Fuel
used, L ha-1 =50 and water used. Mm ha-1 = 600). There are around 50 manufacturers producing quality conservation
machinery in the country. Considering the population of the machines (No.=55000) and command area the annual
direct economic benefit was worked out to be Rs 4500 million. Besides, the improved conservation equipment have
increased the output per human, animal, tractor ensuring timeliness, reduced the cost of cultivation and energy
requirements per unit of crop production, reduced losses, made agricultural production less laborious and reduced
drudgery and facilitated additional area in to production.
305
Energy Use Pattern in Production Agriculture of Arid Region

(Western Rajasthan), India
H. Singh, H.L. Kushwaha, A.K. Singh and D. Mishra

Division of Agricultural Engineering and Energy, Central Arid Zone Research Institute,
Jodhpur, 342 003, Rajasthan, India
The data on energy use pattern and resources present in village ecosystem of arid region are seldom available. India
possesses about 31.7 Mha of hot arid areas of which 61.8%, commonly known as “Thar Desert”, is in Rajasthan State
This area is characterized by harsh climatic conditions with active dunal activities. Precipitations are far below (100 -
450 mm yr-1) the evapo-transpiration potential (1500 - 2000 mm yr-1). Soils are sandy having undulating topography
with poor organic carbon content ranging from 0.04 to 0.3% compared to national average of 0.8%. Ground water is
limited and often brackish. Drought is a common phenomenon in the region.
A detailed study of energy use pattern in production agriculture of arid region for representative villages: Pemasar,
district Bikaner; Choukha, district Jodhpur; Siwas, district Pali has been carried out. The data on energy input for
cultivating different crops in Choukha village during 1998-99, in Siwas village during 1999-2000 and in Pemasar village
during 2000-01 were collected, analyzed and are presented in the paper. The duration from 1998 to 2001 remained
drought period and even the kharif crops, despite being rain fed, were taken by the farmers by providing life saving
irrigation. Although 50-60% of the crops failed but due to irrigation yield levels were same or even more during the
period compared to normal rainfall year yield.
For Pemasar village, the average values of energy output–input ratio for cluster bean (rain fed & irrigated), moth
Session 1.5
bean (rain fed and irrigated), and groundnut (irrigated) were 2.1, 0.5, 3.4, 3.5 and 3.0, respectively. Similarly, the
energy ratio for wheat, gram, mustard and rocket salad were 2.1, 1.6, 3.1, and 3.3, respectively. Thus cultivation of
moth bean during kharif season and rocket salad and mustard crops during rabi season is more remunerative to the
farmers of Zone II compared to other crops. For Choukha village, the average values of energy output - input ratio were
found 4.8, 6.8, 3.2 and 2.0, respectively for pearl millet, green gram, wheat and chilly crop suggesting that cultivation
of green gram and pearl millet is most remunerative to the farmers of Zone III compared to other crops. Among the
crops grown in village Siwas, the energy ratio varied from 3.4 to 7.0. Cotton and mustard crop having energy ratio 7.0
and 4.4, respectively are found most profitable compared to other crops. The crop yield can be correlated with energy
input in the form of a second degree polynomial relationship. Optimum input energy levels of some major crops in all
the three zones have been determined. Contribution of commercial and non renewable energy sources are much
higher than non commercial and renewable sources in general and during rabi season in particular.
Disc Seeders in Zero-till Farming: An Australian Perspective
Jack Desbiolles
Institute of Sustainable Systems and Technologies, University of South Australia,
Mawson Lakes Campus, Bldg J1-12, Mawson Lakes, SA5095, Australia
(Email: jacky.desbiolles@unisa.edu.au)
No-till farming systems are increasingly being adopted across Australia by farmers in search of more robust cropping
systems with improved water use efficiencies in an increasingly moisture stressed environment. One pillar of Australian
no-till farming systems is the “knife point press-wheel” direct seeding technology used to loosen deep narrow furrows,
incorporate and concentrate soil applied herbicides onto the inter-row zone, and shape water-harvesting furrows with
press-wheels. In contrast, the consideration of disc seeders – enabling very low soil/residue disturbance direct seeding
operations - is recently gaining ground, particularly among the longer term no-till farmers, who are seeking to fine tune
the performance of their farming systems under a ‘zero-till’ approach.
306
A nation-wide survey conducted in 2007 highlighted the main incentives behind the adoption of disc seeders
enabling a wide range of agronomic, practical, economic and sustainability improvements of cropping systems. These
included the ability to retain and handle heavier crop residue at seeding, deliver greater work rate capacity for improved
timeliness and operate more effectively over stony soils. Conversely, a large number of constraints, some of which
creating significant barriers to the more rapid and widespread adoption of disc seeders in Australia, were also highlighted,
comprising poor handling of sticky soils, inadequate incorporation of soil applied herbicides, poor penetration potential,
high maintenance costs and in-furrow residue pinning limitations.
While the severity of some of these issues was reported to decrease over time – in line with soil structure and
biology gradual improvements under a zero-till farming practice - technological and management solutions were also
developed on-farm to optimise disc seeder performance. Most zero-till farmers remained motivated by the significant
benefits offered within the whole ‘cropping system package’ and directly facilitated by the use of disc seeders. It is
anticipated that disc seeders in a zero-till context will gradually come to play a leading role in the highly mechanised,
large scale Australian farming context.
Design and Development of Human-powered Chaff-Cutter
Q.S. Zakiuddin and J.P. Modak

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Anjuman College of Engineering and Technology, Nagpur, India
(Email: qszaki1@rediffmail.com)
Session 1.5
The human-powered chaff cutter machine has been designed and developed. The machine consists of a human-
powered flywheel motor as energy source. This source comprises of a using a bicyle-drive mechanism with speed
increasing gearing and a flywheel. This energy source drives the process unit through a spiral jaw clutch and troque-
amplification gearing. The operator pumps human energy to the flywheel at a convenient power level for about one
minute. After enough energy is stored, pedaling is stopped and the energy in the flywheel is made available to the
process unit.
Generalized experimental data based models for the human-powered chaff cutting machine have been established
for responses of the system such as resistive torque, number of cuts, process time. On the basis of these models,
optimal values of various independent dimensionless ratios were established to optimize the performance of this
system. An Artificial Neural Network simulation has been developed for the phenomenon which truly represents the
degree of interaction of various independent variables. The generalized experimental models established in this research
are amply validated by experimental findings. This machine is environment-friendly and non-pollutant. It will bring
Innovation and mechanization in Agricultural Engineering. Unskilled women in addition to males may also get
employment. Development of such an energy source has tremendous utility in energizing many rural-based process
machines in places where reliability of availability of electric energy is much low.
Aqueous Fertilizer Seed Drill for Dryland Areas
Indra Mani
Division of Agricultural Engineering, IARI, New Delhi, 110 012, India
The rice- wheat is the most important crop rotation covering nearly 69.3 Mha area out of which wheat cultivation was
undertaken in 26.3 Mha during the year 2005, with a production of 72 Mt. Dry land agriculture constitutes about 67% of
total cultivated area (118 Mha) in India and contributes 42% to food production with average productivity of 0.7 to 0.8
t ha-1. Timeliness is more important in rainfed farming to utilize the available moisture for crop establishment. Uncertainty
307
of soil moisture during sowing time is the main bottleneck in crop production in the rainfed areas as it creates problem
in proper germination of seed and good establishment of crop in the initial stage. Also, in absence of moisture the
applied fertilizer remains unavailable to the plant due to inadequate soil water to dissolve, dilute and convey it to the
root depth level. The heart of the machine is aqueous fertilizer metering system using constant head gravity feed
mechanism with variable nozzle sizes. To determine optimum design values of machine parameters an experimental
setup was developed to vary head and nozzle sizes to optimize discharge from different nozzles. The metering system
consisted of a rotary pump having maximum discharge of 50 L min-1 at an rpm of 1450, two symmetrically mounted
water tanks for supplying aqueous fertilizer to another centrally-mounted water tank where a constant aqueous fertilizer
level was maintained. The constant head level were 47.5, 42.5, 37.5, 32.5 and 27.5 cm. The pumping system also
consisted of nine nozzles having 10, 8, 6 and 4 mm opening connected to a 96 mm dia tube nine in number carrying
aqueous fertilizer directly to the nine respective furrows of the machine. The system was test-evaluated and for a
liquid head of 47.5 cm and 10 mm nozzle opening the pumping unit gave a maximum discharge of 9650 L ha-1, which
meets the requirement of wheat crop in dry land areas. A research prototype of rotary gear pump with constant head
gravity tank having five constant head level i.e. 47.5, 42.5, 37.5 32.5 and 27.5 cm and four nozzle opening of 10, 8, 6
and 4 mm was developed and test evaluated. Increased rate of aqueous fertilizer gave enhanced growth performance
parameters in addition to better germination. For 8000 L ha-1 aqueous fertilizer rate, increase in germination, no of
shoot per plant, no of ear head, plant height, grain yield and straw yield were 51, 48, 38, 11, 38 and 60%, respectively
in comparison to those in plots with no aqueous fertilizer. The use of aqua-ferti seed drill is economical keeping in view
its advantages. The cost of the machine is estimates as Rs. 27,000 with BEP 49% of annual utility of 200 hours and
pay back period of 3 years. The machine has been successfully demonstrated on farmers field in dryland areas of
Rajasthan and Haryana for sowing of wheat crop.
Session 1.5
Development and Performance Evaluation of Tractor front mounted

Maize residue Slasher cum Spreader for Residue Management
B. Sanjeeva Reddy* and R.V. Adake

Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Santoshnagar, Hyderabad, 500 059, Andhra Pradesh, India
(*Email: bsreddy@crida.ernet.in)
The maize crop cultivation increasing in India in general, under rainfed system as Kharif season crop in particular. The
acreage under the crop gone up from 6.203 M ha to 7.520 M ha (approx. 21% increase) with in the span of 7 years ie
2000 to 2007. Seventy two percent of the maize sown is presently under rainfed conditions. This is attributed due to
fact that, maize grain being became main component in animal, poultry and fish feed. The other, reason for the wide
popularity of this crop from the farmer’s point of view is availability of different types of Machinery and Implements for
different cultivation practices right from planting to Intercultural operations and threshing. Thus, maize crop has become
more competitive due to reduced cost of cultivation when compared with other rainfed crops. However, growers are
encountering practical problems with the stover in preparatory tillage operations. In maize, the grain being economical
product, cobs are removed using manual labour. The farmers are not interested to cut and lift the left over stover form
the field, which is considered a low value fodder.
To promote conservation agriculture, the left over stover need to be managed on-site without burying in the soil
using soil inversion tools. Keeping this in view, a Tractor front mounted Slasher cum Spreader was conceptualized and
fabrication work in progress at Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture. The equipment consists of a base
frame work made of mild steel to mount the slashing devices ( two in number) at 90 cm apart in front of a tractor. Each
rotary slashing device ( 110 rpm ) is provided three rigid blades at 1200. Each blade will slash two rows of maize stalk
during operation. Due to speed regulation of the blades and concave shaped cover over the devices, the slashed
residue will spread evenly on the field.
308
Direct Seeded Rice: Putting Double No-till in Practice under

Rice-Wheat Rotation of Indo-Gangetic Plains
Y.S. Saharawat
International Center for Soil Fertility and Agricultural Development (IFDC), PO Box 2040,
Muscle Shoals Alabama 35662, USA
The intensively cultivated irrigated rice-wheat (RW) system of South Asia feeding 22% of world population on less than
5% world land area is the major production system and fundamental to employment, income, and livelihoods for
hundreds of millions of rural and urban poor in the region. Green revolution ensured food security but the recent
analysis showed declining productivity growth of RW and farmer’s profitability under existing management practices.
In addition to fatigued natural resource base, deteriorating soil health, depleting groundwater table, the conventional
RW production technologies are causing environmental pollution and global warming. Under the changing climatic
scenario, producing more food from fewer resources is a greatest challenge before the researchers and farmers as
well. The no-till wheat technology under RW systems has been addressing some of the issues of concern. However,
major cause of concern is conventional rice production system. Therefore, there is a need to develop double no-till
systems for realizing full potential of conservation agriculture in rice-wheat system. Therefore, through these studies,
efforts were made through on-station and farmer participatory field trials to develop, evaluate and refine direct-seeded
rice technology for realizing the potential benefits of double no-till in rice-wheat system.
Results of the 53 participatory field trials carried out in western IGP revealed that rice grain yield under alternative
tillage and crop establishment practices, viz. direct-seeded rice, direct seeded rice co-cultured with Sesbania, unpuddled
Session 1.5
transplanted, zero-till transplanted rice was either at par or higher than the conventional puddled transplanted rice.
However, different alternate tillage and crop establishment techniques responded significantly to various genotypes
and soil types. The yield of rice varieties, hybrid (‘PHB71’) and basmati type (cv ‘Pusa 1121’) were significantly higher
under direct seeding as compared to conventional puddle transplanted rice (CTPR). Soil type played a major role on
performance of alternate tillage and crop establishment methods wherein higher rice yields were recorded on loam soil
as compared to sandy loam soil. The alternate tillage and crop establishment techniques had significant interactions
with land leveling. Farmers participatory trials showed that under alternate tillage and crop establishment techniques
with laser leveling, rice yields were higher by 5-13% with 8-41% less irrigation water use compared to traditional land
leveling under similar set of tillage and establishment techniques. The direct-seeded rice based double no-till technology
enabled farmers to save 5-28% irrigation water use, 40-68% energy use, 6-15% human labour use and improved net
income of US $ 48-102 compared to conventional RW system. Further, analysis of input-output studies using InfoRCT
decision support system showed that the biocide residue index (BRI) under direct-seeded rice co-cultured with Sesbania
(brown manuring) was lower than direct seeded rice whereas double no-till system reduced the global warming potential
by 32% as compared to conventional practices.
Double no-till systems (direct-seeded rice - no-till wheat) resulted in equal or higher productivity compared to
conventional intensive tillage practices in RW system, saved significant volume on irrigation water, improved farm
profitability, reduced global warming potential and other associated benefits for long-term sustainable farming under
intensive agro-ecosystems.
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Session 1.6: Genetic Strategies
Comparative Analysis of Mitotic Aberrations Induced by EMS and

Hydrazine Hydrate in Hordium vulgare L.
I.F Jafri*, A.H. Khan and M. Gulfishan

Department of Botany, Cytogenetics and Mutation Breading Research Laboratory,
Aligarh Muslium University Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India
Cytogenetic studies are important for obtaining information regarding the role and effects of various mutagens and
elucidating the response of various genotypes to a particular mutagen. The present work reports the effect of different
concentrations (0.01, 0.02, 0,03, 0.04, 0.05%) of EMS and hydrazine hydrate (Hz) on mitotic aberrations, seedling
survival, seed germination, plant height and mitotic index, in Hordium Vulgare L. (variety K-508). The control plants
were normal whereas the treated ones showed significant alterations. The mutagens caused dose dependent decrease
in seed germination, seedling survival, plant height and mitotic index. The adverse effect on all the parameters was
found to be positively correlated with mutagenic concentrations. The chromosomal aberrations i.e. stickiness, c-
metaphase, laggard, bridge, fragments, unequal separation, precocious separation, etc. increased with increasing
concentration of EMS and Hydrazine hydrate (Hz). Hydrazine hydrate was found to be more effective than EMS.
Aluminium-Toxicity Tolerant Groundnut Genotypes for Acid Soils

Session 1.6
A.L. Singh1, V. Chaudhari1, M. Datta2, N.P. Singh2, M Raychoudhury3, Gitanjali4,

K.A. Pathak5 and A.K. Vishkarma5
1
National Research Centre for Groundnut, P. B. 5, Junagadh 362 001, India
2
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Tripura, India
3
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Imphal, India
4
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Barapani, India
5
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Kolasib, India
(*Email: alsingh@nrcg.res.in and alsingh_ad1@sancharnet.in)
The stagnated productivity of groundnut, a major oilseed and food legume crop of India, for the past two-decades
coupled with increasing demand necessitated expansion of its cultivation in north-eastern (NE) India, a non-traditional
area where groundnut productivity is twice that of the national average. However, the soils of NE regions are mostly
acidic with 4.5-5.5 pH resulting in aluminium (Al) toxicity in groundnut, particularly in discarded Jhum where no other
crop grows. Groundnut being native of South Africa, where soil are mostly acidic, lot of variations exist in its germplasms
with respect to tolerance to abiotic factors. An effort was made to screen groundnut genotypes for Al-toxicity tolerance,
in the foot hill upland of ICAR Research Complex for North-Eastern Hill regions- Imphal, Barapani (Manipur),‘ Tilla’
lands at Lembucherra (Tripura), and Kolasib (Mizorum). Four hundered groundnut genotypes were screened, in a set
of 100 at a time, for two years each during kharif season of 1998-2006. These genotypes were grown under both
fertilized (50 kg-1 P ha-1 + 2500 kg-1 lime ha-1) and unfertilized conditions and their performance was assessed in terms
of growth (root and shoot length), nutrient deficiencies, mineral contents and yield.
On highly eroded soil of NE region, the roots were severely damaged with fewer nodules and secondary roots. P,
N and Ca- deficiencies were indicated by stunted growth and under developed leaves. Higher root and shoot lengths,
pod number and yields, high P and Ca content in seed and Ca/Al and P/Al ratio and their higher relative values in the
310
unfertilized plot over fertilized one were found associated with Al-toxicity tolerance in groundnut genotypes viz. ICG
1001, 1048, 1355, 3606, 10964, 11183 and NRCG 1308, 7599, 6155. These genotypes can be grown in Al-toxicity
prone acid soils of NEH region and can also be used in breeding programmes for developing high yielding cultivars.
Photosynthesis and Yield Determination of Rice Hybrid and Inbred

Varieties Under SRI Ecosystem
I.M. Khan, G. Jha, O.P. Dhurve and A.K. Jha

College of Agriculture, Rewa, 486 001, JNKVV, Madhya Pradesh, India
The requirement of rice continues to increase because of increase in human population. Physiologically efficient
varieties and hybrids coupled with system of rice intensification (SRI) may resolve the challenge of higher yield potential.
A field experiment was conducted at JNKVV, College of Agriculture Research Farm Rewa, M.P. India during wet
season of 2007 under SRI ecosystem. Physiological efficiency and yield determination in four hybrids and six inbreed
varieties of rice were measured through LI-COR 6400 Lin Coln. NEUSA portable photosynthetic system. Under ambient
condition (350-370 µ mol CO2 mol air-1), the rate of photosynthesis at flowering stage was maximum in PRH- 10 (17.48
µ mol m2 s-1) with 8.90 t ha-1 followed by KRH-2 (17.41 µ mol m2 s-1) with 8.66 t ha-1. Among the inbreed varieties, MR-
219 recorded the highest photosynthesis (17.20 µ mol m2 s-1). The higher photo synthetic rate in leaves was due to
higher intercellular CO2 concentration (212 to 265 µ mol CO2 mol air-1), optimum LAI (4.5 to 6.0) and transpiration rate
(8.55 to 9.05 mol H2O m2 s-1). Wider spacing (25×25 cm/plant) and alternate wet dry aerobic condition of SRI also
resulted in higher number of tillers/plant (15.31 to 16.80), less chaffy grains with higher ripening (81.10 to 92.11%)
which resulted in higher yield (7.70 to 8.90 t ha-1).
Session 1.6
Role of Front Line Demonstrations (FLD’s) in Dissemination of Scientific
Technology, Improved Genotypes and upliftment of Socially Backward
Classes of Jammu & Kashmir
A.A. Lone*, F.A. Nehvi, M.I. Makhdoomi and M.A. Khan

Karewa Damodhar Research Station, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agriculture Sciences and Technology,
Kashmir Post Box No. 905, GPO Srinagar, Kashmir,190 001, J & K, India
(*Email: ajaz999@gmail.com)
Maize is an important crop of poor and socially backward gujars and tribes living on borders or hilly terrains. Adaption
of relatively low yielding cultivars, conventional organic practices, poor nutrient management, lack of irrigation facilities
and pest incidences are the major constraints regressing the development of maize in these areas. With the introduction
of ISOPOM (FLD), there has been significant impact on overall productivity of maize and security of farmers. 2452
FLDs were conducted during 2004-2007 in all maize growing areas of a Kashmir valley covering an area of 980
hectares. The programme benefited 3273 maize farmers. Significant impact of demonstrations on enhancing maize
yield of state by a margin of 83% was recorded. Maize Yield in different districts under improved technologies and high
yielding varieties ranged from 32.21 q ha-1 (Kupwara) to 38.91 q ha-1(Budgam) with difference in FLD yield and State
Average Yield (q) ranging from 14.25 to 20.95 quintals showing an over all increase of 79.34% to 117.0%. Performance
of composite hybrids was superior to local cultivars. Under mid altitude condition (1600-1800 m.a.m.s.l), composite C-
6 was identified as best composite followed by Makha-11 showing an increase of 112 & 90 per cent, respectively over
local cultivars. Early maturity composites C-15 & PS-43 were statistically at par in performance and revealed distinct
311
yield superiority by 86.5%. Extra early maturity composites (KG-1 & KG-2) performed very well under mid to high
altitudes conditions of Kashmir with an average yield potential of 3.3 t ha-1. Besides Gurez, these genotypes can
profitably be cultivated under high altitude areas of valley. Sweet corn (Madhuri) performed well under low altitude
conditions with a yield potential of 3.5 t ha-1. Among the hybrids, extra early hybrid W3XW5 performed better with
distinct yield superiority by 117%. No other hybrid was found statistically superior or at par with composites Among
composites, highest performance was recorded in district Budgam (4.07 t ha-1) showing an increase of 101 per cent
over local. Among hybrids, districts Srinagar & Anantnag were identified as promising districts. FLD results suggest
that there is a potential for harnessing high productivity from maize areas of Kashmir valley, provided scientific
technologies with high yielding varieties are adopted by the farmers.
The Effect of Embryo Age in Ovary Culture Technique for Producing

Inter-generic Hybrids (Salix alba X Populus caspica)
A. Ahmadi* and D. Azadfar

Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Shahid Beheshti st,. Gorgan, Iran
(*E mail: Ahmadi.1870@Gmail.com)
Poplars and willows are considered as woody biomass resources in agricultural and forest industrial products. Thus,
the new hybrids can be attractive crop for farmers and landowners. The present study was carried out to investigate
the effect of embryo age in ovary culture technique for producing inter-generic hybrids in Salicaceae. The crossing was
performed between poplar and willow genera with Salix alba and Populus caspica species on isolated ovaries from
exotic pollens. Three treatments of embryo age were considered for germinating of hybrid embryos. The cultures were
performed at 10, 14 and 21 days after pollination and ovaries transferred to MS medium with 3% sucrose, 0.4% agar
Session 1.6
and 5.8 pH. The highest and the lowest germination percentage were at 14 and 21 days after pollination, respectively.
The comparison of length and width of ovary and embryo in S. alba x P. caspica crosses during three developmental
stages indicated significant differences for length and width of ovary and also width of embryo but no significant
differences for embryo length. A significant increase was observed in the percentage of germinating embryos with a
more advanced developmental stage. This stage was until 14 days after pollination, while a decrease was mentioned
in 21 days after pollination. According to achieved data in this study, 14 days after pollination was the most effective
age of embryos for producing inter-generic hybrids (Salix alba X Populous caspica) in Salicaseae.
Herbicidal Options for Weed Management in Soybean
A. Dixit and J.G. Varshney

National Research Centre for Weed Science (ICAR), Maharajpur, Jabalpur, Madha Pradesh, India
Soybean is the most important and valuable oilseed crop of India. Weeds are one of the major deterrents in sustaining
the soybean productivity. They compete with the crop for nutrients, soil moisture, sunlight and space reduce the yield
by 20 to 85%. The initial duration of 15-45 days is very critical for weeds competition. Different methods of weed
management in soybean including preventive, cultural, mechanical, chemical and biotechnological are being used
with varying degree of success. Presently, single application of any recommended herbicides is being used for controlling
weeds in soybean. But, most of the time, single application of any herbicide has not been much effective in curbing the
weed menace under diversified weed flora. Hence, an attempt has been made to use sequential application of herbicide
for controlling weeds in soybean. A field experiment was conducted during kharif season consisting of eight treatments
replicated thrice in a randomized block design. Results revealed that infestation of weeds reduced the seed yield of
312
soybean by 74.6%. Among the pre-emergence application of herbicide metribuzin @ 500 g ha-1 was superior in
reducing the weed density and biomass of weeds over pendimethalin @ 1000 g ha-1 and flumioxazin @ 50 g ha-1.
Sequential application of flumioxazin as pre-emergence @ 50 g ha-1 followed by fenoxaprop-p-ethyl @100 g ha-1
applied as post-emergence caused maximum reduction in the weed growth with no inhibitory effects on soybean
seedlings. Higher seed yield was obtained because of relatively low competitional stress and better yield attributes
as compared to pre-emergence application. However, application of flumioxazin as pre-emergence herbicide followed
by one hand weeding was also at par with other treatments. Among the post-emergence application of imazethapyr
@ 100 g ha-1 produced yield similar to that of quizalofop-p-ethyl @50 g ha-1 and fenoxaprop-p-ethyl @ 100 g ha-1
applied as post-emergence herbicide.
Growth Regulator’s Priming Ameliorates Salt Stress and Enhances the

Growth and Yield of Wheat (Triticum Aestivum L.)
T.N. Tiwari and A.B. Mandal

Directorate of Seed Research, Mau, 275 101, Uttar Pradesh, India
A field experiment was conducted with one year old wheat seeds of variety HUW-234 primed in solutions 100 ppm
concentration of different plant growth regulators, viz: IBA,GA-3, kinetin and salicylic acid separately for 12 hours
period. The seeds were taken out after priming period and allowed for shade drying till original moisture was attained.
Primed seeds as well as unprimed seeds (control) were sown in the field in randomized block design with three
replicates. Other cultural and nutritional requirements were applied as per the recommendations.The field soil was
sodic having pH range 9-9.5 and was pre-dominated by sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3).
Priming of wheat seed with any of plant growth regulators used, showed higher germination percentage, plant
Session 1.6
height, tillers, total dry matter, yield attribute and grain yield over unprimed control. Amongst the treatments, the significant
improvement in germination, plant height, tillers, dry matter production and finally the grain yield was obtained by GA-
3 priming followed by kinetin as compared to control. Yield attributes, like spike length, number of spikelets/spike and
number of grains/spike were unaffected by priming treatments. In test weight, responses of kinetin and IBA priming
were found to be significant. Findings suggest the immense role of growth regulators in amelioration of salt stress
through improvement in growth and yield in wheat under salt dense sodic soils.
Inter-Population Segregation of Quercus castaneifolia Seeds

in Golestan, Iran
A. Mirsadeghi and D. Azadfar

Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Shahid Beheshti st, Gorgan, Iran
(E mail: Hyrcania.795795@gmail.com)
Quercus castaneifolia is one of the important species in north forestes of Iran which is considered as useful plant
in agricultural and forest industrial products. Seeds’s geographical segregation is considered as the cheapest and
the fastest method to achieve a higher genetic yield in plantation. The present work was undertaken to investigate
Inter-population segregation of Quercus castaneifolia seeds in Golestan, Iran. Four different seed origins of this
species were selected through the province that were in the lowest growth with same aspect and slope. Then seed
characteristics were compared. Also, climatic factors such as temperature and rainfall, edaphical factors such as
pH and soil texture and tree characteristics such as diameter and total height were assessed in four regions.
Variance analysis and classification of data with cluster analysis showed two different provenances of oak in all over
province. Seed weight was identified as the best attribute in first assessment in interpopulation segregation.
313
Threatened Aromatic Rice Varieties Of Orissa-Need Conservation
B. Singh, M.K. Mishra and R.K. Nayak

Regional Research and Technology Transfer Station,OUAT, Bhubaneswar,751 003,Orissa, India
Surveys have shown that with the spread of new high yielding varieties (HYVs) of rice there is continuous erosion of
traditional Varieties. Hence there is an urgent need to conserve the traditional varieties/germplasms before they are
lost for ever. It has been estimated that while there are about 80,000 local rice varieties available world wide, nearly
40,000 to 50,000 such varieties are still found in India. Orissa, the “secondary center of origin of cultivated rice” has
about 10,000 to 15,000 traditional cultivars. Among the traditional rice varieties, land races of aromatic rice are of
special significance as they are in the process of extinction in spite of their high economic potential in the present WTO
regime.
A systematic survey and collection found more than one hundred land races of aromatic rice in Orissa which were
short & round grained with pleasant aroma. Seeds of these varieties were small to medium in size with little elongation
during cooking. Unlike traditional Basmati rice, these varieties retain aroma even when they were grown in prevailing
warmer climate. They were tall and hence prone to lodging on fertilizer application but displayed strong adaptation to
local climatic condition and also wide diversity as regards to colour, size, presence of own, cooking quality and dormancy
Though these aromatic rice varieties fetch better price premia in the market, they are mostly cultivated by a few
affluent big farmers for their home consumption as they are poor yielders. Though some effort has been made in the
past for their survey, collection and documentation, this effort appears sporadic. Hence, there is urgent need to
systematically survey, collect and document and conserve them in-situ and protect them from erosion. Not only the
traditional aromatic varieties but also traditional knowledge associated with these varieties needs systematic
documentation and conservation.
Session 1.6
Improving Phosphorus Fertility in Low-Input Agricultural Systems

through Biological Interventions
B.R. Singh
Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences,
Box 5003,1432 Ås, Norway
Among the main biophysical constraints to food production in the traditional low input systems in the humid and sub
humid tropics is phosphorus (P) deficiency caused by the inherently low levels of available P in heavy textured and
highly weathered soils, which is further exacerbated by the lack of P inputs to replace P removed in harvested crops
and lost in soil erosion. In such soils, biological processes are of great importance in enhancing P availability to crops.
Best management strategies for P in low-input systems are the use of organic residues, such as manures and composts,
and plant biomass. Plants also promote microbial turnover by exuding organic carbon from their roots. Biomass transfer
in such soils consists of leguminous plants and grasses through green manure and agro forestry. Some plants are
well-adapted to low P availability due to their rooting pattern and root characteristics, associations with mycorhizal
fungi, or ability to take up soil P from recalcitrant compounds. By selecting and breeding plant germplasm adapted for
these traits, plants can further enhance the cycling of soil P. Soil microbes play a key role in enhancing P availability
because of their ability to transform P in organic amendments and in soil organic matter (SOM). However, biological
processes are difficult to assess because they have complex interactions with various other processes. However,
in view of positive effects in field trials such practices merit serious consideration, present work focuses on P pools
and their dynamics in soils, best management practices (primarily organic based systems and less soluble P
fertilizers, i.e. phosphate rock), acquisition of P by species and cultivars under low-input systems, integrated
management of organic (Po) and inorganic (Pi). It will be elucidated as to how SOM management coupled with
314
adapted germplasm and strategic inputs of low doses of P, and rhizosphere management can raise crop productivity
and enhance fertility and resource efficiency. Since SOM boosts soil microbial activity, the microbiologically-driven
processes in soil P dynamics are enhanced and the microbial P pool is increased. Trees and shrubs that effectively
mine soil P while providing income can be an important component for efficient P use. Phosphate rock has proved
beneficial, especially the modified PRs, either through acidulation or combination with organic materials. Several
superior crop and forage germplasms have shown adaptation to soils with low P availability. These P-efficient
germplasms in combination with strategic P inputs can contribute to agricultural sustainability in low-input systems.
Developing Resource Efficient Durum Wheat Genotypes for

Better Yield and Quality
B.S. Tyagi, J. Shoran, G. Singh and B. Mishra

Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal 132 001, Haryana, India
India is one of the leading durum producing countries in the world with an acreage of around 2.5 Mha and production
around 3.5 Mt. Durum, a cultivated tetraploid species of wheat is traditionally grown mainly under hot and dry conditions
of central and peninsular regions of India. It is considered superior than bread wheat for the production of semolina
and various pasta products having better cooking qulity. In this context, it becomes necessary to cut the cost of
cultivation, minimize the use of chemicals, manage the disease problems particularly Karnal Bunt through host resistance
and develop durum wheat genotypes possessing high quality and resource input efficiency. Major durum growing
areas lie in central and peninsular India, where the crop duration is shorter, the water availability is less and terminal
heat affect the grain filling and thus the overall production. Hence, for these areas varieties are needed with rapid grain
Session 1.6
filling rate without compromising the quantity and quality of produce. Experiments were conducted to evaluate durum
wheat genotypes in the advance generations for irrigation scheduling to promote water efficiency along with crop
duration to realize maximum gains per unit time and area. The efficiency of durum wheat varieties under 2-3 irrigations
could further be increased, by evaluating genotypes that had suitable attributes namely shorter plant height (80 cm),
crop duration (120 days), multiple disease resistance and end product quality. The agronomic attributes were manipulated
through hybridization due to wide variability in the germplasm and the segregating material was for multilocational
testing in central and Peninsular India. The promising genotypes namely Raj 1555, HI 8498, GW 2, HD 4672 and
MACS 2846 were found to be good combiners for shorter duration and abiotic stresses (heat and drought). The elite
lines having high beta-carotene, protein and low yellow berry incidence were used as donors. The segregating material
was assessed for major attributes and the initial results helped in identifying lines with high beta-carotene (8 ppm),
protein (14 per cent) and yellow berry incidence of less than one per cent. In some of the early maturing plants, grain
size was better (60 g per 1000 grains) with high tillering capacity (about 400 tillers per square meter). The development
of improved durum genotypes would be effective to promote conservation agriculture without compromising quality.
Stability of Surrogate Traits of Water-Use Efficiency in

Peanut (Arachis Hypogaea L.)
C. Lal, K. Hariprasanna, A.L. Rathnakumar, B.M. Chikani and H.K. Gor

National Research Centre for Groundnut, P.B. # 5, Junagadh 362 001, Gujarat, India
Genetic gains in yield under rainfed conditions have been achieved by empirical breeding methods. Progress has
been slow, however, by large genotype x season and genotype x location interactions arising from unpredictable
rainfall, which is a feature of dry environments. A physiological approach can complement empirical breeding and may
315
enhance the rate of yield improvement by identifying important traits for which inadequate genetic variation is
available in the breeders’ populations. This may result in the identification of new parental lines to generate greater
variability in key targeted traits for selection. Specific targeting of physiological traits having high heritability may be
more effective than direct selection for yield. Use of soil plant analytical development (SPAD), chlorophyll meter
readings (SCMR) and specific leaf area (SLA) have been advocated as surrogates to adjudge water-use efficiency
of large number of peanut genotypes. Fifty genotypes evaluated in this study under regularly irrigated as well as
simulated drought stress conditions at vegetative, flowering and peg formation, and pod development stages revealed
that though the irrigation treatments have not affected manifestations of SCMR and SLA, and genotypes x irrigation
treatments interaction were also negligible, the seasonal effects have been significant which are attributed to
differences in the night temperatures observed during the growth periods in two seasons. Highly significant differences
due to genotypes were observed for both SCMR and SLA at all the three stages of growth across the irrigation
treatments. Respective performances of SCMR and SLA under irrigated conditions were strongly and positively
correlated (P= 0.001) with their corresponding performances under drought conditions at all the three growth
stages, at the same time such correlations between these two traits were significantly negative (P= 0.001).
Respective performances of these traits between growth stages under an irrigation treatment were also positively
correlated (P= 0.001). Genotypes namely, JUG 2, JUG 19, JUG 22, JUG 26 and JUG 37 found to possess high
SCMR and/or low SLA can find their way into hybridization programmes as donor parents for the development of
peanut cultivars for rainfed farming system. These traits, preferably SCMR, can be recorded at any stage of the
crop growth irrespective of the growing conditions (irrigated/drought) to strengthen peanut breeding programmes
aimed at tolerance of drought stress in drought environments as uncertainty of rains in these regions will not affect
efficacy of selections for these traits.
Molecular Characterization of Aspergillus Section Flavi Isolates

Collected from Groundnut Fields in India using AFLPs
Session 1.6
D. Singh, T. Radhakrishnan, V. Kumar, N.B. Bagwan, U.M. Vyas and J.R. Dobaria
National Research Center for Groudnut, P.B. No. 5, Ivnagar Road, Junagadh, 362 001, Gujarat, India
Aflatoxin contamination of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.), due to invasion by Aspergillus sp. particularly by Aspergillus
flavus is a major problem in rainfed agriculture in the semi-arid tropic environment. Aspergillus sp. are well-known to
play a role in three different clinical settings in man and animals: (i) opportunistic infections; (ii) allergic states; and (iii)
toxicoses. The stringent tolerance limits for aflatoxin imposed in groundnut products by the importing countries have
jeopardized the export earning, depriving the country of valuable foreign exchange. Molecular characterization of 187
Aspergillus flavus isolates, collected from groundnut fields of 10 different districts of Gujarat during 12 months period,
was performed using Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) is presented in this report. The study was
conducted to evaluate genetic relatedness among isolates from different locations and to identify some AFLP molecular
markers along with their correlation with the isolates’ toxigenic potentials. Based on pooled cluster analysis, AFLP
technique could successfully discriminate ‘B’ and ‘G’ group isolates from ‘A’ group. Most of the isolates of same district
could be clustered together, which showed their genetic similarity. With in district and within a group also, a considerable
genetic variability was observed. The study also provided new data on molecular characterization of Aspergillus section
Flavi in India particularly in Gujarat state under groundnut based cropping system.
316
Economic Implications of Converting Natural Grass Land into

Eucalyptus Plantations: A Case Study Nilgiris Tamil Nadu, India
S. Chand1*, A.K. Sikka2, V.N. Sharda3 and R.C. Srivastava1

1
Division of Ag. Economics, Central Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair-744 101,
Andaman & Nicobar Islands, India
2
Rainfed Authority, Got. of India, New Delhi, India
3
Central Soil & Water Conservation Research & Training Institute, Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh, India
(*Email:Subhash@cari.res.in)
A concern has arisen in many parts of the world over the environmental effects of large scale planting of Eucalyptus
as it was suspected to have adverse effects on soil, water resources and environment. These environmental concerns
are of special interest to the hilly areas which comprise a substantial part of catchment to a number of hydroelectric
reservoirs in Tamil Nadu State of South India. It has been demonstrated and documented based on a long term
experimental watershed study at Glenmorgan by Central Soil and Water Conservation Research & Training Institute,
Research Centre, Nilgiris,Tamil Nadu, India that the conversion of grassland into bluegum plantation decreased average
annual water yield by 16 and 25.4 per cent during the first and second rotation, respectively, apart from drastically
reducing the lean or dry season flow. On the other side, it is debated that there are good economic returns from the
bluegum plantation. The present study was undertaken to assess the environmental economic aspects of converting
grasslands into bluegum plantation. The value of water lost as a result of converting grassland into bluegum plantation
was related to the use to which it is being put such as domestic use, industrial use, etc. The value of lost grass yield
was considered as the cost of the environmental damage (opportunity cost) while carrying out economic analysis.
When the cost of environmental damage was considered, the returns from bluegum plantation were outweighed. On
an overall basis, considering both the first and second rotation, the Internal Rate of Return (IRR) with environmental
consideration came to the level which was not economical. However, if the value of water as a resource was related to
Session 1.6
the highly subsidized domestic rates, the IRR came close to the acceptable economic level. In the hydroelectric
reservoir catchments, when the grasslands was replaced with bluegum, the cost of environmental damages was
higher than the economic returns.
Comparative Efficacy of Herbicides Against Spurge (Euphorbia

geniculata) in Soybean (Glycine Max L.)
V.P. Singh and J.G. Varshney
Continuous use of herbicides like pendimethalin, fluchloralin and alachlor is resulting in development of sever infestation
of non-grassy weeds particularly spurge (Euphorbia geniculata) in Madhya Pradesh. In general, growth rate of this
weed in soybean is very high and it suppresses the crop in its early growth stage. Presently, the weed is more pronounced
in soybean-chickpea system than in soybean-wheat or soybean-mustard systems. Due to non-dormancy, short life
cycle and ability of seeds to remain viable in soil for longer period, it poses a problem for its control. The present study
was undertaken during the rainy seasons of 2001 and 2002 at Jabalpur, to study the comparative bio-efficacy of
different herbicides for the control of the problem of broad leaf weed spurge (Euphorbia geniculata) in soybean. Among
the test herbicides, chlorimuron ethyl 0.01 kg ha-1 being at par with metribuzin 0.5 kg ha-1 significantly reduced the
growth of spurge. Weeds in the control treatment caused 59% seed yield loss as compared to metribuzin 0.5 kg ha-1.
Lactofen 0.15 kg ha-1 showed slight phyto-toxicity on the crop and reduced the plant population and pods/plant.
Metribuzin 0.5 kg ha-1 being at par with chlorimuron-ethyl 0.01 kg ha-1 gave the maximum seed yield and additional
return owing to higher yield attributing characters. But maximum benefit: cost ratio (11.37) was recorded with chlorimuron
0.01 kg ha-1 due to its lower cost.
317
Selection Criteria for Developing Wheat Genotypes Suiting to Zero

Tillage Conditions Emphasizing Root and Shoot Parameters
G. Singh, B.S. Tyagi, R. Chatrath, S.K. Singh, J. Shoran and B. Mishra

Directorate of Wheat Research, Post Box 158, Karnal, 132 001, Haryana, India
In South-East Asia, rice-wheat system is the most common two-crop rotation because of its high economic returns
to the farmers. Wheat cultivation following conservation tillage practices is gaining wide acceptance on account of
more efficient energy usage, promotion of soil health, increasing water and nutrient use efficiency. With the adoption
of resource conservation tillage options, the criteria for selection and advancement of breeding material to these
changed production conditions need a re-look. Two sets of Experiments were conducted for three consecutive
years at the Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal, India to evaluate wheat genotypes for interaction with tillage
practices to assess the role of root and shoot attributes and to develop suitable selection criteria for development
of superior wheat varieties suited to zero tillage conditions. In first experiment, 16 genotypes of wheat were evaluated
under zero tillage conditions for assessing root and shoot parameters as well as grain yield attributes. In the
second experiment, conducted in plastic pots, emphasis was given to root and shoot development only at early
growth stage. Root length and weight showed significant differences due to both genotypes and planting systems.
Significant differences existed among the genotypes for all early stage characters, indicating that sufficient genetic
variability exists to exercise early stage selection. Some varieties like PBW 343, Raj 3765, WH 542, Raj 3777, HD
2402 and PBW 373 were slow starters but later picked up and occupied top ranks for traits, root length and weight.
High estimates of heritability for root weight indicated strong contribution of genetic systems in the expression of
this trait. Hence, root weight seems to be a good selection criterion for developing genotypes adapted to the rice-
wheat cropping system. Shoot length and weight in general showed low to moderate estimates of heritability,
indicating the prominent role of environment and / or other interaction in their expression. Among the post anthesis
agronomic traits, plant height (85), tillers per meter (72) and grains per spike showed moderate to high values of
Session 1.6
heritability under zero tillage conditions. The efficiency of varieties under reduced-tillage production system could
further be increased, by tailoring wheat varieties with suitable attributes for better crop establishment under this
system of conservation agriculture and extract water and nutrient efficiently to support good biomass development
leading to high grain yields. The fast root and shoot growth observed in some of the genotypes in both the experiments
suggest that there is scope to select for a superior root system. Wheat genotypes with early vigor, an efficient root
system, shorter duration coupled with high yield and disease resistance, perform better under zero or reduced
tillage systems. High positive correlations of root length, root weight, shoot weight and tillers per plant with grain
yield indicate that selection for these traits will be effective in future breeding of wheat varieties to promote conservation
agriculture, specifically in the areas where rice-wheat system is practiced.
Indices of Sulphur Mineralization from Contrasting Soils under

Long-Term Cropping
K. Sammi Reddy1, Muneshwar Singh1, K. Sudhir2, A. K. Dwivedi3 and A. Subba Rao1

1
Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabi Bagh, Beraisa Road, Bhopal, 462 038, Madhya Pradesh, India
2
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
3
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalya, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India
The effect of long-term use of fertilizer alone or integrated with farmyard manure (FYM) on S transformations and
availability in different soils under long-term cropping was assessed. Investigations on differentially fertilized Typic
Haplustert under soybean-wheat (Jabalpur) and Kandic Paleustalf under finger millet-maize (Bangalore) revealed that
the cumulative amounts of S mineralized during a 14-week incubation from Alfisol and Vertisol soils after 13- 27 years
318
of cropping ranged from 2.9% of soil organic S in 100% NPK(+S) treatment to 6% in 150% NPK(+S) treatment.
Incorporation of FYM with 100% NPK (+S) resulted in 20% higher mineralized S over 100% NPK (+S) alone.
NaHCO3-extractable total, inorganic, and organic S fractions and NaOH- extractable total and inorganic S fractions
were found to be better indices of soil S mineralization than CaCl2-extractable inorganic S in a Vertisol soil. But the
phosphate extractable S was found as better indicator of soil S mineralization in an acidic Alfisol soil. These
indicators can be used for maintaining and monitoring long-term S fertility of soils in intensive agriculture.
Conservation Tillage Effect on Soil Organic Carbon and Water

Transmission Characteristics of a Vertisol
K.M. Hati, A.K. Misra, K.G. Mandal and R.K. Singh

Beneficial effect of conservation tillage in reducing soil and nutrient losses through erosion, improving the timeliness of
sowing and saving energy input are well established. Owing to the differences in the amount of residues added and the
intensity and frequency of tillage operations, different tillage systems are reported to influence the physical properties
of soil such as water retention capacity, aggregation, porosity and water transmission properties. The objective of the
present study was to examine the long-term impact of conservation tillage practices on infiltration, hydraulic conductivity
and water retention capacity of Vertisols under soybean-wheat system. Four tillage treatments, viz. conventional tillage
(CT), mould board ploughing (MB), reduced tillage (RT), and no tillage (NT) from a long-term tillage experiment on
soybean continuing at the experimental farm of the Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal was chosen for the study.
The infiltration rate, hydraulic conductivity and water retention capacity were determined after six cropping cycles.
Session 1.6
Infiltration properties (infiltration rate, cumulative infiltration and sorptivity of soil) were higher under no tillage compared
to conventional tillage treatment. Similarly, saturated hydraulic conductivity at 0-15 cm layer was highest in no tillage
treatment followed by mould board tillage and reduced tillage treatments and it was lowest in conventional tillage
treatment. Below that depth effect of treatment on hydraulic conductivity was not significant. This might be ascribed to
better aggregation of soil under conservation tillage due to retention of crop residues and less disturbance of the top
soil owing to reduced tillage operations. Water retention by undisturbed soil cores were estimated at 4 cm and at air
entry potential (50 cm) using sand box. In the plough layer, the soil water retention both at 4 and 50 cm suction was
significantly higher in NT, MB and RT than in CT treatments. Imposition of tillage treatments significantly influenced the
organic carbon content of soil. The SOC of conservation tillage plots was significantly more than the conventional
tillage plots. The effect of tillage treatments on seed and biomass yield of soybean during the sixth year of study was
not significant. The average seed yield of soybean varied between 1.25 and 1.39 kg ha-1 among the tillage treatments.
The grain and biomass yield of wheat in the following winter season was also not affected significantly due to variations
in tillage treatments. The present study thus clearly demonstrated that conservation tillage practices could maintain
the yield level of soybean and wheat up to the yield level of conventional tillage treatment with simultaneous saving of
energy and improvement in the water retention and transmission characteristics of Vertisols.
319
Evaluation of Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) Genotypes for Fruit

and Aril Quality Characteristics under Semi-Arid Climate
K.K. Meena1, R. Singh1, S. Pareek2 and P. Kashyap3

1
Division of Fruits and Horticultural Technology, IARI, New Delhi, India
2
Department of Horticulture, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
3
IARI Regional Research Station, Shimla, India
Twenty four diverse bearing 8 to 10 year old pomegranate genotypes, both exotic and indigenous were evaluated for
morphological and flowering characteristics. The experiment was carried out for two consecutive years during ambe
bahar, i.e. flowering period of February-March in the years of 2000 and 2001 at the experimental orchard of Division of
Fruits and Horticultural Technology, IARI, New Delhi. The experiment was conducted in randomized block design with
three replications. The experimental material comprised 10 indigenous genotypes, viz. Alandi, Kandhari, Jalore Seedless,
Ganesh, P-23, P-26, Bassein Seedless, Dholka, Jyoti, Jodhpur Red and G-137, as well as 14 exotic genotypes, viz.
Siah Shirin, Achick Dana, Gul-e-Shah, Kazak Anar, Sur Sakkar, Speen Danedar, Speen Sakarin, Kali Shirin, Muscat,
Ak Anar, Khoj, Bedana Sadana and Shirin Anar. The observations recorded were fruit yield plant-1, average fruit
weight, fruit length, fruit breadth, fruit cracking, average rind weight, rind thickness, rind colour, seed content, number
of blackish seeds fruit-1, and aril colour.
Highest average fruit weight was observed in P-26 (296 g) and lowest in Sur Sakkar (125 g) with population mean
of 208 g. Fruit length was ranged from 5.10 cm (Siah Shirin and Sur Sakkar) to 7.83 cm (Dholka), whereas fruit breadth
ranged from 5.60 cm (Sur Sakkar) to 7.80 cm (G-137). Highest fruit cracking noticed in Jodhpur Red (22.3%) and
lowest in Kali Shirin (5.67%). Genotype Khog showed highest rind weight and rind thickess and thinnest rind was
showed by Jodhpur Red. Eleven genotypes were found to be yellowish rind having varying intensities of green, pink,
red and brown colours. The population mean for seed content was 19.4 per cent with range from 32.8 per cent in Gul-
e-Shah to 9.40 per cent in Jyoti. Minimum black seeds per fruit were noticed in Siah Shirin and Gul-e-Shah (4.00).
Session 1.6
Different aril colours ranged from red, dark pink, pink red, and pinkish white were observed in these genotypes.
Characterization of Diversity in Anther Seed Traits in Maize, and the

Effect of Mating System, Competition and Selection on the Magnitude of
Inbreeding in Constant and Fluctuating Environments
L.P. Subedi
Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Tribhuvan University, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal
From two districts of Nepal, Bhaktapur and Chitwan, some of the inflorescence mutants of maize, were collected. The
frequencies of mutants from Bhaktapur varied from 0-1 in most of the fields (1000 plants). In Chitwan, two varieties of
maize, viz. Rampur Yellow and Arun-II, produced mutants ranging from 2 to 25%. In some fields, 25% plants were
mutants, 25% lethal and 50% normal looking. In a large random mating experimental population of Arun-II, the frequency
of tassel seed mutants (tsts) was 0.010676516 ± 0.000663. In a commercial seed source of the variety, the mutant
frequency rose to 0.1071±0.009. In farmers’ kitchen garden, varying magnitude of inbreeding was observed. These
tassel seed mutants were grown to estimate the fitness parameters: The predicted fitness was based on presence or
absence of anther seed (x1) and base circumference in cm (x2). The regression equation was: Fitness, y =
-0.5129 +0.21473x2 – 0.32294x1 with R²= 60.5%. From tentative genotypes associated with the mutants, the fitness
matrix was derived based on 2 loci with or without linkage. Different levels of inbreeding were simulated based on zero
to 0.5 proportion of selfing and remaining out-crossing. For fixed environments, following genotypic fitness values
were considered, while for fluctuating environments the fitness values were changed randomly or semi-randomly in
each generation but within a fixed range of the original values.
320
In case of selection in fluctuating environments, populations suffered more or less inbreeding than those in fixed
environment at the same levels of other parameters, based on random or semi random nature of selection matrix,
respectively. No equilibrium gene frequencies were obtained for fluctuating environments at the generations reported
for fixed environments. The mean fitness was lower for semi-random selection matrix than those for other environments.
When the starting gametic frequencies were similar to that of a large random mating population, no inbreeding was
obtained up to 34 generations, followed by increasing magnitude up to 200 generations to stabilize around 13%
(F=0.13). In intergenotypic competition (complementary, over compensatory and under compensatory), 10-11% tassel
seed mutants were obtained in 20-30 generations and 14.5% at equilibrium (t = 330 generations) without suffering
inbreeding.
The Effect of Different Levels of Phosphorous and Nitrogen Fertilizers

on Rape Seed after Rice Harvest in North of Iran
M. Ashouri
Islamic Azad University, Lahijan branch, Iran
(E-mail:mashouri48@yahoo.com)
Domestic production of vegetable oil in Iran is about 100000 t while its consumption rates exceed 850000 tons in
Iran yearly. This huge difference is made-up by import. The surface area under cultivation in the northern regions of
Iran is over 460000 ha which for the most part is only used in the first six mounts of the year. Rape seed is one of the
products that can be used as double cropping after harvest of rice paddies. A field experiment with completely randomized
block design (factorial) using three replicates was conducted in lahijan in 2005-2006. The first factor was included of
Session 1.6
three levels of phosphorus fertilizer (p1=0, p2=50, p3=100 kg ha-1) and the last factor contained four different levels of
nitrogen fertilizers (n1=0, n2=100, n3=150, n4=200 kg ha-1. Treatment n4 was most superior of all the treatments.
Number of silique in bush had the maximum effect on seed yield. Percentage of oil seed with increase in application
rate of nitrogen fertilizer decreased. The excessive consumption of phosphorous fertilizer is a critical issue of great
concern in rice paddies of northern Iran. The results showed non significant difference in different levels of phosphorous
fertilizer.
Effect of Method of Micronutrient Application on Yield of

Two Potato Cultivars
A. Nasseri, M.B. Khorshidi, R. Easazadeh, M. Yarnia, D. HassanPanah

East Azarbaijan Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center Jahad –e – Agriculture- TikmeDash
Islamic Azad University-Tabriz branch
Ardebil Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center
To study the effect of microelement application method on tuber yield and agronomic attributes of potato, a RCBD
based split plot design was conducted in three replicates on four potato cultivars in Bostan-Abad region in 2005. Main
plot consisted of 5 levels as control (soil application of NPK fertilizer as recommended by local soil analysis laboratory),
L2 (control+ soil application of Mn and Zn micronutrients as 50 kg ha -1), L3 (L2+microelements foliar application as
0.006 at 4-6 leaf stage), L4 (L3+ microelements foliar application as 0.006 at before 10% of flowering), and L5 (L4+
microelements foliar application as 0.006 at after flowering) and sub plots were Agria, and Marquis cultivars. There
was significant difference among fertilization levels in terms of total and commercial yield, dry matter percentage, tuber
number and weight in plant, plant height, tuber number little than 35 mm (little tubers) and 35-55 mm (seed tubers),
321
tuber weight 35-55 mm and bigger than 55 mm (edible tubers). There was significant difference between cultivars in
total and commercial yield, dry matter percentage, tuber number and weight in plant, plant height, main stem per plant,
seed tuber and edible tuber number. The highest tuber total and commercial yield, dry matter percentage, tuber number
and weight in plant, tuber number and weight of seed tubers, edible tuber number wad observed in 3rd level of fertilizer.
Agria had the highest tuber total and commercial yield, dry matter percentage, tuber weight in plant, plant height, main
stem per plant, seed and edible tuber weight, and the least tuber number per plant, tuber number and weight of little,
seed and edible tubers. Tuber total yield had significant positive correlation with commercial yield, little, seed and
edible tuber classes’ weight. Correlation between commercial yield with tuber weight in plant, main stem per plant,
seed and edible tuber weight was significantly positive but with little tuber weight, was significantly negative.
Bioprospecting Oil Palm for Useful Genes
M. Jayanthi* and P.K. Mandal

National Research Centre for Oil Palm, Pedavegi, West Godavari Dist., Andhara Pradesh, India
(*Email: jayman21@gmail.com)
Oil palm, the highest yielding oil crop in the world is one of the remarkable crops. No wonder, that cultivation and
production of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) has seen a meteoric rise in recent years. Unlike other oil crops, it
produces two types of oils. The mesocarp of its fruit produces palm oil (mostly used as food), and kernel oil (a lauric oil,
mostly used for confectionery and oleochemicals) comes from its seed. The kernel cake, after oil extraction, is a
valuable animal feed. Apart from its use as edible oil and its extensive use in the food industry, it is also used as biofuel.
From being almost unknown oil a mere three decades ago, it is now the second most traded and consumed edible oil
in the world. In India, the crop was introduced for cultivation only a few decades ago and the research on this crop was
Session 1.6
started a few years ago.

Oil palm fruit yields the highest amount of carotenoids among all plant sources. Red palm oil extracted from the
fleshy mesocarp of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) fruit, is the richest natural food source of b-carotene, having 400-
700 mg of b-carotene/g of oil compared to 2-50 mg g-1 in other yellow fruits and vegetables. Once the genes responsible
for such high expression of b-carotene is elucidated and if the genes prove to be more efficient in producing carotenoids
other than in oil palm system, they can be over expressed in other plants producing/not producing carotenoids or in
microbial systems for production, extraction and commercialization, which may add to the current repertoire of carotenoids
rich sources available for consumption.
Added to that this remarkable crop is a custodian of several useful genes. Bioprospecting of oil palm is a new area
of research which is emerging, where the important products, metabolites, and mainly genes of oil palm can be utilized
for producing high value products by other plant or organism. This paper discusses about the useful genes present in
oil palm and how it can be made useful for the mankind.
Effect of Feeding Genetically Modified Cottonseed Containing Cry1A

Gene on Lamb Performance and Health
M.K. Tripathi*, S.A. Karim, D. Mondal and S.K.S. Raghuvansi

Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Avikanagar (via- Jaipur), 304 501, Rajasthan, India
(*Email: mktripathi@gmail.com)
The effect of feeding Bt cotton seed containing gene Cry1A that produce an insect controlling protein was evaluated on
lamb health and performance, because of food and feed safety concern over BT crops. Three test diets were prepared
322
to provide adequate nutrient to support active growth of weaner lambs. The total mixed rations contained 60%
concentrate that had 30% groundnut cake (GNC) fed to control group of lambs, whereas lambs of non- BT (Cottonseed)
and BT (BT-cottonseed) group had 30% respective cottonseed. Total mixed rations were prepared separately,
which had 18% either of GNC, non-BT cottonseed and BT-cottonseed. The lambs were fed individually to monitor
feed intake, growth and general health. Nutrient (OM, CP and fiber fractions) and mineral (Ca, P, Mn, Co and Zn)
contents were identical in BT-cotton and non-BT cotton seeds. The growth performance of lambs was similar on
control, non- BT cotton seed and BT-cotton seed included diets. The growing lambs consumed 168 g BT-cotton
seed per day and did not have apparent adverse effect on dry matter intake, nutrient utilization and nitrogen
balance. Similarly BT-cotton seed intake of 0.68% of body weight or 19.5% of dry matter intake did not produce
deleterious effect on performance and dry matter intake, thus palatability and growth performance was not a
problem for BT-cotton seed feeding in lambs even under high plane of nutrition. Rumen fermentation characteristics,
viz pH, TVFA and NH3-N concentrations were not influenced by feeding of GNC, BT or non-BT cotton seed in lamb
diets. Heamatological observations did not change due to BT-cotton seed feeding compared to non-BT cottonseed
or GNC feeding. Intrestigly feeding of BT-cotton seed increased RBC and decreased WBC in blood. Serum IgG level
did not change due to BT and non-BT cotton seed feeding. Thus feeding of BT-cottonseed to lambs did not alter
immunity and allergen status. The weights of kidney, spleen, pancrease, heart, lung, penis, kidney fat, cole fat, GI
tract, ingest and empty GI tract were not different among BT cotton seed and non-BT cotton seed fed lambs.
However BT cotton seed feeding increased liver weight, testicle weight and testicles fat g kg-1 empty live weight.
Growing lambs consumig 168 g BT-cotton seed per day did not have apparent adverse effect on dry matter intake.
Similarly BT-cotton seed intake of 0.68% of body weight or 19.5% of dry matter intake did not produce deleterious
effect on dry matter intake, thus palatability is not a problem for BT-cotton seed feeding in lambs. BT-cotton seed
feeding @ 20% of total dry matter intake improved growth, nutrient utilization, rumen fermentation and N balance
compared to non-BT cotton seed feeding. BT-cotton seed feeding did not alter haematological attributes of lambs
that were with in the normal range of variations. More studies are required on larger scale for longer durations to
assess feed and food safety of Bt-cotton plant in relation to production, reproduction and health of animal including
animal food of human food chain.
Session 1.6
Silvipastoral System : Alternate Option for Resource Conservation and
Forage Production in Arid Zone
M. Patidar, B.K. Mathur and N.V. Patil

The necessity to improve food and fodder production through agriculture has increased the exploitation of natural
resources. The soil, a basic resource in any agro-ecosystem, is in advance stage of degradation in many parts of the
world, particularly in arid region, where the ecosystem is highly fragile. Silvipastoral system may help to use the
resources more efficiently because different components like trees, shrubs and pasture grasses compete differently.
Perennial grasses such as Cenchrus ciliaris (L.) and Lasiurus sindicus (Henr.) are suitable for silvipastoral system in
arid zone due to fast growth habit and hardy nature. Colophospermum mopane Kirk Ex Benth and Hadrwickia binata
Roxb. are valued as fodder trees and suited for silvipastoral system in arid and semi-arid regions. Integration of
legume such as Cowpea / Lablab purpureus with grasses and fertilizer application assumes to help in increasing
quality of fodder and improves soil fertility. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of tree species,
cropping system and nitrogen application on the production potential and quality of fodder in silvipastoral system
under arid Rajasthan.
The field experiment was conducted during 2003 to 2006 under rainfed condition at Central Arid Zone Research
Institute, Jodhpur. The treatments consisted of two tree species (Colophospermum mopane and Hardwickia binata),
four cropping systems (Cenchrus ciliaris, Lasiurus sindicus, Cenchrus ciliaris + Cowpea/Lablab purpureus and Lasiurus
sindicus +Cowpea/ Lablab purpureus) and two N levels (0 and 40 kg/ha). These treatments were tested in split plot
designs with three replications keeping tree species in main plot and cropping system and N levels in sub plots.
323
Grasses and legume were grown in strips between the rows of trees. Trees were planted on July 2001 at 9 x 5 m
spacing while grasses and legumes were established in rows at 60 cm spacing.
Average plant height and per cent survival of C. mopane were higher than H. binata. Further the growth of C.
mopane varied significantly due to cropping systems. Fodder production was influenced by the cropping systems and
was maximum with L. sindicus (4.75 and 1.97 t ha-1 green and dry) and lowest in C. ciliaris + legume system (3.94 and
1.61 t ha-1 green and dry). Dry fodder yield was at par in L. sindicus, C. ciliaris and L. sindicus + Legume system but
protein yield was higher in L. sindicus + L. purpureus and C. ciliaris + Llegume systems as compared to sole strips of
respective grasses. Application of 40 kg N ha-1 increased dry fodder yield by 15% and crude protein yield by 29% over
control. Water use efficiency of grasses and Lablab purpureus increased with N application.
Therefore, by introducing grasses, i.e. Cenchrus ciliaris or Lasiurus sindicus and Legume in association with
Colophospermum mopane and Hardwickia binata under silivipastoral system in arid zone, it is possible to get nutritious
fodder without affecting the productivity of land. This system also provides fuel and green fodder during lean periods
and can support 4 cattle unit for 70 days providing 15 kg green fodder per day per cattle unit. The land and water
productivity of the system was also enhanced by the application of 40 kg N/ha
Differential Genotypic Response to Water Saving Technologies in Rice
M.S. Ramesha, M. Suresh Kumar, Ch. Durga, D. Nageshwar Rao, S.R. Voleti and B.C. Viraktamath
Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad, 500 030, Andhra Pradesh, India
Rice is the staple food for nearly half of the world’s population, most of whom live in Asia, where 92% of the world’s
rice is produced and consumed. The food security in Asia largely depends on 75 Mha of irrigated rice. Water is
increasingly becoming scarce and most of the Asian nations including India are expected to face absolute water
scarcity in the coming years thus threatening the sustainability of irrigated rice production. In order to sustain and
Session 1.6
increase the rice production to meet the future demands with limited water supplies, there is a need to develop and
identify superior genotypes suitable for different water saving technologies like aerobic rice, alternate wetting and
drying, system of rice intensification etc. An array of genotypes (>400) consisting of breeding lines, drought tolerant
introgression lines in the genetic back ground of IR 64 and Tequing, hybrids, indica/tropical japonica derivates,
maintainers and restorers of the hybrids were evaluated under direct seeded aerobic and puddled aerobic (alternate
wetting and drying) conditions. The irrigation water required for each situation was quantified and 30-35% of water
saving was achieved. Based on multiple season and year replicated yield trials data, many promising hybrids/
breeding lines were identified for water limited conditions. The frequency of promising entries was high among
hybrids (>35%) followed by drought tolerant introgression lines. The lowest frequency of promising entries was
found among maintainers. Even though the parents are poor performers, many hybrids were found promising
indicating their genetic plasticity. The promising hybrids identified are KRH-2, PA 6444, DRRH-44, PSD-3, DRRH-
28, JKRH-401, PHB-71, HRI-148 and DRRH-2.
Effect of Silicon Application on Growth Characteristics, Resistance

to Stem Borer (Chilo suppresalis), and Yield in Rice
Genotypes (Oryza sativa L.)
M.A. Dehaghi and K. Agahi

Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Shahed University, Tehran, Iran
(Email: amini@shahed.ac.ir)
Rice is an important crop in Iran. Silicon is being increasingly used on rice farms in everglades agriculture areas
due to the benefits of its application, viz. disease control and insect pest management. The objectives of this study
324
were to evaluate the effect of silicon nutrition on growth characters, resistance to stem borer, and yield as well.Twelve
Iranian rice genotypes, viz. Dylamani, Onda, Sepidroud, Fajr, Ramadan-ali tarom, Nemat, Neda, Pouyesh, Tabesh,
Shiroudi, Sahel and Shafagh were tested at Chaparsar Rice Research Institute, Ramsar, Iran during 2006 and
2007. Applying a split plot design with three replications, genotypes were distributed into sub plots while different
levels of calcium silicate i.e. 0, 350, 750, and 1050 kg ha-1 were located into main plots. Field data were collected
on grain per panicle (GPP), full grain per panicle (FGP), empty grain per panicle (EGP), 100 brown grain weight
(HBGW), total tiller at harvesting (TTH), plant height at harvesting (PHH), stem per plants (SP), infected stem (IS),
infection percentage (IP), grain yield per plant (GYP), brown grain length (BGL), brown grain breadth (BGB), brown
grain length - brown grain width ratio (BGL/BGB), grain length (GL), grain breadth (GB), grain length - grain breadth
ratio (GL/GB), 100 grain weight (HGW), seed bark weight -seed weight ratio (SBW/SW), and awn length (AL).
The analysis of variance revealed that silicon had significant effect on IS and IP (p<0.01). The interaction
between year and silicon showed significant effect on IS and IP, confirming that effect of silicon on traits varied
during different years. The interaction of year and variety had also significant effect on all traits except HGW and
PH45. On the other hand, interaction among year, variety and silicon did not show considerable effect. The cluster
analysis based on principal component analysis, grouped the 12 genotypes in 2 clusters. The estimated Pierson
correlation among all traits showed that, PHH was significantly (P<0.01) correlated with GYP (r=-0.56). Moreover,
IS with PH demonstrated a significant (P<0.01) positive correlation (r=+0.87). On the other hand, IS was negatively
correlated (P<0.01) with GYP. Neda and Nemat demonstrated high resistance against rice stem borer and showed
better GYP in contrast to other genotypes.
The total stem proteins were analyzed using S.D.S PAGE electrophoresis method beside field evaluations. The
comparison between protein bands, did not show significant difference, implying that induced resistance by silicon,
has no genetic source and could not be considered as antibiosis. In fact, silicon uptake by rice plant, makes a preference
resistance against stem borer. However for better understanding of the effects of silicon, same trails with more traits,
genotypes and silicon levels is recommended.
Session 1.6
Effect of Foliar Application of Iron and Silicon on the Yield of
rice (Oryza sativa L.)
M. Afrasiabi, M.A. Dehaghi, Fatemah Abeadin

Department of Agronomy, Shahed University, Tehran P.O. Box 14155-4838, Iran
(E mail amini@shahed.ac.ir)
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a very important crop, feeding a large number of people in the world. Hence any method
resulting in enhanced rice yield may be of great importance. Iron (Fe) is one of the most important micronutrients,
necessary for rice growth and yield production. In addition, Si has also an important role in rice physiology and growth.
The present work was undertaken 1) to compare the effects of different Fe and Si concentrations on rice growth
and yield, and 2) to recommend the proper concentration of Fe, and Si, for rice production, assuming that foliar
application of Fe and Si might increase rice yield. Three experiments were conducted including one of them for Fe and
two others for Si. Rice plots, measuring 3×3 m2, received foliar application of different Fe and Si concentrations,
including control, 50, 100, and 150 mg L-1, for Fe and Si in the first experiment, and 0, 100, 200, and 250 mg L-1 for Si
in the second experiment. The experiments were conducted at the farmers’ fields at Mobarake region of Isfahan
province in Iran. Experimental results showed that 50 to 100 mg L-1 concentrations of Fe were most effective, significantly
increasing rice grain length and the weight of 1000 rice grains, respectively. Foliar application of Si at 250 mg L-1
significantly increased rice yield (up to almost 50%). Foliar application of Fe and Si was effective in enhancing the yield
of rice.
325
Effect of DES, SA and Their Combination on the Cytomorphological

Parameters of Vicia Faba L. Var. Major
M. Gulfishan, A.H. Khan and I.F. Jafri

Cytogenetics Laboratory, Department of Botany AMU, Aligarh, 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India
The present work reports a comparative account of DES, SA and their combined doses on meiosis, pollen fertility,
seed germination and seedling survival in Vicia faba L. var. major in M1 generation. Both the mutagens (DES, SA) and
their combined doses elicited various chromosomal aberrations in meiosis and reduction in seed germination, pollen
fertility and seedlings survival. The effects were dose dependent. However, the induction of meiotic aberrations was
higher in combined doses than DES and SA treatments alone, suggesting that combined doses could be more effective
in inducing additional variability in Vicia faba L. var. major.
Agrobacterium- Mediated Transformation Protocol in Directly

Regenerated Sugarcane Plantlets
S.K. Sandhu1 and M. Gallo2

1
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 141 004, Punjab, India
2
Department of Agronomy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
Sugarcane, being vegetatively propagated crop, is an ideal candidate for transformation as the stable transformants
Session 1.6
can be clonally multiplied for commercial use. Genetic transformation requires reproducible and efficient protocols to
support gene transformation into plant cells and regeneration of normal and fertile plants from transgenic in vitro
culture. Direct regeneration from explants without intervening callus phase has several advantages, including the
production of true to type progenies. The reported work is on direct regeneration of sugarcane plants from leaf discs
and Agrobacterium mediated transformation using shoot segments. Apical portion (10-12 cm long) of mature healthy
cane stalks of sugarcane cultivar CP 88-1762 was collected from USDA, Canal Point, Florida. Sterilized stalks were
cut in 2 mm discs and placed in direct regeneration medium DRG (MS basal salts with vitamins 4.4 g L -1, sucrose 20g
L-1, pH 5.6, agarose 5 g L-1, autoclaved and added filter sterilized NAA 5 mg L-1 and Kinetin 0.5 mg L-1). About 6-7 leaf
discs were cultured in 90-mm petridish and incubated at 25±2oC under a 16h photoperiod with a light intensity of 15
molm-1s-1. The aseptic culture were raised with 3-week subculturing until the formation of healthy 4-5 shoots. The
transformation was performed using Agrobacterium strain GV3101 harbouring vector, pWBVec10 carrying hygromycin
gene and the gus (uid A) gene regulated by ubiquitin promoter. The bacterial culture was grown, pelleted at 3000 rpm
for 15 min at 4 oC and the pellet was resuspended in liquid DRG-1 medium until the culture reached to a final density
of 5x108cells ml-1 (A600=1.0). The shoot segment from just above the roots to the end till leaves emerge was cut into
segments of 1-1.5 cm and used as explants for Agrobacterium infection. The region proximal to the roots were found
most appropriate for obtaining maximum regeneration. The aseptically dissected shoot segments were immersed in
20 mL of Agrobacterium suspension + 200 µL of 100 µM acetosyringone and vacuum infiltrated at 800 mbar for 10 min.
The cultures were incubated at 28 oC for 50 min at 225 rpm. After infection, the infected explants were blot dried on
sterile filter paper discs and plated on DRG solid medium and kept in the dark at 25 °C for 2 days. Co cultivated
material was washed three times with sterile distilled water containing filter sterilized cefotaxime (500 mg L-1), dried
and plated on DRG solid medium supplemented with 500 mg L-1 cefataxime at 25 °C in the dark for 10 days. Well
rooted plantlets were obtained after three culture cycles of 2 weeks each in DRG medium containing 25 mg L-1
hygromycin. GUS assay was conducted on shoot segments following histochemical procedure. The samples were
vacuum infiltrated for 5 min before incubation. Blue coloration in shoot segments indicated GUS expression.
326
Conservation and Sustainable Management of Rice Genetic

Resources
N. Shobha Rani, L.V. Subba Rao, G.S.V. Prasad, A.S. Rama Prasad,
Manish K. Pandey and I. Sudharshan
Crop Improvement Section, Directorate of Rice Research (DRR), Hyderabad, 500 030, Andhra Pradesh,
India
To mankind, biodiversity provides enormous direct economic benefits, an array of indirect essential services through
natural ecosystems and plays a prominent role in modulating ecosystem function and stability. At present, two to five
species per hour are lost from tropical forests alone amounting to a loss of 1800 population per hour or 16 million
population per year. Collection of indigenous germplasm from diverse ecological regions of our country is of immense
importance since Indian sub-continent is defined as “the secondary centre of origin” of rice. A collection of 663 land
races/native cultivars from Bastar (272), Raigarh (61) (Chhattisgarh), Adilabad (165), Khammam (70), Medak (57) and
Nizamabad (38) (Andhra Pradesh) were collected from five collection expeditions during 1999-2004 and characterized
for 29 agro-morphological characters per Standard Evaluation System, IRRI, 1996. The valuable rice germplasm
collected through seven explorations were deposited with the NBPGR Regional Station, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad
and IC Numbers were allotted. Among the agronomic characters evaluated, maximum variability was recorded for
culm length followed by culm number, number of effective tillers, plant height, panicle length, spikelet sterility and 100
grain weight in all the seven collections while moderate variation was recorded for flowering duration and single plant
yield. Among the morphological descriptors, maximum variability in all the collections was encountered in case of 6
characters such as leaf blade pubsence, basal leaf sheath colour, culm internode colour, panicle type, secondary
branching of panicle and sterile lemma colour. Twenty three germplasm accessions were promising in respect of
single plant yield per pe. These included 5 from Bastar II, 2 from Raigarh, 6 from Nizamabad, 3 from Khammam and 7
from Medak. Four hundred and eighty accessions were screened for 6 insect pests and 7 diseases at 16 hot spot
Session 1.6
locations including DRR glass house, of which 107 accessions were either resistant or moderately resistant. These
include 8 from Bastar I, 12 from Adilabad, 61 from Bastar II and 26 from Raigarh. A maximum of 18 accessions showed
in general resistance to moderate resistance to plant hoppers (PH) followed by 15 entries resistant to brown planthopper
(BPH) and 13 resistant and moderate resistant to whitebacked planthopper (WBPH) and 12 resistant to gall midge
(GM). In case of disease reaction, 58 accessions for leaf blast (LBl), 17 for sheath rot (ShR) and 21 accessions for
brown spot (BS) were either resistant or moderately resistant. Eight most valuable donors with high yield potential and
resistance to pest / disease are Assam Chudi-IC 346857 (LBl), Dharaur-IC 346953 (BPH, PH) from Bastar II (Plate 3);
Bade Safri-IC 347619 (BPH, WBPH, PH); Lucchai-IC 347620 (WBPH, PH, LBl); Luchai-IC 347604 & IC 347635 (LBl),
Chandan Bhans-IC 347632 (WBPH, PH); Jona Phool-IC 347646 (LBl, ShR) from Raigarh.
The documented information would be of great help to breeders and geneticists in using some of the useful
materials in rice varietal improvement programmes as donors to incorporate pest/ disease tolerance with enhanced
yields.
Effect of Conservation on the Bio-Control of African Rice Gall Midge

Orseolia oryzivora Harris And Gagné (Diptera:Cecidomyiidae)
E.O. Ogah1, J.A. Odebiyi2 and F.E. Nwilene3

1
Department of Crop Production, Ebonyi State University PMB 053 Abakaliki, Nigeria
2
Department of Crop Protection and Environmental Biology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan Nigeria
3
Africa Rice Center (WARDA), IITA, PMB 5320 Ibadan, Nigeria
(Email: emmamarg2005@yahoo.com)
Biological control of African rice gall midge (AfRGM) using P. diplosisae, an indigenous endoparasitoid, has not
given the desired results, despite high level of parasitism due to late arrival of this parasitoid in the field. This calls
327
for evaluation of the rice ecosystem to assess the biotic linkage with parasitoid build up and AfRGM infestation in
the field. An experiment was conducted to determine the influence of conservation of P. diplosisae in alternative
host, Orseolia bonzii in Paspalum scrobiculatum weeds, in the management of AfRGM. The conservation strategy
adopted in the study was to plant raised seedlings of P. scrobiculatum on a strip of land of one metre width at the
border of each plot, early in the season and allowed to be fully established and got infested naturally by O. bonzii
and parasitized by P. diplosisae before planting of the rice plants inside each plot. The control experimental plots
were planted with only rice seedlings leaving the border empty without any weed. In order to ensure that P. diplosisae
can transfer from the alternative host to rice midge, a host transfer edxperiment was conducted in a screenhouse.
The comparative results indicated that rice field with Paspalum border had very low level of AfRGM infestation
against the control plots, which had very high level of AfRGM infestation. The percentage parasitism showed that
rice planted with Paspalum border had more parasitized galls than the control, resulting increase in grain yield. The
results of host transfer experiment with P. diplosisae from O. bonzii indicated that P. diplosisae persisted in O.
bonzii until O. oryzivora colonized the first rice crop and then transferred to the rice midge. The findings were
confirmed by the significant correlation recorded, which justifies its economic usefulness.
Designing of Oil Palm Microsatellite Primers and Their Potential Use

as Marker for Other Economically Important Palm Species
P.K. Mandal*, M. Jayanthi and G. Sujatha

National Research Centre for Oil Palm, Pedavegi, West Godavari Dist., Andhara Pradesh, India
(*E mail: pranabkumarmandal@gmail.com)
Genetic diversity is the main source of crop improvement through plant breeding. More than 100 accessions of
Session 1.6
germplasm from 11 different countries of the world are available with NRCOP. Genetic diversity analysis through
DNA marker is the basic study, which needs to be carried out as a part of germplasm characterization. Out of many
DNA markers used for detecting polymorphism, Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs) or microsatellite markers are
more authentic and relatively easy to carry out. Generating microsatellite sequence information is a bit tedious
process but once the information is available, the flanking sequence of this repeat can be used for routine analysis
for genetic diversity. More than 250 oil palm probable microsatellite sequences are available in public domain,
which can be used for designing the primers. In the present study, 116 pairs of primers were designed using ‘Oligos
v 6.2, software. Several pairs of primers were generated from each sequence but only one pair of primers was
selected based on GC content and Tm value. All the 116 primer pairs were checked for their functionality with oil
palm and four other economically important palms namely, coconut, arecanut, palmyrah and date. Oil palm showed
amplification with 108 primers; where as 94 primers were functional for coconut, arecanut and palmyrah palm and
78 for date palms. No primer pair which was non-functional for oil palm showed amplification with any of the other
palms. Most of the primers pairs, which showed amplification, the size of the fragments were different in case of
different palms. A few primers showed same fragment size in case of all the five palms, suggesting no evolution/
mutation in those microsatellites within the palm taxa. However, quantitative differences were noticed in a few
cases showing no difference in size of amplified products between the palms. A few primer combinations amplified
some other fragments in case of coconut, arecanut, palmyrah and date palms other than the fragment common
with oil palm distinguishing them from each other. Reported primers which were functional for specific types of
palms, can be used readily for genetic diversity analysis.
328
Studies on the Effect of Season on Mineral and Biochemical

Composition of Parthenium Hysterophorus L.
P.K. Mishra*1, B.R. Maurya1, S. Singh1, C.M. Singh1, P. Kishor1 and M. Dwivedi2
1
B.H.U., Varanasi, 221 005, Uttar Pradesh, India
2
Department of Dravyaguna, Faculty of Ayurveda, I.M.S, B.H.U., Varanasi 221 005, Uttar Pradesh, India
(*E mail: mishraias@gmail.com)
The word Parthenium is derived from Latin words Parthenice, an ancient name suggesting reputed medicinal merits
and hysterophorus derived from the Greek words hystera (Womb) and phorus (bearing) referring to the prolific seeding
of the plant. Parthenium, considered as one of the ten worst weeds of the world, was accidentally introduced in India
during 1955 with imported food grain materials and first time reported in Maharastra. It occupies all parts of India.
Partheium hysterophorus L. also popular as congress weed. Star weed, carrot weed, white cap, white top etc., can
germinate, flower and set seeds within four weeks. Once established, it can survive severe droughts and frosts. It is
also able to extract nutrients even from nutrient deficient soil in which it grows.
Present work reports the mineral and bio chemical composition of Parthenium hysterophorus with respect to
season in different parts of plants. The work was conducted at the Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Institute of Agricultural Sciences B.H.U. during rainy and winter season, 2006.Season influenced mineral content
(nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, copper, zinc, iron and manganese) and bio chemical composition (e.g.
starch, reducing, non reducing, carbohydrate and protein). In both seasons, content of nitrogen, sulphur and protein
was highest in leaf whereas maximum phosphorus and potassium were found in stem. Reducing and Non reducing
sugars were high in leaf during winter season than rainy season. Existence of good amount of macro and micro
nutrients in Parthenium hysterophorus L. can be utilized in plant nutrition if its compost is prepared. Composting will
also reduce the environmental problem as well as health hazards caused by this obnoxious weed.
Session 1.6
Effect of Rhizobium and Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria as
Co-Inoculant on Chickpea (Cicer Arietinum) with and without
Different Organic Sources in Sandy Clay Loam Soil
S.K. Dubey and Nitin Jain

Department of Soil Science & Agril. Chemistry, RVSKVV,College of Agriculture,
Gwalior, 474 001, Madhya Pradesh, India
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is the major pulse crop of India. The use of FYM, vermicompost, poultry manure, Nadep
compost enhance the crop yield, soil nutrient status and nutrient uptake. Little work has been done on the effect of
combined, inoculation of Rhizobium and phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) with different organic manures and
inorganic fertilizers on chickpea productivity in Gird zone of M.P. A field experiment was conducted during rabi season
in 2006-07 at College of Agriculture, Gwalior to evaluate the effect of Rhizobium and Phosphate solubilizing bacteria
as co-inoculant on chickpea (Cicer arietinum) with and without different organic sources in sandy clay loam soil.The
fourteen treatments namely control, Rhizobium inoculation, Rhizobium + PSB inoculation, 100% recommended dose
of fertilizer (RDF), 75% RDF + Rhizobium + PSB, FYM @ 6 t ha-1, Vermicompost @ 2 t ha-1, Nadep compost @ 3.5
t ha-1, poultry manure @ 2 t ha-1 were applied alone or with Rhizobium + PSB inoculants. These treatments were
replicated thrice in randomized block design. The seed inoculation with Rhizobium and PSB inoculum significantly
increased nodulation, nodule and root dry weight, plant height, number of branches, number of pods and grain yield
over un-inoculated treatments. Inoculation with different organic manures, only vermi compost @ 2t ha-1 showed
329
significantly superior response in respect of symbiotic traits, growth and yield attributes, grain and total biomass
yield as compared to FYM, nadep and poultry manure. However maximum grain yield of chickpea was recorded
under 75% RDF + Rhizobium + PSB. Maximum nutrient (NPK) uptake by chickpea was recorded in 100/% RDF.
Inoculation of Rhizobium and PSB along with different organic manures and inorganic fertilizers increased Rhizobium
and PSB population in soil as compared to uninoculated treatments. Seed inoculation along with different organic
manures also improved the physico-chemical properties of the soil.
Enzymatic Saccharification of Saccharum Spontaneum

for Bioethanol Production
P. Gupta1* and H.B. Chaudhary2

1
Department of Environment Engineering, Delhi University, New Delhi, India
2
(*Email: pritigupta.du@gmail.com)
Saccharum spontaneum hydrolysate has been utilized as a rich source of carbon compounds for bioethanol
production using Pichia stipitis. The bioconversion of lignocellulosics to ethanol could be successfully developed
and optimized by voraciously applying the novel technologies to solve the key problems of conversion process. One
such technique, enzymatic saccharification, was used to release cellulosic sugars from both acid and alkali
treated substrate. Maximum sugars (92.0 g/100 mL) were released in 24 hours and then decreased to 29.6 g/100
mL in the next 24 hours with constantly decreasing enzyme units upon utilization of purified enzymes from Fusarium
oxysporum only in the case of alkali treated substrate, whereas no sugars were released in case of acid treated
substrate. This causes hydrolysis of the substrate to the extent of 82%.
Session 1.6
Stability Analysis for Yield and Component Traits in Garden Pea
R.S. Jamwal* and A. Rana

C.S.K. Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Hill Agricultural Research and Extension Centre,
Bajaura, 175 125 Dist. Kullu, Himachal Pradesh, India
(*Email: jamwal.rs@rediffmail.com)
Garden pea is an important off-season vegetable of Himachal Pradesh and occupies maximum area amongst the
vegetable crops. The present study was undertaken to assess the nature and magnitude of genotype x environment
interaction with respect to yield and component traits vis-a-vis to evaluate the performance of pea genotypes under
varied environments. Twenty eight diverse genotypes were evaluated in RBD with three replications each in six
environments viz., Kukumseri 2003 (E1), Kukumseri 2004 (E2), Palampur 2003-04 (E3), Palampur 2004-05, Bajaura
2003-04 (E5) and Bajaura 2004-05. Joint regression analysis revealed both linear and non-linear components of g x e
interaction prevailing for most of the characters with preponderance of the linear component. Among all the environments,
E6 (Bajaura 2004-05) followed by E2 (Kukumseri 2004) and E1 (Kukumseri 2003) were favourable for majority of the
characters. For pod yield per plant, NDVP 24, VL 8, Azad P-1, Palam Priya, Lincoln, GC 477, DPP 9418-06 and Pb-88
were most responsive (suitable for favourable environments) and DPP 9411, DPP 4, NDVP 9, Kukumseri Selection 6
and NDVP 250 were least responsive genotypes (suitable for unfavourable environments) in addition to their stable
and above average performance. GC 477, Palam Priya and Azad P-1 at Kukumseri; DPP 9411, Azad P-1 and Palam
Priya at Palampur and Azad P-1, DPP 9418-06, NDVP 24 and Pb-88 at Bajaura were stable and beat performing
genotypes for pod yield per plant. Correlation studies pooled over environments revealed that pods per plant, average
pod weight, seeds per pod, pod length and shelling percentage were the major characters contributing towards pod
yield per plant.
330
Studies on Gene Effects of Traits Associated with Excessive Soil

Moisture Tolerance in Tropical Maize (Zea mays L.)
R. Sultana1*, P.P. Singh2, R.P. Singh1, D.K. Singh1, M.L. Jat1, Sain Dass1, P.H. Zaidi1 and I. Singh1
1
2
R.B.S College, Bichpuri, B.R.A University, Agra, India
(*E-mail: rafat.apr@gmail.com)
Among the various abiotic stresses, excessive soil moisture (ESM) stress is probably second important constraint
responsible for limiting the maize production mainly in South and South- East Asia, and some other parts of the world.
The choice of an efficient breeding procedure depends on the genetic information/ management practices. Due to
complexity, trait information with respect to inheritance of ESM tolerance is scanty. The objective of the present study
was to know inheritance patterns for the traits associated with ESM tolerance including some of the yield components,
using six parameter generation mean analysis. All the six generations (P1, P2, F1, F2, BC1 and BC2) were evaluated at
knee-high (V7-8) crop growth stage under waterlogging, keeping one set under normal moisture. Analysis of variance
reinforced the hypothesis that the genetic parameters estimated varied in stress and non stress condition significantly.
Generation mean analysis suggested that both additive and dominance effects were important for most of the traits
evaluated in this study, but dominance had more pronounced effect. Scaling test revealed strong significant epistasis
interaction across the environment. Additive, additive x additive gene interaction was more important for nodes with
brace root while dominance, additive x dominance and dominance x dominance were significant for grain yield under
excessive moisture condition. Duplicate type of epistasis was observed for most of the secondary and yield traits.
However, the characters like plant height and ear height were under the control of duplicate as well as complementary
type of epistasis. Findings suggest that parents should be of diverse nature for the traits to be analyzedand the nature
of type of gene action depends on specific parental combination.
Session 1.6
Baby Corn Genotypes under Integrated Nutrient Management Practices
and Their Impact on Soil Health
R.C. Sharma and P. Banik*

Agricultural and Ecological Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute,
203 Barrackpore Trunk Road, Kolkata, 700 108, West Bengal, India
(*Email: pbanik@isical.ac.in)
The experiment was designed to evaluate the three corn (Zea mays L.) genotypes (Early Composit, Birsa Makai and
Kanchan) as baby corn under eight integrated nutrient management (INM) practices viz. F0: absolute control, F1: 100%
recommended dose (RD) of fertilizer through inorganic, F2: 100% N through vermicompost, F3: 100% N through
farmyard manure (FYM), F4: 50% N through vermicompost and 50% NPK through inorganic fertilizers, F5: 50% N
through FYM and 50% NPK through inorganic fertilizers, F6: 30% N through vermicompost and 70% NPK through
inorganic fertilizers, F7: 30% N through FYM and 70% NPK through inorganic fertilizers. The objective of the investigation
was to assess the impact of INM on cob yield of baby corn and also on residual soil available nitrogen, mineralizable
phosphorus, exchangeable potassium, organic carbon (OC), soil pH, electrical conductivity (EC), cation exchange
capacity (CEC), activity of enzymes (urease and acid phosphatase), and microbial activities (in terms of microbial
biomass and basal soil respiration). The experiment was carried out during the rabi season of 2007 and 2008 at
Agricultural Experimental Farm, Indian statistical Institute, Giridih, Jharkhand, India. Rice (Oryza sativa L.) was grown
on residual soil fertility after harvesting the baby corn. The experiment was laid out in split plot design (SPD) and
replicated thrice. Genotypes were allotted in main plots whereas INM treatment in sub-plots.
331
There was a significant variation on cob yield and yield-attributing characters of corn genotypes due to different
nutrient management practices. Birsa Makai gave the highest cob yield. INM practices proved its superiority over the
application of nutrients either through organic or inorganic source alone. Application of 30% N through vermicompost
and 70% NPK through inorganic fertilizers recorded higher cob yield and yield attributing characters, irrespective of
the genotypes.Variation of cob yield by application of nutrients either through vermicompost or through FYM was
statistically insignificant. Same trend was noticed when nutrients were applied in combination of organic and inorganic
sources. Application of organic manure had a positive effect on residual soil available nutrients, enzyme activities,
microbial activities, CEC, and a negative impact on soil reaction and soil EC. The maximum grain yield of rice was
registered with the application of organic manures alone and followed by 50% N supplied through organic manures
and 50% nutrients applied through inorganic sources. Similar trend was also noticed in soil residual nutrients (NPK
status).
In-Vitro Optimization of Regeneration Protocols in Bambara Groundnut

(Vigna Subterranea L. Verdc)
Radhakrishnan T., S. Ghorai, S. Kumar, R. Mehta, J.R. Dobaria., and P.C. Nautiyal
National Research Center for Groudnut, P.B. No. 5, Ivnagar Road, Junagadh, 362 001, Gujarat, India
Bambara groundnut (Vigna Subterranea L.), an annual legume, is an important grain legume crop of semi arid zones
of Africa, widely cultivated under limited soil water availability and high temperature environments. It is a highly nutritious
crop, which plays an important role in African people’s diet. However, a very limited effort has been reported in the
genetic improvement of Bambara groundnut.
Session 1.6
The present work reports the development of an in vitro protocol for Bambara groundnut for its micropropagation
and exploitation in non conventional breeding. Seeds of ten genotypes of Bambara groundnut, viz. AS-17, AHM-753,
DipC, DodC-Tz, DodR-Tz, GabC, S-16-5a, SB-4-2, S-19-3 and Uniswa Red were used in the study. Significant differences
were found in different levels of BAP for the shoot initiation, Regeneration through direct shoot formation could be
obtained from the de-embryonated cotyledon and embryo axes, when cultured on MS medium supplemented with
different concentrations of BAP. The frequency of multiple shoot regeneration varied with different levels of BAP in the
medium. The genotypes showed clear differences in their BAP requirements for maximum response, indicating that
standardization of the cytokinin requirement may be of advantage in taking up a micropropagation programme involving
any new genotype. Multiple shoot induction frequency was higher in the embryo axes as compared to de-embryonated
cotyledon. However, the number of shoots per explant was considerably high in embryo axis than in de-embryonated
cotyledons, and the best response was in the MS medium containing 10 mg L-1 BAP for both the explants. Well
developed shoots were separated from the explants and further subcultured on MS medium containing 1 mg L-1 NAA
for rooting, and got 100% rooting in this medium. Well rooted plants were transferred to pot for hardening. This
protocol can be effectively utilised in the micro-propagation, inducing somaclonal variations and genetic transformation
in Bambara groundnut.
332
Participatory Approaches for Conserving Coconut Genetic

Resources to Sustain Production and Livelihood Security in
Coconut Growing Communities
R.J. Thomas, M.K. Rajesh, S. Kalavati, V. Krishnakumar, D.J. George, M. Jose and R.V. Nair
Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Regional Station, Kayamkulam Krishnapuram P.O.,
Alappuzha District, Kerala, India
Conservation of diverse ecotypes of coconut with desirable traits like high yield, disease resistance etc. is an
important activity in coconut growing communities. Root (wilt) disease is a major production constraint of coconut
in Kerala especially in eight southern districts. Conserving ecotypes with resistance / tolerance to root (wilt)
disease is essential to sustain the coconut production in the root (wilt) disease prevalent coconut communities.
With this objective, a project funded by IFAD / COGENT / Bioversity International was implemented in three project
sites in Kerala, India during 2005-08.
Three coconut communities, viz. Pathiyoor and Devikulangara (Alappuzha District) and Thodiyoor (Kollam
District) in Kerala State were selected and survey was conducted with farmers’ participation in characterizing the
local ecotypes. As high as 97.5% of population comprised tall ecotypes (Evoor Green Tall, Evoor Brown Tall, Evoor
Brick Red Tall and Jappanan) and only 2.5% accounted for dwarfs (Green Dwarfs and Orange Dwarfs) and hybrids.
The local ecotype ‘Jappanan’ closely resembled ‘Evoor Green Tall’ ecotype. Percentage of nut weight to whole fruit
weight was 40.3 and 41.0, nut weight was 691.5 g and 681.3 g, copra weight was 191.4 g and 188.2 g in Jappanan
and Evoor Green Tall, respectively.
Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) analysis was conducted to study the pattern of diversity in 90 selected
coconut palms representing the six ecotypes using 14 markers. A total of 61 alleles were detected with an average
of 4.35 alleles per SSR locus. The expected heterozygosity was much high in tall ecotypes (0.387-0.452) compared
Session 1.6
to the dwarf ecotypes (0.038-0.041). The overall degree of genetic differentiation was high (0.471) indicating a high
level of genetic differentiation among the populations. Lower values for observed heterozygosity as compared to the
expected values indicated the pedigree of disease-free mother palms. Genetic similarity was calculated using
UPGMA clustering analysis. Two major clusters were noticed, with tall and dwarf ecotypes clustering separately.
Community coconut nurseries were raised in the project sites with the active participation of coconut growing
members. This helped in characterizing the diverse coconut ecotypes and creating awareness about the importance of
conservation.
Adsorption and Persistence of Thiram Fungicide influenced by Organic

Matter in Different Soils
D. Mani, C. Kumar and R.K. Srivastava*

Sheila Dhar Institute of Soil Science, Chemistry Department, University of Allahabad,
Allahabad, -211 002, Uttar Pradesh, India
(*E mail : rksalld@rediffmail.com)
The Freundlich equation provides a good fit (r2 > 0.99) for the adsorption data on Thiram in all the soils. The Freundlich
constant (K) value for Thiram in FYM treated soils was more than in corresponding untreated soils. ‘L’ type isotherm
curve (1/n < 1) indicated non-linear relationship between concentration of Thiram and adsorption. The negative magnitude
of Gibbs free energy (∆G) indicated that the adsorption was exothermic and spontaneous process. The persistence of
Thiram indicated a close correspondence to the (r2 > 0.92) first order exponential degradation kinetics in the soils and
mainly influenced by soil organic matter. The Half-life (T1/2) value of Thiram was highest for alluvial soil followed by
sandy loam and black soils.
333
Genetic Analysis of Annexin Multigene Family In Plants
S. Barthakur
National Research Center on Plant Biotechnology,
(Email: sbthakur@yahoo.com)
Plants are subjected to complex environmental conditions within their natural habitat which negatively influence
their survival, biomass production, accumulation and grain yield. Different crop ecosystems are affected by different
abiotic stress factors such as drought, salinity, flood, high and low temperature, heavy metals and to a different
extent at various growth and developmental stages. Plants being sessile, have the ability to dramatically alter their
gene expression patterns in response to these signals. There is a constant need for identification, isolation and
characterization of increasing number of stress induced genes and unraveling their functions for enhancing agricultural
productivity. With the completion of the Arabidopsis and rice genome sequencing project, the next major challenge
is the large scale determination of gene function. Annexins comprise diverge, multifunctional, multigene family that
serve as targets for Calcium throughout the eukaryotic kingdom. They have been reported from numerous plant
species and eight homologues have been identified in Arabidopsis. The present work was undertaken to identify,
isolate and characterize knock out mutants of the annexin genes and use them to evaluate the role of annexins
under abiotic stress after their expression profiling using real time RT PCR. Differential expression patterns collectively
suggest that annexin genes do not serve completely redundant function and have both distinct and overlapping
function in certain signal transduction pathway under various abiotic stresses. Finally, expression profiling of annexins
coupled with mutant analysis indicates involvement of AnnAt1, AnnAt5 annAt7 in both non-overlapping and specific
functions in salt stress tolerance.
Session 1.6
Effect of growth regulators on leaf callogenesis in

Arachis prostrata L.
S.K. Bera and M.V. Gedia
National Research Center for Groundnut, P.B.-05, Ivenagar Road, Junagadh 362 001, Gujarat, India
Screening for resistance to abiotic factors under field conditions is quite difficult due to heterogeneity and complexity
associated with stress multiplicity. In-vitro screening of cell lines is often used for the purpose. Development of protocols
for rapid and high frequency callus induction was undertaken for Arachis prostrata, a perennial rhizomatous wild
relative of cultivated groundnut. Healthy immature 2-3 cm long leaves were sterilized in 70% ethanol and then 0.1%
mercuric chloride solution for one minute and 10 minutes, respectively. MS media containing 30 g sucrose and 6 g
agar per liter fortified with naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D) and 4-amino-3,5,6-
trichloropicolinic acid (PIC), 6-benzyl amino purin (BAP) and thidiazuron (TDZ) were used either singly or in combination.
Ten concentrations (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0 mg L-1) of NAA, 2,4-D and PIC were tested in sole and
in combination of three concentrations (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 mg L-1) each of BAP and TDZ in three replications with 20
explants per replication. Sole PIC regardless of concentration induced significantly higher callogenesis than those
of sole NAA and 2,4-D. The callogenesis effect of NAA, 2,4-D and PIC was enhanced when these were used in
combination with either BAP or TDZ. PIC in combination of either BAP or TDZ produced more callogenesis than
NAA and 2,4-D. PIC (irrespective of concentration) along with 1.5 mg L-1 BAP, produced highest mean callogenesis
(99.7-100%). Plant could be regenerated from the callus after 30 days of sub culturing in MS media fortified
combinations of both NAA+TDZ and 2,4-D +TDZ. Calli obtained from media supplemented with PIC+TDZ failed to
regenerate in to plant. Maximum regeneration was recorded in media supplemented with 3 mg NAA+0.3 mg TDZ
per litre. Regeneration of plants from calli grown in as low a concentration of TDZ as 0.3mg/L in combination with
NAA and 2,4-D indicates high inductive effect of TDZ.
334
In vitro Screening of Salt Tolerant Genotypes of Dalbergia sissoo

Salil Tewari, Vipin Kumar Singh and Smita Jaiswal
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
In India, soil detraction through accumulation of excess salts has attained a serious dimension especially in the
regions where irrigation water has a high salt concentration. A total of 10.1 Mha of land in the country is salt-affected of
which about 2.5 Mha occurs in the Indo-Gangetic plains alone. Salinity poses several problems for plant growth and
development especially for glycophytes by inducing physiological dysfunctions. The present study was undertaken to
screen the genotypes of Dalbergia sissoo for their response to salinity (Na2CO3) at germination stage and identify the
salt-tolerant genotypes under in vitro conditions. Seeds of 20 selected genotypes of Dalbergia sissoo were kept on MS
media (without growth regulators) for germination. After the leaf emergence stage, the seedlings were taken out and
hypocotyl region was kept in different salt concentrations to assess the effect of salt on shoot multiplication and
elongation. MS media supplemented with BAP (2 mg L-1), NAA (0.5 mg L-1) and varying salt concentrations (0.10 per
cent, 0.15 per cent and 0.20 per cent) were used. Each treatment was replicated five times. There was gradual
increase in days to germinate and leaf emergence and decrease in survival rate with increase in salt concentration in
almost all the genotypes. On the basis of response of genotypes to salt, seven genotypes were selected and further
micro propagated at different salt concentrations (MS + B2N0.5). High salt concentrations (0.15 and 0.20 per cent)
adversely affected all the genotypes. At low salt concentration (0.10 per cent), all genotypes showed significant shoot
induction. Based on the findings, five salt tolerant elite genotypes of Dalbergia sissoo, viz. PS-1, PS-2, PS-11, PS-25
and PS-54 were identified.
Session 1.6
Genetic Diversity in Naked Barley Landraces from North-Western
Himalayas of India
Sanjay Kumar*1, Dharam Pal1 and J.C. Rana2
1
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Regional Station (Cereals & Horticultural Crops),
Tutikandi Centre, Shimla, 171 004, Himachal Pradesh, India
2
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources Regional Station, Phagli, Shimla, 171 004,
Himachal Pradesh, India
(*Email: sanjaykumar@iari.res.in)
Naked barley, in which chaff is easily separated from grain, is the most preferred crop in the high altitude of north
western Himalayas. Different explorations conducted in the past in Lahaul & Spiti areas of Himachal Pradesh and
Laddakh region of Jammu & Kashmir in India have shown naked barley cultivation ranging from altitude of 2000 M
to 4700 M in proximity to Tibet, accounting for more than 95% of the domesticated crop. Farmers prefer naked
barley due to its suitability in fulfilling all requirements of food, feed, fodder and beverages during very harsh winter
condition of six month duration. Its high nutritive value also fetches higher value in remote harsh terrain of this
Himalayan region. As landraces are vital genetic resources for breeding purposes, diversification of production,
developing new farming systems and new quality products, more than 400 land races were collected from these
regions. After initial evaluation and grouping, 181 naked barley landraces were evaluated during 2006 and 2007.
Wide genetic diversity was observed for almost all the characters studied with a number of superior lines for early
flowering, early maturity, high tillers, high seed weight and more grains per spike. Most of the lines were six rowed
type showing negligible presence of hoodness. High degree of variation was also observed for spike density, grain
colour, pigmentation and hairiness of leaf sheath. Some lines exhibited very good rust resistance potential. Relatively
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better performances of these landraces at lower elevation of Shimla (1200 M) highlight wider adaptability of Himalayan
barley. This genetic diversity has lot of potential to improve barley not only for Himalayan region but for entire barley
cultivation area in India and abroad. The importance of Himalayan naked barley strengthens its base for safe
conservation both as ex-situ and in-situ as genetic strategy to increase barley productivity.
Study on Drought Tolerance in sixteen Genotypes of

Safflower (Carthamus Tinctorius L.)
S.M. Azimzadeh
Azad University of Shirvan, Northern Khorasan, Iran
In order to study drought tolerance in 16 genotypes of safflower, an experiment was conducted at research farm of
Azad University of Shirvan during 2004 –2005 growing season. The experiment was Randomized Complete block
Design with 4 replications under irrigated and dry land conditions. Precipitation during growing season was 220 mm.
During growing season some agronomic traits were recorded. Drought tolerant genotypes were determined based on
drought tolerance index, drought susceptibility index, electrical conductivity and relative leaf water content.
The results showed that average seed yield in LRV51-51 was more than other genotypes (1520 kg ha -1). Genotypes
Hartman,CW-74 and PI537598 produced 1485, 1452 and 1440kg ha-1 average seed yield respectively. Hartman
produced the maximum seed yield under irrigated condition (1501 kg ha-1) whereas under dry land condition CW-74
exhibited the best (1228 kg ha-1). Electrical conductivity in all genotypes under dry land condition was more than
irrigated condition. In dry land condition, LRW51-51 and KINO-76 showed lower electrical conductivity than other
genotypes but seed yield in both irrigated and dry land condition in LRW51-51 was more than KINO76. The electrical
Session 1.6
conductivity in LRV51-51 was less than other genotypes that indicated less damage from drought. Leaf water content
in LRV51-51 was not significantly different from others. LRV 51-51 also showed the highest drought tolerance index
and lowest drought susceptibility index. It was followed by CW-74 which also produced higher seed yield and showed
more stress tolerance index and less stress susceptibility index compared with other genotypes.
Genetic Variability in Wheat (Triticum aestivum) for Grain

Quality Traits
T.V. Shadakshari*, M. Yadav, A.K. Ahlawat, J.J. Deveshwar and A.M. Singh
Grain Quality Laboratory, Division of Genetics, IARI, New Delhi, India
(*Email shadaksharitv@yahoo.co.in)
Characterization of germplasm by DNA fingerprinting techniques provides a tool for precise germplasm identification
and a quantitative estimate of genetic diversity. This estimate is important because a decrease in genetic variability
might result in a reduction of the plasticity of the crops to respond to changes in climate, pathogen populations, or
agricultural practices.
Micro satellite markers are increasingly being used in crop plants to discriminate among genotypes and as tools in
marker assisted selection. In all, 94 wheat genotypes were used in the present study and a set of 75 wheat micro
satellite markers (Xgwm), to describe genetic diversity along with phenotypic characters like plant height, days to 50%
flowering, 1000 seed weight, number of grains/spike, length of spike, Fe and Zn content of the kernel. The Data entry
was done into a binding data matrix as discrete variables. The statistical analysis was done using NTSYS software.
Using Jacquard’s similarity coefficients relationships b/w genotypes was visualized as dendogram. A significant diversity
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among the selected genotypes for quality traits was observed. This information can be used to select parents for
hybrid development to maximize the yield and quality of grain, and development of segregating population to map
genes controlling quality and yield traits.
Effect of Gamma Irradiation on Germination Potential of Stored

Legumes and Pest Infestation
S. Kumar, S. Mishra, B. Singh and A.P. Mishra
Legumes comprise an enormous reserve of food. However, vast quantities of stored grains and legumes are lost
annually due to insect pest attack which spoils their nutritional value and germination capability. It is estimated that
worldwide, 30% of the harvested foods are destroyed by insect pests. Stored grain losses caused by insect infestation
often equal the food grain losses in the field. Therefore, effective methods of insect pest control are necessary. Gamma
ray irradiation comprises a new method of disinfecting stored foods, including cereal grains and legumes. This technique
also ensures partial protection against re-infestation through reproductive sterilization, besides serving as an effective
alternative quarantine treatment as compared to fumigants. The present work reports the effect of gamma ray irradiation
on pest infestation in stored grains and their germination potential after prolonged storage. Co-60 source at 25 0C
emitting gamma rays @ 0.12 kG y-1 was used in the range of 0.1-5 kG y-1 to irradiate Bengal gram (Cicer arietinum.
Desi cv. Pusa 391 and Kabuli cv.Pusa 1105) and mung bean (Vigna radiata cv. Pusa Vishal & Pusa 9531). Irradiation
resulted in significant dose-dependent reduction in pest infestation up to one year of storage. Effective absorbed dose
for inhibition of stored grain pests of both the legumes was 0.5-1 kG y-1. Maximum inhibition of all the pests was found
at 1.0 kG y-1. Germinating potential of the irradiated seeds after one year storage markedly improved upto a dose of 0.2
Session 1.6
kG y-1 when compared to the unirradiated control. Further increase to 0.5 and 1.0 kG y-1 resulted in decrease in the
germination potential, but it was still better than control. Higher doses eithed delayed or completely inhibited the seed
germination. The results indicated that gamma irradiation is an environmentally safe measure which can be adopted
on large scale by the developing and developed countries to safeguard the stored grains against insect pests and to
improve their germination potential after prolonged storage. Irradiation, either alone or in conjunction with other post-
harvest procedures, can contribute towards the goals of achieving food security in developing and under developed
countries.
Correlation and Path Analysis for Yield and Quality Traits

in Rice (Oryza sativa L.)
Sweta, R. Nandan and S.K. Singh

Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, 221 005, Uttar Pradesh, India
Direct and indirect effects of quality traits upon seed yield were estimated through correlation and path coefficient
analysis taking thirty-three genotypes of rice (Oryza sativa L.) grown during kharif, 2007-08 at the experimental farm of
the Institute of Agricultural Sciences, B.H.U, Varanasi, India. The characters studied were seed yield/plant,1000 seed
weight, hulling%, kernel length before cooking (KLBC), kernel length after cooking (KLAC), kernel elongation ratio
(KER), kernel breadth before cooking (KBBC), kernel breadth after cooking (KBAC), length/breadth ratio (L/B ratio)
and water uptake ratio (WUR). Seed yield showed high positive significant correlation with kernel elongation ratio,
hulling%, kernel length and KER at both the genotypic and phenotypic levels. Further, 1000 seed weight also showed
the high positive significant correlation with hulling%, KLBC, KLAC, KBBC, KBAC and L/B ratio at both the genotypic
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and phenotypic levels. The characters, viz. 1000 seed weight, KLAC, KBAC, L/B ratio, KBBC and WUR exhibited
negative direct effect on seed yield. The indirect positive effect of 1000 seed weight on seed yield was manifested via
KER and WUR whereas, negative indirect effect was via hulling%, KLBC, KLAC, KBAC, L/B ratio and KBBC. The
indirect effect of KER via almost all the traits was negative on seed yield. The indirect effect of WUR via 1000 seed
weight, hulling%, KLBC, KLAC, KER and KBBC are positive, whereas, via L/B ratio and KBAC negative effect was
observed. The present investigation provides an idea for direct selection of superior traits of rice showing direct positive
effect on seed yield. The traits showing direct negative effect on seed yield may be improved via improving the traits
having indirect positive effect with them.
Enhancing Iron and Zinc Levels in Rice Grains through Introgressions

from the Progenitor Species Oryza nivara
Anil K. Batchu, K. Anuradha, B.P.M. Swamy, T. Longvah*, N. Sarla

Directorate of Rice Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India
*National Institute of Nutrition
Iron and Zinc are essential micronutrients for human diet, and their deficiency in humans causes abnormalities like
anemia, impaired physical growth, mental development, and learning capacity. Nearly half of the world’s population
depends on rice as the sole source of their calories. Thus, making incremental improvements in iron and zinc levels in
rice grains can help alleviate their deficiency. Polished grains of popular rice varieties contain an average of only 2
parts per million (ppm) iron and 12 ppm zinc. An increase in concentration of iron and zinc in polished grain is therefore,
a high-priority research area. Exploitation of large genetic variation for iron and zinc existing in rice germplasm is an
important novel and acceptable approach to minimize the extent of iron and zinc deficiencies in developing world. The
Session 1.6
iron and zinc contents in 120 accessions/varieties representing a diverse rice germplasm including its wild relatives
Oryza rufipogon and O. nivara were analyzed. Accessions of both O. rufipogon and O. nivara had higher levels of iron
and zinc in their grains compared to the cultivars. As part of our program on improving yield and quality of elite rice
varieties through introgressions from the related wild accessions, a BC2F2 mapping population of Swarna X O. nivara
was raised. Phenotyping of uniformly dried BC2F3 polished seed from 320 families revealed a normal distribution of
iron and zinc content in families. Analysis of polished grains showed 100 families had less than 5 ppm iron, 176 had
between 5 and 10 ppm, 40 between 10 and 15 ppm, 4 between 15 and 20 ppm and 1 family had above 20 ppm.
Similarly for zinc, 1 was below 5 ppm, 17 between 5 and 10 ppm, 207 between 10 and 15 ppm, 96 between 15 and 20
ppm and 1 family above 20 ppm. In some lines high levels of iron and zinc were found (above 15 ppm). This observation
is consistent with earlier work reporting correlation between iron and zinc levels in rice grains and also allocation of
QTLs for iron and zinc on the rice genomic map. The families have been genotyped for segregation of 100 polymorphic
microsatellite markers covering all the 12 chromosomes.
A Microsatellite (SSR)-based Linkage Map of Brassica rapa
Rahul Kapoor
Punjab Agricultural University, Seed farm, Ladhowal, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
In the present study, the construction of a genetic linkage map for the Brassica rapa (AA) genome is described which
will act as a key resource in undertaking future structural and functional genomic studies in B. rapa. A F2 mapping
population consisting of forty-eight F2 individual plants developed following hybridization of two inbred lines Bathari
Mandi and IC 331817 was used to construct the map. The map comprises a total of 53 SSR markers derived from
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three different public domain resources. Nine linkage groups along with a small subgroup were identified and
designated as R1-R9 through alignment and orientation using SSR markers in common with existing B. rapa
reference linkage maps. The total length of the genetic linkage map was 354.6 cM with an average interval of 6.6 cM
between adjacent loci. The length of linkage groups ranged from 28.0 cM to 44.2 cM for R6 and R1A, respectively.
The number variability of markers in the nine linkage groups ranged from 3 for R6 to 10 for R1. Out of the 53 SSR
markers assigned to the linkage groups, only 5 (9.4%) showed deviation from the expected segregation ratio. The
development of this map is vital to the genome integration and genetic information and will enable the international
research community to share resources and data for the improvement of B. rapa and other cultivated Brassica
species.
Response of Nitrogen Source on Growth and Yield Parameters of

Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L.var. italica)
K.B. Shukla and Sudha R. Mathur

Department of Plant Physiology, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
(*Email: sudharmathur@yahoo.co.in)
Sprouting broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica) Hybrid-1 is an important winter season highly nutritious vegetable
crop, resembling cauliflower. The yield per unit area is very low which can be increased by a suitable region-specific
cultivar and judicious use of macro- and micronutrients. Broccoli is a new crop introduced in India, which is nutritious
among cole crops as the edible part of broccoli contains carbohydrates, proteins, fat, fiber, vitamin ‘A’, vitamin ‘C’,
minerals and also a rich source of sulpharaphane; sulpharaphane is a compound associated with reducing the risk of
Session 1.6
cancer. Broccoli is of three types viz; green, white and purple. Out of which green type is highly nutritious.
A field experiment was conducted at the Horticulture farm of RCA Udaipur on a well drained clay loam soil under
irrigated condition to study the effect of nitrogen on growth and yield attributes in broccoli and the treatment comprised
four levels of nitrogen (0, 60. 80 &100 kg N ha-1). The 45 days old seedlings of cultivar hybrid-1 were transplanted at a
spacing 45x30 cm in a plot size of 1.8x1.5 m. Results showed that yield attributes of broccoli were increased linearly
by the application of nitrogen during both the years. Application of 100 kg N ha-1 produced significantly higher yield and
quantity in the form of dry matter over control. The highest yield plant -1 (152.79 g) or 11.90 t ha-1 was recorded under
treatment 100 kg N ha-1 in comparison to other levels of nitrogen. This might be attributed to the higher rate of assimilation
and ultimately more production of carbohydrates and their translocation to the storage organs like head part of broccoli.
Effect of Nitrogen Source on Chlorophyll Content of Sprouting

Broccoli (Brassica oliracea L.var. italica)
Sudha R. Mathur and K.B. Shukla

Department of Plant Physiology, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
Sprouting broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. italica) is an important winter season vegetable crop of Rajasthan introduced
as a new cruciferous vegetable, mostly cultivated in the hilly areas of HP, UP, Jammu and Kashmir, Nilgiri hills and
northern plains of India. But now owing to promotion of tourism the scope of broccoli is very bright in Udaipur region
also. Its morphology resembles to cauliflower except secondary head which develops in the axils of leaves and may
contribute up to 50% of yield. Broccoli is of three types, green, white and purple. Out of which green is highly nutriceous
and due to its high nutritive value it has been termed as anticancerous food by the American Cancer Society.
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A field experiment was conducted at horticulture farm, RCA Udaipur on a well drained clay loam soil under
irrigated condition to see the effect of nitrogen on growth and yield attributes in broccoli and the treatment comprises
four level of nitrogen (0,60.80 and 100 kg ha-1). The 45 days old seedlings of cultivar hybrid-1 were transplanted at
a spacing 45x30cm in a plot size of 1.8x1.5 m.
The total chlorophyll content was estimated both in leaves and secondary head portion of broccoli by using
ammonium acetone method. It was observed that with the increasing of nitrogen level up to 100 kg ha-1 the chlorophyll
content also increasing significantly both in leaves and head part of broccoli, but it was more (0.40 mg g-1) in nitrogen
treated head portion as compared to control(0.32 mg g-1) untreated.
Aloin Content, Ion Accumulation and Yield in Aloe vera (Ghrit Kumari) as
Influenced by Saline Water Irrigation
Vandana Lodha and Gurbachan Singh

(*Email: vlodha@cssri.ernet.in)
Micro-plot experiments were conducted at the Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, India during 2006-2008
in sandy loam soils on a medicinal crop- Aloe vera (Ghrit Kumari) which is one of the most sought after reputed
medicinal plant of Ayurvedic, Unani and Modern medicine. The effect of saline water irrigation of different salinity
levels (five levels) on quality (aloin content), ion accumulation and growth parameters of this crop was evaluated. The
investigations revealed that the aloin content in leaves increased with increasing salinity levels of irrigation water. No
adverse effect was observed on plant growth up to saline water of EC 16.0 dS m-1. Gel content of leaves was also,
Session 1.6
varied with the quantum of irrigation water applied further. Aloe vera juice was found to be dependent on irrigation.
Aloe vera juice was extracted and analyzed for its chemical composition. Vitamins, amino acids, â-Sitosterol (anti-
inflammatory), Saponins (cleansing properties), anthraquinone glycosides- aloin and emodin (purgative) and minerals
of high nutritional value were reported in the juice. Several value added products were also tried from aloe leaves
which can be exploited for cottage industries and may provide livelihood to poor people settled in disadvantaged salt
affected ecologies. The microplot studies indicated that A. vera can be grown with saline water irrigation in arid and
semi-arid regions, however long term field investigations will be required for making final recommendations to promote
its cultivation on the salt-affected lands. This crop has a good market potential and its cultivation can improve the
socio-economic conditions and also fight with malnutrition among children and women of the poverty-stricken areas.
Role of Herbicide Tolerant Rice in Promoting Conservation Agriculture in

the Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia
Virender Kumar1*, Jagdish K. Ladha1, Mahesh K. Gathala1 and Robin R. Bellinder2

1
International Rice Research Institute-India Office, NASC Complex, New Delhi, 110 012, India
2
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
(*Email: virender.Kumar@cgiar.org)
Rice is staple food for more than half of world’s population. About 90% of its production and consumption is in Asia.
Rice-wheat rotation of the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) is vital for food security in the region. Traditionally, rice is grown
by transplanting seedlings into puddled soil. Recently, there is an increasing interest in a shift from puddled transplanting
to direct-seeding (DSR) due to shortages of labor and water, escalating fuel price, and adverse effects of puddling on
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soil physical condition. Conservation agriculture (CA) based resource conserving technologies (RCTs) such as
zero-tillage (ZT) and bed-planting are being promoted in the rice-wheat system, and ZT has been widely adopted in
wheat in the region. However, full potential of the CA-based RCTs can be achieved when both cereals are grown
without tillage (double zero-tillage). It is well known that the weed control is the biggest challenge in the success of
ZT-DSR. Rice yield losses in ZT-DSR without an optimal weed control ranges from 35-100%.
Herbicide tolerant rice (HT-rice), resistant to broad-spectrum herbicides, has been developed and its
commercialization is imminent in near future. Main benefits of introducing HT-rice are to (1) provide effective control of
“hard to kill’ and those weeds which are associated with rice e.g. weedy or wild Oryza species; (2) replace currently
used herbicides with more efficient and environment benign herbicides; and (3) provide new weed management tools
for managing those weeds which have developed resistance to currently used herbicides. Improvement in weed
control due to availability of herbicide tolerant crops has been considered as one of the major reasons for wider
adoption of conservation agriculture.
The HT-rice is a potential solution to the weed problem and for the widespread adoption of CA-based rice-wheat
system. However, some potential risks associated with the introduction of HT-rice should be carefully examined before
launching an extensive dissemination program. The risk involves a likelihood of gene flow from HT-rice to other cultivated
and wild and weedy species of rice crop, which could lead to increased weediness, invasiveness, and adversely affect
native biodiversity. Gene flow from HT-rice in South Asia is possible due to the existence of sexually compatible wild/
weedy rice species in the rice fields. This paper will provide a balanced view of potential benefits and risk with an aim
to stimulate good scientific discussion and find suitable solutions.
Wild Grapevine (Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris) in Morocco:

Characterization and Conservation
Session 1.6
El Oualkadi A.1.2, M. Ater 2, V. Laucou1, T. Lacombe1, J.P Péros1, J.M. Boursiquot1 and P. This1
1
UMR 1097, DIAPC, INRA, Equipe “Diversité, Génétique et Génomique Vigne”, 2 Place Viala,
34060 Montpellier, France
2
Diversité et Conservation des Systèmes Biologiques, Faculté des Sciences de Tétouan,
B.P. 2062, M’hannech II Tétouan, Marocco
Currently, a progressive reduction of the genetic diversity of crop plants is occurring. This phenomenon, called «genetic
erosion» relates to many crop species and concerns the varieties (local autochthonous varieties, races, primitive
cultivars) as well as wild compartments and species. In Morocco, the genetic erosion concerns many crops, including
grapes particularly in the Rif region in the north of the country where old tradition of grapevine cultivation exists even
today. Within the framework of a cooperation program between Morocco (Ecole National d’ Agriculture de Meknès and
University of Tétouan) and France (INRA - Montpellier SupAgro) aimed at the estimation of genetic diversity existing in
the Rif region, a prospection of wild vines was carried out in the north of Morocco.
170 individuals were identified in 18 populations distant from 10 to 50 km. The mean number of individuals per
population was 9. The sample was analyzed with 20 nuclear and 3 chloroplast SSR markers. The molecular data was
compared with the data obtained for a group of 248 French wild vines, 116 cultivars of North Africa and 92 European
cultivars. In order to check the level of diversity in wild grape in Morocco, its relationship with the cultivated grape
and specificity was compared with other genetic pools.
The genetic diversity of the wild vines of Morocco is more important than that of the French wild grapevine and the
cultivars from North Africa, but weaker than that of the European cultivars, selected to maximize genetic diversity at
the 20 SSR markers.
Studies of structuring were then carried out. Within the wild vines, the French and Moroccan samples were well
differentiated. The wild compartment (French or Moroccan origin) was also differentiated from cultivated, thus revealing
the wild status of this indigenous material. Results detailed on diversity and the structuring will be presented and
discussed in relation to the interest of this material for vine growing in Morocco.
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Participatory Approaches for Conserving Coconut Genetic Resources

for Sustaining Production and Livelihood Security in Coconut
Growing Communities
Regi J. Thomas, M.K. Rajesh, S. Kalavati, V. Krishnakumar, D.J. George, Mejosh Jose and R.V. Nair
Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Regional Station, Kayamkulam,
Krishnapuram P.O., lappuzha District, Kerala, India
Coconut ecotypes with desirable traits like higher yield, disease resistance and diverse uses are available in all
major coconut growing tracts. Conserving these diverse ecotypes is an important activity in livelihood security of
each coconut growing community. Root (wilt) disease is a major production constraint of coconut in Kerala State
especially in eight southern districts. Conserving ecotypes with resistance / tolerance to root (wilt) disease is
essential to sustain the coconut production in the root (wilt) disease prevalent coconut communities. With this
objective, a project on “Overcoming poverty in coconut growing communities: Coconut genetic resources for
sustainable livelihood in India” funded by IFAD / COGENT / Bioversity International was implemented in three
project sites in Kerala, India during 2005-08.
Three coconut communities viz., Pathiyoor and Devikulangara (Alappuzha District) and Thodiyoor (Kollam District)
in Kerala State were selected and survey was conducted with farmers’ participation in characterizing the local ecotypes.
Studies on the existing diversity level of coconut in three identified coconut communities revealed that 97.5% of
population comprised of Tall ecotypes (Evoor Green Tall, Evoor Brown Tall, Evoor Brick Red Tall and Jappanan) and
only 2.5% accounted for Dwarfs (Green Dwarfs and Orange Dwarfs) and Hybrids. Morphological data revealed that
the local ecotype ‘Jappanan’ closely resembled ‘Evoor Green Tall’ ecotype. Percentage of nut weight to whole fruit
weight was 40.3 and 41.0, nut weight was 691.5 and 681.3 g, copra weight was 191.4 and 188.2 g in Jappanan and
Evoor Green Tall, respectively.
Session 1.6
Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) analysis was conducted to study the pattern of diversity in 90 selected coconut
palms representing the six ecotypes using 14 markers. A total of 61 alleles were detected with an average of 4.35
alleles per SSR locus. The expected heterozygosity was much high in tall ecotypes (0.387-0.452) compared to the
dwarf ecotypes (0.038-0.041). The overall degree of genetic differentiation was high (0.471) indicating a high level of
genetic differentiation among the populations. Lower values for observed heterozygosity when compared to the expected
heterozygosity are an indication of the pedigree of disease-free mother palms. Genetic similarity was calculated
using UPGMA clustering analysis. Two major clusters were noticed, with tall and dwarf ecotypes clustering separately.
Among the talls, ‘Jappanan’ clustered with ‘Evoor Green Tall’. This validates the observation made with regard to
‘Jappanan’ and ‘Evoor Green Tall’ based on morphological characters.
Community coconut nurseries were raised in the project sites with the active participation of coconut growing
members. A total of 92 root (wilt) disease-free mother palms belonging to different tall ecotypes were selected and
2400 seed nuts collected and sown. Nearly 1500 polybag seedlings were distributed among the community members.
Participatory approaches were helpful in characterizing the diverse coconut ecotypes, creating awareness about the
importance of conservation and also had practical application as community members could produce and supply
quality coconut seedlings based on their own requirements.
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Study on Drought Tolerance of Sixteen Genotypes of

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.)
Seyed Mortaza Azimzadeh

Azad University of Shirvan, Northern Khorasan, Iran
In order to study drought tolerance of 16 genotypes of safflower, an experiment was conducted at research farm of
Azad University of Shirvan during 2004 –2005 growing season. The experiment was randomized complete block
design with 4 replications in two separate irrigated and dry land conditions. Precipitation amount during growing
season was 220mm. Some agronomic traits were recorded. Drought tolerant genotypes were determined based on,
drought tolerance index, drought susceptibility index, electrical conductivity and relative leaf water content.
The results showed that average of seed yield in LRV51-51 was more than other genotypes (1.52 t ha-1). After this
genotype Hartman,CW-74 and PI537598 produced average of 1.48, 1.45 and 1.44 t ha-1 seed yield respectively.
Among these genotypes HARTMAN produced the most seed yield in irrigated condition (1501 kg h -1) and CW-74
produced the most seed yield in dry land condition(1.23 t ha-1). Electrical conductivity in all genotypes in dry land
condition was more than irrigated condition. In dry land condition LRW51-51 and KINO-76 showed lower electrical
conductivity than other genotypes but seed yield in both irrigated and dry land condition in LRW51-51 was more than
KINO76. The electrical conductivity in LRV51-51 was less than other genotypes that indicated less damage from
drought. Although leaf water content in LRV51-51 was not significant compared with other genotypes but it was more
than others. LRV 51-51 also showed the most drought tolerance index and less drought susceptibility index compared
with other genotypes. CW-74 also produced higher seed yield and showed more stress tolerance index and less
stress susceptibility index compared with other genotypes.
Session 1.6
Chromosomal Segments Introgressed from Wild Species Oryza
rufipogon Can Help Raise Yield of Rice Hybrids
T. Sudhakar, A.P. Babu, B.P. Mallikarjuna Swamy, C. Surendhar Reddy, Anil K. Batchu, M.S. Ramesha,
B.C. Viraktamath and N. Sarla
Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad 500 030, Andhra Pradesh, India
Wild species of Oryza such as O. rufipogon and O. nivara with AA genomes are potential reservoirs of useful genes
serving good source for introgressing several agronomically useful traits into popular rice varieties. Interspecific hybrids
are easily obtained between O. sativa and other A genome species. It emerges that during domestication from wild
rice to cultivated rice some favorable alleles were left behind due to their linkage with deleterious alleles. These can
now be preferentially introgressed using molecular markers to track them. Traditionally, wild relatives of rice are
used for improving disease and insect resistance, but not for complex traits such as yield and drought tolerance.
Naturally occurring allelic variation underlying complex traits such as yield can now be efficiently exploited using
the rice genomic resources. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis can help identify specific regions of the genome
significantly affecting yield. At DRR, introgression lines (ILs) have been developed from wild species Oryza rufipogon
(IC22015) in the background of KMR3, a popular restorer line used in the production of the widely adaptable three
line hybrid KRH2. A major effect QTL (yld2.1) for yield was mapped from O. rufipogon earlier. The present work
reports the results of introgressing yld2.1 into a restorer line KMR3 for improving its yield and the yield of the
resulting hybrid.
The microsatellite markers RM262 and RM263 flanking the QTL were used to identify the plants in BC1 which had
the target QTL. One hundred and fourteen (29%) of the 393 BC1 plants had the flanking markers. Marker assisted
backcrossing was continued in BC2 and 348 plants were tested for two additional markers in between the flanking
343
markers of the QTL. Ninety seven plants (28%) had both the flanking markers and another 56 plants had atleast one
of the four markers. In a preliminary study to test the fertility of hybrids, the CMS line IR58025A was crossed with
11 plants which had both the flanking markers from O. rufipogon. More than 80% pollen was fertile in each of the
resulting hybrids. Thus introgression from O. rufipogon did not diminish fertility restoration in these hybrids.
Yield and yield components were analyzed in 380 BC3F2 families grown in DRR field during rabi 2007-08 along
with KMR3 as control. The mean yield per plant of introgressed lines was 26.6 g (range 9 g to 60 g) and for the control
KMR3, it was 21.7 g (range 16.2 to 32.2) based on data of atleast 24 plants of each family. Thus an increase of 22.7%
was observed in the introgressed lines compared to KMR3 (check). This is the first report of marker assisted introgression
of yield enhancing QTL from O. rufipogon into a restorer line leading to increase yield in some ILs of KMR3. The
hybrids are being developed using elite ILs of KMR3 as a restorer to demonstrate increased heterosis in hybrid KRH2
in field conditions.
In Vitro Screening of One Hundred Twenty-three Indian Peanut Cultivars

for Sodium Chloride Induced Salinity Tolerance
A.J. Mungala1, T. Radhakrishnan2 and J.R. Dobaria2

1
Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh 362 001, Gujarat, India
2
National Research Centre for Groundnut, Junagadh 362 001, Gujarat, India
Information on tolerance of peanut crop to various levels of salinity is limited whereas salinity problem is on increase at
an alarming rate in several peanut growing states of India. Screening a large collection of germplasms under natural
conditions of salinity is not a viable approach and hence, an alternate method, which is simple and can handle several
Session 1.6
genotypes, is needed. The present study reports the screening of 123 Indian peanut cultivars in vitro by incorporating
sodium chloride in the culture medium to create salinity (high salt). The rate of survival of the in vitro regenerated
shoots grown in this media was taken as a measure of their tolerance to ‘salinity’. At lower concentration of sodium
chloride (1.5%) all cultivars except Dh 8 had reasonably good survival rate. With an increase in the concentration to
2%, the survival rate decreased and at 2.5% sodium chlorides it came down to less than 10%, indicating a very high
selection pressure. The cultivars MA 16 and ICGS 76 had consistently higher survival rates at all the three concentrations
of sodium chloride. At 2.5% concentration, the genotypes ICGS 76, MA 16, S 206, TG 17, GG 20, JL 24, Punjab 1,
TMV 12, MH 2, M 522, Tirupati 3, Dh 3-30, TMV 2 and GG 2 had less mortality thus showing tolerant to salinity in vitro.
Estimation of Genetic Variation for the Improvement of Yield and Fibre

Quality Characters in Upland Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.)
Paramjit Singh
Punjab Agricultural University, Regional Station, Bathinda, 151 001, Punjab, India
Cotton is the most important textile fibre crop in the world and second only to soybean as the most important
oilseed crop. To meet the ever growing population of India, with limited land resources, breeding programmes
should be aimed at increasing the productivity per unit area. The progress in the development of superior genotypes
would depend on the nature and magnitude of available genetic variation. Gene effects were estimated for yield
components and fibre quality characters in the experimental material consisting of a basic set of six generations
i.e. P1, P2, F1, F2, B1 and B2 derived from four varietal crosses viz., LH 900x RS 2059 (1), LH 900 x RS 2060 (2),
LH 1832 x RS 2059(3) and LH 1832 x RS 2060 (4) using generation means analysis. Epistasis was detected by
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scaling tests and inadequacy of simple additive-dominance model for most of the characters was studied. The
results invariably detected epistasis (11 out of total 20 cases) which demonstrated that importance of epistasis in
the inheritance of various characters couldn’t be ignored. The results revealed that the nature and magnitude of
gene effects differed in different crosses and showed importance of additive as well as non additive gene effects in
the inheritance of different characters. In view of the parallel role of additive and non additive gene effects in the
inheritance of different characters, selection in the segregating generations should be delayed when dominance
gene effects would have diminished or sophisticated selection procedures as recurrent selection and population
improvement programmes may be followed. However, additive gene effects may be fixed in the pure lines with
respect to some specific traits such as for seed cotton yield in cross3, for boll weight in cross 1, 2 and 3 and for
ginning out in cross 4.
Prospectus of Bt Cotton Cultivation in Punjab
Paramjit Singh and G.S. Buttar

Punjab Agricultural University, Regional Station, Bathinda, 151 001, Punjab, India
The development of Bt cotton in India from the transgenic cotton of Monsanto, USA, underwent a stringent regulatory
process before it finally reached for commercial cultivation to farmers fields in 2002 in six central and southern Indian
states. In the year 2005, it was approved in Punjab along with other northern states of Haryana and Rajasthan. The Bt
cotton area in India rose from 0.038 Mha in 2002 to 3.8 Mha in 2006. The technology resulted in many positive benefits
for cotton cultivation in Punjab, especially in terms of reducing farmer stress from management issues related to
menacing cotton bollworm. Due to introduction of Bt cotton in Punjab, the area of cotton increased to 6.18 lakh ha with
a production of 27 lakh bales in 2006-07 from 4.52 lakh ha with a production of 14.78 lakh bales in 2003-04. Though
Session 1.6
other benefits like yield increase and reduction in pesticide use were apparent in majority of areas, some farmers and
NGOs were raising concerns regarding cultivation of Bt cotton. One of these was the spread of illegal Bt cotton
varieties which were untested and unapproved for biosafety, but were being clandestinely cultivated in cotton belt of
the state. An-other clear impact of Bt cotton appeared to be the replacement of large tracts of varietal areas with Bt
hybrids, since the technology was available in the form of hybrids only. Secondary insect pests such as mealy bug
were found to damage cotton fields resulting reduction in yield ha-1 in year 2007-08. The tobacco caterpillar staged a
come back as an economic pest of Bt cotton. Since the donor parent Coker 312 is known to be susceptible to sucking
pests, the hybrids showed enhanced susceptibility to these pests. Though there are no symptoms of resistance to Cry
I Ac in any of the bollworms but due to attack of mealy bug, tobacco caterpillar and sucking pests, there was increase
in number of insecticidal sprays for the control of these pests. There are reports of more para-wilt on Bt cottons as
compared to non Bt cottons because of high bearing. Here, there is a need to study and manage all effects of Bt cotton
so as to draw maximum benefit of this technology for a long period of time.
Thermo Tolerance in Recombinant Inbred lines of Wheat
S. Sareen, B.K. Meena, D. Garg, R. Tiwari, J. Shoran and B. Mishra

Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal, Haryana, India
Since the uncertainties of the predicted global climate change are gradually diminishing due to accumulation of more
evidences, efforts have been accelerated to target abiotic stress tolerance in cereals, particularly, wheat where continual
or terminal heat stress is known to affect yield. Exposure of plants to high temperature at grain development in polyhouse
is generally used to differentiate tolerant and intolerant genotypes. RILs derived from Halna and RAJ 4014 were raised
in pots till heading and then transferred to polyhouse. The average maximum and minimum temperatures in the poly
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house were 8.5 0C and 1.5 0C higher than the ambient. The effect of high temperature on key morpho-physiological
traits was recorded. On the basis of heat susceptibility index, 25% RILs were found tolerant, 27% moderately tolerant
and 48% susceptible. Exposure to high temperature under polyhouse condition reduced grain weight, grain number
and total biomass. The extent of reduction in these traits was different in the two reciprocal crosses. The reduction
was drastic when RAJ 4014, a heat sensitive genotype, was used as female parent than as male parent. This can
be attributed to maternal inheritance or cytoplasmic effects.
Physiological, Molecular and Biochemical Mechanisms Governing

Gamma Radiation Mediated Induction of Drought, Salinity and
Micronutrient Stress Tolerance in Triticum aestivum
Piyush and Rashi

Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Sector 125, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Independent experiments were conducted to study the effect of different doses of gamma radiation (0.01, 0.03, 0.05,
0.07, 0.10 kGy) either solely or in conjunction with water and salt stress, on morphological, biochemical and physiological
attributes in seeds and seedlings of wheat (Triticum aestivum L. CV HD-2781) procured from Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi. Efforts were made to ascertain the gamma radiation induced modification in the capacity
of wheat seedlings to influence the rhizosphere through the release of organic and inorganic exudates which are
dominated by non–proteinaceous amino acids viz., phytosiderophores and to PCR amplify and clone NAS (Nicotianamine
synthase) for its involvement in regulation of phytosiderophore biosynthesis.
The tolerance to the abiotic stresses was related to a higher activity of superoxide dismutase, an enzyme responsible
Session 1.6
for preventing the cellular damage due to superoxide free radicals that are invariably generated under abiotic or biotic
stress. A greater tolerance of irradiated seedlings to iron deficiency was related to their ability to produce significantly
larger amounts of phytosiderophores, the non-proteinanceous metal chelating amino acids. DNA damage was observed
only at irradiation dose higher than 0.05 kGy. Nicotianamine amino synthase (NAS, 550 bp), the gene regulating rate
limiting enzyme of phytosiderophore biosynthesis was successfully amplified and cloned in E. coli competent cells
using heat shock transformation approach. The colonies bearing the nas gene were identified and frozen for later use
in development of transgenic plants for high phytosiderophore production capacity through over expression of nas
gene. The transgenics are likely to grow better under abiotic stress. Gamma irradiation improved crop performance
under salinity and water scarce conditions which can be exploited at field level to improve crop productivity.
Conservation of Maize (Zea mays L.) Inbred Lines Tolerant for

Water Deficit Soil
Mamata Yadav1*, T.V. Shadakshari2, Nand lal1, P.H. Zaidi3

1
Department of Life Sciences, CSJM University, Kanpur, India
2
Division of Genetics, IARI, New Delhi, 110 012
3
Asian Regional Maize Program, CIMMYT, Hyderabad, India
(*Email: Mamtayadav2007@gmail.com)
Water is the most common limitation to maize production in the tropics. Drought during the crop establishment stage
can kill young plants, reducing the plant density. The main effect of drought in the vegetative period is to reduce leaf
growth, so the crop intercepts less sunlight. Around flowering (from about two weeks before silking to two weeks after
346
silking), maize is very sensitive to moisture stress. Grain yield can be seriously affected if drought occurs during
this period. During the grain-filling period, the main effect of drought is to reduce kernel size.
In the present study we used twenty two maize (Zea mays) inbred lines obtained from CIMMYT. These Inbred
lines were grown in two sets one in rain out shelter and another in normal irrigated condition by following proper
package of practices. The moisture deficit was created by with holding the irrigation after 40 days after sowing and
continued with holding irrigation up to 30 days. The soil moisture content was measured three times at five days
interval using soil moisture meter up to the depth of 1000 mm at flowering stage.The plant growth parameter like
photosynthesis rate, chlorophyll content, plant height, leaf rolling, senescence, biomass and yield were recorded. The
soil moisture content was significantly low in drought as compared to normal. The performance of all inbred lines was
good in irrigated condition but in moisture deficit soil the inbreds divided themselves into two parts; one group which
was tolerant to moisture stress and another group which was susceptible to moisture stress. The tolerant inbred lines
DTPWC9-F55-2-3, DTPWC9-F67-2-2, Pant-1-4 and DTPYC9-F148-2-1 which were grown in moisture deficit soil
showed low performance in all the growth parameters as compared to their counter parts in irrigated condition. The
susceptible genotypes which were grown in moisture deficit soil performed significantly very low as compared to their
counter parts in irrigated condition, in some inbred lines like DTPYC9-F38-5-2 and DTPWC9-F16-1-1, there were no
cobs.
We would conclude that the inbred lines which were tolerant to drought has to be conserved in the wake of
climatic changes, where we may be expected to keep ready for the change in climate.
Studies on Lipid Peroxidation in Indian mustard Leaves of Resistant and

Susceptible Genotypes in Relation to White Rust Disease Interactions
Session 1.6
Sapna1, Sunita Jain1 and A.S. Rathi2
1 2
Department of Biochemistry, Department of Plant Pathology, CCS Haryana Agricultural University,
Hisar, 125 004, Haryana, India
The present investigation was carried out to study on lipid peroxidation in leaves of white rust resistant (RH 781) and
susceptible (Varuna) genotypes of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.) in Albugo candida inoculated and uninoculated
leaves. Healthy leaves of susceptible genotype showed enhanced electrolyte leakage and hydrogen peroxide content
as compared to resistant genotype, whereas, no significant difference was observed in malondialdehyde content.
Following inoculation of third leaf, significantly higher electrolyte leakage, malondialdehyde and hydrogen peroxide
contents were recorded in susceptible genotype as compared to resistant genotype. As indicated by per cent electrolyte
leakage, malondialdehyde and hydrogen peroxide contents, the susceptible genotype suffered greater damage as
compared to the resistant genotype due to lipid peroxidation.
Heterosis and Combining Ability Study in Bread

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
Sarla Yadav
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, I.A.Sc., B.H.U., Varanasi, India
Heterosis and combining ability analysis in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) was carried out to obtain information
about nature and magnitude of gene action through different approaches of diallel analysis (component approach and
combining ability), heterosis, heritability and genetic advance involving eight parents (K 9107, PBW 343, K 9423,
347
K9162, K 8027, K9351, GW373, K 9465) and their 28 cross combinations in F1s. The experiment was conducted
during rabi 2005 in randomized block design with three replications and observations were taken on eight metric traits
namely, days to 75% flowering, plant height, number of productive tillers per plant, ear length, number of grains per
ear, days to maturity, 100-grain weight and grain yield per plant. The result indicated significant differences among
the treatments, parents and their F1s for all the characters.
Component analysis indicated the role of both additive and non-additive gene action for all the characters. Average
degree of dominance was considered as partial dominance for all the traits except plant height, 100-grain weight and
grain yield per plant, where it was over dominance. Combining ability analysis revealed the importance of both additive
and non-additive gene action for all the traits. Parents K 9107, PBW 343, K 9162 and K 9465 were most considerable
as good general combiners for different traits. Crosses K 9107 x PBW 343, K 9423 x GW373 and PBW343 x K 9423
exhibited best performance and considered as good specific combiners for different traits. High heterosis over economic
parent PBW 343 was observed for different traits. High heritability with moderate genetic advance was considerable
for selection in respect of the characters associated with grain yield.
Pesticide Loss on Foliar Spray Application: Need for Target Oriented

Application Devises
Seeni Rengasamy1* and Kishan Singh Jame2

Division of Agricultural Chemicals, Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
Pusa Campus, New Delhi, 110 012, India
(*Email: thirusrsamy@yahoo.com)
Pesticide formulations are applied on arable crops with foliar spraying as the major mode of application. The foliar
spray is dispensed using Knapsack sprayers fitted with hollow cone nozzles with varying specifications in small farm
Session 1.6
operation. The nozzle specifications include the flow rate at a specified input pressure, and the angle of spray cone
ranging from 60 to 1100. Best atomization of the spray liquid takes place at a distance of 50 cm from the nozzle. The
swath width at 50 cm ranges from 60 to 110 cm. The arable crops have varying crop canopy up to diameter of 60 cm
before it achieves continuum of foliage and leaf area indices up to 8.5 during its growth from sowing to harvest. Use of
appropriate spray nozzles will minimize the wastage, conserve the pesticide applied and minimize the environmental
pollution.
Pesticide spray efficiency on foliar spraying was carried out using a Knapsac sprayer fitted with hollow cone
nozzles (450 ml/min, 800) on crops cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), tomato (Lycopersicon esculuentum), brinjal (Solanum
melongena L) raised in pots were tested by gravimetric method. The pots with 30 days old crops were placed at
appropriate space distances recommended for the field crops. The spray loss was estimated at 99.2, 99.4, 99.3%
respectively. The results indicated the need for developing / using narrow-angled nozzles suiting the crop canopy.
Brown Plant Hopper Resistant Genetic Arsenal and

IGKV Germplasm, Raipur
U. Ponnada1 and D. J. Pophaly2

1
Department of Ag. Entomology, Allahabad Agricultural Institute-Deemed University,
Allahabad, Uttar Prasdesh, India
2
Regional Agriculture Research Station Boirdadar, Raigarh, Chhattisgarh, India
At milky and maturity stage of rice crops, control of Nilaparvata lugens by insecticide is beyond the capacity of
marginal farmers. Moreover, insecticide residue in crop plants, resurgence and detrimental effect on natural biotic
fauna are some major issues in protecting this crop, which has threatened the local economy of small and marginal
348
rice farmers of this region. Tolerant varieties is a solution, but before introducing these varieties in agro-system,
exact mechanism of functional resistance must be known to avoid any reverberatory effect to avoid would be
superimposition in future. Taking into consideration all these parameters, advanced rice breeding lines developed
out of BPH resistant donors, were evaluated against BPH insects in glass house condition during 2006-07 at Indira
Gandhi Agricultural University Raipur.
Advanced rice breeding lines were developed out of BPH resistant donors. These lines were derived using R X
R crossing pattern in breeding programme. Donors used were characterized with respect to agronomic traits viz.
100 seed weight value ranging between 1.95 to 4.13 g. Total 114 genotypes were screened. Fifteen were found to be
highly resistant, 57 resistant, 12 moderately resistant and rest 30 lines susceptible to BPH. Hence these lines
were already F8-F9 generations. This genetic material is under pipeline for evolving BPH resistant high yielding
varieties. Overall, considering an advanced generation of these lines and the resistance mechanism carried out
which is hereditary therefore, this gene pool is of immense importance to evolve best varieties to get rid of BPH
specially in Chattisgarh which is the prime and key component in pest management system.
RAPD-based Analysis of Genetic Diversity in

Linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.)
P.K. Singh1, M. Akram2 and R.L. Srivastava3

1
Project Coordinating Unit (Linseed), 2Department of Plant Pathology, C.S. Azad University of Agriculture and
Technology, Kanpur, 208 002, Uttar Pradesh, India
Information on the extent and distribution of genetic variation among the linseed germplasm is essential for sampling
Session 1.6
genetic resources for breeding and conservation purposes. The present study on linseed was conducted using PCR-
based molecular marker (RAPD) in order to find out the genetic diversity and to assess the genetic relationship among
major cultivated linseed varieties developed by C.S. Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur, India. The
experimental materials comprised ten improved varieties of linseed developed between 1964 and 2007 namely T 397,
Neelum, Shekhar, Garima, Padmini, Parvati, Sharda, Sweta, Shikha and Gaurav. Molecular characterization was
performed with RAPD markers among then phenotypically distinct linseed varieties recommended for different agro-
ecological situations. All the 20 primers were highly reproducible and generated 111 bands with 63.06% polymorphism.
The number of amplification product per primer ranged from 2 (SBSB-04) to 9 (SBSB-01) with an average number of
5.55 bands per primer. Two primers (SBSB-06 and SBSB-14) could not generate any polymorphic band whereas,
seven primers produced 100 per cent polymorphism. Eleven primers produced genotype specific bands that would be
helpful in their identification. Primer B-06 amplfied who similar bands of ~300 and ~500 bp in all the linseed genotypes
used in the study. Primer SBSB-17 amplified unique bands of ~700 bp one each in Sweta and Shikha that RAPDs are
powerful markers and can be used for varietal identification and purification in linseed. Genetic relationship was
established basd on Jacard’s similarity coefficient which ranged from 0.67 to 0.94. UPGMA cluster analysis generated
dendogram with three clusters at 83% similarly coefficient. Cluster U and II comprised of three and six genotypes,
respectively whereas, cluster III was having only Neelum. The most distant pairs of linseed varieties were Neelum and
Parvati followed by Neelum and Padmini and Neelum and Shekhar. These parents can be utilized in future breeding
programmes to get promising recombinants. The present study has proved that linseed varieties reported to be similar
in morphology were genetically different.
349
Production of Quality Planting Material of Tuberose (Polianthes

tuberosa) var Double through Rapid Multiplication
Anu G. Krishnan, C.K. Geetha and P.K. Rajeevan
Kerala Agricultural University, Kerala, India
Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa Linn.) is an important tropical bulbous ornamental plant, which has a great demand
in commercial floriculture. It is mainly propagated by bulbs, which is a very slow process to meet the growing
demand. Micro-propagation has proved useful for rapid multiplication of plants. In this study the method of propagation
of tuberose var ‘Doubl’e from scale–stem section is reported. The bulbs were thoroughly washed in distilled water
and soap solution and treated with 0.1% bavistin for 30 minutes. Then they were sterilised with 50% alcohol for 3
minutes and 0.1% mercuric chloride 30 minutes inside a laminar air flow chamber. After surface sterilization the half
of the scale was removed and the scale–stem sections were inoculated into Murashige and Skoog’s medium
containing different concentrations of BAP and Kinetin. The media containing BAP 6 mg l-1 + Kinetin 4 mg l-1 was
best for culture establishment and shoot proliferation. For elongation the plants were transferred to MS medium
with half the concentration of inorganic salts. Rooting was best in IBA 4 mg l-1 + 0.2% Activated charcoal. The
rooted plants showed eighty percent survival after hardening in coco-peat medium.
Heterosis for Seed Yield and Other Characters in

Haricot Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)
Session 1.6
A.K. Sarial1, Abeya Temesgen2 and Amsalu Ayana2

1
College of Agriculture, CCSHAU Campus, Kaul, 136 021, Haryana, India
2
Department of Biology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
In Haricot bean (Phaseolus vugaris L.) crosses in a 6 x 6 diallel excluding reciprocal were effected and the F1s were
evaluated to estimate the extent of heterosis and heterobeltosis for seed yield and other traits. Percent heterosis over
the mid-parent and the better parent for grain yield ranged from - 17.75 to 39.01% and from - 7.97 to 27.16%, respectively.
The highest grain yield was 30.95 g per plant recorded in ‘@&Gobe Rasha’ x ‘B&EAP-4’, while the least was 20.19
g per plant obtained from ‘@&EAP-4’. On the other hand, the highest crude protein content per seed (22.84%) was
recorded by ‘@&Atendaba’ x ‘B&Gobe Rasha’, while the lowest was obtained by ‘@&Atendaba’ x ‘B&EAP - 4 ‘(18.20%).
Hybrid, ‘@&Atendaba’ x ‘B&EAP - 4’, also had the lowest organic matter content (95.15%). ‘@&Gobe Rasha’ x ‘B&EAP-
4’ and ‘@&FEB-147’ x ‘B&EAP-4’ manifested significant and positive heterosis. These crosses gave 39.01 and 27.16%
for ‘@&Gobe Rasha’ x ‘B&EAP - 4’ and 24.98% and 17.80% for ‘@&FEB-14’7 x ‘B&EAP-4’ for heterosis over the mid
parent and the better parent, respectively. On the other hand, ‘@&FEB-147’ x ‘B&EAP-4’ was the only hybrid that
showed significant and positive heterosis over the mid parent for seed crude protein.
350
Generation of B. Nigra – B. Rapa alien Chromosome Addition Stocks:

Cytology and Microsatellite (SSRS) Based Characterization of B. Rapa
Chromosomes
Rahul Kapoor*, S.S. Banga and S.K. Banga

(*Email: rahul200189@yahoo.co.in)
Studies were aimed at improving B. nigra, the B-genome donor for B. juncea through selective introgression of useful
variation from A-genome chromosomes by developing nigra – B. rapa chromosome addition stocks. Resynthesized
B. juncea was used as B-genome donor species and A-genome addition stocks were developed by hybridizing
sesquidiploid plant (ABB) as female using B. nigra as the male parent. Various cycles of backcrossing and / or selfing
were utilized to isolate plants carrying monosomic additions. Despite three cycles of backcrossing and four selfing
cycles plants with a monosomic or a disomic addition line could not be developed. It was possible to isolate plants with
addition of 3 A-genome chromosomes in the background of B. nigra. Twenty eight A-genome specific markers were
employed to characterize these plants. The chromosome numbering 3 and 4 were first to get eliminated after one
generation of selfing / backcrossing. Chromosome number 10 was the next to be eliminated (BC1F3 / BC2). Remaining
chromosomes were maintained till BC1F4. The sole exception was chromosome number 6 which could not be detected
in BC1F4 plants. However, second cycle of backcrossing (BC2) led to the elimination of chromosome numbers 1 and 2.
BC2F2 plants carried the chromosome numbers 6, 7, 8 and 9. BC3 having plants with 2n=19 carried chromosome
numbers 6, 7 and 8. It is possible that chromosome numbering 6, 7 and 8 had higher transmission frequency and these
were better tolerated by the B. nigra genome. A single plant with 2n=16, was confirmed to be carrying introgression
from B. rapa chromosomes as it showed different SSR profile upon amplification with A genome specific SSR markers.
Very high degree of divergence and consequent absence of homoeologous pairing between A and B genome
chromosomes could be the reason for lower level of genetic introgression from A-genome chromosomes.
Session 1.6
351
Session 1.7: Indigenous Knowledge and Practices
Study on Small Holder Pig Production System in

Mizoram - Sustainability Perspectives
G. Kalita, R. Buragohain and K. Sarma

College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Central Agricultural University,
Selesih, Aizawl, Mizoram, India
The present study was undertaken to investigate the various aspects of small holders pig production system in Mizoram,
giving more emphasis on the impacts to the environment and the economic viability. Data on housing, manure
management, and feeding system were collected randomly from 100 farmers rearing substantial population of pigs in
Siphir and Lungdei area of Mizoram. The observations indicated the age old system of rearing followed by the Mizo
farmers having 2-3 fatteners/growers and/or 1 or 2 lactating sows in their backyards. It was observed that rearing of pig
is deeply embedded in the culture and customs of Mizo society (approx. human: pig:: 3:1) besides providing economic
benefits. Rearing in confinement over a sloppy land in pig sties made of locally available material like bamboo and
wood and feeding of pigs with boiled kitchen wastes, jungle leaves/roots/stem with limited concentrates (94% farmers)
is common. Due to less dependence on cement, irons, bricks etc., pig sties are however more environment friendly,
and less construction cost and floor space requirement are other advantages of this system. Purchase of piglets,
feeds, collection of jungle leaves/tubers/stems from forest and boiling for feeding (100% use fire wood) involve less
fossil fuel (16% uses vehicle and 84% uses Mizo village vehicle/on foot) which makes the system ecofriendly. Pig
manure is not commonly used by pig farmers (85% of the surveyed) as fertilizer.
Lower feed conversion rate, less growth and occurrence of diseases may be due to improper wall and lack of
bedding materials, and thus not protecting the animals from cold waves during winter (3-120C) and at night during
summer (13-150C). Improper feeding and housing may also be causes of poor growth leading to longer rearing period
(10-14 months) resulting no or low profit, and wastage of feed and time. Poor pig manure utilization and management
leads to wastage of valuable nutrients and environmental pollution.
Though the present small holders’ backyard pig production system in the state is societal and ecofriendly in
certain aspects, it may not be economically viable as production unit in rapidly changing work culture. Improvement in
manure management, feeding and housing system is very essential to make the system sustainable (economical,
ecological and societal) in near future.
Session 1.7
The Role of Sugar Factory on the Cropping Pattern Changes: A Case

Study through the Malegaon Sugar Factory (Maharashtra)
Zahra Arzjani* and V.S. Datye

Department of Geography, University of Pune, Maharashtra, India
(*E-mail: zarzjani@yahoo.com)
A number of factors influence the changes in cropping patterns, either be of short-term, long-term or medium-term, in
any given region. One such factor is the establishment of agro-based or food processing industry influencing the
cropping pattern in that region. The quantitative and qualitative study of cropping pattern changes is very important at
all levels, e.g. for the farmers, entrepreneurs, industrialists, financers and lending agencies, food corporations, and
agricultural and finance ministries in the government, for various reasons. This paper is essentially a qualitative and
352
quantitative study on how a sugar factory can influence, in long-term, the cropping pattern changes of sugarcane in
that region. The case study is carried out on a real factory (the Malegaon Sugar Factory) in Malegoan, Maharashtra,
India. The data obtained and reported is real and accurate. The analyses of the data and their important conclusions
are presented.
Effect of Intercropping Winter Maize (Zea mays l.) with Rajmash

(Phaseolus vulgaris) under Additive Series on Its Growth and Yield
Rajesh Singh, S. Elamathi and Ganesh Kumar Singh

Allahabad Agricultural Institute (Deemed University), Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, 211 007, India
A field experiment entitled on the effect of intercropping winter maize (Zea mays L.) with rajmash (Phaseolus vulgaris)
under additive series on its growth and yield was conducted during the rabi seasons of 2003-04 and 2004-05 at the
Crop Research Farm of the Department of Agronomy, Allahabad Agricultural Institute, Allahabad. The soil of the
experimental field was sandy loam having a pH of 7.4 and organic carbon content of 0.34%. The available NPK were
analyzed to be 210, 19 and 222 kg ha-1, respectively. The experiment consisted of nine treatments in randomized block
design and replicated thrice. The treatments consisted of two planting methods of maize viz., conventional planting in
which the row to row distance of maize was kept at 60 cm and paired row planting in which the row to row distance in
between the paired rows was kept at 45 cm and the distance in between the two paired rows was maintained 90 cm.
In conventional planting, one single intercrop row was sown in between the two rows of maize, whereas in paired row
sowing, two rows of rajmash were sown in between two rows of maize; hence in both the conditions the plant population
for both the crops was the same. Treatments also consisted of three levels of nitrogen management in intercropping
system viz., 100% recommended dose of nitrogen (RDN) to maize + 100% RDN to rajmash, 75% RDN to maize +
100% RDN to rajmash and 100% RDN to maize + 75% RDN to rajmash. The response of maize and rajmash
intercropping was compared to their sole crop yields. The highest plant height of maize (200.6 and 202.9 cm) and
rajmash (35.97 and 36.43 cm) were observed under the treatment conventional sown maize fertilized with 100% RDN
+ rajmash fertilized with 100% RDN, but the highest dry weight accumulation in maize (226.7 and 227.9 g) and rajmash
(28.6 and 30.00 g) was observed in the treatment paired row sown maize fertilized with 100% RDN + rajmash fertilized
with 100% RDN. The maximum number of grains/cob (276.8 and 269.5), grain yield (6.23 and 6.38 t ha-1) and stover
yield (10.5 t ha-1 and 10.7 t ha-1) was obtained under the treatment paired row sown maize fertilized with 100% RDN +
rajmash fertilized with 100% RDN. Although the highest grain yield (2.53 and 25.9 t ha-1) in rajmash was observed in
sole cropping but the highest maize equivalent yield (110.06 and 111.85 t ha-1) was obtained under paired row sowing
of maize fertilized with 100% RDN + rajmash fertilized with 100% RDN which was most remunerative with a benefit
Session 1.7
cost ratio of 4.14 amongst all the treatments.
Allelopathic Influence of Purple Nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus L.) Extracts

on Growth of Weed Seeds
Ameena M. and V.L. Geetha Kumari

Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Palakkad, Kerala Agricultural University, Kerala, India
Laboratory experiments were carried out to investigate the allelopathic influence of purple nutsedge extracts on growth
and development of other weed plants so as to assess the possibility of utilizing allelopathy for weed management.
The weeds included were Chromoleana odorata, Gomphrena decumbense and Synedrella nodiflora. Of the four
treatments tried, ethanol extract at 10% concentration killed all the weed seeds completely while aqueous extracts
353
caused inhibition of growth of some of the weed seeds tested. Seeds of C. odorata, and S. nodiflora were found
unaffected by the aqueous extracts of nutsedge. However, aqueous extract of dry whole plant before flowering and
after flowering caused drastic reduction in seedling vigour index of S. nodiflora and they suppressed seedling vigour to
a level of 83 and 80%, respectively. In general, nutsedge extract taken after flowering caused the greatest inhibition of
all the growth parameters tested.
Sustainable Practices for the Management of Root Knot

in Tomato Crop
Anamika and K.P. Singh

Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
B.H.U., Varanashi, Uttar Pradesh, India
In sustainable agriculture, traditional farming practices are used for reducing the incidence and damage caused by
nematodes. In this system, integration of farming practices is done by encouraging and maintaining the biodiversity
inherent component to increase host resistance and decrease the disease severity of tomato crop by reducing the
inoculum density as well as its potentiality to cause infection.
Diverse groups of bioagent are present in our agro-ecosystem for the management of root knot nematodes and
there is a need to maintain its population in the soil. The organic manures play a decisive role in soil by promoting the
antagonist population, increasing host resistance and reducing the movement of nematodes as well as its population
density.
Biological arsenals such as Paecilomyces spp. which is an egg parasite, Catenaria spp. as an endoparasite,
Dactylaria spp. as nematodes trapping fungi, PGPR develops ISR in host plants etc. are naturally present in the soil,
they only need their mass multiplication. In order to maintain the biodiversity, organic manures is used in harmonious
way. A study was conducted in which D. eudermata @ 1% along with FYM @ 5% shows greater reduction in root knot
diseases in tomato crop.
Tapping Farmers’ Indigenous Knowledge System

Session 1.7
A. Saha1* and D. Das Gupta2

1
Department of Agricultural Extension, Agril. Economics and Agril. Statistics,
Palli Siksha Bhavana (Institute of Agriculture), Visva Bharati, Sriniketan, 731 236, India
2
BCKV, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, India
(*Email: anindita_psb@rediffmail.com)
Sophisticated knowledge of the natural world is not confined to science. Human societies all across the globe have
developed rich sets of experiences and explanations relating to the environments they live in. These ‘other knowledge
systems’ are today often referred to as indigenous or local knowledge (IK). They encompass the sophisticated arrays
of information, understandings and interpretations that guide human societies around the globe in their innumerable
interactions with the natural milieu: in agriculture and animal husbandry; hunting, fishing and gathering; struggles
against disease and injury; naming and explanation of natural phenomena; and strategies to cope with fluctuating
environments. Recognition of the role of IK is crucial. IK has not been the result of passive accumulation. Considering
this, an attempt was being made to study the untapped, unwritten body of knowledge, which held in different brains
and skills in as many groups of dairy farmers. The objectives were to document IK regarding breeding and management
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aspects of dairy animals and appraise the rationality of IK. The study was conducted in purposively selected
Birbhum district of West Bengal. Multistage stratified sampling was applied for selection of blocks (2) and villages
(4). “Snow-ball” sampling technique was adopted in the selected villages for collection and documentation of IK.
Participant observation, unstructured interaction and recording of oral case histories by tape-records were also
used for documentation of indigenous knowledge/traditional practices regarding breeding and management of dairy
animals. Thirteen IK were collected, classified and documented with rationality. In contrast to sciences acquisition
of knowledge through theories and methods, indigenous knowledge is acquired know-how and wisdom by observing
specific natural and social phenomenon connected with the experience of super natural powers that influence life.
Rather than be replaced by scientific knowledge, IK remains strong throughout developing countries particularly in
rural areas to form a holistic, more often than not secret, hold view and valuable source of self-reliant cultural
persistence in a period of rapid social change.
Resource Conservation through Indigenous Farming Systems

in North East India
Anup Das, G.C. Munda, P.K. Ghosh, D.P. Patel, S.V. Ngachan and A.K. Tripathi
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umia, 793 103, Meghalaya, India
*Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal, Haryana, India
Agriculture in the North Eastern region of India is complex, diverse and risk prone and characterized by difficult terrain,
wide variations in slopes and altitudes, climates, land tenure systems and cultivation practices. The region is bestowed
with rich resources of soil and agro-climate, making it one of the fertile regions of the country. Abundance of natural
water resources, well distributed rainfall and good soil enable the growing of wide varieties of crops. The biodiversity
in NE states remain unexplored to utilize the resources properly for development of agrarian economy and to feed the
millions of the region. The people of the region following some indigenous farming systems from time immemorial
which are ‘Pani- kheti’ system of rice cultivation in Sikkim, Nagaland, Manipur, ‘Rice + fish farming’ in Apatani plateau
of Arunachal Pradesh, ‘Zabo’ farming and ‘Alder based farming’ systems of Nagaland and ‘Bun’ method of cultivation
in Meghalaya. The pest and disease in these systems are managemed by following indigenous means like crab trap,
plant extracts, wood ash etc.
In pani-kheti system of cultivation, water is diverted from hilltops and allowed to stand in the terraces. This is done
mainly for management of weeds in rice. The weeds and other plant biomass available are incorporated into the soil
for nutrient management.
Session 1.7
Rice+fish farming is a multi-purpose water management system practiced in Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal
Pradesh that integrates land, water and farming system by protecting soil erosion, conserving water for irrigation and
paddy-cum-fish culture. Every stream rising from the hill is trapped soon after it emerges from forest, canalized at the
rim of valley and diverted by network of primary, secondary and tertiary channels. This system is eco-friendly and the
rice productivity in this system is very high (4-4.5 t ha-1) compared to the state’s average.
Water application on hill slopes for irrigation of plantation crops poses a serious problem of soil erosion. The tribal
farmers in Muktapur, Jaintia hills district of Meghalaya have developed the indigenous technique of bamboo drip
irrigation for irrigating crops in hill slopes. Betel vines planted with arecanut as the supporting tree are irrigated with this
system, in which water trickles or drips at the base of the crop. In this system, water from the natural streams located
at higher elevation is conveyed with the use of bamboo channels, supports to the site of plantation through gravity flow.
Discharge of water up to 25 l min-1 can be easily managed by manipulating the distribution systems.
In some pockets of Nagaland, the farmers use Alnus nepalensis (Alder) tree for agriculture. In this system, the
Alder seedlings are planted on the sloppy land intended for cultivation and the alder grows fast till it attains six to ten
years old. The ability of the alder trees to develop and retain fertility of the soil has been fully utilized by farmers in
Angami, Chakhesang, Chang, Yimchunger and Konyak areas in Nagaland at varying altitudes.
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The “Zabo” is an indigenous farming system of Nagaland. It has a combination of forest, agriculture and animal
husbandry with well-founded soil and water conservation base. It has protected forest land towards the top of hill,
water harvesting tanks in the middle and cattle yard and paddy fields for storage for the crops as well as for irrigation
during the crop period. Special techniques for seepage control in the paddy plots are followed. Paddy husk is used on
shoulder bunds and puddling is done thoroughly.
Under bun system, the crops are grown on a series of raised beds locally referred to as “Buns” formed along the
slope of the hills and in low lands after rice beds. The phytomass available in and around are placed on the ground and
covered with soil, which are either burnt or allowed for decomposition inside the soil to meet the nutritional requirements
of the crops. In upland it conserves moisture whereas, in lowland it facilitates the drainage. The productivity of crops in
general are much higher in buns compared to flat fields.
Conservation and Efficiency are Consequent to Knowledge
D.V.K. Nageswara Rao* and S.B. Tripathi

(*Email: dvknrao@gmail.com)
Conservation of any resource is consequent to knowledge of its loss or a threat of loss. Similarly use-efficiency is
resultant of conservation too when combined with proper application. It is almost impossible to find a land with zero
slope at any scale, meaning possible run off loss of water carrying away precious soil depending the degree of slope
and vulnerability of soil. Experience indicated that ionic species in soils varied temporally and spatially influencing the
growth rates in a study using a perennial rubber as a test crop, that stands in the field for the entire year. It is not difficult
to understand that the soils exhibit spatial variability in a terrain with differential slope gradient. Such variability forms
the basis of conservation of soil physical and chemical productivity factors that lead to variable responses of crops,
necessitating focused studies.
A study showed the significance of effective soil volume (ESV) in influencing the growth and yield of rubber in
positive terms. Simultaneously, a simple method of measuring gravel content to arrive at ESV of in a field was suggested.
It is possible to reduce the loss of fertilizers, avoid soil pollution with excess chemical fertilizers and render availability
of nutrients on a continuous basis when fertilizers are applied based on ESV in a field that lead to increased use
efficiency of applied fertilizers. Besides that knowledge of ESV helps assessment of water holding capacity of a field,
which is of prime importance particularly in rainfed agriculture.
3D visualization supplemented understanding landscape attributes in relation to soils in 518 ha farmland of the
Session 1.7
Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute with a digital elevation model superimposed with soil map. Slopes
converged towards east and northeastern directions draining into adjoining river. ESV per square meter up to its depth
varied between 0.06 to 1.5 m3. It was evident that higher ESV was in general associated with low slopes in the study
area. Majority of chemical measurements registered the lowest level in soil profile ‘A’ obviously because of the lower
ESV associated with top slope. However, the highest levels were measured in different profiles for any reason. Factor
analysis extracted ‘reactive surface factor’ that described 51% variability followed by ‘exploitable soil volume factor’
describing 31% variability. Grouping of soils based on factor scores indicated that both depth and gravel determined
the ESV.
This exercise points to the necessity to adopt appropriate conservation measures since soil water/solution carries
the particles and ions down the slope causing both physical and chemical changes resulting in variable productivity.
Since our concern is to realize the uniform best from all the soils, the conservation is inevitable not only to arrest the
loss but also to enhance the efficiency of both native and added inputs in both short and long terms.
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Study on Distribution Pattern of Medicinal Plant in Darjeeling Hills
Dhiman Mukherjee
Regional Research Station, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Kalimpong,
Darjelling, 734 301, West Bengal, India
The Darjeeling Himalayan region is rich in biodiversity due to its varied geographical, physiological, topographical,
climatic and ecological zones. The northeastern region of the Himalayas is more luxurious in vegetation and medicinal
plants. The region exhibits more diversity in its types of plants than perhaps any other region in the Indian subcontinent,
and it is considered as the origin of a large number of plants. Keeping this aspect in mind a study was undertaken at
Regional Research Station (Hill zone) of Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Kalimpong. Study was conducted during
the year of 2005-07 with main objective to know about the availability and distribution of medicinal plants in Darjeeling
hills. Depending upon the literature survey and consultation with local herbaria, ten sites throughout the hill were
chosen. Inputs from plant collectors and knowledgeable village people were also considered for selection of sites. The
altitude of Darjeeling hill varies from 150 to 8500 m above sea level and comprises a total geographic area of 4,245
km2, is part of the Himalayan Biodiversity Hotspot and is considered one of the richest repositories of medicinal plant
resources. Observation showed that high altitude medicinal plants in the Darjeeling were under tremendous pressure
from over-harvesting and rampant livestock grazing. The medicinal plants in this region are used locally as well as
traded. The local people like Nepalese, Lepchas, Tibetans, and Sikkimese also use a large number of wildly growing
herbs and shrubs from time immemorial. Darjeeling Himalayan region of India accommodates a fairly large number of
medicinal plants such as Panax pseudo-gensing (Gensing), Taxus baccata (Yew), Aquilaria agallocha (Agar), Solanum
khasianum, Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi), Rauvolfia serpentina (Sarpgandha), Elaeocarpus ganitrus (Rudraksha), Dioscorea
deltoides (Kath Aloo), Swertia chirata (Chirata), Rubia cordifolia, Oroxylum indicum, Clerodendrum colebrookianum,
Passiflora edulis Cinchona, Ipecac and Catharanthus. Some other economically important species like Solanum,
Costus, Digitalis and Mentha are also gradually coming into plantation. Our observation revealed that nearly eight
threatened species of medicinal plants in the Darjeeling Himalaya were as follows: Nardostachys jatamansi DC.,
Swertia chirata Buch.-Ham., Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth., Aconitum palmatum D. Don., Dactylorhiza hatagirea
(Don) Soo, Panax pseudoginseng Wall., Valeriana hardwickii Wall., and Mahonia napaulensis DC. Unregulated
destructive collection of medicinal plants for commercial purposes from their natural habitat is largely responsible for
the depleted condition of these species. Rampant livestock grazing and local use of medicinal plants in the region is
also contributing to the present crisis. The once abundant natural population is either destroyed or confined to smaller
pockets in inaccessible areas. As a result, these species need urgent attention for their conservation.
Session 1.7
Indigenous Knowledge and Conservation Agriculture and Sustainable
Development: Apa Tani Experience from India
Durgadas Mukhopadhyay
The Apa Tanis of Arunachal Pradesh in North East India constitute a separate endogamous community with its own
mountain territory, language, customs and traditions and an economy fundamentally different from that of other tribes
and communities. Conservation agriculture addresses a variety of ecological, economic and social problems in agriculture
and rural development. This approach is oriented to developing agro-ecosystems with a minimum dependency on
agrochemical inputs and energy, emphasizing interactions and synergism among the many biological of agro-ecosystems
to enhance recycling and biological control, thus improving overall ecological efficiency and environmental protection.
Apa Tanis do not use tractors or even plough, uses no chemical fertilizers or pesticides. But they have the best water
management system in the world. Not a drop of water is wasted. By skillful use of indigenous technology and bio-
diversity management they have the highest per ha productivity in India. The economic decisions are taken by the
Buliyang or traditional village council who decides the distribution of land and natural resource management practices
357
for bio-diversity conservation and sustainable development. Only by the most intensive and skillful working of the
available land can the Apa Tanis maintain themselves in an area where one square mile of land, comprising fields,
gardens, groves and pastures, must provide the subsistence for at least one thousand persons or two hundred families.
No-Till Farming, also known as conservation or zero tillage is a way of growing crops from year to year without
disturbing the soil through tillage. It is becoming more common as researchers study its effects and farmers uncover its
economic benefits. Awareness of the value of indigenous knowledge particularly its potential contribution to sustainable
development and poverty alleviation is growing at a time when such knowledge is being threatened as never before.
IK is helping scientists to understand issues of biodiversity and natural forest management. IK is also providing
science with insights into crop domestication, breeding and management, and giving scientists a new appreciation of
the principles and practices of ‘slash-and-burn’ agriculture, agro-ecology, agro-forestry, crop rotation, pest and soil
management. The role of conservation agriculture in improving efficiency, equity and environment is well recognized.
The targets of the Millennium Development Goals can only be realized through improved technological options, innovative
institutional arrangements and appropriate policies. Apa Tanis of Arunachal Pradesh, India, had been practicing rice
fish culture traditionally for many decades. Their practice, locally termed aji ngui asonii, is free from the use of agro-
chemicals and additional input of supplementary feed for fish. The system of such integrated farming is an organic
practice, as well as sustainable in the sense that it is based solely on available natural resources in the ecosystem and
also preserves the agro-biodiversity, enhancing multidimensional support to livelihood.
Efficacy of Certain Indigenous Products in the Management

of Brinjal Leafhopper, Amrasca bigutulla bigutulla
in Allahabad Condition
Savita Varma1 and P. Anandhi2

1
Department of Crop Science, M.G.C.G.V., Satna, Madhya Pradesh, India
2
Department of Plant Protection, AAI-DU, Allahabad, 212 404, India
Brinjal leafhopper, Amrasca bigutulla bigutulla (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) is one of the important pests infesting the
crop. Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the lower surface of the leaves. The infested leaf curls upward along
the margins, which may turn yellowish and show burnt up patches. They also transmit mycoplasma disease like little
leaf and virus disease like mosaic. Fruit setting is adversely affected by the infestation. Continuous and indiscriminate
use of synthetic chemicals has resulted not only in the problems of resurgence, resistance and pollution but also cause
Session 1.7
adverse effects on beneficial insects. Hence emphasis has been laid on botanical pesticides to eliminate all the
deleterious effects of the chemical pesticides. Evidently, the safer plant products prove useful in developing sound
pest management strategies.
An experiment was carried out at Agricultural Farm, AAI-DU, Allahabad to evaluate the effect of 11 treatments viz.
NSKE (5%), NLE (10%), Chilli+Garlic (5%), Parthenium (10%), Lantana (10%), Nerium (10%), Tulsi (10%), Marigold
(10%), Calotropis (10%) followed by Chlorpyriphos 0.5% and untreated control were conducted in a randomized block
design with three replications. Chlorpyriphos was found superior with other botanicals (53.38% and 53.93% reduction
population). Among botanicals, NSKE and Calotropis were found effective in reducing the leafhopper population to an
extent of 40.08-44.22%.
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Wastewater Carrying Capacity of Industrial Crops
Khajanchi Lal, R.K. Yadav, Inayat Khan, D.S. Bundela and Gurbachan Singh
Industrialization and urbanization are putting tremendous pressure on the fresh water resources coupled with generation
of large volumes of wastewater. Under reduced availability of water for agriculture, it has become necessary to utilize
the wastewater in agriculture owing to its irrigation and nutrient potential. Presence of toxic elements can contaminate
the food chain therefore confines its use in non-edible industrial crops like cut flower and aromatic plants. To evaluate
the carrying capacity of Marigold (Tagetes erecta), Lemon grass (Cymbopogon flexosus), Nigundi (Vitex nigundo) and
Tukham Malanga (Salvia aegyptica), the lysimeteric studies were carried at CSSRI, Karnal by applying wastewater
irrigation at 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2 and 1.5 ID:CPE (irrigation depth: cumulative pan evaporation) ratios either alone or in
conjunction with tube well water. The crop biomass of marigold increased from 1.17 to 1.70 kg m-2 with the increase in
wastewater application rate from 0.6 to 1.2 ID:CPE. The application of wastewater beyond 1.2 ratio significantly
reduced the flower yield. In case of aromatic crops also increasing wastewater application produced the higher plant
biomass. The cyclic use of wastewater along with tube well water resulted into further improvement in crop yields of all
the crops compared with the sole use of wastewater. The highest biomass of marigold (2 kg m-2), lemon grass (3.07 kg
m-2), nirgundi (12.8 kg m-2) and salvia (31.5 kg m-2) was obtained with the application of tube well water in cyclic use
with waste water at the maximum ID:CPE ratio of 1.5. Residual sodium carbonate (RSC), sodium adsorption ratio
(SAR), biological (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) of leachate collected from the lysimeters decreased
from their respective contents in wastewater. The average decrease in the RSC, SAR, BOD and COD was 27.2, 21.7,
51.5 and 61.3%, respectively over the wastewater before application. The values of above parameters in the leachate
further reduced with the conjunctive water use. Amongst the different crops, Tukham Malanga which produced higher
biomass per unit area with the application of water at ID: CPE of 1.5 and therefore, seems to be suitable candidate for
waste water use.
Kosi Flood 2008: Scenarios and Management Strategies
M.A. Khan
ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region, P.O. B V College, Patna, 800 014, India
The Kosi river, one of the major tributaries of the Ganges, with a length of 720 km is one of the biggest river in south
Session 1.7
Asia and is spread in Tibet, Nepal, and India. It originates at an altitude of over 7000 m above MSL in the Himalayas.
The Kosi river, “Sorrow of Bihar”, enters the Indian territory near Hanuman Nagar in Nepal and joins the Ganges near
Kursela in Katihar district. Out of the total catchment area of the Kosi, only 11410 km2 lies in India, where most of the
destruction is felt. Annual precipitation in the source area ranges from 130 to 165 cm yr -1. However, 80 to 95% of this
precipitation occurs during the summer monsoon (June to September). Kosi has an average discharge of 55,000
cusecs of water that increases by as much as 20 times during the monsoon or flood season, thereby assuming
dangerous proportions. On an average, it carries 70-80 m t of silt every year in its rolling waters and it is perhaps due
to this feature, it tends to change its course after a definite period of time. In about 200 years the river has moved
laterally by about 150 km bare with sand deposits. The Kosi River, which has changed its course and shifted eastwards,
broke through the embankment (constructed to check the lateral movement as well as for flood control) in Aug 2008
just after the barrage at Bhimnagar and has come back to its 18th Century old course it had abandoned more than 300
years ago. It is worth mentioning here that while all previous floods in Kosi always happened due to breach in
embankments downstream the barrage, the recent flood (18th August 2008) has been caused due to breach in the Kosi
embankment upstream of Kosi Barrage at Birpur near the Kusaha village in Nepal embankment.
More than the loss of life and damage to property, the changed river course has swallowed million of hectares of
agricultural land, making them unfit for rabi cultivation and unproductive with erosion and sand casting. The flood
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affected districts include Supaul, Shararsa, Madehepura, Purnia and Araia. In Saharsa district alone, 35% of the
cropped area is flood affected and around 40-50% of the total flood affected area is under sand casting with sand
depth varying between1-3 ft. In order to cope up with the flood problem different strategies are needed for rabi cultivation,
utilization of sand casted and waterlogged lands, and strengthening and increasing the embankment height. In order
to provide livelihood support, small pits / reservoir created by scouring of river streams can be utilized for aquaculture.
At the same time, where numbers of small pits are spread over nearby areas, may be converted to large ponds/
reservoir for raising fish. As sand removing on commercial basis may not be possible by farmers, Govt. subsidy is
required especially to those who are remotely located. The flood has also damaged the canal network and shallow
tube wells. Immediate Govt. support for desilting and repair of these canals and restoration of tube wells is needed for
cultivation of rabi and summer crops. In those fields where bunds are damaged and demarcation of individual plot is
missing, there are chances of social dispute and needs careful policy for allocation of lands. Sound policy involving
local panchayat is needed for identification and allocation of such lands and compensation of share croppers. At the
same time, interest and perception of the local people should be ensured before implementing any strategies.
Plants and Heavy Metal
Mohadeseh Shamsaddin Saied and Asghar Rahimi

Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Agriculture College,
Vali-e-Asr University of Rafsanjan, Rafsanjan, Iran
Large areas of agricultural soils are contaminated by heavy metals that mainly originate from human being activities,
industrial emissions, or the application of sewage sludge. Phytoextraction as a method to remove environmental
contamination by plants includes the removal of toxins, especially heavy metals and metalloids, by the roots of the
plants with subsequent transport to aerial plant organs. Two approaches for phytoextraction of heavy metals are as
fallow, continuous or natural phytoextraction that is based on the use of natural hyper accumulator plants with exceptional
metal-accumulating capacity and chemically enhanced phytoextraction that enhance toxin accumulation by addition of
accelerants or chelators to the soil. Increasing phytoextaction is a key factor to improve soil contaminant removal by
plants. The ability of other metal chelators such as EDTA, CDTA, DTPA, EGTA, EDDHA, and NTA to enhance metal
accumulation has been determined in various plant species. In addition to the role of chelators in increasing mobility
and heavy metal accumulation by plants, positive effect of glyphosate, through a disruption in plant metabolism,
organic acids such as citric acid through soil acidification, cation exchange (through ammonium) and reduction solution
of soil metal hydroxides, sulfur and ammonium sulphate (through lowering pH) and chloride salts, specially NaCl
(through the formation of inorganic complex of Cd) has been determined. Liming is also a common method to decrease
Session 1.7
the heavy metal mobility in soils and their accumulation in plants. Furthermore, biological soil remediation requires
either hyper accumulating plants or metal tolerant crops. With different results obtained it is difficult determine which
group performs better. Therefore to optimize the ecological and economical efficiency, there are several research
needs.
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Adoption of Agro Forestry System for Large-scale promotion of

Conservation Agriculture Technologies and Biodiversity
N.R. Gangadharappa1, Shivannagouda1, M. Shivamurthy2, M.S. Jyothi2 and S.N. Rajashekar3

1
Karnataka Forest Department, Bangalore, India
2
UAS, Bangalore, India
3
DHAN Foundation, India
Ecosystem services like clean water, fresh air and fertile soils are usually taken for granted and regarded as free
and God given resources. We do not pay much attention to them as long as they continue to function. Nevertheless,
when they start breaking down, we are faced with serious problems. Short term economic goals, increased importance
on ownership of land, fragmentation of holdings and decreasing responsibility for community resources had resulted
in the degradation of natural resources, which contributed adversely to the quality water, crops, live stocks, tree
production and resulted in greater risk of natural disaster. High degree of biodiversity creates barriers against any
pest epidemics. Forest cropland ratio must be as wide enough as possible. Forest ecosystems infuse vitality into
the whole food production system by maintaining strong organic linkages. Agro-forest species will act as host to
certain insects or diseases and a complex mix of naturally occurring diseases and organisms will prevent chances
of wide spread loss to the farmers. Besides large scale adoption of agro-forestry supports ecosystem function and
contributes positively to the health of the surrounding environment.
Adoption of conservation agriculture technologies among our farmers ensures protection of natural resources and
enhances biodiversity. An example of homestead gardens of Kerala is mimics of the mini-forests created by the
farmers. To make Agricultural production systems more ‘friendly’ to biodiversity, change of management practices with
nature is very important.
Modern management practices and technologies in agriculture need to develop systems that enhance both
production and conservation, particularly in more intensively managed farming systems. Reduction in the use of synthetic
inputs, recycling of farm outputs and increasing the diversity of domestic species grown on the farm, participatory
perennial crops, grass and trees whose production does not require repeated cultivation. Also, much can be done at
local level to improve the synergy between people’s livelihoods which necessitates to rebuilding of livelihood security,
social capital and an understanding of the importance of maintaining the environment in the long term. It is important to
strengthen the capacity of farming communities to play pivotal role by reorienting conservation, technical assistance,
research and other institutes to support the farmers.
Session 1.7
Indigenous Post Natal Health Care Practices Prevalent in a
Hilly District of Himachal Pradesh
Neetu Sharma* and Shashi Kanta Varma

College of Home Science, CSKHPKV, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
(*Email: neepradu@gmail.com)
Indigenous knowledge refers to the knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities around
the world. Indigenous knowledge systems have long been undervalued. Fortunately, the potentiality of indigenous
health practices is now increasingly being recognized as people have become conscious about the side effects of
synthetic drugs. But, unfortunately this orally transmitted wisdom might be lost as traditional culture gradually disappears,
thus necessitating its documentation. The present paper attempts to present a rich variety of documented indigenous
post partum health care practices followed by rural women of district Kangra, Himachal Pradesh. Questionnaire based
survey along with informal discussion were adopted as tools to record the information pertaining to practices followed
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or type of food served along with method of preparation and consumption, etc. The study indicates that in spite of
availability of modern medicines, the rural women still follow traditional medication/practices. They have developed
specific ethno medical practices based on their own and ancestor’s experiences. It was observed that for prevention of
different post partum complaints, various locally available plant parts are utilized. The method of using the plant varied
according to the nature of ailment as in some cases the different plant parts are consumed as a mixture while in others
they are being used for fomentation. Thus the local inhabitants have strong faith in folk medicine/practices and are well
versed with the utilization of plants of their surrounding through trial and error methods. The need is only to document
this traditional/indigenous knowledge which can further be modified by researchers through blending of local ingredients
with recent technologies to be used in modern system of medicine.
Indigenous Grain Measuring Technology Prevalent in Farm Families of

District Kangra of Himachal Pradesh
Promila Kanwar
Department of Home Science and Extension Education, College of Home Science, CSK HP Agricultural
University, Palampur, 176 062, Himachal Pradesh, India
(Email: promilak@hillagric.ernet.in, kanwar.promila@gmail.com)
Traditional knowledge is said to be the wisdom developed by people over many generations for proper utilization of
natural resources. It is reflected in their life style, innovations and practices. Traditional knowledge system in the field
of agricultural tools and equipments is abound. In the hilly state of Himachal Pradesh, many such tools are still in
vogue. Thimbi is one of such tools which is very commonly used by small farmers in district Kangra of Himachal
Pradesh for measuring whole grains. This tool is made up of fine quality tin and generally measures about three kg of
grains. This particular tool is commonly used in agriculture especially for measuring the quantity of seed and fertilizer.
It is also used for homestead purposes. In the present study, information related to thimbi was documented including
myths and beliefs associated with it. This indigenous measuring tool was evaluated with respect to various aspects
like person to person variation and tool to tool variation etc. The relevance of these results in context with present
scenario will be discussed. Further, the seed rate in rural areas is still being expressed in terms of number of thimbi per
acre, so to truly follow; scientific recommendations need to be correlated with this particular tool.
Session 1.7
Socio-Economic Factors of Firewood Scavengers: A Case of Women

Participation in Sudan Savanna of Gombe State, Nigeria
S. Kushwaha*1 and R.T. Nabinta2

Department of Agricultural Economics, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221 005, India
Agricultural Economics and Extension Programme, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University,
P.M.B 0248, Bauchi, Nigeria
(*Email: saketkushwaha@hotmail.com)
This study examined female farmers’ rural energy supply and use pattern in Kaltungo Local Government Area of
Sudan Savanna of Gombe State during firewood scavenging. The study revealed fuel wood as the primary fuel and
females were responsible for its collection from forest reserves through ground picking or scavenging. Farmers’ average
weekly collection, time spent, number of days, distance covered and amount collected were 53.3 kg, 17 hrs, 4 days
and 11 km, respectively. Collection classification strategies developed for this study include Short Span Of Trek and
Low Frequency (SPOT-LF: 13.33%), Short Span Of Trek High Frequency (SPOT-HF: 20%,), Long Span of Trek Low
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Frequency (LSOT-LF: 30%) and Long Span Of Trek High Frequency (LSOT-HF: 36.67%). All farmers stored fuel wood
for consumption, sale and barter traditionally. Constraints to effective and efficient rural energy supply and use identified
were education, labour, capital, time, credit, decreasing fuel wood availability, and contact with extension. The study
concluded farmers’ participation in fuel wood production and utilization is frequent and continuous. However, the
depletion of the woodlands combined with persistent dependency on fuel wood pose a serious problem for household
energy provision and the environment. Woodlots and access to alternate, affordable, renewable, energy system would
reduce the pressure on the forest and amount of time and effort women devote to obtaining fuel wood. There is need
to research and develop an integrated energy package using participatory research for rural use in Nigeria based on
alternative sources.
Farmer Focused Science as a Pathway to Africa’s Green Revolution
Steve Twomlow
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT),
Matopos Research Station, P. O. Box 776, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe
(Email: s.twomlow@cgiar.org)
ICRISAT Zimbabwe has been working for the last ten years to encourage small-scale farmers to increase inorganic
fertilizer use, and progressively increase their investments in agriculture, as the first steps towards Africa’s own Green
Revolution. The programme of work is founded on a technology breakthrough proven to be successful in a sub-set of
communities in Southern Africa – micro-dosing using small targeted quantities of inorganic nitrogen fertilizer as a top
dressing. It starts from the proposition that resource constraints prevent most risk adverse farmers from pursuing rates
of fertilizer application recommended by most national extension agencies. Rather than asking how a smallholder
subsistence farmer can maximize her yields or profits, micro-dosing asks how a farmer can maximize the returns to a
small initial investment - that might grow over time, turning deficits into surpluses.
This innovative technology involves the precision application of small quantities of nitrogen-based fertilizer, close
to the crop plant. This enhances fertilizer use efficiency and improves productivity, enabling intensification of agriculture
and productivity gains from initially low levels, closing the yield gap between what farmers are currently achieving, and
what is achieved on the research station. Gains are even larger when fertilizer is combined with animal manures,
better weed control, and simple conservation agriculture strategies appropriate to the needs of vulnerable households.
This hand based conservation agriculture intervention encompasses four major principles: (i) high management
standard; (ii) minimum tillage – for instance, using planting basins which concentrate limited water and nutrient resources
Session 1.7
to the plant with limited labor input; (iii) the precision application of small doses of nitrogen-based fertilizer to achieve
higher nutrient efficiency (from basal applications of organic and/or inorganic sources); and (iv) combining improved
fertility with improved seed for higher productivity. These basic principles are taught and demonstrated to farmers who
choose crop mixes adapted to their local conditions and household resource constraints. This precision conservation
agriculture (PCA) spreads labour for land preparation over the dry seasons and encourages more timely planting,
resulting in reduction of peak labour loads at planting, higher productivity and incomes.
Our results from four years of wide scale testing with relief and development initiatives across southern Zimbabwe
and northern RSA have consistently shown that fertilizer micro-dosing on its own, or in combination with conservation
farming can, irrespective of the resource status of the household, increase grain yields by 15 to 200% in both low and
high potential areas where farmers cannot afford to purchase the current recommended rates of fertilizer. The pursuit
of input use efficiency provides higher and more sustainable productivity gains necessary to achieve food security in
drought prone farming systems.
Farm enterprise budget analyses show that it is more viable to adopt a combination of micro-dosing and conservation
farming techniques, particularly under drought conditions. Unfortunately, it is proving difficult for the 300,000 plus
targeted farm household to fully adopt the complete package of micro-dosing and conservation practices under current
circumstances. Input markets for fertilizer are hardly accessible for farmers in more marginal areas of the region,
unless such inputs are provided through the relief programs.
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Conservation of Biodiversity of Entomophagous Fauna

for Sustainable Agriculture
Sunita Pandey, M.A. Khan* and Sandeep Kumar

Biological Control Laboratory, Department of Entomology,
G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, 263 145, India
(*Email: maknan@rediffmail.com)
Faced with the threats of rapid extinction of our country’s biodiversity and unsustainable use of living resources,
especially when some Indian species which have been recently patented abroad, there is a great need to protect our
national biodiversity and to launch a nationwide compaign for conservation biodiversity of our fauna of potential use.
As we know that biodiversity has vital links with the sustainability of our agricultural production systems and therefore,
maintenance of biological diversity is essential for productive agriculture. A sound biodiversity knowledge base is a
prerequisite for effective conservation, environmental assessment, ecological research management and sustainable
use of biological resources. Biodiversity of Indian parasitic fauna represents only less than 5% recorded from the
world. Entomophagous insects have an important role to play in Integrated Pest Management for the effective suppression
of insect pests in an ecofriendly manner. The utilization of parasitic Hymenoptera has gained momentum in recent
years in the IPM programme. Parasitic Hymenoptera are shown to be important, and perhaps essential, in preserving
ecological balance and maintaining biological diversity in terrestrial ecosystems. Despite their importance, they are
biologically and taxonomically one of the most poorly known groups of insects. Increased efforts towards their study
are essential and should be an integral component of future research strategies towards assessing the world’s biological
diversity. The present paper briefly discusses the attempt made for quantification of the biodiversity of the species of
the genus Prochiloneurus Silvestri (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) from India which constitute an important group of
parasitic Hymenoptera, may be used for the control of coccids (Homoptera) injurious to agriculture and horticulture in
India.
An Investigation on Active Feeding Period of Mustard Saw

Fly Athalia lugens proxima Klug. on Different Species of
Rapeseed-Mustard
Wajid Hasan, C.P. Singh, V. Mathur, R. Pandey and N. Pandey

Session 1.7
Department of Entomology, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology,

The mustard saw fly Athalia lugens proxima Klug. (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) is a serious crop pest at seedling
stage causing extensive damage to different cruciferous plants in India. Reduction in yield due to saw fly on an
average is 25% but it may go up to 100%. A field study was carried out to investigate the most active feeding period of
A. proxima on different species of rapeseed-mustard for IPM programme during 2008 in tarai region of Uttarakhand.
The observations were started from 23 days after sowing (DAS) on the population of grubs of A. proxima per meter row
length of test plants. The observations were taken at 5 times during day hours viz., 6.00 AM, 9.00 AM, 12.00 Noon,
3.00 PM and at 6.00 PM. The results revealed that the highest active population of grubs of A. proxima were 2.68 at
6.00 PM followed by 2.55 at 6.00 AM, 2.07 at 9.00 AM, 1.06 at 12.00 Noon and lowest at 3.00 PM 0.52 grubs per meter
row length of test plants, irrespective of different species of rapeseed-mustard. Among different species of rapeseed-
mustard, the mean highest population of A. proxima was 4.65 at 6.00 AM on B. campestris cv. PT-30 followed by 1.34
at 12.00 Noon on B. nigra cv. PBR-I, 0.96 at 3.00 PM on B. campestris cv. BSH-I and 4.78 at 6.00 PM on B. juncea cv.
Varuna whereas the lowest population was recorded 0.13 at 6.00 AM, 0.24 at 9 AM, 0.08 at 12.00 Noon, 0.05 at 3.00
PM on Crambe abyssinica cv. CA1, 0.54 at 6.00 PM on E. Sativa cv. T-27 grubs per meter row length of plants. The
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highest active grubs population of A. proxima were recorded between 23 to 25 days after sowing which later on
decreased with the increased age of plants and fall in the temperature. Conclusively, 6.00 PM was found the most
active feeding period of A. proxima on different species of rapeseed-mustard followed by 6.00 AM, 9.00 AM, 12.00
Noon and 3.00 PM.
Studies of Threatened Indigenous Wild Fruits of Manipur
Sushma Khomdram and G.A. Shantibala Devi

Plant Physiology Laboratory, Life Sciences Department, Manipur University, Canchipur, Imphal, Manipur,
India
The indigenous wild fruits of Manipur played a vital role in nutrition, health and economic security to the poor
masses in rural areas of the people of Manipur. These threatened seasonal indigenous fruits were consumed as
fruits and health drinks by local native. Due to the importance of these fruits the nutritive values were analyzed by
using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS), flame photometer, anthrone method and titration for minerals,
sugar and vitamin C.
Present studies reveal that these threatened indigenous wild fruits have good sources of nutrients. Thus, it needs
attention for establishing the importance of these fruits and their use for further exploration and conservation of the
elite cultivars.
Farmers Coping Strategies against Recurrent Floods in the Ghaggar

Flood Plain—A Factor Analysis Approach
Omvir Singh and Sanjeev Kumar

Division of Environmental Sciences, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, New Delhi, 110 012, India
This study examines the farmers coping strategies and their methods of adjustments to the negative impacts of recurrent
floods to ensure food security in the face of flood-induced cropping shortfalls. Data were collected during the summer
Session 1.7
of 2007 from flood-affected farmers located in Ghaggar flood plain, Haryana. Field research for this study includes
personal interviews of victim farmers living in twenty-five villages in the Ghaggar flood plain (Kaithal district, Haryana,
India) under rice wheat ecosystem. The collected data in the form of score in relation to various coping strategies
adopted against flood was analyzed by factor analysis to explain, if possible, the covariance relationships among
them. Four unobserved factors were extracted by principal component and maximum likelihood method of estimation
of factor analysis. The extracted factors were named and ordered as agronomic practices, family budget adjustment,
help from social setup and credit from financial institutions. The study also highlights that victim farmers viewed
recurrent floods as a natural hazard, which has caused severe damage to standing crops. Further, long-term impacts
on soil quality degradation, as well as changing land use/land cover were also noteworthy. Moreover, impacts of flood
on rich and poor farmers were observed to be different, with poor farmers bear more of the negative consequences or
suffered the most. Therefore, policy and technological interventions are needed for helping especially those who are
resource poor.
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Instability in Legumes Production in Arid Fringes of Rajasthan
Khem Chand, B.L. Jangid1 and BL. Gajja2

Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Pali-Marwar 306 401, Rajasthan, India
2
CAZRI, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
(*Email: kcmamnani@gmail.com)
Legumes are important component of the cropping system in arid fringes of Rajasthan. The major legume crops
cultivated in this region are green gram, moth bean, cowpea, chickpea and cluster bean etc. The present investigation
was carried out using secondary data with an objective to find out the trend of growth and instability in area and
production of legume crops vis-à-vis total cultivated area in Pali district. The share of legumes in the total cropped area
of the district has increased from 10.27% in 1974-75 to 21.24% in 2006-07, indicating increasing importance of legume
in cropping pattern of the district as well as economic significance of these crops in this region. The data were collected
for the period from 1973-74 to 2006-07 and analyzed using exponential function and instability index. The results
revealed that area and production of legumes has increased in the arid fringes (Pali district) but with high instability in
production. The legumes’ area registered lower but relatively more stable growth compared to production. The stability
in cluster bean production is very much required as a large number of guar gum industries depend on this crop and it
is a major source of foreign exchange earning. Hence, stabilizing the area under legume cultivation, development and
extension of crop varieties suited to arid region and efficient use of the rainfed technologies may ensure stability of
legume production in the region.
Indigenous Practices for Sustainability of Agriculture
Ravinder Kaur Dhaliwal and Manmeet Kaur

Department of Extension Education, Punjab Agricultural University Ludhiana, 141 004, Punjab, India
Modern agriculture advocated by the industrialized countries is based on the principle of profit maximization and
requires large-scale investment in machines, inorganic fertilizers and pesticides. It specializes in monoculture where
by the diversity found in nature is no longer considered desirable. It is the most artificial system replacing the natural
one. The ecosystem has been drastically hindered due to uninterrupted and indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals
leading to huge loss of biodiversity and of the natural genetic resources. This has drawn the attention of agricultural
scientists to look into an alternative approach for sustaining the resources and supporting human life. The situation of
Session 1.7
deluge after ‘green revolution’ needs to focus towards indigenous knowledge of farmers. The objective of these
indigenous agricultural practices is to give better and sustainable performance at lower costs without compromising
with environmental degradation. Evidences show that indigenous knowledge plays a vital role in agricultural sustainability
thereby preserving the environment and agricultural resource for the future use of coming generations. Indigenous
knowledge is a valuable resource and farmers possess precious experience and local wisdom about flora and fauna,
climate and various agricultural practices through the experimentation in different aspects of agriculture. They are
really innovators and experimenters. It can be said that the future does not merely depends upon the package taken
from scientists to farmers but the other way round too. Looking into the future, it cannot be denied that there is a need
for institutionalization and documentation of indigenous knowledge due to its immense utilitarian value in the
developmental process. The paper focuses on the identification of various indigenous practices and to study the
opinion of scientist regarding the scientific basis of the same. The traditional practices were identified through interviews
and focus group technique. A semi-structured interview schedule was used for collecting data from eighteen villages of
three districts of malwa region of punjab having the lowest literacy rate in the rural areas. A total of 155 indigenous
agricultural practices were identified. The paper discusses in detail the scientists’ opinion regarding the identified
practices. The success in agriculture will depend upon the blend of indigenous and modern package and practices,
which will help in producing quality products and preserving the natural ambience.
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Increasing Cropping Intensity through Rain Water Harvest in Keonjhar

District of Orissa: A Case Study
R.B. Singandhupe*, A. Kumar, S. Mohanty, P. Nanda and S. Ghosh

(*Email: rbsingandhupe@hotmail.com)
In India, rain fed agriculture plays very important role for increasing total food grain production if rainfall received during
rainy season is conserved and used in agricultural crop production during rabi and summer seasons effectively. In
recent past irrigated area though contributed significantly towards food production during green revolution period but
command area of major and medium irrigation projects, viz. Mahi, Jayakwadi, Sharda Sahayak, Indira Gandhi Nahar
Yojna, Tungbhadra irrigation commands have been badly affected due to faulty water management practices (excess
application of irrigation water). In recent times more emphasis has been given by the government of India to develop
micro- level watershed, conserve in-situ rain water / recharge ground water and exploits the recharged ground water
during rabi, summer season when it is needed for crop production. Development of such small micro- level watershed
does not take more time to bring the system operational unlike major/ medium irrigation project in which more time is
required for construction and its subsequent use.
In eastern India, total amount of rainfall in kharif season is higher than its requirement. With the results kharif
season crops get affected badly by frequent occurrence of floods. In Orissa the rainfall distribution pattern and crop
evaporative demand (ETo), on an average of fifty years (1901-1950) shows that about 1492.8 mm annual rainfall is
received against crop evaporative demand of 1657.8 mm. Thus there is deficit of only 165 mm (9.94%). This huge
amount of excess kharif season rainfall can fulfill crop demand during both kharif and rabi season and increases
cropping intensity to 200 per cent without any moisture stress to crops. But the crop is severely affected due to uneven
distribution of rainfall (86% is received during rainy season in 60 rainy days out of 73.2 rainy days period). As far as
season-wise rainfall and crop ET demand of Keonjhar district is concerned, the total rainfall received during kharif
season (June-October) is 1282.3 mm as against crop ET demand of only 580 mm. However in rabi season (November
– March) the corresponding values are 120.0 mm and 562.7 mm and in summer (April-May) 132.2 mm and 418.2 mm.
This scenario of rainfall and crop ET demand forced us to create micro-level water resources like open well and tank.
These structures can provide irrigation water whenever required and helps the farmers to avoid their kharif rice during
prolonged dry period and grow rabi and summer crop with supplemental irrigation.
Considering these problems, the project was undertaken in NATP -Watershed Mission Programme of ICAR to
develop micro level watershed and harvest rain water in pond which can recharge ground water for subsequent use. In
this mission mode programme, five tanks with capacity ranging from 2000 to 4000 m3 were constructed in selected
watershed. To recharge this harvested rainwater, eight open wells in a series were constructed in Keonjhar district of
Orissa and studied its impacts on cropping patterns and economic returns of the farmer.
Session 1.7
Before developing micro-level watershed, the farmers were growing rain fed rice by broad casting methods and
harvesting very low grain yield (<1.5t/ha) as the applied fertilizer were not effectively utilized by the crops due to high
weeds and loss of applied fertilizer through surface runoff. After creating irrigation structures like ponds and open wells
in series, the experiment were initiated in kharif 2005-2006 and is continuing presently however the data of kharif 2007
and rabi 2007-08 is illustrated here.
In this watershed area ten water user groups comprising 106 farmers are participating for use of harvested rain
water during both seasons. During kharif 2007, out of 68 ha command area of the selected watershed about 28 ha was
brought under paddy cultivation, of which 28.6% area was under transplanting method of paddy cultivation (variety -
Lalat, Gayatri, Pusa-44,Naveen) and remaining area was under broadcasting method with local (Sarvajani, Khajira)
and improved varieties (Khandgiri, Samrat, Gouri, Lalat, Puja, Ratna and Durga).
The paddy yield in broadcasting methods, irrespective of varieties grown was only 2.52 t/ha as against 3.29 t/ha in
transplanting method. In transplanted rice, some farmers have produced as much as 3.6 t/ha grain yield. This has
happened due to development of water resources structures and farmers have shifted paddy cultivation practices from
broadcasting to transplanting. In near future they may bring maximum area under transplanting method as grain yield
is quite high due to assured irrigation and introduction of improved rice varieties.
367
Response to applied fertilizer by the farmers was quite low. On an average, the farmers had applied 63.95 kg N,
33.63 kg P2O5 and 32.21 kg K2O/ha under transplanting and 52.13 kg N, 29.92 kg P2O5 and 28 kg K2O/ha under
broadcasting method. The productive efficiency of these fertilizers on grain yield (irrespective of varieties used) under
transplanted condition was 51.23, 102.5 and 115.5kg grain /kg of applied N, P2O5 and K2O/ha, respectively. In
broadcasting method, the corresponding values was 49.81, 88.2 and 98.5 kg grain per kg of applied nutrients. From
these observations, it is noticed that the applied plant nutrients in broadcasting method is not effectively utilized by the
plant due to more weed infestation and poor package pf practices adopted. The coefficient of variation was quite high
as it ranged 53.3% in N, 24.5% in phosphorus and 15.3% in potassium under transplanted and 55.5% in nitrogen,
31.83% in phosphorus and 49.8% in potassium under broadcasted rice.
After harvest of paddy, farmers had taken vegetable crops in 8 ha, pulse crops in 1.4 ha and oilseed crops in 0.6
ha in a location where irrigation facilities were available through open wells and tank.In remaining area the farmers had
taken linseed (oilseed crop) and harvested very low yield of 0.2 to 0. 26 t/ha. The green gram and moong gram (pulse
crop) also fetched very low yield (0.31 to 0.38 t/ha) as these crops were grown as catch crop on residual soil moisture.
Out of 8 ha areas of vegetable crops, the dominated vegetable crops were ridge gourd, bittergourd, brinjal, and bhendi.
Other vegetable crops were tomato, potato, onion, garlic, spinach, cucumber, cabbage, cauliflower, pumpkin, chilli
(green), cowpea. These crops were irrigated through open well, tank and sub- surface flow by manual and tenda
system (traditional water lifting devices). Occasionally the farmers used kerosene operated pump (2 Hp) due to paucity
of kerosene oil in local market.
On an average of ten farmers, who had grown bhendi crop, the fruit yield was 2.59 t/ha with irrigation requirement
and IWUE of 36 cm and 69.1kg fruit/ha-cm of water, respectively. The net return from this crop was Rs 13795/ha. In
case of bitter gourd(nine farmers) the fruit yield was 1.55 t/ha with irrigation requirement of 35.3 cm and IWUE of
54.7kg fruit/ ha-cm. The net return was Rs. 8370/ha. In case of ridge gourd (thirteen farmers), fruit yield was 4.75 t/ha
with irrigation water 38.6cm and IWUE 123.2 kg fruit/ ha-cm. The net profit was Rs 11165/ha. The brinjal is highly
profitable crop and it is grown in both kharif and rabi season. The fruit yield of brinjal was 6.33 t/ha with irrigation water
38.8 cm. The irrigation water use off efficiency was 157.3 kg/ha-cm and net return was Rs 33721/ha. In case of tomato
crop with fourteen farmers, tomato fruit yield was 8.77 t/ha with total irrigation water was 36.28 cm. The net return from
this crop was Rs. 17144/ha. Similarly the net return from potato was Rs. 7326/ ha as the potato yield was only 4.80 t/
ha from ten farmers field. Garlic and onion being a spice crop is highly ruminative but due to low bulb yield of 3.7 and
3.09 t/ha from five and sixteen farmers respectively, the economic return from these crops were Rs 17613 and Rs
13373/ha, respectively. Other crops like chilli, cabbage, cauliflower also fetched good return but the crop yield was not
satisfactory. Cowpea, pumpkin, spinach were also grown by the farmers in limited area and irrigated through open
wells as well as drainage water by water lifting devices manually.
From the results, it is concluded that due to creation of open wells, tanks as water resources for irrigation, the
farmers could utilize their land during rabi and summer seasons and earned their livelihood instead of migrating toward
urban area for their daily needs. In western part of Orissa where large area remained fallow during rabi and summer
season and ground water exploitation is low (ground water development 13.3%) due to deep ground water table,
Session 1.7
recharging of rainwater through small tank or development of percolation tank can substantially improve farm income
of marginal and small farmers.
To assess rain water recharge, water levels in tanks, open dug wells and piezometric wells were monitored at
weekly interval throughout the year. The water level in tanks increased during rainy season (up to October) and
declined thereafter. The water depth in tank varied from 1.5 to 3.5 m in monsoon and 0 to 1.5 m in summer season. The
water level in 10 piezometric well remained at shallow depth i.e. 0.5 m below ground water level during rainy season
and 1.5 m below ground level during non- monsoon period. To estimate water yield of open wells, pumping test in four
open wells were also carried out during non monsoon season i.e. in the month of January 2008. All four open wells are
available within recharge zone of watershed project. The results on water yield of wells revealed that in recharged
zone area the water yield on an average of 4 open wells was 1m3 within one hour period. Based on these water yield
observation, it is concluded that three crops can be grown in a year if early varieties of rice is adopted. If late variety is
grown then only summer vegetable crop is possible.
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Rain Water Harvesting for Sustainable Use of Water Resources
S.P. Gupta
Agricultural Research Institute, Patna, 800 020, Bihar, India
Water is a key factor for sustainable watershed development. Rainfall is the main source of surface water and its
conservation is essential for successful crop production on dry land. One third of the country is always under threat of
drought. This is not necessary due to deficit rainfall but due to uneven distribution of rain and not managing the erratic
monsoon rain in the country by proper harvesting and conserving the same specially during good monsoon year.
Water harvesting is the activity of direct collection of rain water. Rain water harvesting has today proved itself to be an
effective techniques of conserving water by guiding the rain water that falls on rooftops to storage tanks are underground
sumps for future usage.
It is estimated that about 24 Mha-m of rainwater can be potentially harvested through small water harvesting
structures in different rainfalls zones of India. If the harvested water is suitably stored, there about 30 per cent of it can
be utilized for providing supplemental irrigation to rabi crops covering an area of about 95 Mha. A pact of remaining 70
per cent of harvested water would help in recharging the ground water aquifers which may rise up to 2 m as, experienced
in different agroclimatic regions.
Adoption of soil and water conservation measures or resource conserving technologies for efficient utilization of
land, water, vegetation and human resources integrated Watershed Management approach is the only solution to
meet the ever-increasing demand of food grains, fodder, fuelwood and fiber for the growing population. The water
harvesting technologies increased the irrigated area by 52 to 156 per cent and consequently cropping intensity increased
by 64 per cent on an average. There is an urgent need for propagating water harvesting, conservation and recharging
on a large scale.
Role of Indigenous Technical Knowledges (ITKs) on rice pest

management in Eastern India
Mayabini Jena
Division of Entomology, Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Orissa, India
Session 1.7
Rice, being the major food crop of eastern India, needs more attention for it’s improvement in terms of quantity as well
as quality production . But, more emphasis to quantitative increase in yield has lead to more indiscriminate use of
chemical pesticides , thereby increasing production cost and at the same time, reducing the quality of rice and
endangering environmental safety. Indigenous Tehnical Knowledges (ITKs) are proven technologies of several
generations which ensure safety to the environment. The rural and tribal people of eastern India are very rich in
different ITKs which they use in their day-to-day life.Their knowledge on plant-based ITKs for pest management is
gaining importance for producing pesticide free quality rice and gradually opening a new vista for safe and successful
pest management system. Use of Neem as a pesticide has also been evolved from the existing ITKs which has now
gained world-wide attention. Besides neem, several plants have been identified through ITKs and validated scientifically
for their effectiveness against different insect pests of rice. The effective plants are – Neem (Azadirachta indica),
Karanja (Pongamia pinnata), Water pepper (Polygonum hydropiper), Parasi (Cleistanthus collinus), Wild sugarcane
(Saccharum spontaneum) and Kochila (Strychnus nux-vomica). More plants have already been indentified and are
under the progress of validation.
The wet season rice of eastern India is mostly rainfed with three prominent ecologies, i.e., bunded upland, irrigated
or favourable low land and unfavourable low-lying areas. The irrigated or favourable low land eco-system gives promise
of higher yield, but with higher load of chemical pesticides. Indiscriminate use of pesticides is more prevalent in these
369
areas. On-farm trials in this ecosystem has shown that one schedule-based application at transplanting with 1 -2
need-based application of neem and/or karanja product could keep the pest population below economic threshold
level (ETL) with grain yield on par with insecticide treatment. Further, studies revealed that such products did not harm
the population of earthworm and beneficial soil microbes.
Eastern India possesses vast tribal areas towards hill ranges with mostly bunded upland rice situation and lowlying
areas towards sea coast and river. Tribal farmers are still continuing their traditional practices of using plant products
for pest management through ITKs. Modernization of rice production system has not yet changed their practices with
rare exception of insecticide usage without proper knowledge. Field experimentation in this area reveals that suitable
modification in their botanical application with proper dose and timing can significantly reduce the pest load and
increase rice yield. Again, the unfavourable lowland ecology does not provide any feasible option to rice farmers to use
pesticides, though important pests like yellow stem borer and alga Chara are of common occurrence alongwith occasional
infestation of case worm. Plants like Parasi and wild sugarcane can be applied to this ecosystem for successful
management of these pests. Indigenous technical knowledges not only provide safe pest management tools to rice
farming, but also opens up new opportunities for organic rice cultivation. It involves low or no cost for small or marginal
farmers. But it is necessary to bring about suitable modifications of the traditional knowledges for better efficacy and
large scale planting of such ITK-based plants to ensure easy availability to rice farmers. Such efforts will certainly help
to use selective, diverse, economic and environmentally acceptable plant products for successful use in rice IPM.
Session 1.7
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Session 2.1: Participatory Approaches and Partnerships
Session 2.1
Understanding Participatory Management with the Stakeholders
for Conservation of Loktak Lake, Manipur, India – Methodological
Perspective
D. Basu* and Loukham Devarani

Department of Agricultural Extension, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya Mohanpur,
(*Email: drdbasu@gmail.com)
The terms ‘participation’, ‘participatory approach’ and ‘participatory planning’ are often used in project proposals,
but, in reality, the extent to which stakeholders are actually able to participate in projects is limited and lack of
understanding by the project organization in the interest and views of the stakeholders is the main reason for project
failure. Stakeholder analysis is the identification of a project’s key stakeholders, an assessment of their interest, and
the way in which these interests affect project riskiness and viability. Stakeholders must act in concert, eliminate
unsustainable practices and re-programme development plans to focus on realistic goals. A possible way forward is to
develop a participatory management system leading to involvement of relevant stakeholders and the formulation of
adequate and appropriate forms of stakeholder engagement. The increasing demands and pressures on wetlands
without understanding their nature and dynamics have often led to their degradation, thereby threatening livelihood of
the communities, dependent upon these resources. Loktak lake of Manipur is a freshwater lake recognized by the
Ramsar Convention as a wetland of international importance and source of livelihood of about eighty thousand people.
A study was conducted to understand the participatory management of the lake by different stakeholders through the
‘Sustainable Development and Water Resource Management of Loktak Lake’, a project jointly taken up by Loktak
Development Authority (LDA) and Wetland International – South Asia (WISA) with financial assistance from India-
Canada Environment Facility (ICEF). The communities, groups, organization institutions who are the stakeholders of
Loktak Lake were identified and their relationship was explored with the help of stakeholder analysis; the activities/
interventions taken for different stakeholders (process + content) were assessed along with their associated shock
and risk through participatory vulnerability analysis and finally extent of stakeholders in involvement in the activities
were portrayed in participation matrix. Thirty primary and secondary stakeholders identified in the study were again
classified on the basis of similarity in and conflict of interest, their role in the project, and likely impact on them. Finally,
the stakeholders were prioritized based on their ‘importance to’ and ‘influence on’ the project. The villagers’ perceived
flood and economic shocks related to fishing as more common and severe in this wetland and coping strategies were
ascertained with their interactions. The stakeholders who are a source of threat to the ecosystem need proper attention
and monitoring. Special initiatives should be taken up so that their influence on the lake is reduced. Stakeholders who
are very important to the project but have low power need to be given adequate capacity training and institutional
development. Micro-planning should be done with the help of the stakeholders at different levels. Care should be taken
to ensure that the interest of primary stakeholders is not overlooked and overshadowed by that of others. Initiatives
thus taken up will ensure more participation from the grass-root level. It will also be very effective in identifying risk and
shocks. Participatory management has many dimensions and finds application not only in conservation agriculture but
also in many other fields. To explore the full potential and benefits of this practice, there is need to ensure adequate
stakeholders’ participation in planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the concerned project. The
approaches of stakeholder analysis, participatory vulnerability analysis, and assessment of participation by participation
matrix will improve the management of the project by increasing stakeholders’ participation besides promoting
sustainability in partnership for future development.
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The Potential of Multi-objective Decision Support Techniques for

Scientific Land Use Planning in the Indian Himalayas
Session 2.1
B.L. Dhyani, Pradeep Dogra and A. Raizada

Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Dehradun, 248 195, India
Ever increasing biotic pressure, improper land use planning and global warming are the greatest challenges for livelihood
security of mankind in the 21st century. Recent estimates indicate that nearly 45% (146.8 Mha) of the country’s land
area (329 Mha) is affected by various forms of land degradation. This problem is more serious in Indian Himalayas
which occupy 18% of the country’s land area and support about 500 million humans directly or indirectly. Integrated
Watershed Management (IWM) has emerged as a preferred model for sustainable development in the country. A large
number of IWM programmes financed by national and international agencies are in operation for several decades.
Meta analysis of more than three hundred IWM projects has revealed that these programmes were quite effective in
production and protection aspects, particularly in the high rainfall areas.
Retrospective analysis of 30 IWM projects in Indian Himalayas has revealed that a majority of these programmes
were fairly successful in enhancing food security, farm income and in creating regular employment opportunities in the
project areas. However, the achievements were highly skewed towards those areas where additional irrigation facilities
were created and areas were easily accessible. It was also observed that in these more successful IWM areas, the
programme activities were sustainable and had helped diversify production and livelihood activities more than in other
areas. Low rate of crop diversification in totally dry land watersheds was a major constraint for a high rate of adoption
of demonstrated technologies.
Watershed planning and development using a top-down or bottom approach is not so straight forward as it might
appear owing to the complexity of the problem. Multiple objectives of multi-stakeholders, which are often conflicting,
have to be met from the scarce resources available within the watershed. Research has shown that land use plans at
a watershed scale are governed by four major factors, namely, ‘on farm’ income, food security, employment opportunities
within watershed and sustainability of production system. Further, these decision variables are also ranked differently
in order of importance by different stakeholders. It is, therefore, necessary to integrate science and technology with
social requirements and environmental demands to make there programmes acceptable, successful and sustainable.
This study demonstrates the application of multi-objective decision support systems in simulating land use plans at a
watershed level by evaluating trade-offs between several and often conflicting objectives in making IWM programmes
more sustainable.
Optimal land use plans were developed for Fakot and Khootgad watersheds in the North-Western Himalayas
using the four objectives mentioned earlier and the best land use plan was finally selected by employing multi-objective
decision support system (MODSS) technique. The results showed that family income and ‘on-farm’ employment
opportunities could be increased by 18 and 28%, respectively, in Fakot with a reduction in soil loss by 53%. In Khootgad,
family income and ‘on-farm’ employment can be increased by 23 and 27%, respectively, while soil loss can be reduced
by 33%. Food security in Fakot and Khootgad could increase by 46 and 9%, respectively. Optimal land use plans
suggested increase in area under cereal production along with irrigation facilities and an increase in area under high
value crops.
The use of multi-objective or multi-criteria decision support systems in land use planning is a relatively new field in
India, but as this paper demonstrates that the technique can be used to prepare holistic land use plans at the watershed
scale to meet social, economic and environmental considerations simultaneously.
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Participatory Resource Management through Common Watershed

Approach in India
Session 2.1
Om Prakash, G. Sastry and J.S. Samra
Research Centre, Datia, Madhya Pradesh, India
Soil and water conservation on watershed basis is not new to India. Traditions always existed, but the country’s
population doubled in last 50 years to 1000 million which mounted tremendous pressure on land and water resources.
Though self-sufficient in food production, imbalances persisted and a few areas produced most of the food grains
whereas others, especially the rainfed areas, produced less than their potential. The incidence of soil and water
erosion was higher in rainfed areas, which cover almost 70% of the total agricultural land, support 66% of the cattle
and 44% of the human population. Poverty is also greater in such dryland regions. Today, management of natural
resources (soil, water, vegetation, animal and human beings) through watershed development approach is viewed as
an efficient and effective way of not only restoring the environment, but also of addressing the issue of poverty directly.
However, unless it becomes a people’s movement the benefits will not reach a large number of people and such effort
will not attract sufficient volumes of resources and support from government and other framework institutional factors.
Without mass mobilization, we will not be able to mitigate drought and reduce poverty in rainfed rural India in which
over 70% of our people live. For the sparks of a participatory environmental effort to spread and convert to an all
inclusive movement, the necessary conditions, especially in terms of enabling frame conditions, as well as institutional
capabilities must exist. Getting the right actors who posses the appropriate competencies and capabilities holds the
key to large scale cost effective replication and sustainability. Hence, for participatory watershed management, the
people’s involvement is essential right from planning to evaluation and post project maintenance stage. For this purpose
various village institutions like watershed association, watershed committee, self help groups, village groups, volunteers
and secretary of watersheds need to be constituted at watershed level for the successful implementation of the watershed
project for meeting the basic requirements like food, fodder, fuel, timber, fiber, etc. of the growing population and
conservation of natural resources on sustainable basis to keep the environment clean.
Participatory Crop Management – A Step Towards Enhancing

Agrobiodiversity Use
A. Sarkar
Department of Genetics and Plant breeding, UBKV, PO. Pundibari,
Coochbehar, 736 165, West Bengal, India
(Email: sarkarbn@yahoo.co.in)
Conservation agriculture has currently acquired a system-orientation just as landscape scale conservation for conserving
the species through ecosystem approach has come into prominence. With the growing demand for valuable genes
coupled with parallel genetic pollution and erosion, it has become imperative to sustain the crop genetic resources in
the context of increasing crop productivity. Sustained efforts at the national and international levels over the years
have enabled the stakeholders to appreciate the worth of valuable genetic resources and genetic resources management
through participatory maneuvering has become an inevitable approach. The same got further consolidated with the
enactment of the convention on biological diversity and such legislations as plant varieties protection and farmers’
rights, and TRIPS. Assessing the value of the ecosystem, identification of the stakeholders, preparing an inventory of
species complexity with reference to phenotypic plasticity of the species and indigenous knowledge system and
adoption of relevant genetic resource management strategies need to be emphasized, if participatory crop management
is to be put in place. This is, because, on-farm conservation solely can not bring out the relative worth of genetic
373
resource conservation in absence of stakeholders’ analysis. Thus ascertaining the breeding objectives and methodologies
and tools for participatory learning and action and economic perspectives of enhanced agro-biodiversity use, can meet
the twin objectives of managing genetic resources and incremental participation of the local community. Greater
incorporation of participatory elements will enhance the effectiveness of matching outputs more closely to the
Session 2.1
requirements of the stakeholders.
A Farming System Modelling Approach Linked with a Farming Systems

Reference Monitoring Network to Assist Decision Making Process in
Development Project Supporting DMC in Madagascar
E. Penot
CIRAD UMR Innovation, France
Two agricultural development projects are currently implemented in Madagascar taking into account both a watershed
approach as well as a farming system approach for dissemination: BV-lac in the area of the Lake Alaotra and BVPI in
Vakinankaratra (central high plateaux). A farming systems reference monitoring network (FSRMN) has been set since
2007 with two objectives: i) to help the project in the decision making process for choosing technologies to be developed
according to a farmers’ typology using prospective analysis, and ii) to monitor the project’s economic impact in the
short and mid-term. A farming system modelling approach using a software developed by INRA-CIRAD-IAMM (“Olympe”,
JM Attonaty, INRA), has been developed with local project field operators in order to cope with local situations and
favour best adapted technologies to farmers’ conditions including direct seeding mulch-based cropping systems
conservation tillage (DMC).
The paper presents the methodology, the tools and some results from BV-lac. FSRMN and farming system modelling,
among other tools including partnership approach, lead to identification of innovation processes and adoption and/or
adaptation of DMC systems by farmers in order to understand farmers’ strategies. The model provides economic
results displaying the real income improvement and impact on farming practices, labour and organisational changes.
FSRMN and FSM have been so far well adopted as tools at project levels to cope with the best adequation between
farmers ‘needs and projects proposals for DMC techniques.
Mixed Crop-Livestock Production System, Soil Health and

Environment- A Trade-Off Analysis
M.L. Roy, K.S. Kadian and A.A. Raut

Division of Dairy Extension Education, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132 001, Haryana, India
Livestock is playing an increasingly significant role in the production systems of developing countries experiencing
increasing demand for food for growing population and dietary changes. Farmers are intensifying their agricultural
production by integration of crop and livestock production systems, utilizing marginal lands and converting community
grazing lands to arable land. Recent evidence shows that in these systems, soil degradation is occurring extensively
as pastures are degrading through overgrazing. Sustainability of mixed farming systems in terms of improved pastures
and optimal stocking rates may be questioned for paying little attention to the effects of manures and crop residues on
soil processes, the maintenance of soil fertility and prevention of soil degradation. Resource-poor farmers face decision
374
ambiguity over the use of scarce nutrient sources in mixed farming. Often the decisions regarding the use of animal
products are taken without an assessment of the impact on plant production, soil and water resources. There is a need
to focus not only on increasing animal production, per se, but also on improving the integration of livestock and
livestock products into production systems to ensure maximum use of their benefits while minimizing their detrimental
Session 2.1
effects on the environment. These beneficial effects include the proper utilization of animal manures, crop residues
and forages that are often the only source of nutrient inputs for resource-poor farmers. Cover crops can increase soil
fertility, suppress weeds and provide fire woods. Dual-purpose legumes can also be used for livestock feed leading to
production of nutrient enriched manure. The niche that legumes can occupy in the farming system as soil conservation
bunds provides multiple benefits to the farming system. Efforts are required to enrich knowledge of the biophysical
aspects of alternative uses of organic nutrient sources. There is a need of trade-off analysis and partial budgeting of
new technologies to identify and introduce new eco-friendly crop-livestock technologies.
The Best Characteristics for Agricultural Extension Organizations to

Accomplish Sustainable Agriculture
Mohammad Sadegh Allahyari

College of Agriculture, Islamic Azad University-Rasht Branch, Rasht, Iran
(Email:allahyari@iaurasht.ac.ir)
Studies indicate that environmentally sound agriculture cannot be accomplished through linear models of technology
transfer and it requires new approaches to facilitate learning, which in turn has important implications for organizational
support. Most of the existing organizations serve the objectives of production and productivity, equity or stability.
However, only a few organizations support sustainability. Existing organizational frameworks place little emphasis on
the emergence of agricultural sustainable development practices. The purpose of this study was to explore the
characteristics of supportive organizations regarding environmentally sound agriculture in Iran. The study employed a
descriptive survey design. The target population consisted of faculty members, extension managers in provinces and
extension specialists in the Ministry of Agriculture (n = 79). The results revealed that the best characteristics of supportive
organizations regarding environmentally sound agriculture were collaboration among research, extension and education
organizations, farmers’ associations, NGOs, rural credit agencies and transportation companies, learning organizations
and emergence of pluralistic approaches and inter–institution linkages (collaboration among public sector, private
sector, and NGOs).
Gakirage Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) Project, Rwanda: A Low Cost

Participatory RWH System
R.S. Kurothe
Central Soil & Water Conservation Research & Training Institute, Research Centre,
Vasad, 388 306, Anand, Gujarat, India
(*Email: kurothe@yahoo.com)
Conservation agriculture improves efficiency, equity and environment. Water is one of the major resources that requires
conservation in this era of climate change, particularly in African continent. The main source to satisfy ET demands is
rain water in sub-Saharan Africa. A participatory rainwater harvesting system implemented at Gakirage village of
Nyagatare district in Western province of Rwanda is described in the paper. This province is a relatively dry region of
Rwanda with less than 900 mm average annual rainfall. A 150 m long earthen dam was constructed at the outlet of 735
375
ha watershed. The funds were provided by the UCRIDP under a research project grant. Beneficiaries participated in
the construction work and contributed 20% of the cost of the RWH. This amount was kept with the association for
future maintenance of the structure. The work was completed with local labour and implements. The project is a
unique example of utilizing available human labour without any expensive mechanical means. The project also created
Session 2.1
huge employment potential in the rural area thereby increasing income and purchasing power of the rural poor. The
participants were trained for constructing such structures for up-scaling and enhancing local capacity for creating
RWH works. The study provides guidelines for policy makers and funding agencies for implementing similar projects
in sub-Saharan Africa.
Farmers Participatory Evaluation of Resource Conservation

Technologies in Wheat
Ravish Chatrath, S.C. Tripathi, S.K. Singh, Gyanendra Singh, Randhir Singh,
B.S. Tyagi, Jag Shoran and B. Mishra
Directorate of Wheat Research, P.B. No. 158, Karnal-132 001, Haryana, India
Indian wheat varieties are mostly bred under conventional tillage conditions. Therefore, evaluation of high yielding
varieties under new tillage technologies could provide information for yield enhancement and for designing the future
strategy for selection. An investigation was carried out in farmer’s participatory mode to determine the effect of tillage
and varieties and genotype interactions for maximizing yield while conserving natural resources. Farmer’s participatory
trials were conducted at four, seven and eight locations in Haryana, India during 2002-03, 2003-04 and 2004-05,
respectively, to evaluate performance of four high yielding varieties (PBW 343, UP 2338, HD 2687 and WH 542) under
zero tillage, bed planting and conventional method. The soils of different sites were sandy clay loam in texture, low in
organic carbon and available N and medium in available P and K. During 2002-03, mean yield across genotypes and
three locations showed maximum grain yield under zero tillage (4.6 t ha-1), besides saving towards tillage cost (Rs
3000/- per ha), followed by conventional tillage (4.5 t ha-1). Grain yield under bed planting was lower compared to zero
tillage mainly due to unleveled farmers, field. In 2003-04, average yield of seven locations across the genotypes was
found to be maximum under conventional tillage (3.7 t ha-1) followed by zero tillage (3.6 t ha-1). However, grain yield
under bed planting was reduced by 8.64% relative to conventional tillage. During 2004-05, average of eight locations
showed maximum grain yield under conventional tillage (4.2 t ha-1) followed by zero tillage (4.1 t ha-1). It was inferred
that zero tillage produced almost similar or higher grain yield with many additional benefits over conventional tillage.
While bed planting technology saved water to a great extent (20-30%), grain yield was lower than in the other two
tillage options. Significant interaction between tillage and genotype was observed at few sites. PBW 343 produced
significantly higher yield under bed planting as compared to other planting methods at village Darar during first year.
During the second year, only two sites among the seven locations showed interaction between tillage options and
genotypes for grain yield. PBW 343 did exceedingly well across tillage methods while WH 542 and HD 2687 performed
better under conventional tillage. The introduction of new resource conservation technologies provided an opportunity
to reduce the weed population and thereby use of herbicides. It was observed that bed planting reduced weed dry
weight by 45 to 50% relative to conventional tillage. The study suggests the need for varietal testing using divergent
but high yielding wheat cultivars under different RCT’s to harness the maximum attainable yields with optimum use of
natural resources at farmers’ field.
376
Participatory Natural Resource Management – A Community Approach
S.V. Murugan and M.R. Ramasubramaniyan
Session 2.1
National Agro Foundation, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Water and soil are the prime natural resources that must be managed efficiently and effectively for sustainable agriculture
and high crop productivity. Ancient India followed an efficient system of natural resource management especially water
and soil through watershed approach. Over the years, the system of creation and maintenance of such structures has
been abandoned. However, the current situation calls for urgent attention to revive the ancient system of watershed
approach for conserving agriculture in India. In this connection, a watershed has been taken up in Kumili village by
National Agro Foundation, a NGO working in Kancheepuram District of Tamil Nadu state. It has been calculated that
about 3400 lakh litres of rain water has been harvested over a 100 ha land area through creation of various structures
like percolation ponds, farm ponds, field bunds, channels, sunken ponds, agro forestry, etc. This has been achieved
with an investment of Rs 6 lakhs and with a meagre value of Rs 0.01 per litre water harvested; the advantage has been
worked out to Rs 34 lakhs. The cropping intensity has increased from one crop to two crops contributing to increase in
crop productivity. Prevention of soil erosion, which helps to conserve the top fertile soil in the project area, is an
additional advantage. An important aspect of this watershed approach is that the soil and water management strategies
have been carried out by the community of the project area by forming village and central watershed committees. The
community approach emphasizes that the participating community not only realizes the potential and benefits of soil
and water conservation but also takes up the responsibility of maintaining the watershed structures, thereby sustaining
the crop productivity. This is replicable in other parts of the country and has scalability to cover more areas.
Enhancing Genetic Diversity in Rice Wheat Cropping System Through

Participatory Approach
S.K. Singh, R. Chatrath, Randhir Singh, Jag Shoran and B. Mishra

Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal, 132 001, Haryana, India
Wheat productivity in the NWPZ is higher than the national average but the yield obtained in the frontline demonstrations
indicated a huge potential to be exploited by adopting new approaches of breeding and advanced technologies (varieties
as well as tillage techniques) for increasing wheat production. Development of cost effective wheat production
technologies and suitable wheat genotypes according to the farmers’ preference is one of the alternative approaches.
By involving farmers in research activities, new genotypes may be developed based on their need and the agro-
climatic requirements and production conditions of the targeted area. The participatory varietal selection (PVS) approach
is the most suitable approach which involves the selection by farmers of non-segregating, characterized product from
plant breeding programmes. An intensive research effort was made under the DFID funded DWR - CIMMYT collaboration
to increase the wheat productivity through large scale adoption of wheat production technologies including varieties in
a ‘farmer-scientist’ participatory mode. A baseline survey was conducted to assess the socio-economic strata and the
components of the prevalent wheat production systems at the village and farmer level in Darar, Janeshro, Beed
Mathana and Mathana villages of Karnal and Kurukshetra districts of Haryana in India. The survey indicated that rice-
wheat is the predominant crop rotation and more than 80% of the area is under wheat cultivation. Rate of varietal
adoption was observed to be quite fast and PBW 343 was found the most preferred wheat variety in the area.
Participatory varietal selection (PVS) involved a set of 9 high yielding varieties that were evaluated for ranking of
wheat genotypes along with traits of preference during three consecutive crop seasons (2002-2005) through farmer’s
field days. The trial was also conducted in replicated design at experimental farm of the Directorate to facilitate the
evaluation of these varieties for yield component along with farmers’ evaluation. Based on the farmers’ evaluation,
PBW 502, PBW 343 and HD 2687 were the most preferred varieties and the farmers emphasized on grain yield, straw
377
yield, lodging resistance, tiller number, grain size and spike length. PBW 343 was the most preferred variety by the
farmers but PVS identified HD 2687 and PBW 502 as new varieties. The pooled results of evaluation for yield and
component traits indicated that PBW 502 was the highest yielding genotype followed by PBW 343, HD 2687 and WH
711. Among the yield components, tillers/m length and 1000-grain weight are the most important traits. It was observed
Session 2.1
that the genotypes having high tiller number and / or 1000-grain weight could not produce highest yield. The harvest
index is an important parameter that reflects the accumulation of photosynthates from source to sink. Although the
evaluation process is solely different in farmer’s evaluation and the evaluation by the breeder for yield and component
traits, it was observed that the genotype PBW 502 ranked first followed by PBW 343 and HD 2687. Grain yield,
biomass yield, tiller number and 1000-grain weight were the traits which were also preferred by the farmers in their
evaluation.
Despite the commonly assumed uniformity of the production system, the new varieties occupied specific niches in
the farming system. The results indicated more varietal diversification in the project area as acreage under PBW 343
has declined and other varieties of similar potential like HD 2687 and, to a lesser extent WH 711, are being adopted.
In this way, farmers’ preferences for different varieties should help to maintain biodiversity. There exist a good opportunity
of wheat yield improvement through faster spread of new technologies like varieties and tillage options, chances for
selecting better genotypes through PVS and above all a boost to the stagnating wheat yields in the north western
plains zone of the country.
Public-Private-Partnership vis-à-vis Artificial Insemination Among Dairy

Animals: An Experience from West Bengal
Sanjit Maiti1*, B.S. Malik1, S.K. Jha1 and S. Garai2

1
Division of Dairy Extension, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132 001, Haryana, India
2
Department of Agricultural Extension, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
P O Mohanpur, Nadia, 741 252, West Bengal, India
(*Email: sanjit.ndri@gmail.com)
Over the last one-and-a-half decade, the globalized market forces and competition from local and international
competitors have increasingly compelled the public and private systems to seek strategic cooperation and partnership
to complement their business, social and development goals. Public-private partnership (PPP) for Indian agricultural
development, particularly in the post-WTO scenario, is a promising approach to achieve agricultural advances for
Indian farmers particularly for the livestock owners or dairy farmers. In spite of the extensive infrastructure, India has
only 0.10 veterinary institutions per 1000 livestock, 0.15 artificial insemination (AI) centres per 1000 bovines and 0.42
AI centres per 1000 breedable bovines, thereby resulting in vast portions of the country lying uncovered by livestock
health and breeding services. Veterinary services have been traditionally funded, managed and delivered by the public
sector in developing countries. This monopoly of public sector first came under a threat in the 1980s when many
started questioning the desirability of the situation on economic and efficiency grounds in Africa, as it became clear
that the government agencies were unable to provide quality livestock health services. Though 60 to 80 per cent of the
budget allocation of the veterinary sector goes to the livestock support services, concerns are being raised about the
efficiency and effectiveness of the public sector veterinary services. Along with this, the diverse demands placed by
the animal owners have led to the search for an alternative mechanism of providing these services. In view of all these,
the Government of West Bengal appointed educated and unemployed persons as Pranibandhu for the purpose of
performing AI and other basic veterinary services in the villages round the clock against nominal fees to be paid by the
end users. For the success of this policy, these people (Pranibandhus) have been trained and engaged in their respective
parent Gram Panchayats to ensure 24-hours AI facility throughout the year. They also provide services related to
primary animal health care, vaccination of livestock and birds, fodder development programme and other animal
husbandry activities against a nominal charge received from their clientele in addition to AI activities. About 3354 such
Pranibandhus are working in the Gram Panchayat areas. Pranibandhus are the new entrants in the veterinary sector.
Though they are not fully trained and, therefore, still not very skillful and successful, this attempt on the part of Government
378
of West Bengal to provide support to millions of resource-poor dairy farmers, round the clock, deserves appreciation.
In the coming days, it is expected that these Pranibandhus will become more experienced and contribute effectively to
help the state of West Bengal to get its own type of ‘operation flood’.
Session 2.1
Innovative Institutional Arrangements in Goat Production in India:
Implications for Breed Conservation and Marketing
Shalander Kumar and M.C. Sharma

Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom, Farah, 281 122, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India
(*Email: Shalanderkumar@gmail.com)
High demand for goat and its products with potential of good economic returns have been driving many progressive
farmers, businessmen, professionals, ex-servicemen and educated youths to take up the goat enterprise on a commercial
scale. However, non-availability of good quality breeding stock is a major constraint as the dilution of goat breeds is
rampant in the traditional flocks. Moreover the existing market (butchers and traders) do not pay premium price for
pure breed animals. Hence this study was an effort to create and institutionalize linkages among commercial goat
farmers for improving market opportunities and technology adoption. Using different methods of information collection
such as published and Internet sources, Animal Husbandry Departments, farmers, NGOs, key informants and other
agencies through personal contact and questionnaire, a total of 157 commercial goat farms spread over 16 states
were identified. The trend of commercialisation of goat production was especially prominent in the states of Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Based on the preliminary analysis of data of these commercial
farms, an initial view on commercial goat farming in the country was formed. Finally, 18 commercial goat farms from
different states were selected randomly for an in-depth study. The analysis revealed that a majority of commercial goat
farms were operating with positive net returns with 39 per cent of them earning good profit. Goat rearing as an enterprise
was found equally rewarding under both intensive and semi-intensive systems of management. A directory of commercial
goat farms containing information on addresses, size and goat breed maintained was prepared and distributed to all
the commercial goat farmers. These farmers were brought on common platform through 3 stakeholder workshops.
This process resulted in the creation and strengthening of linkages among the commercial goat farmers in the country.
These initial linkages among the commercial goat farmers of different states resulted in creation of large demand for
pure-breed goats of commercial farmers for breeding purpose. Consequently, the farmers who were earlier getting
market rate of Rs. 60 to Rs. 65 per kg of live body weight for their goats started getting a price of Rs. 110 to Rs. 150 per
kg of live body weight and started earning good profit. The strengthened linkages also enhanced the availability of pure
breed goats for aspiring commercial goat farmers as they could purchase goats of different breeds from the existing
commercial farmers connected with this network. The increased prices of breeding goats due to strengthened linkages
not only created large opportunities and interest for private investment in commercial goat farming projects but have
also encouraged the existing commercial goat farmers to produce good quality pure breed animals (germplasm) of
different goat breeds, which would be critically important for the development of goat enterprise in the country.
379
Productivity and Quality of Wheat as Influenced by Farmers’

Participatory Integrated Nutrient Management
Session 2.1
Subhash Chander, R.K. Sharma, R.S. Chhokar, Randhir Singh and Ajay Kumar
Directorate of Wheat Research, Post Box No. 58, Agarsain Marg, Karnal, 132 001, Haryana, India
Secondary and micronutrients, besides major nutrients, are also gaining importance for achieving higher and sustainable
productivity of cereal crops. Wheat crop being cereal is very exhaustive and responds well to applied major and
micronutrients as well as organic manures in north western plane zone of India. Keeping this fact in view, four field
trails were conducted at farmers’ fields during rabi season of 2007-08 at different villages namely Darar, Ramba and
Kalri for comparing the nutrient management practices being adopted by the farmers and the recommended nutrients
doses (NPK 150:60:40 kg/ha) in combination with secondary and micronutrients (foliar application @ 0.5% of each
nutrient) as well as farm yard manure (FYM). The soil of experimental fields of Darar and Ramba village were sandy
loam and of Kalri village was clayey, medium in organic carbon, low in available N and P, high in available K, sulphur,
DTPA extractable Zn and Fe and Mn. Perusal of data revealed that application of recommended doses of NPK alone
or in combination with farmyard manure (FYM) @ 15 t ha-1, sulphur @10.0 kg ha-1 (Cosavet 90 WDG) and micronutrients
(Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and B) in general brought about increase in ear heads/ sq. m and 1000 grains weight but could not
reach the level of significance, however, biomass and grain yield recorded were found significantly higher in
recommended NPK alone or in combination with micronutrients as compared to farmers’ practice [(DAP- 125 kg ha-1 at
sowing and Urea- 250 kg ha-1 as top dressing in two splits) (grain yield at Darar was 4.65 t ha-1, at Ramba 4.62 t ha-1
and at Kalri 4.32 t ha-1)]. The highest biomass and grain yield was recorded in recommended NPK + FYM 15 t ha-1
(grain yield at Darar 5.47 t ha-1, Ramba 5.48 t ha-1 and Kalri 5.32 t ha-1) which were also significantly higher than all
other treatments. Application of micronutrients (Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and B) individually or combined in the form of foliar
spray at 35 and 55 days after sowing could not bring about any significant change in growth and yield of either in timely
or late sown wheat, but the grain yield (grain yield at Darar-5.07 t ha-1, Ramba-5.13 t ha-1 and Kalri-4.80 t ha-1) was
numerically better than farmers’ practice where all the micronutrients were applied along with recommended major
nutrients. This may be ascribed to the fact that the soils of experimental fields were high in these micronutrients.
Application of recommended NPK along with sulphur and micronutrients increased the hectoliter weight, protein content,
grain hardness and chapatti quality compared to conventional method i.e. farmer’s practice. Addition of sulphur increased
the protein content in grains more than any other micronutrient added individually.
Promoting Adoption of Resource Conserving Technologies in Maize

Potato Intercropping System through Participatory Approach
V.K. Yadav1, Sain Dass1, Ravi Gopal2 and M.L. Jat1

1
Directorate of Maize Research, Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110 012, India
2
Regional Centre of CIMMYT, Begusarai, Bihar, India
Winter maize is remunerative, if it is cultivated with intercrop, especially potato. An experiment was conducted regarding
feasibility of maize and potato intercropping after direct seeded rice in Pratapgarh district of Uttar Pradesh during
2006. Direct seeded rice was followed by potato as sole crop in first treatment and an average yield of 15.2 t ha-1 of
potato was recorded. In second treatment, direct seeded rice was followed by intercropping of maize and potato with
earthing up. The average yield of maize and potato was 5.1 t ha-1 and 10.8 t ha-1, respectively. In the third treatment,
direct seeded rice was followed by intercropping of maize and potato with mulch. The average yield of maize and
potato realized was 5.4 t ha-1 and 11.1 t ha-1, respectively.
Intercropping of maize with potato and other crops were also demonstrated in frontline demonstrations during
2004-05 in western Uttar Pradesh. Net profit of Rs. 36295/- per hectare was achieved by farmers in maize and potato
380
system. Use of potato planter by the farmers further reduced the cost of cultivation of potato. Six training programmes
on maize based cropping system were conducted in six districts of Bihar, U.P. and Rajasthan during 2001-02 for the
agriculture officials and progressive farmers which resulted in significant increase in knowledge level of trainees from
30.36 to 44.29 per cent. It may be concluded that potato and maize intercropping can be successfully taken up on large
Session 2.1
scale for commercial purpose in similar agro-ecological situations supported by appropriate extension strategy.
Validation and Refinement of Location Specific Technologies through

Farmer Participatory Research
R. Roy Burman1 and S.K. Singh2

1
2
Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, 208 024, India
Pulses are basic ingredient in the diets of a vast majority of Indian population as they provide a perfect mix of high
biological value when supplemented with cereals. Legumes initially received relatively little attention despite their
known potential for biological nitrogen fixation and improved phosphate utilization for improving soil fertility. Legumes
also provide high quality, protein rich fodder for livestock. The role of legumes in crop diversification and sustaining
productivity of cereal-based cropping systems is now being increasingly realized. The productivity of legumes, particularly
under rainfed conditions, remains very low. Farmer participatory research has been defined as the collaboration of
farmers and scientists in agricultural research and development. The need to improve our understanding of farmers’
conditions and incorporate their perspectives into the development and testing of new agricultural technology is not
new. The current interest in farmer participation is related in large part to farming systems research (FSR). Recognising
the importance of grain legumes in rainfed areas for nutritional security, sustainable agricultural and livelihood
opportunities for rural sectors and the potential of farmer participatory approach, the IFAD (International Fund for
Agricultural Development) sponsored a research project entitled Farmer Participatory Improvement of Grain Legumes
in Rainfed Asia to address these problems and, specifically, to create or enhance capacity at the field level for farmer
- participatory research and extension (FPRE) programme on grain legumes for generating better adapted grain legume
varieties and production technologies so as to expand the role of grain legumes in the sustainable intensification of
rainfed cropping systems and to motivate farmers and participating local institutions through practical demonstrations
of the utility of FPRE and achievement of tangible results, for the approach to be replicated and sustained using local/
national resources. The programme was executed in Helapur, Amirta and Kalauli Tir villages of district Hamirpur (U.P.)
from October 2002 to June 2006. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques were used for conducting diagnostic
survey. The researchable problems of pulses in the project area were identified and prioritised by the farmers with the
help of suitable PRA tools and based on the problem – cause diagram, technological interventions were prioritised by
the farmers. A total of 677 on-farm participatory trials involving chickpea (285), pigeonpea (194), lentil (118) and
urdbean (80) were carried out. Narendra Arhar 1 of pigeonpea, DCP 92-3 and JG 315 of chickpea, lentil variety DPL 62
and IPU 94-1 of urdbean have been widely accepted, adopted and also been identified as validated technology. Other
validated technologies are sub-optimal dose of fertiliser (9 Kg N + 23 Kg P2O5 + 10 kg S ha-1 + inoculation with
Rhizobium culture), chickpea + linseed intercropping with 6:2 row ratio and spraying of 5% NSKE followed by 0.07%
Endosulphan against pod-borer in chickpea and pigeonpea. Accepted and adopted variety of pigeonpea, chickpea
and lentil recorded 18 – 40 per cent higher yield and profitability 25 – 45 per cent. Sub-optimal dose of fertilisers
resulted 17 – 27 per cent yield increment. Proper and effective use of 5% NSKE reduced 25 – 40 per cent incidence of
pod-borer during the peak damage period in chickpea. Use of NSKE has reduced cost of cultivation as well as minimised
the need for pesticide. Village Seed Bank concept has been promoted since post rainy season 2002 – 03. Farmers’
groups produced 21 t chickpea (DCP 92-3 and JG 315), 26.5 t lentil (DPL 62) and 7.6 t pigeonpea (NA-1) during 2004
– 2005. Under up-scaling, seed production was identified as a core activity. A total 7.61 t seed, including chickpea 44.4
t, lentil 24.2 t and pigeonpea 17.5 t were produced and kept for next cropping season. In the project villages, 80 per
cent pigeonpea area, 65 per cent chickpea and 72 per cent lentil area have been covered by validated improved
varieties in different farming situation. More than 650 farmers of nearby villages and neighbouring districts have purchased
seed of pigeonpea, chickpea and lentil. Since last 3-4 years the varieties of chickpea, lentil and pigeonpea have
replaced almost 75 per cent local seed and is expected to cover 90 per cent in a couple of years to come.
381
Motivation of People Participation for the Management of

Parthenium in India- A Case Study
Session 2.1
Sushil Kumar and Jay G. Varshney

National Research Centre for Weed Science, Maharajpur, Adhartal, Jabalpur, India
(*Email: sknrcws@gmail.com)
In past, many weed species got entry into India inadvertently through imported cereals due to lack of strict quarantine
rules and laws in the country. One of the most discussed such weed species is Parthenium hsterophorus popularly
known as Gajar ghas which got entry in India during 1950s through the large scale import of wheat and other cereals
under PL480 grant from USA. Through public distribution system of these contaminated cereals, Parthenium spread
rapidly throughout the country and become noxious. Parthenium has now been considered one of the most troublesome
weed in India due to its health causing problems in humans and animals besides loss to crop productivity, biodiversity
and aesthetic value of land. Earlier Parthenium was considered a weed of wasteland, community land and vacant land
but now it has made its way to almost all type of crops, orchards, plantations and forest area. This weed presents a
major current and future problem in India. Parthenium needs stakeholder awareness and participation for its management
at national level due to its country wide distribution. Many stake holders are not well informed and not alarmed about
the seriousness of the weed. Therefore, we must include stakeholders’ awareness as an effective approach in our
strategy besides conventional management approaches including cultural, mechanical, legal, chemical and biological
approaches.
In India, participation of stakeholders through nation wide awareness campaign for the management of Parthenium
is one of the current examples. National Research Centre for Weed Science (NRCWS), initiated and organized people
awareness raising activities for the management of Parthenium throughout India involving stakeholders like 24 centres
of All India Co-ordinating Programme on Weed Control (AICRP-WC) representing almost every state of India, about
400 Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVKs) located in various states, about 75 institutes under Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR), NGOs, environmental agencies, students and farmers. To motivate the stakeholders for effective
participation, NRCWS developed extension folders, posters and video films on various aspects of Parthenium
management and distributed to all the stakeholders with the request to organize awareness activities by different ways
deem fit to them. So far, NRCWS has organized one “Parthenium Awareness Day” and three “Parthenium Awareness
Week” throughout the country during 2004 and 2005, 2006 and 2007, respectively. NRCWS and various agencies
involved have also organized many training courses on Parthenium management for KVKs personnel, NGOs and
progressive farmers besides organizing many farmer meetings at village and student meetings at school and college
level. Various agencies involved in the campaign further multiplied the extension folders, posters and video film at their
level and distributed to people. In many places, photo exhibition, demonstrations and rallies of students and farmers
were organized to make people aware about the harmful effects of Parthenium and the ways of its management.
Organizers made efforts to popularize the programme through print and electronic media. From the responses received
from all over India in the way of paper cuttings and reports, it was estimated that millions of people were educated and
made aware of the Parthenium menace and its methods of its management.
382
New Opportunities for Conservation Agriculture (CA) Education:

Integrating Theory and On-farm Praxis and Establishing a Formal CA
Qualifications Framework for Farmers
Session 2.1
Tonie Putter1, Theodor Friedrich2, Eric Kueneman2, Dirk Lange3 and Hendrik Smith4
1
EcoPort Foundation, 2FAO, Rome; 3University of Fort Hare, Eastern Cape;
4
Agricultural Research Council, South Africa
While we all share the ideal of mainstreaming CA thinking and praxis on a global scale, few of us would be satisfied
with the current impact of CA on resource management policy, mitigation of anthropogenic climate change, institutional
agenda, sustainable farming, human wellbeing and farmer emancipation. At the same time, all of us would probably
agree that education holds the key to achieving the required transformation of agriculture and empowerment of farmers
to make CA-thinking the global, default philosophy and approach to farming.
It is self-evident that during the last 10 years or so there have been many CA training events (course, workshops,
public presentations, etc.) by a wide array of organizations, institutions, projects and individuals. However, the educational
materials that have been produced, are scattered and mostly inaccessible and do not lead to formal qualifications
recognised by other education programmes. This reveals the need for a consolidated CA education strategy that
would elevate and promote CA learning as a discipline it its own right, to the point where it achieves a similar degree
of quality assured standard expectations and core competencies as we associate with other, subject-level qualifications
in formal courses in agricultural education. To achieve this we propose two kinds of collaborative action, namely, to (i)
develop common CA education courseware and (ii), to develop a unifying CA qualifications framework.
Towards developing common courseware, we explore and demonstrate how we could build a communal pool of
CA courseware by adopting a moodle approach to CA education (see www.moodle.org). To illustrate the potential of
moodle-driven collaboration, we demonstrate a rudimentary example of a CA moodle at http://www.ecomoodle.org
that is supported by (a) the open-source, structured, whole earth ecology wiki of EcoPort (www.ecoport.org), (b) a
thematic CA website at http://ca.ecoport.org, and (c) an educational poster production system at http://
posters.ecoport.org.
To build equivalence among CA qualifications earned in the proposed open-source CA moodle, we explore how
the CA community could exploit the global trend towards ‘comparable’ National Qualification Frameworks (NQFs) by
developing CA courses that would, for example, be recognised by NQFs such as the European Qualifications Framework
(EQF), the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF), the South African system (SAQA) and other NQFs. In the
context of these kinds of Qualifications Frameworks farms could become classrooms where action-research, experiential
learning and communicative action by, and among, farmers and extension practitioners could convert learning-and-
teaching-by-doing, into opportunities to also earn formal qualifications that are recognised nationally. While the value
of this kind of learning has been well-proven in FAO’s Farmer Fields Schools, the addition of opportunities for farmers
and practitioners to earn formal qualifications in CA, creates novel opportunities to institutionalise and mainstream
informal learning.
This paper explains how a CA-moodle for southern Africa is being established as an open-society CA -Academy,
and elaborates on the integration of such initiatives within an FAO-lead, global initiative to establish a digital hub to
serve and support a global community of CA praxis.
383
Direct Seeded Rice: Farmer’s Participatory Approach in Pratapgarh
J.B. Singh, Rakesh Pandey and A.K. Srivastava

Raja Dinesh Singh Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kalakankar, Avadheshpuram (Ainthu), Pratapgarh, 229 408, India
Session 2.1
A comprehensive study was carried out on dry seeded direct seeded rice (DSR) in Pratapgarh on loam soil. Two
varieties (NDR 359) and (MTU 7029) with a range of parameters, viz. number of weed population m-2, number of
effective tillers per hill, plant height, panicle length, number of grains per panicle, test weight, pest incidence, yield and
C:B ratio had been undertaken for the study during two successive years. Both varieties had performed well in comparison
to transplanted rice (TPR). Variation was observed in most of the selected parameters; however, pest incidence was
almost similar in DSR and TPR. The average yield of NDR 359 and MTU 7029 was observed as 5.92 and 7.25 t ha -1,
respectively in DSR, and 5.73 and 6.98 t ha-1 average yield was observed in TPR. The most promising result had been
recorded in terms of cost benefit ratio. The C:B ratio of 1: 2.19 was recorded in DSR with NDR 359 and 1: 1.09 in TPR.
Similarly, 1:2.94 C:B ratio was observed in DSR with MTU 7029 and 1:1.17 under TPR conditions. Even a number of
challenges ahead though, the findings would certainly prove as boon to the farmers of eastern Uttar Pradesh, more
particularly in Rice-Wheat growing areas.
Role of Front Line Demonstrations (FLD’s) in Dissemination of Scientific

Technology, Improved Genotypes and Upliftment of Socially Backward
Classes of Jammu and Kashmir
Ajaz A Lone*, F.A. Nehvi, M.I. Makhdoomi and M.A. Khan

Karewa Damodhar Research Station, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agriculture Sciences and Technology,
Kashmir, Post Box No. 905, GPO Srinagar, Kashmir, 190001, J&K, India
(*Email: ajaz999@gmail.com)
Maize is an important crop of poor and socially backward Gujars and tribes living on borders or hilly terrains. Adoption
of relatively low yielding cultivars, conventional organic practices, poor nutrient management, lack of irrigation facilities
and pest incidences are the major constraints regressing the development of maize in these particular areas. But with
the introduction of ISOPOM (FLD), there has been s significant impact on overall productivity of maize and security of
farmers. The 2452 FLD’S were conducted during 2004-2007 in all maize growing areas of a Kashmir valley covering
an area of 980.8 hectares. The programme benefited 3273 maize farmers. Significant impact of demonstrations on
enhancing maize yield of state by a margin of 83% was recorded through FLD’S. Maize ield in different districts under
improved technologies and high yielding varieties ranged from 3.22 t ha-1 (Kupwara) to 3.89 t ha-1 (Budgam) with
difference in FLD yield and state average yield (t) ranging from 1.43 to 2.10 t showing an over all increase of 79.3 to
117%. Performance of composites/hybrids was far superior to local cultivars. Under mid altitude conditions (1600-
1800 m amsl) Composite C-6 was identified as the best composite followed by Makha-11 showing an increase of 112
and 90%, respectively over local cultivars. Early maturity composites C-15 and PS-43 were statistically at par in
performance and revealed distinct yield superiority by 86.5%. Extra early maturity composites (KG-1 and KG-2) performed
very well under mid to high altitudes conditions of Kashmir with an average yield potential of 3.3 t ha-1. Demonstrations
revealed that besides Gurez these genotypes can profitably be cultivated under high altitude maize areas of valley.
Sweet corn (Madhuri) performed well under low altitude conditions with a yield potential of 3.5 t ha -1. Among the
hybrids extra early hybrid W3XW5 performed better with distinct yield superiority by 117%. No other hybrid was found
statistically superior or at par with composites. Among composites highest performance was recorded in district Budgam
(4.07 t ha-1) showing an increase of 101 per cent over local, whereas, among hybrids district Srinagar and Anantnag
were identified as promising. The FLD results suggested that there is a potential for harnessing high productivity from
maize areas of Kashmir valley, provided scientific technologies with high yielding varieties are adopted by the farmers.
384
Building of Grass Root Level Rural Institutions and its Influence on

Horticulture Based Agribusiness Development: A Study in West Garo
Hills District of Meghalaya
Session 2.1
Deepak Bhagat
Department of Management, North Eastern Hill University, Tura Campus, Tura, Meghalaya, India
(Email: dip19bhagat@indiatimes.com)
Institutional support is one of the most important factors in the agri-business development in the backward regions of
the country. West Garo Hills is one of such type of areas in the country because of various reasons ( viz. geographic
location. poverty, lack of well developed marketing channels etc.), is lagging behind other areas of the country. The
role of institutional support in the backward region has been very clearly visible in the West Garo Hills district of
Meghalaya. The interest shown by the community in the cultivation of arecanut, pineapple, orange, ginger, tea cultivation
and green tea processing, cashew nut cultivation and as a result increase in income and improvement in living condition
of community is the only out come of the institutional support provided by the WGHCRMS under the NERCORMP -
IFAD project. Community partnership is the focal point of the model. But there is a need to take more initiatives in
creating awareness and make the farmers receptive to the new technology through farmers participating demonstrations
and training. Training facilities with respect to growing of horticultural crops and raising nursery has to be made
available as per requirements. Therefore, there is a need for establishing a sound marketing system with forward and
backward linkage so that vast potential of horticulture crops can be exploited through adoption of improved production
technology. But the institutions developed for achieving all these targets should be of people’s institution. The community
should play central role in the formulation and execution of plans. All this will lead to the horticulture-based agribusiness
development in the region.
Factors Influencing Farmers’ Willingness to Protect Groundwater

from Nonpoint Sources of Pollution in the Lower Bhavani
River Basin, Tamil Nadu
Sacchidananda Mukherjee
Water Resources and Policy, WWF-India, Secretariat, 172-B, Lodi Estate, New Delhi, 110 003, India.
(E-mail: sachs.mse@gmail.com)
Pollution abatement strategies in India and other developing countries have given priority to point sources of pollution.
However, it is increasingly evident that improvement of quality of surface and ground water will also require the control
of pollution from nonpoint sources (NPS). The NPS pollution control is particularly crucial in rural areas where groundwater
is an important source of drinking water. If the pollution continues unabated, it could pose serious risks not only for
current generations but also for future generations to meet demand for safe drinking water at a reasonable cost.
Regulatory approaches are not suitable to control pollution from NPS. Voluntary approach like collective action to
adopt agricultural best management practices by the farmers could be a longterm solution within the existing institutional
structure. Farmers’ perceptions about groundwater and drinking water quality are important, which influence their
willingness to adopt protection measures either individually or collectively. This study attempts to capture the factors
influencing farmers’ perceptions and their willingness to protect groundwater, and their willingness to support the local
government to supply drinking water through alternative arrangements. Six villages were identified in the Lower Bhavani
River Basin, Tamil Nadu, on the basis of their long-term groundwater nitrate concentrations and sources of irrigation.
A pre-structured questionnaire survey (face-to-face interviews) was administered to 395 farm-households across six
villages during June-July, 2006. Results show that farmers’ perceptions of risks related to groundwater nitrate pollution
385
vary across the villages, and mimic the actual groundwater nitrate situation. Estimated results of binary choice Probit
models show that farmers from comparatively high groundwater nitrate contaminated villages are willing to protect
groundwater as compared to farmers from less affected villages. Demand for safe drinking water varies across the
villages, based on the variations of socio-economic characteristics of the sample households and groundwater quality
Session 2.1
of the villages.
Zero Tillage Technology for Wheat Sowing in North

Gujarat Region
R.N. Singh and R.K. Bhatt

Centre for Watershed Management, Participatory Research & Rural Engineering, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada
Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar, Gujarat, India
Wheat is one of the important food crops of the world followed by rice. Wheat covers an area of 26.7 Mha and
production of about 72 Mt with productivity of 2.70 t ha-1 at highest level (Intensive Agriculture July-December, 2006).
The total area and production of wheat in Gujarat State is around 0.75 Mha and 2.03 Mt, respectively with average
productivity of 2.68 t ha-1. To fulfill the requirement of wheat of ever-increasing population researchers have to develop
and promote technology, which can meet the requirement with reduced cost of cultivation. Tillage is the most costly
operation because amongst all the agricultural operations like drilling, spraying, harvesting etc., because tillage machinery
requires maximum amount of power for seedbed preparation; moreover, considerable time and energy is being spent
on preparing the land for wheat after harvest of the crops. To overcome the problem of late sowing of wheat and
economizing on energy requirement for field preparation, the zero till drilling of wheat crop was demonstrated on 14.45
ha area belonging to 21 farmers in 2006-2007 and 25.34 ha area of 30 farmers in 2007-2008 at eroded soil of Sagthala
village of Kheralu Taluka, District- Mehasana, Gujarat State. The results of farmer participatory trials revealed that the
zero-till drill planting improved the productivity of wheat by 8% due to timely planting and efficient use of input. There
was total additional income of the farmers was Rs. 4343/ha.
Resources Conservation Practices at Farmer’s Field
H.S. Lohan
Additional Director of Agriculture (Retd) Haryana, India
Conservation of resources is becoming very important and more so in the present context when resource crunch is
being felt all over. With the adoption of intensive agriculture by the farmers, there has been large scale mining of inputs
like water and also leads to land degradation which is becoming a major challenge for sustaining production. Hence a
need was felt by the scientists, planners and farmers to evolve, plan and adopt such farm practices which are helpful
in conservation of resources and also make farming more remunerative. In view of this number of steps were taken like
introduction of zero tillage, laser leveler technology, rotavator cultivation, raised bed practice etc were adopted by the
farmers of Haryana, a small North Indian State, after seeing successful demonstration of all these. In the last five years
more than 10,000 zero till machines, about 5,000 rotavators have been purchased by the farmers on subsidized rates
covering more than 20 lac hectares and 15,000 hectares respectively saving lot saving of energy. Besides this 48 bed
planters and 14 laser levelers have been adopted, leading to saving of lot of water. Besides this more than 90,000,
12,000 and 1500 farmers went for sprinkler sets, drip irrigation systems and underground pipe laying leading to saving
lot of water. This could only be possible by subsidizing the cost of these equipments up to the extent of 50% and to
certain categories up to 75 to 90% of the cost by the Government. All these efforts not only reduced the cost of
cultivation but also conserved water, completed the operation in time, increased organic matter in the soil and enhanced
the quantity and quality of the produce.
386
Rain Water Harvesting for Ensuring Success of Participatory Watershed

Projects in Shivaliks
Session 2.1
A.K. Tiwari and R.P. Yadav
Central Soil & Water Conservation Research & Training Institute,
Research Centre, Chandigarh, 160 019, India
The rainwater harvesting is an integral component of watershed management programmes and plays a key role in
efficient management of natural resources and sustains productivity in a given region. Rainwater is the primary source
of water in the rainfed areas which constitutes about 63% of total cultivable land in the country. There are various
methods of rainwater harvesting being followed in different parts of the country since time immemorial. However, these
systems could not sustain due to lack of proper management and unscientific exploitation. The majority of Shivalik
regions spread in an area of 3.1 m ha in the states of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana and
Uttarakhand is rainfed and has no possibility of providing irrigation through conventional methods. Area receives good
rain which in turn is lost through high runoff causing onsite soil erosion and offside effects like floods in the down
stream areas.
The technology of surface runoff harvesting developed at Sukhomajri was found equally effective at Bunga in
Haryana and Relmajra in Punjab and benefit cost ratio of these projects worked out in the range of 1.58 to 1.81 besides
imparting intangible benefits like eco-restoration and downstream flood mitigation etc. These participatory watershed
management projects have amply demonstrated the benefits of resource conservation and management in increasing
biomass production and mitigating the effect of floods and droughts, ground water augmentation, employment generation
and improvement in socio-economic conditions of local people. The technology was further extended in Shivalik
region of northern states. About 102 water harvesting structure in Haryana, 72 in Punjab and 120 structures were
constructed in Himachal Pradesh.
For tapping the sub surface flow, Makkowal type water harvesting structures were constructed in certain streams
having relatively impermeable sub-surface strata and seepage from hill side was available in Punjab and infiltration
galleries at the foothills have proved successful in the state of Haryana through efforts of state department.
Water resource development through renovation of ponds and collection of subsurface flow has been well
demonstrated at Johranpur and Mandhala watersheds in Himachal Pradesh which suggests new refinements in water
harvesting techniques and enhanced the production and productivity in these rainfed areas with achievement of benefit
cost ratio more than 2.0. Results have proved that the water harvesting techniques can be effective and successful if
they are technically sound economically viable, environmentally non-degrading integral with indigenous knowledge/
skills/ material, create minimum social conflicts and meet multiple objectives.
There have been several watershed management projects but their success was linked with the development of
water resource through water harvesting. These projects demonstrate the present art of efficient water harvesting
system and its effective utilization through irrigation system. The experiences gained through implementation of various
watershed projects suggest the need of refining rainwater harvesting techniques for ensuring success of such projects.
387
Constraints Analysis for Sustainable Management of Resources under

Diara Eco-System in the Gangatic Plains of Bihar
Session 2.1
M.K. Wadhwani1, S.B. Singh2, R.N. Sahoo3 and I.P. Abroal4

1,2
Bihar Agricultural College, Sabour, RAU, Pusa, Bihar, India
3
Division of Agricultural Physics, IARI, New Delhi
4
CASA, New Delhi
The pattern of growth in agriculture has brought uneven development across the regions, crops and different section
of farming community in India. The concerns have also been raised about the stagnation of yield of important crops,
like rice and wheat. Therefore, sustainable management of natural resources namely weather, soil, water and bio-
diversity assume paramount importance. It is required to shift our mind from crop centred approach to the entire
cropping or farming system based on sustainable resource management. The ‘Diara ecosystem’ constitutes of lands
situated in between the natural levees, which are periodically eroded and formed due to meandering, braiding and
course changing of rivers, remains inundated under floodwater for different periods of time during rainy season. The
topography of diara areas formed a confused pattern of up, mid and low land depending upon the period of stay of
flood water, which makes agricultural operations more crucial and challenging.The area under the system is reported
as 11.57 lakh ha distributed among Ganga, Burhi Gandak, Gandak, Kosi and Sone rivers in Bihar. Of these Ganga
Diara is most extensive covering about 5.34 lakh ha of cultivated land. The diara ecosystem is endowed with most
fertile land but fated with low productivity of most of the crops. The investigation aimed to analyse the socio-economic
and bio-physical constraints of diara eco-system for defining alternate land use strategies and test selected productivity/
income enhancing and resource conserving interventions through community participation. The study, based on the
primary data collected form a sample of 144 diara farmers, selected randomly from Bhagalpur district, revealed that
the diaras are characterized by only one assured crop grown during rabi season. Over 90% of diara areas are un-
irrigated and the cropping pattern is based on subsistence farming. These areas faced twin problems of excessive
moisture during monsoon and moisture stress during pre and post flood periods. The kharif as well as zaid crops,
grown under rain fed situation, are always prone to failure depending upon the onset of flood.The crops faced mild to
severe moisture stress at different stages of crop growth/development and consequently the crop yield was low. These
areas are subject to various biophysical, technological and socio-economic constraints, which affect the livelihood of
entire ecosystem. The agro-ecological constraints includes duration and extent of flood, variable soil fertility, undulating
topography etc while the socio-economic constraints included fragmented/small size of land holding, sub-optimal use
of technological inputs,insufficiency of transfer of technology, non availability of quality inputs and their high prices,
poverty, underemployment/unemployment, lack of communication and transportation and market imperfection in realizing
remunerative prices.Though the package of technology for crop production has been refined/developed, their transfer
seems to be slow or inappropriate. Therefore, the extension activities need to be geared up. The credit facilities with
provision of crop insurance, timely supply of quality seeds, fertilizes etc at subsidized prices and extending benefits of
Agricultural Produce Market (regulation) Act to diara farmers are a few measures required for ensuring accelerated as
well as sustainable development in these areas.
388
Session 2.2: Integrated Approach for Technology Development

and Dissemination
Farmers Participatory Integrated Pest Management Technology

Development and its Dissemination in Basmati rice
D.K. Garg*, R.K. Tanwar, Vikas Kanwar and S.P. Singh

National Centre for Integrated Pest Management (NCIPM), LBS Building,
Pusa Campus New Delhi, 110 012, India
(*Email: dkgipm@yahoo.co.in)
Basmati rice is traditionally grown in the north and north-western parts of Indian subcontinent in about one million
ha area. It is the best quality rice and fetches high price in domestic and export markets. The yield potential of
commonly grown Basmati cultivars like Pusa Basmati-1, Taraori Basmati and Dehraduni Basmati (Type-3) is
Session 2.2
severely hampered due to substantial losses caused by biotic stresses as there is no inbuilt resistance in them to
any of the insect pests like stem borer, leaf folder, plant hoppers and diseases like bacterial leaf blight, sheath
blight and blast. Extensive surveys of Basmati growing areas by the NCIPM revealed excessive and injudicious use
of pesticides by farmers which aggravated the pest menace, secondary pest outbreaks, residue problem in grains,
soil and water, environmental degradation and rejection of several export consignments. The interdisciplinary team
of the NCIPM took up the challenge to address these problems to develop and fine-tune holistic integrated pest
management (IPM) tactics and validated it as village approach in Basmati-growing areas of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana
and Uttarakhand in farmers’ participatory mode. Holistic IPM strategy included integrated nutrient management
(INM) and emphasized on the growing of ‘Dhaincha’ (Sesbania sp.), judicious use of nitrogenous fertilizers with
addition of potash, use of pheromone traps, release of parasitoid Trichogramma spp., conservation and enhancement
of natural enemies and need based use of safer pesticide molecules. The implementation of all these tactics led to
the drastic reduction in pesticide application and effective suppression of main insect pests and diseases. Due to
negligible use of pesticides, there was a substantial increase in natural enemy population, mainly the spiders, mirid
bug and parasite like Telenomus sp. The less use of pesticides, fertilizer and water with less labour absorption
resulted in getting much higher net returns at all these locations. A mean yield level of 5.57 t ha-1 in IPM, as against
4.58 t ha-1 in farmers’ practices (FP) for Pusa Basmati -1, 2.70 t ha-1 and 2.23 t ha-1 in IPM and FP for Taraori
Basmati and 2.51 t ha-1 (IPM) and 2.08 t ha-1 (FP) in Type-3 Basmati was secured in an area ranging from 20 – 140
ha in each village in different years. There was a substantial increase in monetary gains as revealed by cost benefit
ratio of IPM and FP. The IPM approach was found to be sustainable as the farmers of the adopted villages continued
to follow IPM tactics even after the discontinuation of scientific support. The IPM successes led to the support of a
development agency – Basmati Export Development Foundation under APEDA for its dissemination in larger areas
by developing strong linkages of NCIPM with KVK’s, State Agriculture Departments, SAU’s, NGO’s, rice exporting
private agencies and farmers through the collaborative IPM implementation and master trainers training programmes.
The outcome will go a long way in improving and sustaining the productivity of Basmati rice and would help in
substantially increasing our stake in export market.
389
An Endeavor to Expand Ramie Cultivation and Improved Post-harvest

Technology for Better Commercialization
Manabendra Nath Saha1*, Suprakash Saha1, Sabyasachi Mitra2, Suniti Kumar Jha3
and Monidipta Saha1
1
Section of Soils and Microbiology, Div. of Crop Production, CRIJAF, ICAR, Barrackpore,
2
AINP on Jute and Allied fibre, CRIJAF, ICAR, Barrackpore, Kolkata, 700 120, West Bengal, India
3
Div. of Agricultural Extension, CRIJAF, ICAR, Barrackpore, Kolkata, 700 120, West Bengal, India
(*Email: moni25saha@gmail.com)
Ramie (Bohemeria nevia L. Gaud) is considered as the strongest and finest natural fibre obtained from the bark of
semi-perennial plant. Ramie, owing to its unique compositional characteristics of fibre (cellulose 85-95%, lignin 0.5%)
is biodegradable, quick absorber of water, dries fast and is a natural air conditioner. China is considered as the
principal nursing ground for Ramie with a production of 1, 97,044 MT and total coverage of 1, 13,700 ha, thus the most
dominant player in the international market that has the potential of about 14.6 million dollars. CRIJAF has recently
taken an initiative to expand Ramie cultivation from the north-eastern part of India to other non-traditional parts thus for
Session 2.2
increasing the meager production of Ramie in India (50MT) and also make its presence felt in the global market.
Ramie cultivation was successfully established in southern and western states of India, viz. Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu
and Goa. Inter-cropping of Ramie with other crops (black pepper, mango, rubber, cinnamon, arecanut, and coconut)
was also standardized. Different nutrient management practices were tried and integrated management practice with
100% NPK (50% N source from Ramie waste) was recommended for higher fibre yield and soil health sustenance.
Since the Ramie fibre has higher gum content, which is a major problem for textile purpose, the removal of gum i.e.
degumming procedure is a important step. The conventional degumming technique by bleaching was replaced by a
novel technique (microbial degumming process) and has been successful in decreasing the gum content to 4-6%.
Blending of Ramie with cotton (70:30) was successfully performed and collaboration was made with NGOs and industries
to popularize the Ramie package of practices and value-addition initiative.
Integrated Approach for Conservation Tillage Development in China
Gao Huanwen
China Agricultural University, China
(Email: ghwbgs@cau.edu.cn)
With regards to the history and present situation of conservation tillage (CT) development in China, (1960’s started
agronomy research, 1991 started mechanized systematic experiment, 1998 started demonstration in provinces, 2002
started demonstration and extension in country, 2005 speed up demonstration and extension by national policy. Right
now CT has been extended to 4 M.hm2 with mainly in North China). Under the CT experiment approach, the domestic
and international projects are the key to CT commence and improvement for huge Chinese small scale farmers. The
CT machinery approach includes development of small scale and light CT implements for small individual farmers and
big CT implement for large state farms, set up the program of CT machine purchasing allowance to encourage small
farmers, policy supporting to CT machine manufactures. Under CT demonstration and extension approach involves
the following: (1) Select and establish CT demonstration counties for CT extension, the government of demonstration
county will be in charge of CT field demonstration and training, advising and monitoring. Right now 234 national
demonstration counties and more than 300 provincial demonstration counties have been set up. (2) The farm machine
owners and large grain production families are chosen as main extension body. (3) Risk sharing policies are taken like
operation subside, yield reduction compensation. The CT development approach reduces wind erosion and depresses
stalk burning for cleaning sky, reduces CO2 and N2O emission, reduces water erosion for less river flooding, long-term
food security, increases farmer income and reduces hardship work.
390
To Analyse the Psychological and Communicational Characteristics of

the Respondents With Regard to Adoption of Recommended Rice
Cultivation Technologies in Raipur District of Chhattisgarh
A.K. Jhajharia1, J.D. Sarkar2, Santosh Kumari3 and H. Ram4

1
Department of Extension Education, S.K.N. College of Agriculture, Jobner, 303 329, Rajasthan Agricultural
University – Bikaner, Rajasthan, India
2
Department of Agricultural Extension, COA, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya,
Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
3
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Sangria,- 335 063, Hanumangarh, Rajasthan, India
4
Department of Extension Education, College of Agriculture Bikaner, Rajasthan Agricultural University ,Bikaner,
334 006, Rajasthan, India
(*Email: ak_jhajharia_dil@rediffmail.com)
The characteristics and quality of land to determine its suitability for agriculture and other allied activities are topography,
texture, water retention, infiltration rate, physico-chemical properties etc. The predominant reason for non-adoption or
partial adoption of agricultural technologies according to soil types are the lack of awareness, small and scattered land
Session 2.2
holdings, illiteracy, and poor resource status of farmers. Innovativeness of respondents was considered as an important
factor influencing their adoption and communication behaviour. Cosmopoliteness is the tendency of an individual to be
in contact with outside his own community based on the belief that all the needs of an individual cannot be satisfied
within his own community. This study was carried out in Raipur district of Chhattisgarh in 3 blocks namely, Abhanpur,
Arang and Dharsiwa. From the randomly selected 12 villages, a total of 120 farmers were finally considered in the
sample for the collection of primary data.
The study showed that 48.33% respondents reported that they adopt the recommended rice cultivation technology
after making a trial on small scale, while 36.67% respondents adopt when they see the technology a successful in
other farmers field. About 9% respondents adopt recommendations just after getting information and only 5.83%
respondents reported that they adopt the recommended technology at the last after its adoption by all the other
farmers. This indicated that majority of the respondents are eager to adopt the recommendation after self-satisfaction.
Regarding cosmopoliteness it reveals that majority of the respondents (50.84%) had low cosmopoliteness, while
35.83% respondents had medium cosmopoliteness, whereas 10 and 3.33% respondent had high and very low
cosmopoliteness, respectively. On other aspects communicational extension contact view, majority of the respondents
86.67% were used progressive farmers as an important information source. While, 62.50% were used neighbour and,
54.17% and 42.50% respondents were used RAEO and scientists, respectively as important extension personals
being utilized as agricultural extension agent. Due to mass media utilization among various mass media, majority of
the respondents 80.83% were using T.V. while, 57.50% respondents were using Radio and 49.17 and 35% respectively
were using news paper and bulletin, respectively for gaining information about agriculture and allied aspects. On other
sources of information of contact for farming regarding the use of other sources of information, majority of respondents
74.17% got information regarding agriculture from kisan mela, while 60% respondents got information from meetings.
Whereas, 50%, 44.17% and 40.83% respondents got information from discussion, training and demonstrations,
respectively.
391
Technological Improvement of Jute Retting - A Novel

Mechano-microbial Approach
Manbendra Nath Saha, B. Majumder, A.R. Saha, D.N. Maitra, H. Choudhury and Suparna Das
Section of Soils and Microbiology, Division of Crop Production, CRIJAF, Barrackpore,
(Email: parna.microbiology@gmail.com)
Jute is the second most common natural fibre produced in the world. Of the total global production of about 3 million
tons of jute, harvested from 2.5 million hectares, the six producing member countries of the International Jute Organization
(IJO), namely Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Nepal and Thailand account for about 95% of the production.
These countries except Indonesia are net exporters, accounting for about 98% of the world exports of raw fibre and
finished products. Retting, the process of separation and extraction of fibres from non-fibrous tissues and woody part
of the stem through dissolution and decomposition of pectin, hemicelluloses and other mucilaginous substances,
plays a very important role in regulating fibre quality. Retting is essentially a microbial process that occurs through
dissolution of pectin, hemicelluloses by the action of various microbial enzymes. In the conventional method, whole-
plant retting is completed within15-20 days. So, there is a need not only to cut short the retting period but also to
produce better quality fibre, using lesser volume of water. The CRIJAF has been working on this aspect and come out
Session 2.2
with a mechano-microbial retting method. In this newly developed method, green jute ribbons extracted through CRIJAF-
developed bast-fibre extractor, are retted with microbial consortium of six different bacteria and one fungal isolate
developed by CRIJAF. With this method, retting is completed within 7-9 days and produces at least two grade better
quality fibre. This method is also ecologically viable and cheaper. Furthermore, health hazards caused by the conventional
method can be avoided.
Direct Drilling Experience in Northern Tunisia
Khelifa M’HEDHBI1*, Moncef BEN-HAMMOUD A2, Hatem CHEIKH M’HAMED2, Mohamed Ali HANNACHI2
and Houcine GHOUILI2
1
2
Ecole Supèrieure d’Agriculture du Kef, Tunisia
(*Email: ct.cereales@planet.tn)
Direct drilling (DD) is becoming increasingly attractive to farmers in dry-land regions because when compared to
conventional drilling (CD) it reduces production cost, slows down erosion, and improves dry matter rate. To make an
effective shift from CD to DD, there is a need to: i) expose farmers to DD, ii) apply the participatory approach and on-
farm trial demonstration, iii) train farmers to use properly DD, particularly during the transition period, and iv) foster a
dynamic and interactive dialogue among involved partners (scientists, developers, drill suppliers, farmers, decision
makers). DD is a change in agricultural thought patterns and there are three main ways of implementing it in term of
residues management: i) spreading mulch, ii) using a mulch of a prior crop, and iii) preparing a cover crop as a mulch.
To achieve an appropriate co-existence of crops and livestock, farmers have to manage well the time-space: herds
should graze on the left-over residues or on growing biomass between crop growing seasons, and ovoid over-grazing
to leave enough residues/biomass for an appropriate DD. First few years of DD could be very difficult for a newly
converted farmer due to lack of management skills and direct drill availability. Farmers should buy a high performing
and certified drills. Tunisian experience with DD under rain-fed conditions started in 1999/00 with three drills and 11
small-scale farms at two locations. Actually, 70 drills are used by more than 100 large scale farms cultivating around
9000 ha mainly cropped with cereals, legumes, and forages. The first two years (1999/00-2000/01), barley grain yield
was higher with DD. However, legume and wheat grain yields and grain quality were similar with both DD and CD.
Lately, cultural practices for DD have been mastered, and grain yields were 28% and 34% higher in DD than CD,
respectively for wheat and legumes. Grain-volume-weight was always higher with DD, and grain yield increase seems
to parallel nicely with both soil moisture availability and organic mater build-up for DD.
392
Integrated Approach for Technology Development and Dissemination in

Complex, Diverse and Riskprone Hill and
Mountain Areas of Himachal Pradesh
K.K. Katoch
CSK HPKV, Palampur, 176 062, Himachal Pradesh, India
Farming community in India is normally endowed with fragmented land holding containing marginal and small sectors
to the maximum, the affordability, accessibility and possible to travel a long distance and to hunt the information is
seldom possible. As the traditional agriculture is transforming into hi-tech agriculture, the need for updated information
is also essential for agricultural production and productivity, eventually giving a lucrative yield and income to the
farming community. Each line department is responsible for its own extension and technology transfer programme and
there is a little coordination across different departments.
Traditional research and developmental activities in the natural resource sector have been criticized for not reaching
or involving the poor, women and other socially disadvantaged groups as traditional view of technology development
and transfer is a one way process. This approach was called “stock-it-to-them” by Roiing and top down transfer of
Session 2.2
technology by Chambers. In this approach, however, efficient technology transfer mechanism may be, there is a bias
in favour of big or prosperous farmers for a variety of reasons. This aspect is attributed as “technology application gap”
if appropriate agricultural technologies are to be developed, it is essential that the various groups of people involved in
the process need to participate and interact with one another effectively to discuss the common problem areas. These
groups include not only farmers and scientists but also extensionists, NGOs, representatives of farmers and women
organizations, policy makers, donors, traders, processors, inputs sales staff and others. The most widely accepted
and employed approaches and methods for technology development include : i) Farming system approach of 1970s,
ii) rapid rural appraisal (RRA) which spread in the 1980s and its further evolution into iii) participatory rural appraisal
(PRA) which has come in the 1990s and spread fast and further refinements of iv) participatory technology development
(PTD) and interactive bottom up approach (IBU). The interactive bottom up approach starts with an analysis of farmers
problems and reviews scientific development relevant to address those needs where there is a need of technology
intervention.
Agricultural innovations should not only be derived from the laboratories and research stations of the national and
international centres but from multiple sources which include research minded farmers, innovative research practitioners
at the local level, research minded administrators, non-government organizations (NGOs), private corporations and
extension agencies. This “multiple source” model, technology consists of old and new components. Training and
Extension (T and E) system could not facilitate effectively a two way communication between research personnel and
extension staff as well as between extension staff and farmers. Also this system could not ensure supply of simple, low
cost technology that is relevant to farmers. Considering the above constraints, innovations in technology dissemination
(ITD) component, demand-driven, well targetted and financially sustainable with bottom up approach and integration
of extension activities of all the line departments including KVKs, Zonal Research Stations, Farmers’ Training Centres,
involvement of private firms, credit institutions and NGOs and the linkage between farmers, extension workers and
researchers are strengthened. Technology transfer means a system under which various interrelated components of
technology namely hardware (materials such as a variety), software (technique, know how, information), humanware
(human ability), organware (organizational management aspects) and the final product (including marketing) are rendered
accessible to the end users (farmers). A technology transfer programme would be considered effective when there is
a minimal or no gap between the potential and realized impacts of the technology. It means the monitoring of the
adoption or adaptation of technologies is an integral part of the technology transfer system. For technologies
dissemination, various methods followed are broad-based planning, workshop with the key personnel of the partner
organisation, NGOs and farmers representatives, regional workshops to discuss methods and strategies for effective
implementation of planned activities, projection of the action plans to the grass root level extension workers, blocks
supervisors as well as participating farmers, in the form of orientation training, the farmers rallies or field days, field
demonstrations, radio recordings, live interaction through Doordarshan programmes, print media, exhibitions, exposure
visits etc.
393
Influence of Integrated Weed Management Practices on Yield Attributing

Characters and Weed Growth in Soybean
S.C. Saxena and Rakesh Chandra Nainwal

Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
(*Email: drscsaxena@yahoo.co.in)
Weeds compete with soybean for moisture, light, nutrients and space and also hamper operation of equipment, harbor
crop pests such as insects and diseases, and contaminate harvested grain with foreign matter and weed seeds.
Therefore, a trial was conducted at Pantnagar, in kharif, 2007, to evaluate an integrated approach to control weed flora
in soybean field. Herbicides viz. Diclosulam 84 WDG of different levels viz. 14, 22 and 30 g a.i. ha-1, respectively, as
pre-emergence, pendimethalin 30EC @1.0 kg a.i. ha-1 as pre-emergence, quizalofop-p-ethyl 5 EC @ 50 g a.i. ha-1 as
post emergence, Imazethapyr 10% SL @ 75 g a.i. ha-1 as post emergence, pendimethalin 30EC @1.0 kg a.i. ha-1 as
pre-emergence with inter-culture-hand weeding at 30 days after sowing, and hand weeding at 30 and 60 days after
sowing were the treatments taken in the experiment. There was no significant effect of treatment on seeds/pod and
seed index. Significantly highest seed yield was obtained with pendimethalin @1 kg a.i. ha-1 PE + interculture-cum-
Session 2.2
hand weeding at 30 days after sowing. Among the test herbicides, diclosulam 84 WDG @22 g a.i. ha-1 as PE produced
maximum yield and was at par with two hand weeding at 30 and 60 days after sowing and significantly superior to
pendimethalin and imazethapyr. Plant height was maximum with pendimethalin 30EC @1.0 kg a.i. ha-1, branches/
plant and pods/plant with diclosulam 84 WDG @30 g a.i. ha-1 and straw yield and harvest index were maximum with
two hand weeding at 30 and 60 days after sowing, respectively. The monocot (Echinochloa colonum, Cyperus rotundus),
dicot (Celosia argentia) and total weed density at 30 and 60 days after sowing as well as total weed dry matter at both
the stages were zero in diclosulam 84 WDG @22 and 30 g a.i. ha-1 as pre-emergence, Pendimethalin 30 EC @1.0 kg
a.i. ha-1 as pre-emergence with inter-culture-hand weeding at 30 days after sowing (except total weed density and dry
matter at 60 days after sowing) and two hand weeding at 3o and 60 days after sowing. The weed control efficiency
(WCE) of test herbicides, diclosulam 84 WDG @22 and 30 g a.i. ha-1 as pre-emergence was 100% at 30 and 60 days
after sowing while of quizalofop-p-ethyl 5 EC @50 g a.i. ha-1 as post emergence, it was 16 and 64% at days after
sowing, respectively.
Reducing Vulnerability of Migratory Sheep Herders through

Technological Interventions: A Case Study of North West
Indian States
Sushila Kaul and D.R. Singh

Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, 110 012, India
India stands third among the countries of the world in sheep population, next only to Australia and China. There were
39.24 million sheep in 1956, which increased to 59 million in 2006. The sheep in addition to producing wool, also
provide mutton, sheep skin and manure. There exists a wide variation in the types of sheep found in different parts of
the country. In the temperate Himalayan and dry western region, they are of wooly type. The main breeds are Gurej,
Karnat, Bakharwal, Gaddi and Rampur Bushan in the former region and Lohi, Bikaneri, Marwari, Kutchi and Kathiawadi
in the latter region. In the southern and eastern region, sheep are mainly of the hairy type and are bred mostly for
mutton production, the main breeds being Deccani, Nellore, Bellari, Mandya and Bandur. The average wool and
mutton production of Indian sheep is low as compared to other countries. For instance, Rajasthani sheep produces 1.4
kg of wool on an average per year, whereas in countries like United Kingdom and Australia, the fine breeds produce
annually 5 to 6 kg wool. In addition, the quality of wool produced by Indian sheep is also inferior. The size and weight
394
is also less than the exotic breeds. The rams and ewes also weigh much less as compared to the exotic ones. Thus,
the yield of mutton is also low from indigenous sheep, when seen in comparison to the exotic breeds. Thus, there is a
great scope for increasing wool and mutton production by genetic improvement of the existing flocks with well designed
institutional and policy options. There have been several selective breeding progammes, which indicate that under
proper care and management conditions, the Indian sheep has the potential for more production. Because of lack of
fodder at the native place, sheep farmers migrate to other places in search of fodder. The present study was conducted
in Ajmer district of Rajasthan and Kangra District of Himachal Pradesh, situated in North-West of India to understand
the socio-economic, cultural, size, location, ethnic and migration pattern of major sheep herder groups. The migratory
herders have been facing major livelihood threats during migration mainly due to continuoed reduced pastures and
disturbed migration routes. Resource degradation, changing socio-economic and traditional value system of the
population residing along the migratory locations are some of the most important causes of sheep herders poverty and
vulnerability or social exclusion. This paper makes an attempt to assess vulnerability of sheep herders during migration
and while at home. The vulnerability is understood in this paper in terms of people’s exposure to risks, the sensitivity of
their livelihoods systems to these risks and limited assets to cope with and adopt to them. Sustainable livelihood
approach has been used to assess vulnerability in this paper. Primary data sets have been used. With a view to
achieve higher and sustainable returns from migratory sheep farming, the intervention of technology was made in
breeding, feeding (nutrition) and health components to the selected farmers of these selected districts. Improved
breeds of rams were provided to the farmers for breeding. The technology for nutritional component included providing
feed supplements, i.e. mineral mixture and vitamins. For improving the health aspect of sheep rearing and to reduce
Session 2.2
the mortality and morbidity of the animals, the technical know how and medicines were provided to the participating
flock owners at native place as well as en-route migration. Impact of technological intervention was assessed in
different categories of farmers in terms of increase in productivity, employment, income as well as in the status of food
security of the migratory sheep farmers. The paper suggests several institutional, technical, and policy recommendations
as well as suggested researchable issues to mainstream the pastoralism in development process.
Impact of Front Line Demonstrations in Pulses on Technology Transfer,

Productivity and Profitability in Mandi District of
Himachal Pradesh, India
Anil K. Choudhary*, D.S. Yadav, Amar Singh and Anand Singh

Krishi Vigyan Kendra, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya,
Sundernagar, 174 402, Himachal Pradesh, India
(*Email: anilchodhury1975@rediffmail.com)
The impact of frontline demonstrations in pulses imbedded with improved technology against farmer’s practice on
productivity and the economic viability of improved technology was studied for two years (Kharif 2006 to rabi 2007-08)
in Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh. The study revealed a wide gap between the potential and demonstration yields
in pulses due to technology and extension gaps. Higher technology gap was recorded in cowpea followed by gram and
least in case of local strain of rajmash. The impact analysis revealed that by adopting the improved production technology,
the pulse productivity could be raised by 97-128% in mash, 38-82% in rajmash, 111-128% in arhar, 59-65% in cowpea,
130-141% in gram and 66-126% in lentil. This improved technology package has also improved the profitability in
terms of gross and net returns besides IBCR. The IBCR varied between 5.14-7.21, 1.72-3.90, 3.41-5.00, 2.50-2.86,
2.91-3.10 and 1.25-4.35 in case of mash, rajmash, arhar, cowpea, gram and lentil, respectively during the study with
minor additional costs compared to total cost of crop cultivation in respective crops. Technology index also varied
between 32 to 73 % among pulses indicating that there is a dire need to make educate the farmers to adopt the
technologically-feasible and economically-viable farm technology so that resource poor farmers of the district could
raise their productivity, farm gains and livelihood through pulses intensification and diversification by utilizing the
available resources and technology effectively. Overall, improved technology had great impact on pulse crop yields,
additional returns as well as water use efficiency in the present study.
395
How Cropping and Farming System Modelling Can Help the Extension of
Conservation Agriculture? Case study in Madagascar
Naudin Krishna1* and Eric Penot2

1
CIRAD SCRID, Antananarivo, Madagascar
2
CIRAD Umr Innovation, Antananarivo, Madagascar
(*Email: naudin@cirad.fr)
Conservation agriculture and DMC technique is a real alternative in some areas of Madagascar for poverty alleviation
and a potential issue for local farmers to overcome climatic and economic risks. Local development projects such as
BV-lac in the Lake Alaotra region promote such systems according to local constraints. These days, i.e. 2007-08
cropping season, around 2000 farmers are practising CA cropping system based on 1) no till, 2) permanent organic
cover, and 3) rotation including cover crops. The BV-lac project is currently trying to extend the first experimental action
to a significant level, trying to enhance extension in quantity and also in quality. One of the major steps to complete this
goal is to ensure that technical recommendations match farm structure and fit smallholder’ strategies, constraints and
objectives. To tackle such a challenge, we propose an approach including modelling at both cropping and farming
systems. The paper aimed at presenting this approach, the modelling tools and the effective use of such tools with
Session 2.2
local development partners. Within the modelling tools there are three softwares : the couple of software PRACT/
GANESH (K Naudin/SCRID) to select cropping patterns and their integration into farming systems and farming system
modelling with the tool OLYMPE (Attonaty, INRA-CIRAD-IAMM). This last one is used in farming systems monitoring
network. The PRACT/GANESH tools are still under construct. There are both Decision Support Systems (DSS).
PRACT (Prototyping Rotation and Association with Cover crop and no Till) is a tool to generate and to evaluate crop
rotations and crop sequences in DMC systems at field level. The second DSS named GANESH (Goals oriented
Approach to use No till for a better Economic and environmental sustainability for SmallHolders) is at farm level and
uses linear programming to optimize the cropping plan to be proposed to farmers. Olympe is an economic modelling
tool on farming simulation to help individual decision-making at farm level and may be used for project to identify
technologies adapted to farmers’ types. Positive or negative externalities can also be integrated. Farming system
modelling associated with a farm typology can therefore be used to help projects as well to test scenarios with various
types of technologies in order to assess what is the right technology with the right farmer at the right time. Then, it aims
to provide guidelines for agricultural and development policies for institutions or donors. Both tools should enable
projects partners to measure the real impact of technological and organizational changes through prospective analysis
and feedback from farmers through innovation process identification.
Participatory Research: A Farmer-centered Approach for Varietal

Development in Sodic Soils
Y.P. singh, A.K. Nayak, D.K. Sharma, R.K. Gautam, R.K. Singh, G.B. Singh, T. Paris,
Ranbir Singh, V.K. Mishra and A. Ismail
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Although, germplasm can be developed at national and international levels to incorporate a number of genetically
useful trails, it is a major challenge for scientists with limited resources to test the full range of genetic diversity
generated by a breeding programme under all possible environments. There are a large number of rice genotypes that
are grown from coastal to inland and saline to sodic ecosystems. Genotypes suitable for coastal areas may or may not
be suitable for inland areas. The same could be the case of adaptability of genotype in saline and sodic environments.
Since, the ecology of the salt-affected environments differs from one target area to another, it is imperative to develop
cultivars which are specific to the target environment and meet the plant type requirements. The farmers continue
396
cultivation of traditional low yield rice varieties due to non-availability of improved varieties to the salt-stress and
associated complexities.
Participatory variety selection (PVC) trials were conducted under IRRI managed Challenge Program on Water
and Food (CPWF) collaborative project 7 (PN7) in Unnao district of Uttar Pradesh during 2004-05 on sodic soil
characterized by 47% sand, 21% silt and 32% clay, pH 10.30, EC 11.5 dS m-1 and organic carbon 0.10 g kg-1 while
other was reclaimed sodic soil with pH 9.2 and EC 0.68 dS m-1 . Farmers were involved from the beginning throughout
entire crop management and the varieties were got evaluated through farmer’s participation and preference analysis.
Seven most promising salt-tolerant varieties /genotypes developed by rice breeding program of CSSRI, Karnal viz.
CSR-2K-219, CSR-2K-262, CSR-89IR-8, CSR 23, CSR27, CSR30 (Basmati type) and CSR 36 were grown each in a
6.00 m2 plot to elicit farmer’s response. Though farmers regularly visited the sites but at the time of maturity, they were
asked to rank the varieties based on their liking on various traits like plant height, flowering duration, grain type, and
many other growth and yield attributing traits. The independent choice of each of the farmers was ascertained through
secrete balloting. The farmers given ranks were compiled for deciding the choice of farmers on 1st, 2nd, and 3rd positions
in sodic environments. The genotypes CSR-89IR-8, CSR-2K-219 and CSR-2K-262 were ranked as 1st, 2nd and 3rd with
an average yields 4.51, 4.40 and 4.22 t ha-1, respectively. During 2005-06, these trials with 2 new genotypes like CSR-
2K-239 and CSR-2K-228 were again conducted at the same sites. On overall basis, CSR-89IR-8 secured first rank
again due to its early maturity, grain quality and grain yield. Due to early maturity and good grain quality, farmers’
preference for the genotype has increased remarkably. More and more farmers hve come forward to get seed of this
Session 2.2
genotype. During 2007-08, the genotypes has spread to about 40 farmers through inter-farmer seed dissemination
method. Further up-scaling of the genotype is being done through more demonstration trials being conducted by the
nearly Farm Science Centre (Krishi Vigyan Kendra), located in Dhaura, Uttar Pradesh which facilitates the dissemination
of the sodic land reclamation technologies.
Applied Down-Well Camera Technology: Inspecting Water Wells
Desh Duseja and Samuel Dennis

Department of Agricultural Sciences, Tennessee State University, 3500 John Merritt Blvd.,
Nashville, TN 37209-1561, USA
(Email: DDuseja@tnstate.edu)
Groundwater can be vulnerable to contamination especially in Karst terrain and in unconfined sand aquifers. Middle
Tennessee (United States of America) has an abundance of limestone rocks that tend to form terrains referred to as
Karst is characterized by sinkholes and disappearing streams and caves, which could serve as conduits to contaminants
because of their rapid groundwater flow, especially in recharge conditions such as storm events. The protection of
groundwater from contamination continues to pose a major challenge, for it impacts source and quality of drinking
water.
Down-well camera technology has been used to inspect water wells for potential problems associated with improper
well construction and/or maintenance, and to highlight the overall integrity of the wells. The goal of this study was to
capture film footage by this technology in two water wells located in the Middle Tennessee countries of Davidson and
Cheatham. Davidson county well was located on Tennessee State University (USA) Agricultural Research Farm,
whereas the Cheatham county well was on a private land-owner’s farm. According to the Karst areas map of Tennessee
Davidson and Cheatham counties have 0 to <1% sinkholes, respectively.
No evidence of leaks through the casing or casing joints was observed in either of the wells. However, visual
evidence of extensive fractures and dissolution channels within the sedimentary rock aquifer was noted during the
video inspections of the open bore-hole. Due to the extensive fracturing observed, it would be rational to assume that
the potential for seeping contaminants exists. Abundance of particulate matter was also evident on the film, which
could be an indication of a biologically active ground water, or of other chemotropic matter dissolved from soil minerals,
or both. Live fish were observed swimming in the Davidson county well at depths of 32.1 and 68.3 feet. They were
tentatively identified as the Southern Cavefish (Typhlichthys subterraneus).
397
Down-well camera technology can be a valuable environmental educational tool for scientists and extension
personnel in a ‘train the trainer’ program. Also, by demonstrating a recorded well camera film footage, farmers or well
owners can be educated on the perils of not maintaining their water wells properly. These are initial observations
around which other more controlled study can be done. Examples are (i) Deployment of data sondes for in situ well
water-quality monitoring, and (ii) collecting grab water-samples for subsequent delineation of water wells.
Applications of Decision Support System in Agriculture
R. Indumathy and P. Ratha Krishnan

National Research Centre for Agroforestry, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
(Email: indumathymca@yahoo.com)
Indian agriculture began by 9000 BC as a result of early cultivation of plants, and domestication of crops and animals.
The settled life soon followed with implements and techniques developed for agriculture and made it a prime source of
livelihood. The progress made by agriculture in the last four decades has been one of the biggest success stories of
Session 2.2
free India. Agriculture and its allied activities are the means of livelihood of about 2/3rd of the work force in the country.
But, the present climatic uncertainties, increased cost of cultivation and scarcity of labour made the farmers to opt for
the alternate land use technologies. Application of recent technologies like computer / information technology in the
ancient times originated field is the needed strategy of this hour. Computer made the calculations easier, predicts
accurately and is being currently used for the information management and support decisions. Using computer /
information technology by the way of Decision Support System (DSS) in agriculture can optimize the production while
conserving the resources.
DSS is an interactive flexible computer-based .information system, which helps decision makers to utilize data
and models to solve unstructured problems like complex nutrient, irrigation, protection and marketing problems faced
by the farmers. Hence it provides valid representation of complex real world problems. The DSS is composed of four
subsystems viz., data management subsystem, model management subsystem, communication management
subsystem and knowledge management subsystem. The data management subsystem consists of DSS data base,
database management system, data dictionary and query, while the model management subsystem can be model-
based (static or dynamic), model based management system and modeling language. From the above, DSS data
base can be classified as relational data base, object oriented database and relational object oriented database.
Decision making is a process of choosing among altemative course of action for the purpose of attaining goal. It can be
done by three levels viz., operational, managerial and strategic. Decision making is being done in four phases i)
Intelligence phase (Organizational goals are set and objectives are identified. Hence the problems will be evaluated
and predict the outcomes), ii) Design phase (Models formulated and criteria will be chosen), ii) Choice phase (Models
worked after sensitive analysis model), and iv) Implementation phase (implement the solution). The farmer’s query will
be collected and stored in the database and maintained in the proper RDBMS with corresponding data dictionaries.
According to the queries answers will be provided by researchers, expert in that field like gyandoot, echoupal, ikisan,
n-logue, etc.
398
Seed Village Programme: An Approach to disseminate Quality Seeds

in Mau District of Eastern Uttar Pradesh
P. Venkatesh
Directorate of Seed Research, Kushmaur, P.O. Kaithouli Mau, 275 101, India
(Email: venkatesh98@rediffmail.com )
In India large numbers of superior varieties in different crops and technologies have developed. However benefits of
these can be realized provided those reach to farmers / entrepreneurs. The Directorate of Seed Research (DSR)
initiated Seed Village Programme with an objective to disseminate modern productive varieties of different crops
through quality seeds among the farmers in the Mau district with special emphasis to economic and socially backward
small and marginal farmers. To create awareness about new varieties and motivate them to adopt “believing by seeing”
method was followed. Under this programme DSR has adopted 10 villages for front line demonstrations (FLD) viz,
Kushmaur, Kahinaur, Paniara, Onaich, Ahilad, Khiria, Bangli, Pinzara, Harpur and Khanderaipur. In which farmers
from adopted villages were selected and given small quantity of quality seed for FLD in which they multiplied the same
at their own field under supervision of team of scientists from DSR and produced seeds were used as seed for next
season for their own field. Excess seed was sold to neighbouring farmers and by this way the horizontal spread of
Session 2.2
quality seed was ensured in the locality. Quality seed of productive rice variety viz, BPT 5204 and MTU 7029 was made
available during kharif 2007 to 600 farmers whereas seed of elite wheat variety HUW 234 was made available to 100
farmers. During kharif 2008 about 95% of selected farmers used the preceding season paddy and wheat. Out
performance of the variety decreased weed, pest and disease incidence and over all increased yield was main reason
for adoption in the second year too. In kharif 2008 new farmers from the DSR selected villages, about 30 paddy
farmers, 10 pulse farmers, 10 vegetable farmers were selected were chosen and quality seed was made available to
the farmers. MTU 7029, BPT 5204 and Sarju 52 in the paddy, improved varieties of red gram and pumpkin, chilli and
okra in vegetable crops were principal components. Along with these seeds, biofertilizers viz Rhizobium and Trichoderma
were also given to the farmers with the collaboration of National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Microorganisms
(NBAIM) for better growth and germination. By this way awareness was created in the in the selected villages especially
about use of quality seeds to improve productivity and also to inflate seed replacement rate. In addition, farmers were
given training at DSR in which lectures on recent technologies were given, in which district agriculture officers, seed
certification officers and bank managers were also participated and interacted with the farmers and informed about the
recent government programmes on inputs and credit facilities to the farmers. The increase in net income from use of
quality seeds over local seeds were 43%, and 57% paddy, wheat and respectively in the selected villages.
399
Session 2.3: Capacity Building
Impact of Informal Trainings Regarding Soil and Water Conservation

Technologies on Farmers of Mahi Ravine Area in Gujarat State
G.L. Bagdi, R.S. Kurothe, H.B. Singh, V.C. Pande

Vasad, Anand, Gujarat, India
An action research study on informal trainings to needy farmers was undertaken in 2002 in villages of Mahi ravine area
under Anand and Baroda districts of Gujarat state with the main objective to increase knowledge and adoption behaviour
of farmers towards soil and water conservation (SWC) technologies for ravine reclamation. The pre-training status of
farmers regarding knowledge, symbolic adoption and adoption of SWC practices was assessed and found moderate,
low and very low level, respectively. An informal training strategy was evolved by using individual, group and mass
contact training methods, which were suitable to rural farmers. Target groups of selected rural farmers were imparted
trainings on recommended SWC technologies for ravine reclamation on their farm situation according to time suitability
to farmers and they were explained and motivated about various SWC technologies to improve their knowledge and
adoption. Thirty seven farm and home visits, eight office calls, eleven result demonstrations, ten lectures, thirty one
group discussion meetings, six documentary film shows and 215 copies of bulletin on SWC technologies were distributed
to farmers of five adopted villages. Consequently, farmers of Mahi ravine area carried out various SWC practices by
their own efforts on their farms for ravine reclamation which included land leveling in 16 ha, check dams 8, bunding in
12.5 ha, 15 farm ponds, 7 bamboo nurseries, Bhabhar grass plantation on ravine slopes in 5.5 ha and bamboo
plantation in 7.5 ha ravine beds. The post-training status of farmers was also evaluated and found that the knowledge
level of farmer regarding SWC technologies improved from moderate to high level, symbolic adoption also increased
from low level to moderate level and similarly the actual adoption of soil and water conservation technologies also
improved from very low to moderate. The overall impact of the informal trainings on targeted farmers was measured
Session 2.3
with the help of the Training Index and computed at 30.1 per cent. The Chi-square (χ2) values were also calculated and
a significant increase in actual adoption of SWC technologies due to informal trainings was observed
Capacity building for improving livelihoods in coastal Orissa
S.K. Rout1* and C.M. Khanda2

1
Department of Extension Education, 2Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Orissa University of
Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, 751 003, Orissa, India
Agriculture is the main stay of our economy and is a livelihood for million of farm families. It is recognized that for
effective technology adoption, capacity building among the stake holders in terms of knowledge, attitude and skills is
a vital factor. Besides this, the dissemination of technology from research organizations to farming community requires
capacity building among the farmers and farm women. In this context the Department of Bio-Technology, Govt. of India
has sanctioned a project entitled “Rural Bio-resource Project in Puri district of Orissa” in favour of Orissa University of
Agriculture and Technology. The project is in operation since October, 2006 in a cluster of 8 villages of Puri district
covering 1065 farm families. A study was conducted to analyse some of the successful experience of the project in
providing and supporting capacity building efforts for implementation of identified technological interventions with
focus on improvement of rural livelihood. The project aimed at improving the capacity of rural institutions and groups to
provide rural poor a better access to bio-resources for earning their livelihoods. The capacity building effort of the
400
project was concentrated on the interventions like backyard poultry rearing, nutritional enrichment of cattle, mushroom
cultivation, honey bee rearing, integrated pisciculture, cultivation practices of high yielding crops and vegetables etc.
For all the above interventions, the beneficiaries were trained on the principle of learning by doing through participatory
approaches, strengthening of human public social capital was tried by forming self help groups. Attempts were made
to build the technical capacity to target groups through awareness creation, sensitization, exposure visits, field days
and training. The shift to knowledge based interventions resulted in the visible impact in the project area. The project
succeeded in enabling community groups to enhance their capacities and effectiveness in performance of tasks
leading to the overall knowledge and technological empowerment. It was concluded that capacity building plays
complementary and catalytic role on adoption of technological interventions for sustainable and efficient use of bio-
resources.
Establishment of Rural Level Mass Production Units of Bio-Agents

through Women Self-Help-Groups for Timely Availability of Quality Bio-
Agents for Successful Adoption of Conservation Agriculture – An Action
Research
M. Shivamurthy1* , K.C. Shashidhar1, D. Radhakrishna1, K.M. Indiresh1, S.N. Rajashekar2 and N.

Nandini1
1
University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore, 560 065, Karnataka, India
2
DHAN Foundation, Karnataka, India
(*Email: murudaiah.shivamurthy@gmail.com)
Continues usage of synthetic pesticides by the fruits and vegetable growers have been adversely affecting the
environment and economic conditions of the farm families. Hence, application of pesticides especially on vegetables
is to be considered with extreme care and caution as they cause lot of health hazards. To resolve this problem, efforts
Session 2.3
have been made to reduce the application of chemical pesticides by replacing with the use of Trichoderma spp., which
grow saprophytically in soils suppress almost all soil borne, wilt and nematode diseases. Trichoderma can be used
alongwith organic manure having lower cost and longer efficiency than fungicides. It does not led to the development
of resistance in plant pathogens. It does not induce phtoxicity. Use of Trichoderma minimizes the cost of production,
increases the yield and profits of the farmers.
Timely availability, high cost, poor quality and cumbersome process of mass production of Trichoderma by the
individual framers have become constraints in regular use for sustainable crop production and hampering the very
adoption/use of these technologies by the farmers. Hence, to achieve this objective, it is possible to establish small
scale production units at the village level through women. Self Help Groups is a viable proposition with which we can
also empower rural poor women by creating employment and income. As empowerment of women in rural areas is
gaining momentum, it is important to train and encourage them to establish small production units of Trichoderma spp.
With this, women in rural areas can improve not only their economic power, health and environment but also, it is
possible for fruits and vegetable growers to get quality Trichoderma spp. at lower cost in their respective villages itself.
Considering these problems and opportunities, a project was initiated by establishing low-cost non traditional
mass production units of Trichoderma by the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore in collaboration with Barathiya
Agro-Industries Foundation in 2007. Forty rural schedule caste and schedule tribe women belongs to the Self Help
Groups located in two villages in Tumkur district in the state of Karnataka, India are producing Trichoderma (bio-control
agent) successfully which is in a great demand for the control of major diseases in almost all the commercial crops.
After a series of hands on training, landless women have developed the confidence and completed eight batches of
production during their leisure hours with a production of 600 kg and obtained a net return of Rs. 36,000 (US$850) in
six months. The success of this effort to meet the regular demand of Trichoderma, recommendations for scaling up
and popularization of Trichoderma for successful promotion of conservation agriculture are discussed in the main
paper.
401
Session 2.4: Enabling Policies
Participatory Identification of Fodder Species for Improvement of

Community Lands in Semi-arid India
M.M. Roy*, D. Kushwaha, M. Singh and S.K. Gupta

(*Email: mmroyster@gmail.com)
The rainfed and drought prone areas in the country are accorded a very high priority of the government but the returns
are usually far below the expectation, calling for refined schemes of implementation. There are several programmes
and schemes that promote rehabilitation of degraded community lands under watershed development projects. In
such programmes identification of trees, grasses and leguminous species is an important activity for developing grassland
and silvopasture systems on community lands or on private wasteland available with the farmers or a group of farmers.
During 2002-2005, a field study was undertaken on 21 sites in five villages involving 43 farmers in the district Jhansi
(Uttar Pradesh) that represent a typical semiarid environment – long hot summer, highly erratic rainfall and short
winter. After accommodating farmers’ initial responses and station research findings; seven multipurpose trees (Acacia
nilotica, Carissa carandus, Citrus limon, Dalbergia sissoo, Emblica officinalis, Psidium guajava, Zizyphus mauritiana),
four grasses (Brachiaria mutica, Cenchrus ciliaris, Cenchrus setigerus, Panicum maximum) and three leguminous
fodder species (Desmanthus virgatus, Stylosanthes hamata, Stylosanthes scabra) were introduced on wastelands
owned by the farmers or with the community under NATP of Indian Council of Agricultural Research. The growth
performance of all the species was assessed following standard methods. The farmers’ responses towards these
species before the initiation of the study and after assessing field performance of the introduced species were collected
on a scale of 1-10. The positive change in the perception of the farmers towards fodder trees (Acacia nilotica, Dalbergia
sissoo), grasses (Cenchrus ciliaris, Panicum maximum), and legumes (Desmantus virgatus, Stylosanthes hamata)
was significant on account of field performance of these species in a wide range of situations. It led to a realistic
consideration among the stakeholders about the species suitability with respect to site conditions and level of
management offered. The study suggests that before taking up large scale field projects in the area of improvement of
community lands; participatory identification of species may be undertaken as it would take care of the prevailing
socio-economic and bio-physical settings of the area. Such identified species will lead to promotion of cooperation
among various stakeholders at different levels and help in realizing the potential of economic and environmental
objectives.
Session 2.4
Farmer’s Perception of Learning Science of Bovine Reproduction in

Farmer Livestock School
Sanvendana Kumari 1 and Jancy Gupta 2

1
Commonwealth Split-site Scholar at University of Reading, UK
2
Dairy Extension Division, NDRI, Karnal-132 001, Haryana, India
Indian dairy industry, characterized by high population of cattle and buffalo and highest producer of milk, is facing a
problem of low productivity since decades. Conspicuous problem of reproduction, especially in cattle and buffalo, has
been reported as one of the major cause. Lesson from Farmer Field School (FFS) on integrated pest management
optimised to adopt this methodology for reducing the incidence of reproductive disorders of bovines and Farmer
Livestock School (FLS) was conducted at village Subri, Karnal in India. Purpose of this presentation is to discuss the
402
participants’ experience of sharing and learning about reproductive disorders in FLS. Aim of this school was to know
the practice of dairy farmers for managing the reproductive health of their herds and discuss the science of reproductive
disorder with them. Twenty five participants were purposively selected on the basis of herd size, education and willingness
to attend the school. Main topics discussed in this school were female reproductive system, estrus cycle, record
keeping, nutrition and reproduction, artificial insemination, reproductive disorders: causes and prevention, reproductive
management: an important aspect of production. All of the participants were satisfied to attend the school. Participants’
perception was measured by using the structured interview and focus group. ‘Topic of School’ was perceived as the
best aspect of school. Majority of participants were disappointed with the short duration of school. Participants ranked
the topics in terms of its understandability, relevance and applicability. In terms of relevance and applicability ‘artificial
insemination’ was mentioned as most important. Repetition of school and use of film/audio-visual aids were mentioned
by the majority of participants. Willingness to facilitate the school was very less.
Risk Aversion and Adoption of Direct Drilling
Lokman Zaibet*1, Hassen Nhaili2, Hassen Abdelatif1 and Moncef Ben-Hammouda2

1
Ecole Supèrieure d’Agriculture de Mograne, Tunisia
2
Ecole Supèrieure d’Agriculture du Kef, Tunisia
(*Email: lzaibet@yahoo.fr)
Risk is common in agriculture and natural resources management. The adoption of newer technologies and agricultural
practices depends on farmers attitude to risk. Risk management is important to help farmers make better decisions but
it is rather a difficult task. Farmers concerns about risk range from uncertainty in output and in commodity prices to
ability in adopting new technology, such as conservation agriculture based on direct drilling (CA/DD) which raises risks
related to lack of information about outcomes but also the limited experience of Tunisian farmers. The selection of an
efficient strategy (cropping system) is based on comparative cumulative probability distributions of possible outcomes
for DD as an alternative to conventional drilling (CD). To conduct a thorough risk assessment, there is a need to know
the probabilities of risky outcomes as well as the preferences held by decision makers for those outcomes. The first
part of this paper is devoted to quantifying the cumulative probability distributions of alternative DD and CD. The
second part describes how the preferences of decision makers are taken into account to discriminate between mutually
exclusive practices (DD vs CD). A stochastic dominance analysis was used to rank the DD to the CD in Tunisia. The
analysis compared the net income of both drilling types (DD, CD). At first time, the durum wheat in DD (DWDD)
compared to durum wheat in CD (DWCD) showed that DWDD dominates DWCD by first-order stochastic dominance in a
three rotation types (wheat-fallow, wheat-legumes, wheat-cereal). Meanwhile, first-order stochastic dominance does
not exist in barley production. However, barley in DD (BDD) dominates barley in CD (BCD) by second-order stochastic
Session 2.4
dominance in two rotation types (barley-fallow, barley-cereal). In conclusion, the Stochastic Dominance with Respect
to a Function (SDRF) showed that DD would be preferred over CD by risk averse farmers.
403
Farmer Focused Science as a Pathway to Africa’s Green Revolution
Steve Twomlow
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT),
Matopos Research Station, P. O. Box 776, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe
(Email: s.twomlow@cgiar.org)
ICRISAT Zimbabwe has been working for the last ten years to encourage small-scale farmers to increase inorganic
fertilizer use, and progressively increase their investments in agriculture, as the first step towards Africa’s own Green
Revolution. The program of work is founded on a technology breakthrough proven to be successful in a sub-set of
communities in Southern Africa – micro-dosing using small targeted quantities of inorganic nitrogen fertilizer as a top
dressing. It starts from the proposition that resource constraints prevent most risk averse farmers from pursuing rates
of fertilizer application recommended by most national extension agencies. Rather than asking how can a smallholder
subsistence farmer maximize her yields or profits, micro-dosing asks how can a farmer maximize the returns to a small
initial investment – that might grow over time, turning deficits into surpluses.
This innovative technology involves the precision application of small quantities of nitrogen based fertilizer, close
to the crop plant. This enhances fertilizer use efficiency and improves productivity, enabling intensification of agriculture
and productivity gains from initially low levels, closing the yield gap between what farmers are currently achieving, and
what is achieved on the research station. Gains are even larger when fertilizer is combined with animal manures,
better weed control, and simple conservation agriculture strategies appropriate to the needs of vulnerable households.
This hand based conservation agriculture intervention encompasses four major principles: (i) high management standard;
(ii) minimum tillage – for instance, using planting basins which concentrate limited water and nutrient resources to the
plant with limited labor input; (iii) the precision application of small doses of nitrogen-based fertilizer to achieve higher
nutrient efficiency (from basal applications of organic and/or inorganic sources); and (iv) combining improved fertility
with improved seed for higher productivity. These basic principles are taught and demonstrated to farmers who choose
crop mixes adapted to their local conditions and household resource constraints. This precision conservation agriculture
(PCA) spreads labour for land preparation over the dry seasons and encourages more timely planting, resulting in
reduction of peak labour loads at planting, higher productivity and incomes.
Our results from four years of wide scale testing with relief and development initiatives across southern Zimbabwe
and northern RSA have consistently shown that fertilizer micro-dosing on its own, or in combination with conservation
farming can, irrespective of the resource status of the household, increase grain yields by 15 to 200% in both low and
high potential areas where farmers cannot afford to purchase the current recommended rates of fertilizer. The pursuit
of input use efficiency provides higher and more sustainable productivity gains necessary to achieve food security in
drought prone farming systems. Farm enterprise budget analyses show that it is more viable to adopt a combination of
micro-dosing and conservation farming techniques, particularly under drought conditions. Unfortunately, it is proving
difficult for the 300,000 plus targeted farm household to fully adopt the complete package of microdosing and conservation
Session 2.4
practices under current circumstances. Input markets for fertilizer are hardly accessible for farmers in more marginal
areas of the region, unless such inputs are provided through the relief programs.
404
The Analysis of Extension Systems’ Ability to Support Policies of

Mohammad Sadegh Allahyari

College of Agriculture, Islamic Azad University, Rasht branch, Rasht, Iran
(Email: Allahyari@ iaurasht.ac.ir; allahyarister@gmail.com)
Conducive policy frameworks are one of the principal promoters of sustainable agriculture. This study was carried out
to analysis the current situation of Iranian extension system regarding policies of sustainable agriculture and to assess
the ability of extension system to accomplish these policies as perceived by extension experts. A sample of 87
respondents was selected through simple random sampling technique and surveyed through a pre-designed
questionnaire. Descriptive and inferential were used to analyze the date for drawing conclusion. Findings indicated
that currently, Iran’s extension system does not pay enough attention to the supportive policies of sustainable agriculture.
These conditions necessitate rethinking of extension strategies to accomplish these policies. The findings show that
extension experts generally had a positive perception regarding the ability of extension system for the achievement of
supporting policies of sustainable agriculture in Iran context. No significant differences between overall means of
professionals’ perceptions toward ability of extension system to achieve supportive policies of sustainable agriculture
and their age, organizational position, years of experience or educational background were found. It is concluded that
extension system had a more effective role to accomplish policies regarding the supporting local groups for community
action.
Session 2.4
405
Session 3.1: Climate Change
Differences in Thermal Regimes in Tundra Virgin and Post-Agricultural

Soils of the European North-East
Session 3.1
Damitry Kaverin
Institute of Biology, Kommuni Sticheskya St., Syktyvkar, Russia
In tundra agricultural activity transformed the soils and their properties including temperature conditions. Soil thermal
regimes are considered to change into ones having no analogues among virgin soils. We studied thermal properties of
tundra post-agricultural and virgin soils. Revealing interannual and seasonal temperature dynamics in these soils is
important in view of present climate change. The research was conducted in upland tundra near the town of Vorkuta
(67°30’N; 64°02’E) in the East-European Russian Arctic. The terrain is a rolling plain covered generally with silty
loams. The area is attributed to the subzone of southern tundra characterized by the distribution of relatively high
shrubs – birch and willow. The area under study belongs to the zone of discontinuous permafrost. Permafrost
temperatures vary around -10C. MAAT is -5.80C, DDT - 10 to 50C-days, and mean annual precipitation 513 mm. Soils
under study included (1) Abandoned overgrowing sown grassland, soil Epigleyic Gelisol, permafrost is at 1.35 m
depth; (2) R2 site of CALM network, dwarf-shrub/moss tundra, soil Histi-Turbic Cryosol (Reductaquic), permafrost
depth is 100 cm; (3) Abandoned overgrowing arable land, soil Endogleyi-Stagnic Cambisol, no permafrost; (4) Shrub-
moss tundra, soil Dystri-Stagnic Cambisol, no permafrost. Post-agricultural sites were abandoned about 10 years ago
and tall shrubs cover up to 10% of the area. Before abandonment, since 1970s the grasslands were annually harvested
with periodic rototilling and fertilizing. The records were conducted at depths of 0, 20, 50, 80 cm and in the upper layer
of permafrost in case of its presence. The study was conducted in the period of 2005-2007.
During the study MAST at depth 0-50 cm was commonly above 0ºC in all permafrost-free soils. Negative mean
annual temperatures in permafrost-affected soils and positive ones in permafrost-free soils are quite typical for
discontinuous permafrost zone. Studied permafrost-affected soils (No.1, 2) are located at the southern windward hill
slopes. Shallow snow cover (30-40 cm) and quite thick peat layer (10-20 cm) preserve permafrost within the soil
profile. Soils of northern slopes located in the same landscape have no permafrost. Such an inversion is resulted from
strong winds blowing in winter. Until 2006 the site with coldest permafrost-affected soil (No.2) was characterized with
negative MAST down all the profile. MAST at a depth of 20 cm was -1.9 to 4ºC, 50 cm -0.5 to -1.9ºC. According to
MAST and freezing degree days at depths of 0-50 cm the permafrost-affected soil of the abandoned grassland No.1
was warmer than the virgin soil No.2. Thus MAST at a depth of 50 cm was -0.35 degrees C versus -0.5 degrees C in
the control soil (2006). The post-agricultural soil (No.3) was developed in the former shrubby site similar to that of the
soil No.4. It had lower temperatures in comparison with profile No.4. Despite the absence of thick shrub vegetation,
this grassland soil still had no permafrost and was characterized with positive MASTs at depths of 20 cm and 50 cm
(+1 to +2ºC). The warmest profile was No.4. Tall shrub vegetation catching thick snow cover causes relatively higher
temperatures in winter. It results in higher MASTs. In 1996-2005 increasing trend in MAST was observed in the virgin
permafrost-affected soil of R2 CALM site. It was correlated with an increase in both MAAT and active layer depth
during the same period. In 2006-2007 negative MAST was changed to positive one in the upper soil layer (0-20 cm).
This was quite unusual for permafrost-affected soils but was correlated with extremely hot summer and mild winter
that year. MAAT was -2.8ºC in 2006-2007. In the soil of arable land freezing even did not reach a depth of 50 cm during
winter 2006-2007.
406
Climate Change and its Possible Impacts to Sri Lankan Agriculture
Frank Niranjan* and R.H.S. Rajapakse

Sri Lanka Council for Agricultural Research Policy, 114/9, Wijerama Mawatha, Colombo 07, Sri Lanka
(*Email: niranjanfr_03@yahoo.com)
Session 3.1
Sri Lanka is vulnerable to climate change. As in other countries, its impacts are visible in human health, agriculture,
water, ecosystems, wildlife, sea-level rise and extreme weather conditions. This paper reviews the current situation on
vulnerability to climatic change in relation to the agricultural sector of the country. Agro ecological map which was
developed in 1975 has been revised in 2003. This indicates the seriousness of the issues. Countries staple crop
production has been continuously affected due to drought, floods, temperature rise, and sea water intrusion etc. Other
important plantation crops such as tea, rubber and coconut, and other export agricultural crops such as cinnamon,
pepper, cloves and cardamom etc. will have positive or negative consequences due to climatic change. Other subsidiary
food crops also may have affected. Possible increased frequencies of these climatic changes may decline agricultural
productions, decreases in real farm incomes as current food prices go up. Some of the rural sector paddy farmers
have shifted from full-time farming, resulted about 63% of their mean household income is coming from non-agricultural
activities. For the small marginal farmer, vulnerability to climatic change can mean indebtedness, loss of land etc.
Impacts on women farmers will be adversely affected because of their traditional role as collectors of water, fodder and
fuel. As adaptation strategies following steps can be suggested. Efficient water management in farming situations, use
of micro irrigation systems, rehabilitation of large, medium and small water tanks, streams and dams, recycling of
waste water if usable, follow soil and water conservation techniques, recommendation of crop by agro climatic zones,
breeding of new varieties resistant to drought, pest and diseases, salinity, high temperature, and introduce short-
duration varieties, launch awareness programmes and reinforce environmental laws and regulations to the maximum
level.
Preserving European Environment through Conservation Agriculture
E.J. González-Sánchez*1,2, F. Martínez-Aljama3, F. Márquez-García1,2, O. Veroz-González1,2

and M. Gómez-Ariz1,2
1
Spanish Conservation Agriculture Association / Living Soils (AEAC/SV)
Avdª Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004-Córdoba, Spain
2
University of Córdoba. Spain
3
Council for Agriculture and Fisheries. Government of Andalusia, Spain
(*Email: egonzalez@aeac-sv.org)
An overview of conservation agriculture in Europe is given. At present, over 30 million hectares are cultivated with
conservation agriculture techniques in Europe. Those most followed are minimum tillage with a vegetation cover, over
27 million and direct drilling, reaching 3 million hectares. Cover crops in perennial trees contribute to this total figure
with nearly 1 million hectares, basically olive and other fruit trees. The main environmental problems in Europe are:
erosion / desertification, decrease in soil organic matter, soil compactation, high levels of CO2 emissions, decrease in
biodiversity and pollution of waters. Conservation agriculture is a sustainable solution to the most important agri-
environmental problems in Europe and it is increasingly adapted in European policies and initiatives, in particular
regarding to soil and air quality preservation. In the past few years, pressure has been put on European farmers to
carry out environment-friendly practices through compulsory cross compliance premises. However, in some parts of
Europe there are agri-environmental initiatives, which stimulate farmers to put in practice sustainable agriculture systems,
as conservation agriculture.
407
Emission of N2O from Soil with Different Resource

Conserving Technologies
Sangita Mohanty1, J.K. Ladha1, Mahesh K. Gathala1; H. Pathak1, Niveta Jain2 and Sheetal Sharma1*
1
International Rice Research Institute, India-Office, New Delhi, India
2
Department of Environmental Sciences, IARI, New Delhi, India
(*Email: sheetal.sharma@cgiar.org)
Session 3.1
Resource conserving technologies (RCTs) such as reduce/zero-tillage with direct-seeding on flat or raised beds of rice
and wheat are gaining popularity due to urgent need for conserving resources such as water, labour and energy and
improving environmental quality. Emission of nitrous oxide (N2O), an important greenhouse gas produced by naturally
occurring processes of denitrification and nitrification, is likely to be affected by the changes in tillage and subsequent
fertilizer and water management. Two sets of experiments were carried out to (1) assess time required, and magnitude
of N2O emission from soil after irrigation and fertilizer application and (2) quantify the emission of N2O under various
RCTs. These data are essential to assess the potential of RCTs to mitigate the emission of green house gases. Fluxes
of N2O were measured using the closed-chamber technique and the samples were analyzed in a gas chromatograph
using electron capture detector. The first experiment involving microplots quantified in-situ N2O emission under three
moisture regimes (continuous submergence (M1), alternate flooding and drying up to matric suction -20 bar (M2), and
alternate flooding and drying up to matric suction -40 bar (M3), and two levels of fertilizer N (0 and 40 kg N ha-1). Fluxes
of N2O from soil were measured on 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 12 days after application of fertilizer. At the time of gas sampling, soil
samples from 0-15 cm depth were collected to measure gravimetric moisture and inorganic-N (NH4-N, NO3-N) contents.
Nitrous oxide emitted varied from 0.015 and 2.4 mg N2O-N m-2 d-1 with a peak as early as 2 days after N application
with the highest emission in M2 followed by M3. The peak also coincided with highest concentration of NO3-N in soil
under M1 (10.8 mg kg-1), M2 (13.5 mg kg-1), M3 (13.4 mg kg-1). In M2 and M3, 0.12% of applied N was emitted as N2O
where as in M1 this value was negligible. Emission of N2O from different RCTs was monitored in a long-term experiment
at Modipuram during rice and wheat in 2007-08. The emission was lowest (0.31 kg ha-1 N2O-N) in the conventional
tilled rice-wheat but increased 150% when conventional plots were subjected to mid-season drying. The highest total
N2O-N of 2.17 kg ha-1 was observed in zero tilled, direct seeded rice-wheat irrespective of flat or raised bed planting. In
rice, N2O-N emission accounted for 0.17-1.20% loss of N fertilizer applied. In wheat the respective loss was 0.40-
1.60%. The global warming potential of N2O -N emission from rice and wheat amounted to be 97-674 and 186-744 kg
CO2 equivalent ha-1, respectively.
Soil Organic Carbon Dynamics under Semiarid Condition of Gujarat:

A Step Towards Carbon Sequestration and Conservation
Gopal Kumar*, H.B. Singh, R.S. Kurothe, D.R. Sena and S.P. Tiwari
(*Email: gkcswcrti@gmail.com)
In wake of climate change and soil health degradation, carbon sequestration and carbon conservation in soils are
being advocated as a pathway to future. As a prerequisite for suitable soil carbon sequestration and conservation
measures, twenty five years annual change of soil organic carbon (SOC) under different soil management for rainfed
tobacco- pearl millet rotation in semiarid condition of Gujarat have been analyzed. Treatments include nine different
combination of NPK and farm yard manure (FYM). Soil organic carbon was observed every year just before application
of treatments. No significant difference in soil organic carbon was measured under different treatments till twelve years
of experiment. Though the effect in terms of higher yield of tobacco as well as pearl millet under combined use of FYM
and NPK was significant from very first year. Effect of application of organic matter as FYM showed significantly higher
soil organic matter only from thirteenth year after harvest of tobacco crop and from sixteenth year after tobacco as well
408
as pearl millet crop. Soil organic carbon under all treatments receiving organic matter application was observed higher
every year, after 16 years of experiment. Treatments were discontinued after twenty-five years of experiment but soil
organic carbon monitoring continued even thereafter. Till three years of discontinuation of organic matter application,
organic carbon remains significantly higher but from fourth year the advantage of soil organic matter application
started diminishing. Then, fifth year onwards there were no effect in terms of soil organic carbon.
The continuous application for twelve years, forced the conversion of mineralizable pool of organic matter to some
semi stable SOC pool. The continuous better crop root biomass addition under organic matter treatment helped
Session 3.1
generation of stable SOC pool rather than solely direct organic matter applied. Longer duration crop tobacco probably
helped in two ways; firstly by reducing period of high rate of soil carbon loss and secondly by higher addition of root
biomass as compared to pearl millet. No significant relation of annual soil organic carbon variation with any of the
monthly weather parameters showed mature equilibrium between SOC pool and prevailing climatic buffer range.
Under semiarid condition, annual variation of soil organic carbon cannot be well explained in terms of monthly weather
parameters. Returning to the previous status of soil organic carbon after five years of discontinuation of organic matter
application showed the conversion of mineralizable pool was semi permanent and vulnerable to the prevailing climatic
condition. The extrapolated inference is that, the projected climate change scenario of 0.5°C to 1°C rise in temperature
may not have significant impact on soil organic carbon. The two opposing forces viz. increased atmospheric CO2 and
increased temperature may negate each other in changing soil organic carbon. It can be deducted from the above
experiment that soil carbon conservation has greater role than mere application of organic matter for successful soil
carbon sequestration.
Carbon Status of Arid Rangelands of Uzbekistan
M.G. Nasyrov
Samarkand State University, Samarkand, University Boulevard, 15 Uzbekistan
(Email : muhtorn@yahoo.com)
Global climate change is expected to alter the distribution of sources and sinks for atmospheric carbon dioxide and
increase uncertainties in the global carbon cycle. Recent estimates of global carbon budget indicate the existence of
a “missing sink” for atmospheric CO2, and we hypothesize those vast rangelands areas of world could be a part of this
“missing sink” The main objective of this study was to document the daily and seasonal magnitudes and dynamics of
CO2 flux in rangelands of Uzbekistan to calculate their potential to sequester carbon. Field station for the measurement
of CO2 and water vapor fluxes, energy balance, and associated micro-meteorological characteristics were established
at the Karnap Chul site, which characterize representative rangelands of Uzbekistan. The research site represents the
sagebrush-ephemeroid arid rangelands of the foothills of Central Asia. Microclimate of the sagebrush-ephemeroidal
semidesert at Karnap Chul is characterized by annual air temperature of 14.6 0C and precipitation of 240 mm. The
annual distribution of precipitation at the Karnap Chul site is characterized by a maximum of precipitation in winter-
spring followed by a typical drought during June-October. The dominant shrub species at the research site are sagebrush
(Artemissia diffusa) and yantak (Alhagy pseudoalhagy), while the grass layer dominated by Poa bulbosa. The soil is
classified as loamy serozem with an occasional gypsum horizon in the soil profile. Continuous measurements of CO 2
fluxes at the research site were obtained with BREB systems for 1998-2006. The theory and operation of the BREB
system (Model 023/CO2 Bowen Ratio, Campbell Scientific Inc. (CSI) Logan, Utah). Fluxes of CO2, water vapor, and
energy were calculated using the 20-min averages.
Daily, seasonal and long-term fluxes of anthropogenic gases such as CO2 and H2O were calculated. Dynamics of
several eco-physiological parameters (photosynthetic active radiation, net radiation, relative humidity, wind speed, soil
heat flux, air temperature, precipitation etc.) were recorded in 20-min interval to use in different ecosystem models.
Tower derived net CO2 exchange (F) was partitioned into gross primary productivity (P) and ecosystem respiration (R)
components. The sagebrush-ephemeroidal semidesert site at Karnap Chul area sequestered 598 g CO2 m-2 with
P=746 g CO2 m-2 and R=148 CO2 m-2. Results from our long-term field measurements of daily and growing season Net
409
Ecosystem Exchange (NEE) indicate that rangelands of Uzbekistan are potential sink for atmospheric CO2. When we
compare our results with growing season NEE obtained from various rangelands, the growing season NEE for our
study site was within the range of values reported for rangeland ecosystems in the Western United States.
Our results are instructive because they serve as useful baseline information in formulating strategies for the
management of rangelands as a key option for mitigating global climate change. This is particularly important for the
region of Uzbekistan, where rangeland ecosystems are the predominant landscape. In the present study, we used
relatively pristine ecosystems typical of landscape of Uzbekistan, and found that research site was net sink for
Session 3.1
atmospheric CO2 during the growing season. This suggests that rangelands, which have been degraded through
overgrazing and mismanagement, may provide stronger CO2 sink capacities than pristine rangelands, possibly on a
short-term basis. Proper management and revegitation of degraded rangelands in Uzbekistan should lead to increased
sequestration of carbon in soils, thereby increasing soil organic matter content, which is a key ingredient for more
productive rangelands and sustainable agricultural ecosystems. Rational management and improvement of these
rangelands will not only increase their productivity to satisfy the growing need for feed for livestock, but will also allow
them to act as a sink for CO2 and help in reducing the global warming. Finally, when considered as a resource or
commodity, soil carbon could be a good source of income for farmers if soil carbon accounting and management
system for emissions trading are developed and implemented.
Effect of Different Tillage and Residue Management

Practices on Soil Greenhouse gas Emissions in the Central
Highlands of México
L. Patiño-Zúñiga1, J.A. Ceja-Navarro1, B. Govaerts2 and L. Dendooven1

1
Laboratory of Soil Ecology, Department of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Cinvestav,
Avenida Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, C.P. 07360 México, D.F., México
2
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT), Apdo. Postal 6 – 641, 06600,
Mexico D.F., Mexico
The most important biological greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O)
and their contribution to global warming are 70%, 23% and 7%, respectively. Their production comes mainly from
industry, transport, generation of electricity and agriculture. Agricultural activities contribute to approximately 20% to
the global anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and cultivated soils have been identified as one of the
main GHG sources within the agricultural sector. Conventional agricultural practices in the central highlands of Mexico
consist of excessive soil tillage, removal of crop residues and monoculture leading to soil deterioration and loss of soil
fertility, conversely conservation agricultural practices in its version of permanent raised bed planting with crop residue
retention and rotation of viable crops increases yields and improves soil characteristics. A field experiment that started
in 1999 in CIMMYT (Texcoco, Mexico) aims to compare permanent and conventionally tilled raised beds with different
residue management under rain fed conditions to investigate their effect on greenhouse gas emissions. Conventionally
tilled raised beds reduced the water holding capacity (WHC) 1.1 times and increased electrolytic conductivity 1.3 times
compared to soil under permanent raised beds both with retention of all crop residues. Water holding capacity, organic
C, soil microbial biomass and total N were ³ 1.1 larger in soil from permanent beds where the crop residue was retained
compared to where it was removed after only six years. The emission of CO2 was 1.2 times and production of NO3- 1.8
times higher in case of permanent beds where the crop residue was retained compared to where it was removed. The
CO2 emission was 1.2 times and the emission of N2O 2.3 times higher in soil under conventionally tilled raised beds
compared to permanent raised beds both with full residue retention, while the increase in concentration of NO 3- was
0.05 mg N kg-1 soil in the former and 2.38 in the latter. It was confirmed that conservation agriculture in it is version of
permanent raised bed planting with crop residue retention can be a good alternative to improve soil quality when
organic material is retained while decreasing emissions of N2O and CO2 compared to soil under conventionally tilled
raised beds.
410
Approaches for Climate Change Impact Assessment on

Water Resources
M.A. Khan and Adlul Islam
It is widely accepted that increasing concentration of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere are causing climate
Session 3.1
change, but there still exists uncertainty in magnitude, timing and spatial distribution of these changes. Changes in
global climate may alter the hydrologic conditions and have a variety of effects on human settlements and ecological
systems. The effects include changes in water supply for domestic, irrigation, industrial and recreational uses; in
instream flows that support aquatic ecosystems, hydropower, navigation etc.; and in the frequency and severity of
floods and droughts. Several studies have revealed continuous increasing trend in mean surface air temperature over
decades over most part of the Indian subcontinent. The spatial distribution of surface warming as a consequence of
increase in anthropogenic radiative forcing (with respect to 1961-1990) suggests that north India may experience an
annual mean surface warming of 3oC or more by 2050s, depending upon the future trajectory of anthropogenic forcing.
The surface temperature rise would be more pronounced over the northern and eastern regions of India (~2oC) during
the monsoon season. About 7 to 10% increase in area-averaged annual mean precipitation is projected over the Indian
subcontinent by the end of this century. A decline between 5 to 25% in area-averaged winter precipitation is likely.
Hydrologic models with projections from Global Climate Models (GCM) are used to study the potential impacts of
climate change on variety of water resources issues. The GCMs used to generate climate scenarios operate on large
spatial scales and GCM-simulated temporal resolution corresponds to monthly averages at the best. The output from
different GCMs varies significantly from region to region. Hydrological models, on the other hand, are frequently
concerned with small, sub-catchments scale processes, occurring on spatial scales much smaller than those resolved
in GCMs. To bridge this scale gap, number of downscaling approaches has been reported in the literature. Results
from climate change studies, thus, depend on the climatic change scenarios used in the study. In this paper, an
attempt has been to present an overview of climate change scenarios in India (based on past studies), and approaches
for assessing climate change impact on water resources.
Climate Change and Extreme Weather Events in Western Himalayas
Mohan Singh Jangra* and S.S. Bhardwaj

Regional Horticultural Research Station, Dr. YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry,
Seopbag-175 138 Kullu, Himachal Pradesh
(*Email: jangra_ms@live.com)
Mountainous areas of Kullu valley in western Himalayas assume importance because the impact of climatic variability
on the extreme weather events and economic activities like agriculture tends to be quite pronounced. Natural
unpredictability, low carrying capacity, fragile ecology and rigorous downslope movement of material impede elevational
variations at the sub-regional and local level and meso- and micro-level climates vary enormously over short distance
in such environment. The economy of the people in the region is basically agrarian. Agro-climatic conditions prevailing
over the area provide ideal conditions for the production of temperate and subtropical fruits. Variations in micro-climate
conditions are becoming evident in the form of untimely and irregular snowfall and rainfall. Monthly and annual analysis
of the climatic data of the valley from Seobag, Bajaura and Katrain showed a clear-cut trend of increasing the
temperatures and, hence, showing the effect of global warming in the Himalayas. The increase in minimum temperature
is more pronounced as compared to the maximum temperature. Annual, monthly and daily rainfall showed wide
fluctuations with clear dry and wet periods visible over the years. The higher altitudes are showing some decreasing
trend whereas the lower altitudes are showing somewhat increasing trend in rainfall. The type, number and frequency
of extreme weather events has increased over the years though there is no clear-cut relation between extreme weather
events and the climate change but it would be expected that climate change will have some impact on extreme
411
weather events. In the year 2007 January went totally dry, never happened in the Himachal Himalayas but, in the years
2008 the same month received 250 mm of rainfall which indicates the striking of climate change and extreme weather
events in the region. Predicting the effect of climate change on the magnitude, frequency, timing and duration of
extreme weather events is very difficult. However even a small change in the local weather of the fragile mountain
ecosystems can bring about large scale changes in the form of soil erosion, landslides and flash floods. The expanding
and extending agrometeorological services in new vistas can play a vital role in reducing the vulnerability of climate on
agrarian activities with real-time outreach information along with proper planning of development, preparation of detailed
land use and hazard zonation maps and making local communities aware about the climate change and its possible
Session 3.1
effects.
Optimising Nutrient Management in Field Vegetables for Improved

Nutrient Use, Yield and Environmental Quality in the Humid Tropics
S.O. Agele
Department of Crop, Soil and Pest Management, Federal University of Technology, PMB 704, Akure, Nigeria
(Email: ohiagele@yahoo.com)
In recent years in the humid tropics, there has been increased tendency for intensive vegetable production, and the
success of this effort depends on availability and application of high rates of fertilizers in circumstances of rapid soil
fertility depletion. This paper reports results of series of studies conducted in a humid rainforest zone of southern
Nigeria involving nutrient management strategies (through use of agricultural waste materials and mineral fertilizer) for
field production of vegetable crops (tomato and peppers). Nutrient management strategies (rates, split application and
integrated use of organic manure and mineral fertilizer) mediated many biological, chemical and physical processes in
the soil, improved the efficiency of N recovery and use in the vegetable crops. Differences in responses were found for
crop species and genotypes to manure types and management strategies. The effects of nutrient management strategies
were profound on other soil quality indicators of water holding capacity, aeration porosity, soil aggregate stability. In
addition, treatment effects were pronounced on the status of soil nutrients as affected by the nutrient release pattern
(mineralization rates of N), the availability of substrates (organic C) for microbial activity from the applied materials and
organic matter turnover rates (ratio of microbial biomass-C to organic C). Agronomic and physiological indices of
nutrient use efficiencies measured in terms of nutrient uptake (recovery), accumulation and use efficiencies for biomass
and fruit production, residual levels in soil at crop maturity, and nutrient concentration in plant tissues (leaves and
fruits). The implications of these results were discussed in relation to improved nutrient use, sustainable vegetable
production and overall soil and environmental quality in tropical agriculture.
Comparison of Organic and Conventional Farming System from Climate

Change Perspective
Tek B. Sapkota1, Daniele Antichi1, Paola Belloni2 and Marco Mazzoncini2

1
Sant Anna School of Advanced Studies, Pisa, Italy
2
University of pisa, Italy
Agricultural activities contribute considerably to global emissions of greenhouse gases such as CO2, N2O and CH4 but
the amount of emission differs greatly with the mode of production. Organic production systems have considerable
potential for reducing such emissions as shown by many research outputs. Most of the researches comparing organic
and conventional production systems are, however, confined in a single crop level. But only a holistic research considering
412
whole cycle of crop rotation provides information which can be compared with real farm situation. In a system comparison
study in Italy organic production system consumed less energy and emitted less greenhouse gases than conventional
system. We compared organic and conventional production systems from production as well as environmental point of
view. A five-year stockless rotation of Sugarbeet, Common wheat, Sunflower, Pigeon bean and Durum wheat was
started since autumn of 2001. The inventory of all energy and resources used and corresponding greenhouse gas
emission was calculated for entire five years rotation. The index developed by IPCC and American Petroleum Institute
were used to calculate total N2O and CO2 emission, respectively and global warming potential calculated. Organic
system yielded less in all the crops, except for Pigeon bean, whose yield was comparable with that of conventional
Session 3.1
system. The lower yield in organic system was mainly due to insufficient nitrogen availability and ineffective weed
management. However, organic system used 44% less energy than conventional system, reducing also the production
cost as well as production associated emissions. The global warming potential of conventional farming system was
836 kg CO2 equivalent while that of organic system was only 530 kg CO2 equivalent. However global warming potential
due to tillage and other farm operations was comparable between two systems. Therefore, integration of reduced
tillage system in organic farming will make it even more environment-friendly.
Growth and Yield Responses of Wheat under Higher day and Night
Temperature Growth Conditions
V. Venkatramanan1, S.D. Singh1 and Shachishah2

Division of Environmental Science, IARI, New Delhi, 110 012, India
Global climate change is of fundamental concern to man. IPCC has projected that temperature increase by the end of
this century is likely to be in the range 2 to 4.5 0C with a best estimate of about 3 0C, and is very unlikely to be less than
1.5 0C. Agriculture being a climate sensitive sector and the primacy of wheat in the world agricultural system and
recent findings in the domain of global environmental change and a scientific urge to know the differential effects of
higher day and night temperature on world’s most important food crop led to the present study. Two promising wheat
cultivars viz., PBW 343 and UP 2338 were subjected to various thermal treatments such as normal ambient temperature
(T0), high day and night temperature (HDNT) (T1) (+2.40C during day and night), high day temperature (HDT) (T2)
(+2.80C during daytime only) and high night temperature (HNT) (T3) (+2.10C during night time only) from planting to
maturity. HDNT affected the growth and yield of wheat cultivars to the maximum extent followed by HDT and HNT.
High temperature caused marked increase in the stature of plants by enhancing the length of culm and leaf. High
temperature stress manifested significant reduction in grain yield which was mainly attributed to marked reduction in
vegetative and reproductive growth phases, biomass production, number of spikes per pot, number of spikelets and
grains per spike and 1000 grain weight. The decrease in biomass per degree increase in temperature is far less than
the decrease in grain yield indicating the pronounced effect of high day and night temperature on yield contributing
factors rather than on biomass production. To conclude, differential increase in night versus day temperature, a product
of climate change may decrease the wheat productivity invariably and cause food grain shortage in the wheat growing
areas of tropical environment.
413
Agriculture, Land and Global Changes
Parviz Koohafkan
Land and Water Division, FAO, Rome
Land plays a dual role in the environment: first, as a basis for agriculture in its widest sense, including livestock
production and forestry; and secondly through the provision of ecosystem services, such as regulation of the hydrological
Session 3.1
cycle and support for biodiversity and habitats. Land is more than just soil: it refers also to terrain forms, near-surface
climate and hydrology, and plant and animal populations. It includes modifications, favourable and adverse, brought
about by human activities. Land is considered not only as a resource but also as a complex dynamic system where
soil, water, plants and animals and people interact within a specific biophysical and socio-economic environment.
Land has many functions: It is the basis for many life support systems, through the production of biomass that provides
food, fodder, fibre, fuel, timber and other biotic materials for human use, either directly or through animal husbandry
including aquaculture and inland and coastal fishery (the production function). Land is the basis of terrestrial biodiversity
by providing the biological habitats and gene reserves for plants, animals and micro-organisms, above and below
ground (the biotic environmental function).
The continuous decline in available land and water per capita constitutes a threat to food security and welfare,
especially where rural populations rely on land resources for a living. Land scarcity and inequality of access to land,
water and other resources tend to push rural poor into marginal and ecologically fragile areas with serious constraints
to sustainable use. The recent changes in land conditions and use are occurring on a larger scale than ever before,
involving entire landscapes. Such large-scale changes through deforestation, expansion of agricultural land, and
urban and suburban growth will likely dictate the physical condition and extent of terrestrial ecosystems in the next
several decades. The very scale of these landscape-level changes, as well as the increasing intensity of industrial and
agricultural processes, are inducing changes in the global systems and cycles such as the atmosphere and the nitrogen
cycle that underpin the functioning of ecosystems. These changes represent long-term environmental threats of a
profound and far-reaching nature. Global warming from the build-up of greenhouse gases is the best-known example,
with the potential for large-scale disruption of natural ecosystems, agriculture, and human settlements due to changes
in rainfall and temperature patterns and rising sea levels. Disruption of the global nitrogen cycle through extensive use
of fertilizers, the burning of fossil fuels, and other activities also have the potential to change the structure and composition
of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Homogenisation and specialisation of land use and the extension of uniform
land use patterns over large areas with little regard for the natural diversity of their soils, vegetation, topography,
hydrology, micro-climates or specific socio-economic context has been an important factor for productivity increase
but also one of the main causes of land degradation during the last decades. While there are obvious advantages that
have been driving such trends, especially, economies of scale and efficient technologies in terms of production, labour
and cash returns, they are increasingly shown to have multiple hidden costs, in particular, from a long term perspective.
The achievement of long-term food security, poverty alleviation and ecosystem services throughout the world will
largely depend on the improvement of land use through the adoption of appropriate and sustainable land use systems
and land management practices and technologies. As land resources for agriculture are finite and almost all suitable
lands are already being exploited, such strategies call necessarily for (1) reversing present trends of land resources
degradation and depletion of agricultural lands, and (2) developing more efficient land use patterns and practices
adapted to land productivity potentials and limitations and to the prevailing socio-economic and cultural context. The
above strategic path needs to be integrated in a number of social and policy action areas at global and national levels
that are also fundamental for sustainable development, economic growth and well-being of the planet earth and its
people.
414
Enhanced Nitrogen Demand by Wheat: A Challenge under

Rising Atmospheric CO2
Manoj Kumar and Subhendu Bhadraray

Session 3.1
Increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations are expected to increase plant growth and production and hence plant
demand for nitrogen - an already limiting factor for crop production worldwide. Increased demand for N set by rapid
plant growth under elevated CO2 could be met by increasing soil nitrogen availability through fertilizer application or
enhanced recovery of applied N and greater exploitation of native-N by the plant root systems. Alternatively, plants
could increase their nitrogen-use efficiency, thereby maintaining high growth rate in the face of N limitation. In order to
confirm these hypotheses, and to study the biomass partitioning and N uptake patterns, Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
was grown in open top chambers under ambient (370 µmol mol-1) and elevated (600±50 µmol mol-1) concentrations of
atmospheric CO2 at four N fertilizer treatments (0, 100, 150 and 200% of STCR-recommended N applied with 15N
labelling).
The total plant biomass responded positively to elevated CO2 with grain showing maximum response followed by
root and shoot. Total plant biomass and shoot weight responded till 100% N, and grain yield increased till 150% N
level. Preferential biomass partitioning to grain caused improvement in harvest index at elevated CO2. The C:N ratios
of both grain and straw which are important from nutritional quality and nutrient recycling point of view respectively,
were enhanced at higher atmospheric CO2. While C:N ratio of grain could be narrowed down through external addition
of N, the same could not be achieved for straw. Nitrogen uptake by plant biomass (straw+root) decreased and that by
grain increased due to elevated CO2, causing a net increase in N uptake. Total N uptake increased till 150% N
treatment. Both grain and straw samples recorded moderate enhancement of %Ndff (N derived from fertilizer) values
under elevated CO2, prompting increase in the total fertilizer-N uptake and fertilizer-N use efficiency by plant root
system. Apparent fertilizer-N efficiency values (determined by difference method) were 15-20% higher than actual
fertilizer-N efficiency (ascertained by 15N analysis), indicating strong priming effect especially under elevated CO2.
Increase in physiological-N use efficiency (14%) at elevated CO2 indicated presence of adjustment mechanisms in
plant. Agronomic-N use efficiency too increased at higher CO2 level. All efficiency parameters decreased with increasing
N level. Among inorganic-N fractions, nitrate-N decreased drastically in crop rhizosphere, with a moderate decrease in
total organic-N as well, indicating greater exploitation of native-N under elevated CO 2 compared to the ambient situation.
The results confirmed that all the three hypothesized mechanisms of enhanced fertilizer-N use efficiency, greater
exploitation of native-N, and adjustments in N requirements within the plants help to meet the increased demand of
nitrogen by wheat under elevated atmospheric CO2.
Climate Change Impact Assessment on Rice Yield for Rainfed

Agro-Ecosystem of Eastern India
Della Thomas and Dillip Kumar Swain*

Affiliations ??
(*Email: swain@agfe.iitkgp.ernet.in)
Climate change is one of the greatest threats faced by the planet earth. The average global air temperature near the
Earth’s surface increased 0.74 ± 0.18 °C during the 100 years ending in 2005. Climate model projections summarized
by the IPCC indicate that average global surface temperature will likely rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 °C during the twenty-
first century. Tropical regions in the developing world are particularly vulnerable to potential damage from climate
changes. Rice is an important food crop for more than half of the world’s population. In India, rice is the main food for
415
65% of the total population and contributes 43% of total food grain production. To meet the global food demand and to
ensure the food security, there is a need for assessment of climate change impacts on rice production and evaluation
of agro-adaptation measures as mitigation option. Many crop simulations model have been evaluated and used to
assist the decision making process in agriculture. In the present investigation, CERES (Crop environment resource
synthesis)-Rice model was used for climate change impact assessment on rice yield of Kharagpur (22.3ºN and 87.2ºE),
eastern India. Historical weather data (1974-2008) of the region, fixed climate change scenarios and developed scenarios
of General Circulation Model (GCM) were used for grain yield simulation of a medium duration (120 d) rice variety.
Session 3.1
Using historical weather data, the simulated grain yield ranged from 2699 to 4899 kg ha-1 with a mean yield of
4022 kg ha-1 (SD= 593) for normal farmers’ planting time (15 July) of eastern India. Change of planting time to 25 June
increased the grain yield by 34% and to 15 August decreased the grain yield by 34%. The 25 June planting had 2 days
longer maturity duration as compared to other planting times. Higher number of grains per panicle was simulated on 25
June planting as compared to later planting dates. With fixed rise in CO2 and temperature, the model predicated a
decline in yield with rise in CO2 level of 50 and 100 ppm and temperature of 1 to 4ºC above ambient. The GCM
scenarios GFDL, GISS, and UKMO predicted a decline in grain yield of 8.9%, 11.2% and 25.84%, respectively over
the normal climate.
Shifting of Weed Flora and their Management in Rice-Wheat Cropping

System under Conservation Agriculture in Terai
Agro-Climatic Region of West Bengal
P.K. Mukherjee, P.M. Bhattacharya, S. Kundu1, D. Mandal1, B. Rudra2 and A.K. Chowdhury
1
KVK, Uttar Dinajpur, UBKV, Chopra
2
KVK, Malda, UBKV, Ratua, Malda
Terai region of West Bengal has characteristic of high rainfall (300 cm/annum) coupled with low soil productivity
because of low soil organic matter, wide spread deficiency of micronutrient (Zn and B) and aggressive growth of
weeds considering the limiting factors of crop production. Zero tillage rice in upland situation was severely infested
with several grasses Digitaria ciliaris, D sanguinalis, Cynodon dactylon, Echinochloa colona, sedges Cyperus iria, C.
difformis, C. flavidus, Fimbristylis miliacea F. dichotoma and broadleaved weeds (Ludwigia parviflora and Spilanthes
paniculata) offering strong competition to rice at seedling stage. However, medium and low land situation dominant
weed flora were sedges Cyperus iria, C. difformis, Fimbristylis miliacea and broadleaved weeds like Ludwigia parviflora
and Enhydra fluctuans. In transplanted rice culture the dominant weed flora were grass Echinochloa cruss-galli sedges
Cyperus iria, C.difformis, Fimbristylis miliacea, Scirpus maritimus, S. juncoides and broadleaved weeds Ludwigia
parviflora, Monochoria hastata and Sphenoclia zeylanica. Combination of cowpea residue mulch, brown manuring in
which seeding of dhaincha (Sesbania rostrata) was done along with rice seeding and dhaincha was destroyed at 23
days after sowing (DAS) with 2,4-D application and further application of 2,4-D @ 0.50 kg ha-1 at 40 DAS was found
effective in controlling weeds in medium and low land zero tillage rice recording weed control efficiency to the tune of
82 and 86% at 30 and 60 DAS, respectively. However, in upland zero tillage rice the herbicide bispyribac sodium could
play a key role in controlling grasses, sedges and some broadleaved weeds. Continuous adoption of zero tillage for
two successive years reduced seed bank potential to the tune of 8%. In conventional wheat the major weed flora were
broadleaved weeds like Polygonum pensylvanicum, P. orientale, P. persicaria, Stellaria media and Oldelandia diffusa.
In zero tillage wheat emergence of Polygonum was very less only at intra-row spaces as undisturbed soil restricted its
germination and further establishment, however, Stellaria was emerged at inter-row space with less population compared
to conventional wheat. Weed control practice comprising gluphosate @1.50 kg ha -1 as pre-plant
desiccators+pendimethalin @ 0.50 kg ha-1 as pre-emergence+2,4-D @ 0.50 kg ha-1 as post-emergence at 32 DAS
controlled the weeds effectively with the values of 89 and 81% weed control efficiency at 30 and 60 DAS, respectively.
Continuous adopting of zero tillage for two successive years reduced seed bank potential of Polygonum to the tune of
14%. However, shifting of weed flora to Hydrocotyl ranunculoides, H. vulgaris, Solanum nigrum, Physalis minima and
other broadleaved weeds is taking place while moving from conventional wheat to zero tillage wheat.
416
Climate Change in Mid Himalaya
S.C. Panday, K.K.S. Bisht, A.K. Srivastava and H.S. Gupta

Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhan Sansthan, Almora, 263 601, Uttarakhand, India
The Himalayan mountain region has complex physiographic settings and these mountains are known as water towers
Session 3.1
of earth and climate makers. The life of not only the people residing in these hilly areas but also, those of residing in
adjoining plains, is dependent on the climate, bio-physical resources of these mountains. Therefore, it is necessary to
analyze meteorological data to find out trends in climatic parameters. The meteorological data collected over the
period of 1964–2007 from the Experimental Farm, Hawalbagh (290 36’N and 790 40’E, 1250 m above msl), were
analyzed to reveal trends in maximum and minimum temperature and rainfall over the years.
Temperature related study, revealed a decreasing trend in maximum temperature from May to September and an
increasing trend in the rest of the months. The minimum temperature, on the other hand, showed a decreasing trend
for all the months, except October where no clear trend was observed. The five year mean of annual rainfall showed an
increasing trend from 926.4 mm (mean of 1964 to 1968) to 1149.7mm (1979-1983) and later on it starts declining and
recede to 874.6mm (2004-2007). The seasonal rainfall analysis revealed that an increasing trend for pre-monsoon,
post-monsoon and winter rainfall and a decreasing trend for monsoon rainfall. Further, the rainfall during rabi showed
an increasing trend whereas a decreasing trend was observed for rainfall during kharif. The monthly rainfall analysis
revealed an increasing trend for February to May and December, whereas decreasing trend was observed for June to
September and November and for rest of the months no clear cut trend was observed. The drought analysis showed
that during 1964 to 2000, there were sixteen drought years out of which, there were five severe drought years. However,
since 2001 there were five drought years, out of which three were severe drought years. The decrease in South-West
monsoon rainfall and increase in drought years are alarming signs affecting water resources in the entire north India,
which will affect not only the agriculture but also the hydro-based projects, like hydroelectricity generation, which, in
turn, will adversely affect the industries and common mass alike. Besides, the increase in maximum temperature will
lead to a decline in snow accumulation resulting in a broader lean period for snow-fed rivers which will further aggravate
the water availability stress.
Managing Soils for Carbon Sequestration in Mitigating

Climate Change-Indian Experience
T.J. Purakayastha and Anand Swarup

Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110 012
There is a critical need for the development of best management practices that enhance soil organic C (SOC)
sequestration. Increased sequestration of C in agricultural soils has the potential to mitigate the increase in atmospheric
greenhouse gases. Optimum levels of soil organic matter can be managed through crop rotation, fertility maintenance
including use of inorganic fertilizers and organic manures, tillage methods, and other cropping system components.
Among these, proper cropping systems and balanced fertilization are believed to offer the greatest potential for increasing
SOC storage in agricultural soils. Recent studies on long-term fertilizer experiments (LTFE) in India indicated enhanced
accumulation of SOC in balanced fertilized plots and integrated use of fertilizer and farmyard manure (FYM) plots with
diverse multiple cropping systems and soil types. We observed from LTFE in maize-wheat-cowpea cropping system in
Typic Haplustept in Delhi that SOC in 0-45 cm soil depth in 150% of recommended dose of NPK was increased by
39% (63.5 Mg C ha-1) over that in 50% NPK treatment (21.5 Mg ha-1) and 29% over that in 100% NPK treatment (54.1
Mg C ha-1). Integrated use of farmyard manure @ 15 Mg ha-1 with 100% NPK emerged as the most efficient management
system in accumulating largest amount of organic C (72.1 Mg ha-1) in soil. Nevertheless this treatment also sequestered
417
highest amount of organic C (731 kg ha-1 year-1). We also assessed for the first time that continuous adoption of 100%
NPK+FYM treatment in maize-wheat-cowpea cropping system in semi-arid subtropical India might sequester 1.83 Tg
C yr”1 which corresponds to about 1% of the fossil fuel emissions by India. Continuous application of 100% NPK and
100% NPK+FYM treatments in soybean-wheat-maize cropping system in Typic Haplustert in Jabalpur for 28 years
increased SOC by 22.5 and 56.3% over initial level. It is also suggested that continuous use of NPK+FYM or NPK+lime
in Typic Haplustalf in Ranchi would increase SOC vis-à-vis yield in a soybean-wheat system without deteriorating soil
quality. Application of FYM along with 100% NPK increased SOC by 11%, 0% and 52% as compared to initial level in
Typic Eutrochrept (rice-wheat-jute at Barrackpore), Typic Haplustalf (soybean-wheat at Ranchi) and Tipic Haplustert
Session 3.1
(sorghum-wheat at Akola) soils. Conversion of degraded arable land into agroforestry plantations for more than two
decades showed higher stock of SOC (33.7 Mg ha-1) than continuous rice-wheat cropping system (21.1 Mg ha-1) in the
0-20 cm soil layer in a Typic Haplustept soil in Delhi.
Reduction in Water Pollution due to Establishment of Plant Covers in

Southern Spanish Olive Groves
F. Márquez1*, J. Gil1, R. Ordóñez2, R.Y. Carbonell2 and E. González1

1
Departamento de Ingeniería Rural. Universidad de Córdoba. Asociación Española de Agricultura de
Conservación/Suelos Vivos. Centro “Alameda del Obispo”14080 Córdoba
2
Área de Producción Ecológica y Recursos Naturales, IFAPA,
Centro Alameda del Obispo, Apdo. 3092, 14080, Córdoba
(*Email: fmarquez@aeac-sv.org)
Plant covers greatly reduce water and soil losses since they keep the crop paths protected with live vegetation during
wet periods or dead vegetation in dry ones. Also, green grasses absorb nutrients during the rainy season, which
coincides with the vegetative resting period in the olive tree, when the risk of nutrients being leached is greater. The
nutrients are then released once the cover has died during the first months of spring, coinciding with the flowering of
the tree. During three growing seasons, from November 2005 to August 2008, a comparative study has been made for
the management systems under tillage and under plant covers on three farming estates in the province of Córdoba
(Spain). After each rain event, different parameters were measured, namely: runoff and erosion from that event, the
nutrients (nitrogen and organic matter) transported in the water and sediment, as well as the evolution in time of the
nitrogen leached in the soil for both management systems, and that which remains stored in the plant cover vegetation.
It was observed that keeping the soil covered with plant residues, and unaltered by tillage, was the most effective and
economic method for protecting it against runoff and erosion generation since the water loss was reduced by 67.7%
and that of the soil by 91.5%. This was also accompanied by an important diminution in the exports of carbon associated
with the sediment or of nitrogen in runoff water, to the extent of being reduced by 82.5% and 62.5%, respectively.
Additionally, the presence of green grass during the wet period recirculates the lixiviated nutrients from the deeper
layers, depositing them on the surface in the form of plant remains, which, when decomposed, improve the soil
structure as its carbon content increases. This permits a better assimilation and storage of the nutrients supplied by
fertilization, at the same time as reducing the risks of polluting the aquifers as a consequence of the lixiviation of
substances.
418
Response of Roadside Plants to the Environmental Stress
Sunita Kumari and Chirashree Ghosh

Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems,
School of Environmental Studies, University of Delhi, Delhi
Session 3.1
The present study was carried out to investigate the physiological response of roadside plants to the environmental
stress caused by air pollutants (gaseous). The paper reports the results of total nitrogen content, sulphur content,
chlorophyll a and b, total carotenoids, ascorbic acid and dehydrogenated ascorbate analyzed for a period of six
months for the three roadside plants (Cassia siamea, Pongamia pinnata and Delonix regia) exposed to ambient air
pollutants. The sampling site is situated at ITO, New Delhi (ring road near traffic intersection) bearing high traffic load
through out the day categorized as kerbside area. Pollution data (SO2, NO2 and O3) were obtained from Central
Pollution Control Board monitoring station situated 0.5 km away from the sampling location. This study indicated that
among the three plant species, chlorophyll-a content was maximum (41%) in D. regia. Cassia siamea and P. pinnata
contain higher level of oxidized dehydro-ascorbate (61-88 mg g-1 f.w.) rather than reduced ascorbate (12-31 mg g-1
f.w.) depicting the defense response of these plants against the environmental stress. The correlation coefficients
were highly dependent on species and type of pollutant. Strong and significant correlation between hourly pollutants
concentration and ascorbic acid were found.
Biomass Production and Carbon Sequestration in Agri-silviculture

as Affected by Canopy Pruning of Albizia procera under
Irrigated Ecosystem
Ram Newaj, Badre Alam and S.K. Dhyani

National Research Centre for Agroforestry, Gwalior Road, Jhansi, 284 003, Uttar Pradesh, India
In agroforestry tree component fixes and stores carbon from the atmosphere via photosynthesis. Tree being a perennial
component in the system, function as active carbon for the period of many years and continue to store it until they are
harvested or die. Agroforestry provides a protective ground cover through tree and crop cover and decrease risk of soil
degradation by erosion, leaching and nutrient depletion. Keeping above view point, a field experiment was conducted
during 2005-08 to quantify the role of tree and crop on carbon storage in soil and biomass. The experiment consisted
of three pruning regimes viz. 70% canopy pruning, 50% canopy pruning and control (un-pruned tree), two crop sequences
(black gram-mustard and green gram-wheat) and pure tree (without crop) and pure crop (without tree). The experiment
was conducted in split plot design with three replications. The allocation of biomass in different tree components was
in the order of branch > root > main bole > foliage. Tree biomass with black gram-mustard crop sequence was
comparatively higher (70.2 t ha-1) than green gram-wheat crop sequence (67.5 t ha-1) at 8-years age. Among the
pruning regimes, un-pruned trees had significantly higher biomass than 50 and 70% canopy pruned trees. The crops
grown with 70% canopy pruning had highest biomass (5.52 to 7.25 t ha-1) and lowest (2.05 to 2.54 t ha-1) with control
(un-pruned trees). The biomass of pure crop (without tree) was comparatively higher than that of the agroforestry
system, except weed biomass in rabi (winter) season. Carbon concentration varied considerably between the tree
components and was in the order of branch > main bole > root > foliage. Component wise carbon accumulation was in
the order of branch > root > main bole > foliage. Carbon accumulation in herbaceous layer was in the order of crop >
weed > root > floor litter. Carbon accumulation in herbaceous layer was highest in 70% canopy pruning and lowest in
control (un-pruned). In pure crop (without tree), carbon accumulation was comparatively higher than that of agri-
419
silviculture. Carbon sequestered in the system after 3 years of project period was 23.58 to 24.79 t carbon ha-1 under
different crop sequences irrespective of pruning regimes. Under different pruning regimes, the trees without pruning
had sequestered 27.97 t carbon ha-1, and trees with 70 and 50% canopy pruning sequestered 22.96 and 21.33 t
carbon ha-1, respectively.
Session 3.1
Effect of Temperature on Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Productivity in

Madhya Pradesh
K.K. Agrawal, Sanjay Jain and U.P.S. Bhadauria

Department of Physics and Agrometeorology, College of Agricultural Engineering, JNKVV,
Jabalpur, 482 004, Madhya Pradesh, India
Climate change is a concern today, and researchers are engaged in understanding its impact on growth and yield of
crops, and also identifying suitable management options to sustain the crops’ productivity under the climate change
scenarios. Crop growth models can simulate the growth and yield of crops under various biotic and abiotic stress, and
can be conveniently used for climate change studies. However, the response of crops to the seasonal temperature and
other weather variations needs to be used for evaluating the impact of climate change be linking with the future climate
change scenario. At the same time, the altered agronomic management practices to helps the crop adjust to the
change environment need to be identified as well. Wheat is most important food grain crop of Madhya Pradesh grown
during winter season. Total area of wheat in M.P. is 4045 thousand hectares with the total production of 7237 thousand
tones with average productivity of 1800 kg/ha. The productivity in below then its potential yield. Among different abiotic
stresses nutritional, water and temperature stress are common in rainfed agro ecosystem. High temperature during
reproductive phase of different winter crops in the major factor influencing the yield of rabi crops. Therefore present
study was carried out to understand the effect of temperature in wheat in different district of state.
The present study was undertaken to study the effect of temperature in relation to seed yield of wheat crop. Four
districts of Madhya Pradesh viz; Jabalpur, Hoshangabad, Chhindwara and Gwalior were selected for the study. Analysis
was done on the basis of long-term available data of (1959-2008) temperature and crop productivity. The long-term
analysis of crop productivity revealed the increasing trends. Increase in yield of wheat in the Jabalpur, Hoshangabad
and Gwalior was significant while it was non significant in Chhindwara. Normalized yield of wheat at Gwalior and
Chhindwara shows no change in crop productivity. Whereas, the decreasing trend were found in Jabalpur and
Hoshangabad districts. Relationship between normal temperature (maximum & minimum) and normal yield of wheat
crop indicated that yield of wheat crop decrease with increasing in temperature in three districts except Chhindwara.
The study indicates that the yield of wheat show sign of stagnation or decrease following rise in temperature in all the
three district of central India. The present study is just a modest beginning, which indicates the utility in understanding
and generating the simple coefficient of yield response behavior relationship, which can further be employed for
working out the impact of climate change on crop in future at micro level.
420
Does Elevated CO2 Affect the Decomposition of Rice and

Wheat Residues?
Deo Pal, T.J. Purakayastha and V. Thulasi

Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110 012, India
Session 3.1
The production and quality of belowground roots and plants are likely to be affected by the increase in atmospheric
CO2 level with subsequent changes in their decomposition rates. Though recently there have been contradictory
reports regarding litter decomposition particularly in forest and herbaceous plants. But, this aspect has received very
little attention, particularly in rice and wheat residues, produced in huge quantities in the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains
of India. Accordingly, the present experiment was carried out to study the decomposition of residues of rice (R) and
wheat (W) grown in a Typic Haplustept soil under ambient (A) and elevated (E) CO2 conditions maintained in a
phytotron. The ambient CO2-grown rice (RA) and wheat (WA) residues decomposed at a faster rate compared to the
elevated (RE & WE) CO2-grown residues. The amount of left-over residues after 150 days of decomposition was
comparatively higher for the elevated CO2-grown residues. The extent of decomposition after 150 days was found
higher in rice (81% in RA and 77% in RE) than wheat (73% in WA and 71% in WE). The ambient CO2-grown residues
being lower in C:N ratios accelerated mineralization during decomposition. Microbial biomass C (MBC) content in soil
increased initially and thereafter decreased. The NH4+-N content in soil initially decreased due to immobilization, but
increased slowly later and nitrification became fast. The net N-mineralization (Nmin), microbial biomass carbon (MBC)
and Nmin:MBC ratio were higher in soil amended with ambient than in elevated CO2-grown residues. Overall
decomposition was faster in rice than wheat residues, thereby releasing higher amounts of N. The study has cautioned
that plant residues produced at a higher concentration of atmospheric CO2 would pose problems in their decomposition
due to higher C:N ratios. This would have direct implications on N-cycling in soil and therefore, N-fertilization will have
to be modified on incorporation of crop residues into the soil. However, lower decomposability of elevated CO2-grown
residues would definitely have greater C-sequestration potential.
Are Herbicides Safe for Sustainability in Crop Production in India
Jay G. Varshney* and Shobha Sondhia

National Research Centre for Weed Science, Maharajpur, Jabalpur, 482 004, Madhya Pradesh, India
(Email:varshneyjg@gmail.com)
Weeds constitute a serious and continuing limitation to crop production in all agricultural systems. Weeds cause
massive yield losses, causing great disturbance to the local biodiversity and creating potential threat to ecology due to
their competitiveness, production of large number of seeds, seed dormancy and production of allelochemicals. Herbicides
have emerged as an important tool in management of weeds. In India, use of herbicides is increasing due to scarcity
of labours during peak period and increasing labour cost; thus herbicides become effective and efficient tools to deal
with these critical issues. Due to intensive research in herbicide discovery and mode of action of herbicides, many new
molecules are available to control weeds of all situations. Newer herbicide technologies provide much greater reductions
in per-hectare application rates of herbicides. At present the consumption of herbicides in India is up to the tune of 10%
amount all pesticide. Excessive and repeated use of herbicides may pose environmental hazards such as, residual
effect on susceptible inter-crops or succeeding crops or non-targets organisms and ultimately health hazards due to
accumulation of residues in the soil, crop produce and ground water. Thus under All India Coordinated Research
Project on Weed Control these issues have been addressed in detail. Studies revealed that at harvest herbicide
residues are either not detected or found at below the maximum residue limits set by EPA or CODEX due to prevalence
of agroclimatic conditions in the tropical and subtropical conditions in the country and thus herbicides can be considered
421
as safe for sustainable food production. However, if any of the herbicide applied continuously in the same field for a
long time, there are possibilities of buildup of herbicide residues at toxic level in the soil. Therefore, judicious use of
herbicide with proper scientific principles is advisable so there is no adverse effect on the succeeding crop and soil
microbes.
Session 3.1
Effect of Elevated Surface Ozone on Rice Growth and Productivity
V. Kumar1, R. Tomer1, N. K. Pruthi2, S.D. Singh1 and A. Bhatia1

1
Division of Environmental Sciences, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110 012, India
2
Department of Agricultural Chemistry C.C.R.(PG) College, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
A field experiment was conducted during kharif season of 2006 in the farm of Indian Agricultural Research Institute
(IARI), New Delhi growing two varieties of rice one sensitive, Pusa Sugand-5 (PS-5) and one tolerant, Pusa-44 (P-44)
in open-top chambers (OTCs) for quantifying the impact of surface ozone on rice productivity. Three treatments, viz.
elevated ozone (EO), charcoal filtered air (CF), and non filtered air (control) were taken in OTCs of 3 meter diameter
and 2.5 meter height. The ambient ozone levels during the rice crop growth period ranged from 20 to 65 ppb in the non
filtered control. The charcoal filters reduced the ozone levels in the ambient atmosphere by around 70 to 75%, and 25
to 35 ppb additional ozone over the ambient concentrations was maintained in the elevated ozone open top chambers.
There was a significant reduction in stomatal conductance (3.74%), photosynthetic rate (9.96%) and leaf area Index
(8.50%) under elevated ozone as compared to non filtered control at flowering in PS-5 variety. The grain yield decreased
by 8.99% in elevated ozone treatment as compared to non filtered ambient control in PS-5 variety. Lowering in the
straw biomass yield also took place in both the varieties under elevated ozone. Symptoms of chronic ozone injury
occurred on the leaves under elevated ozone treatment. Bronzing of leaves occurred under elevated ozone
concentrations, and symptoms of ozone-induced premature senescence—chlorosis and abscission of basal leaves—
became evident during the latter part of September. These symptoms were more severe in PS-5 variety. In charcoal
filtered treatment, number of panicles/hill increased by 25.53 and 18.29% in P-44 & PS-5 respectively and the grain
yield increased from 6.59 to 5.45% over the non filtered control. Physiological changes in roots in response to tropospheric
ozone led to altered below-ground processes. The root biomass increased by 21 and 11.8% in charcoal filtered treatment
and decreased by 10.3 and 17.2% in elevated ozone treatment in P-44 and PS-5, respectively over the non filtered
control at flowering stage. This preliminary investigation suggests that ozone pollution may have a substantial effect on
rice productivity.
Suppression of Nitrification and Nitrous Oxide Emission from

Agricultural Soil by Jatropha Seed Cake
N. Jain1*, A. Bhatia1, S. Prasad, H. Pathak2, H.C. Joshi1 and J. Singh1

1
Division of Environment Sciences, NRL Building, Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi ,110 012, India
2
International Rice Research Institute – India, NASC Complex, New Delhi ,110 012, India
(*Email: nivjain@iari.res.in )
Agricultural soil is the largest anthropogenic source of nitrous oxide (N2O), an important greenhouse gas. Nitrification
in soils is an environmentally important process as it is responsible for the conversion of NH4+-N to NO3", accompanied
by the production of several gaseous N forms, including N 2O. Nitrification inhibitors have been used to increase
422
fertilizer use efficiency and to mitigate nitrogen leaching as well as denitrification losses of N i.e., N2O and N2 emissions
from agricultural soil. In addition to synthetic nitrification inhibitors such as nitrapyrin or DCD, some natural products
(neem, karanj) have nitrification inhibiting properties. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the efficiency of
jatropha seed cake and jatropha oil coated urea in inhibiting nitrification and reducing volatilization loss of ammonia.
An incubation study was conducted at 30 oC with 5 treatments: urea, urea + 10% (equivalent to 10% of urea N) seed
cake, urea + 10% treated seed cake (without toxic components) and urea + 10% (equivalent to 10% of urea N)
jatropha oil, urea + 10% (equivalent to 10% of urea N) neem cake. Estimation of volatilisation losses of ammonia was
also carried out in lab using dilute 2% citric acid – 2% glycerol (in methanol/ethanol) soaked polyurethane cork for 25
Session 3.1
days at 30 oC. Jatropha seed cake inhibited nitrification by 26, 35, 28, 12, 4 and 2% on days 7, 14, 17, 21, 28, and 35
after incubation whereas treated seed cake inhibited only 6 and 1% on days 7 and 14 and negligible inhibition thereafter
indicating that the toxic component in seed cake was responsible for inhibition. Jatropha oil inhibited 21, 30, 32, 9 and
3% of nitrification on days 7, 14, 17, 21 and 28 after incubation. Loss of N as NH3 ranged from 5 (10% treated seed
cake) to 13% 10% (equivalent to 10% of urea N) neem cake.The study showed that jatropha seed cake and jatropha
oil could mitigate N2O emission from soil and the mitigation effect was lower than DCD but at par with neem cake.
Mitigating Methane Emission in Rice with Resource Conserving

Technologies
Vandana Gupta1, Samar Singh2, Parvesh Chandna3, Anurag Tewari4, Krishan Kumar5, Jagdish K
Ladha3, Raj K Gupta6 and Prabhat K Gupta1*
1
National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, 110 012, India
2
CCS-HAU, Uchani, Karnal, 132 001, Haryana, India
3
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), New Delhi, 110 012, India
4
Tilda Rice Land Pvt. Ltd, Karnal, India
5
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110 046, India
6
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)
(*Email: prabhat@mail.nplindia.ernet.in)
Rice-wheat system is the main source of food and income for millions of people in south Asia. But evidence is now
appearing that productivity of the system is plateauing because of a depleted natural resource base. Recent research
efforts have attempted to develop resource conserving technologies (RCTs) which are more efficient and use less
inputs compared to the conventional practices. However, not much information is available to quantitatively evaluate
the RCTs in terms of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. A field study was conducted during summer 2006 at Tilda
Riceland in Samana Bahu village of Karnal to evaluate the effect of different RCTs (tillage and crop establishment
methods) on methane emission from rice (var. Pusa Basmati-1) fields. Treatments consisted of reduced till direct
seeded rice with sesbania (RT-DSR+S) and without sesbania (RT-DSR-S), conventional puddled transplanted rice
(CT-TPR) and un-puddled transplanted rice (RT-TPR). Gas samples were collected using the closed chamber technique
and methane concentration was measured using a gas chromatograph equipped with a flame ionization detector.
Higher rate of methane emission was observed in CT-TPR followed by RT-TPR, RT-DSR-S and RT-DSR+S. The RT-
DSR-S and RT-DSR+S were similar in term of methane emission. Methane emission mitigation, compared to
conventional practices (CT-TPR), ranged from 18% in RT-TPR to 85% in RT-DSR+S. Lower methane emission in DSR
was due to alternate wetting and drying of fields whereas in CT-TPR the field was continuously submerged for the
entire period of rice growth. The direct-seeded rice treatment (DSR) used 55% less irrigation water with 22% reduction
in grain yield compared to CT-TPR. Irrigation water productivity was 42% less in TPR as compared to DSR. Furthermore,
DSR with Sesbania brown manuring (RT-DSR+S) showed higher water productivity than RT-DSR-S. The study showed
that DSR has good potential for methane mitigation and water conservation; however, efforts need to be made for
improving its yield.
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Impact of Elevated CO2 on Crop-Weed Interactions and

Sustainable Crop Production
Jay G. Varshney and V.S.G.R. Naidu

National Research Centre for Weed Science, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh
Session 3.1
Plants have managed to occupy nearly all terrestrial habitats. Wherever humans attempt to reserve areas of land for
the growth of directly useful species (crops), other species (weeds) grow there also. Because all plants use the same
basic resources of light, minerals, water and carbon dioxide, and have the ability to disperse, the growing of crop
plants involves a constant struggle against weeds. Any change in weed/crop interactions which might result from
global climatic change could be important in terms of crop production, economics and sustainability. Increase in
atmospheric CO2 concentration is one of the important anticipated global changes in environment resulting from
human activities. Atmospheric CO2 has increased from about 280 ppm before industrialization to about 365 ppm
currently and could reach 500 ppm in the next few decades. The projected increase in CO2 along with other greenhouse
gases will be accompanied by an increase of 1.5oC-4.5oC in mean surface temperature. Changes in temperature,
precipitation and increasing CO2 have potential consequences for crop/weed interactions. The most striking difference
between crops and weeds is that the crops have predominantly C 3 photosynthetic metabolism and weeds
disproportionately have C4 metabolism. Among the 18 most troublesome weeds in the world, 14 are C4. The high
frequency of C4 metabolism in weeds has potentially important implications for responses of agricultural systems to
global environmental changes.
In several studies, weeds have been shown to increase their productivity in response to atmospheric CO2 enrichment.
Altered crop-weed interactions were reported due to CO2 enrichment. High CO2 reduced the yield loss caused by
weed competition in wheat and pea. Avena fatua (Wild oat) the common weed of wheat matured 13 days in advance
compared to the plants grown under ambient CO2 conditions. The positive response of some of the C4 weeds to the
elevated CO2 suggests that the generalization that the C3 species will respond to elevated CO2 than C4 species may
not hold true. For example, elevated CO2 has been shown to increase growth biomass accumulation of the C4 weed
Amaranthus viridis. Invasive weeds like Parthenium hysterophorus are likely to show further spread under elevated
CO2. The water-use efficiency and uptake of heavy metals by the aquatic invasive weed water hyacinth was enhanced
by CO2 enrichment. Elevated CO2 interferes with herbicidal control especially in C3 weeds due to changes in herbicide
uptake and carbohydrate accumulation. The time spent in seedling stage could be reduced by elevated CO2 and
thereby reduce the efficacy of post-emergence herbicides which are effective in seedling stage. The research findings
reveal that the CO2 enrichment decreased the efficacy of the herbicides and time taken for the complete mortality of
the herbicide applied weeds was prolonged at elevated levels of CO2. However, because so little experimental work on
crop/weed interactions under global change conditions has been carried out under field conditions, it is premature to
conclude the magnitude or direction of changes in the interactions.
Effect of Urban Industrial Sludge-Borne Heavy Metals on Wheat

Seedling Growth
Sudarshana Sharma1, Parmanand Sharma2, and A.K. Bhattacharyya2

1
Department of Biochemistry, Bundelkahnd University Jhansi, India
2
School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
The industrial solid waste could be used as soil manure for crop production but main constraints in this is that it could
introduce undesirable heavy metals to the food chain. In this study industrial sludge collected from road side dumping
and it was highly acidic having pH 2.3. To neutralize the acidity of waste, it was first treated with three doses of lime (0,
0.5 and 1%). The lime treated waste was then mixed with farmland soil and undisturbed soil to evaluate sludge
424
application rates on wheat (Triticum aestivum) seedling growth and heavy metal accumulation in soil as well as in
seedlings. Lime treated waste was mixed @ 0, 10 and 20% in both soils. Growth differences, heavy metal accumulation
in plant parts and soil metal concentrations (total and potentially available) were determined. Biomass and growth has
been found to increase with increasing rate of sludge. DTPA extractable heavy metals and its concentrations in seedlings
increased with increasing doses of industrial sludge. Lime enhanced the biomass and reduces the heavy metal
concentrations. 20% treatments in both soils showed a significant enhancement in yield for wheat seedlings when
compared with control ones. All the heavy metals were found under the permissible limit given by the USEPA with both
doses, except Pb which was higher in wheat seedlings grown in 20% waste amendments in both soil. Lime has a
Session 3.1
negative correlation with availability and uptake of heavy metals. Results showed that application of sludge to different
soil could be useful in order to increase crop growth in the glass house.
425
Session 3.2: Biodiversity
Rapeseed-Mustard Germplasm Diversity: Status and Priorities
A.K. Misra* and Arvind Kumar

National Research Centre on Rapeseed-Mustard, Sewar, Bharatpur, 321 303, Rajasthan, India
(*Email: akmisra@yahoo.com)
Rapeseed-mustard comprising seven different species viz. Indian mustard, toria, yellow sarson, brown sarson, gobhi
sarson, karan rai and taramira, are being cultivated in 53 countries spreading all over the globe. Asia contributed
around 59% of hectarage and 49% of the world production. India holds a premier position for global oilseed production
contributing 9% to the world’s oilseeds with an area of 19%. India is the world’s second largest producer of rapeseed-
mustard having an area of 6.8m ha, and the crop is spreading over 23 states and union territories. Brassicaceae
contains about 3500 species and 350 genera, is one of the 10 most economically important plant families. It is
distinguished on the basis of the presence of conduplicate cotyledons (i.e., the cotyledons are longitudinally folded
around the radical) and/ or two-segmented fruits (siliquae) which contain seeds in one or both segments, and only
simple hairs, if present. The tribe Brassiceae currently contains approximately 235 species in 49 genera, 22 of which
Session 3.2
are monotypic. A total number of known oilseed and vegetable Brassica germplasm available in different parts of the
world is reported to be over 74000. For effective utilization of oilseed Brassicas diversity concentrated efforts have
been made. In our country we have over 14000 rapeseed-mustard germplasm accessions. Of these over 5000
accessions are available at our Centre. Around 80% of the available genetic resources are characterized for various
agro-morphological traits. During last five years this genetic resource wealth further enriched by collecting over 700
land races and wild species. During this period 350 exotic accessions were acquired from international agencies.
By utilizing different germplasm sources and various breeding methodology as many as 179 varieties of rapeseed-
mustard has been recommended for release. Of these around seventy are selection from germplasm. Promising
donors have been identified for useful traits such as, tolerance to alternaria blight, white rust, downy mildew, low erucic
acid (single low), low glucosinolates, double low, early duration, salt tolerance, yellow seeded, tetralocular, high oil
content and apetalous source. In addition to these, 37 lines with some novel traits have been registered so far. It is
evident that the effective genetic resources management of rapeseed-mustard will be the key to success for future
crop improvement programme. There is a need to broaden the genetic base and the regions of higher diversity should
be explored. The exploration and collection from unexplored areas/ hotspots are extensively needed. Multi-location
evaluation/ characterization of germplasm, and subsequently their proper documentation are required to be strengthened.
The modern analytical/ biochemical tools for germplasm characterization and classification are needed for effective
utilization.
Biodiversity and its Conservation
B.P. Singh1* and Anuradha Singh2

1
Division of Germplasm Exchange, NBPGR, New Delhi, 110 012, India
2
Centre for Converging Technology (CCT), University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, 302 001, Rajasthan, India
(*Email: brajpalsingh@gmail.com)
The earth biodiversity its eco-system, species and genes are product of over 3000 million years. The Indian region is
quite rich in biodiversity, with a sizeable percentage of endemic flora and fauna. The climate varies from humid tropical
Western Ghats to the hot arid and semiarid desert of Rajasthan/Gujarat, from the cold desert of Laddakh and icy
426
mountains of Himalayas to the warm coast of peninsular India. In India about 1,15,000 species of plants and animals
have been identified and described. Some of the following crop/plants-have originated in India and have now spread to
different parts of the world. These are rice, Asiatic vignas, many species of millets, sugarcane, jute, mango, citrus,
banana, several cucurbits, many ornamental orchids and a number of medicinal and aromatic plants. It is also a
secondary center of crops like maize, red pepper, grain amaranths, soybean, potatoes and rubber plants. India’s
cultural and ethnic diversity includes over 550 tribal communities of 227 ethnic groups spread over 5000 forest villages.
Indian gene centre contains 2 of the 25 biodiversity hotspots, “The Western Ghats” and “Eastern Himalayas”. The
Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas are reported to have over 1600 and 3500 endemic species of flowering plants.
Biodiversity encompasses genetic resources of plants, animals, forests, microbial, fish and water resources, as well
as insect diversity etc. Fast expanding human population, leading to habitat destruction, degradation of ecosystem
and soil health, because of human greed and their activities, depletion of forest genetic resources, causing extinction
of some species, wild and weedy relatives of crop plants, well adapted land races, wild animals, useful birds, beneficial
insects, pollinators, earthworms, soil micro-organisms and bi-control agents, including rare medicinal and aromatic
plants. Problems created by degraded ecosystem, increase of wasteland, scarcity of cultivated land, water resources
and loss of biodiversity, at a faster rate are of great concern. We have done enormous damage to our natural resources.
Thus we are facing acute problem of water availability especially clean water and fresh air, as both are highly polluted.
There is global climate changes, especially global warming due to emission of green house gases depletion of ozone
layer, melting of glaciers, resulting in erratic rain-fall, rise of temperatures, droughts, floods, famines, sea level rising,
tsunami, Katrina, accidental fires in forests, appearance of new unknown diseases, their new races, viruses, pests etc.
affecting crop production. Hence there is urgent need for international community to act with urgency. Introduction of
invasive alien species, are causing negative impacts to the local environment. The MOEF (BSI/ZSI), DARE/ ICAR
Session 3.2
(NBPGR, NBAIM, NBAGR, NBFGR) and NGO-WWF and many other organizations have undertaken the cause of
conservation of biodiversity, using in-situ and ex-situ methods of conservation. Biotechnology has played an important
role in conservation of biodiversity. The movement of conservation of biodiversity can be more effective with the active
participation of local community, women, students, Panchayat Raj Institutions and NGO’s with financial/technical support
from Central/ State Governments. Besides, nanotechnology is going to play a dominant role, not only in conservation
of biodiversity, but in enhancing production and productivity of crop plants, as well as nutritional security.
Utilization and Conservation of Cucurbits Diversity in Sub-Himalayan

Terai Region of India
J.C. Jana
Department of Vegetable and Spice Crops, Faculty of Horticulture, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Pundibari, Cooch Behar, 736 165, West Bengal, India
(E-mail: janajc@rediffmail.com)
The cucurbits provide ready and cheap sources of leaf and fruit vegetables from the homestead areas for the rural and
urban people of India. Due to high population growth and severe food and nutrition insecurity recorded in disadvantaged
rural areas, cultivation of cucurbits in resource poor home gardens has gained a significant expansion. Methodological
approach is based on participatory rural appraisal focused on semi-structured interviews undertaken under rural
communities on traditional cucurbits. In sub-Himalayan terai region of India, lots of cucurbits are grown with the use of
rooftop, trellis, fence and tree support and pond dyke and also over compost pit, latrine, yard and bamboo platform in
home gardens. Those cucurbits are well adapted to the local climate, highly nutritious and contributing in the poverty
reduction, household food security of rural people. Age old rural people particularly women took the responsibility of
maintaining this production system and often the system played an important role in the livelihood of communities.
They preferred local varieties of cucurbits because these added something to their culture and food traditions and
were uniquely adapted to local agro-ecological conditions. Women emphasized on taste, culinary uses, nutritional
value particularly micronutrients and crop availability period. Local varieties also responded well to organic pest control
measures and thrived on organic manures. There were hardly any households that used pesticides and chemical
427
fertilizers in their homestead areas. Rural people send their produce of homestead areas like fruits, tender twigs,
seeds, etc. to local markets when there was a seasonal surplus in order to increase their household income. Tribal
people are also dependant on their own cucurbits, some of which are indigenous and underutilized. Eighteen species
were documented as useful cucurbits from different home gardens of rural communities of sub-Himalayan terai region
of India. It has important consequences for genetic variation within a cucurbitaceous plant itself and for associated
species diversity. A large portion of cucurbit bio-diversity is under threat due to selective utilization of their genetic base
leading to erosion of resources and poor nutrition security. Conservation of this bio-diversity resource is possible only
by bringing them into use and making them more acceptable and commercially viable. Changing ecological conditions,
seasonality, lack of awareness on the nutritional value of different cucurbits, lack of cultivation skills among current
generations and negative cultural attitude are major factors limiting their utilization from home gardens. This paper
elaborates on conservation, cultivation, consumption and commerce of different cucurbits in home gardens of sub-
Himalayan terai region of India. It attempts to explain the experiences in field interventions through efforts in integrated
approach for conservation and utilization of cucurbits grown in home gardens.
Effect of Tillage and Residues Management on Soil Bacterial

Communities: A Molecular Analysis
Session 3.2
Javier A. Ceja-Navarro1*, Flor N. Rivera1, Leonardo Patiño-Zúñiga1, Bram Govaerts2,

Rodolfo Marsch1 and Luc Dendooven1
1
Laboratory of Molecular Soil Ecology, Department of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Cinvestav, Av. Instituto
Politécnico Nacional 2508, C.P. 07360 México, D.F. Mexico
2
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT),
Apdo. Postal 6-641, 06600, Mexico D.F., Mexico
(*Email: jceja@cinvestav.mx)
Intensively cropped highlands around the world are prone to soil erosion and fertility decline due to the use of agricultural
practices such as conventional tillage, crop residue removal and continuous monoculture. Although inorganic fertilizer
inputs have increased, yields remain low due to a decline in soil fertility, soil structure deterioration and poor weed
control. In the search for better agricultural management practices, CIMMYT started long-term experiments in which
the management practices that include crop rotation, tillage and residue management are compared. Little information
can be found about how those agricultural practices affect soil microbial communities and in the majority of cases the
analysis was done by using traditional microbial techniques. The objective of this study was to analyze the effect of
agricultural practices on soil bacterial communities with the use of molecular approaches. Soil samples were collected
from 4 different treatments of CIMMYT long-term experiment (started in 1991) in research station close to Texcoco,
México. These treatments include: (1) zero tillage with removed residues, (2) zero tillage with kept residues, (3)
conventional tillage with removed residues and (4) conventional tillage with kept residues. Soil DNA was extracted
from each treatment and used as template to amplify 16S rDNA. For Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis (DGGE)
analysis, the product of the first PCR reaction was used as a new template from nested PCR using specific primers to
V1-V3 16S rDNA regions giving a product of 500 pb; a GC clamp was added to the forward primers. The 500 pb PCR
products were separated by DGGE to obtain characteristic profiles of the bacterial communities. The products of 16S
rDNA of each treatment were used for the construction of 16S rDNA clone libraries. The 16S rDNA sequences obtained
were compared to bacterial sequences from GenBank; the phylogenetic relations among the clone were established
by parsimony methods using PAUP 4.0b10. The phylogenetic analyses showed important differences between the
analyzed systems; some of the found groups like Pseudomonadales, Rhizobiales and Rhodospirillales can be considered
as beneficial, since bacteria pertaining to this group are involved in the control of plant pathogens or nitrification
processes. It was also determined that soils with zero or conventional tillage and kept residues have higher diversity
values (D= 0.73-0.76) than those soils with zero or conventional tillage with removed residues (D = 0.66-0.69).
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Shrinking Crops Genetic Base- An Issue Need to be Resolved for Long-

Term Sustainability of Agriculture
J.C. Rana* and K. Pradheep

National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources Regional Station, Phagli,
Shimla, 171 004, Himachal Pradesh, India
(*Email:ranajc2003@yahoo.com)
We depend on the diversity of plants today more than ever before. Diversity within species has ensured us a harvest
in spite of constantly changing pests, diseases and climate. As the Earth grows warmer our patterns of agriculture will
have to change to suit the new climatic regime. We will look again to the natural variability within plant species, to the
genes which give variability, for the characteristics that our future crops will need. Under the circumstances, those few
crops that farmers have cosseted over the years may no longer fit to meet the emerging challenges. As per the
National Biodiversity Action Plan, 41% of India’s forest cover is at different levels of degradation and the country is
making limited use of its vast gene pool in agriculture, thereby creating a risk of food security. Genetic resources,
which can provide support to the nation, are in distress due to several factors especially the anthropogenic.
Industrialization, advances in plant breeding and modern agriculture has done much to narrow the genetic base of
food crops. The huge gene resources for food and agriculture has got limited to about 12 varieties of food, which
provide 80% of food energy. Large number of genetically diverse landraces and farmer’s varieties and a wide range of
Session 3.2
crops like little millet, Italian millet, kodo millet, common millet, barnyard millet, finger millet and pseudo-cereals such
as amaranth, buckwheat and chenopod have disappeared from many areas of their cultivation. Old varieties of staple
crops and local vegetables were quickly dropped in favour of the new improved varieties. It is impossible to say how
much variability, how many potentially valuable genes and specifically adapted gene complexes to local environments,
were inadvertently made victims of the green revolution. It is believed that around 5000 landraces of rice collected from
North East region of India exist no more in that region. It is happening so rapidly and is so widespread that 50 years
from now natural habitats may have little to offer plant breeders searching for genetic variability. Breeders would rely
on the world’s gene banks in the hope that enough material was saved, and is in a good condition, to provide them with
the genes they need. To meet the changes ahead, we need to incorporate a broader range of crops and wide exploitation
of under-utilized crop species and wild relatives. Broader crops base contribute to agriculture diversification, make
better use of marginal lands and changing environments, food security and a more balance diet, better safeguard of
our agro-biodiversity and associated cultural heritage and self-reliance of agriculture systems. Enhanced
competitiveness, documentation, information, public awareness, value added research, better policies and legislations,
and farmers oriented marketing network are some of the areas that help in broadening our crops base.
Conservation of Genetic Resources in North-east Region of India:

Opportunities and Challenges
Subhasis Mandal1, K.K. Datta2*, D.K. Hore3 and Suchitra Mohanty4

1
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Canning Station, West Bengal, India
2
National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research, New Delhi, 110 012, India
3
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Regional Station, Umiam, 793 103, Meghalaya, India
4
Agricultural Economics, Visva Bharati University, Shantiniketan, West Bengal, India
(*Email: kkdatta@ncap.res.in)
The erosion of agricultural biodiversity threatens long-term stability and sustainability of agricultural production. The
majority of High Yielding Varieties (HYV), particularly hybrids is not very long living as they tend to loose their viability
and productivity, or become increasingly susceptible to pest/disease attack, within few years. This necessitates infusion
429
of fresh genetic material, which is again obtained from traditional varieties or their wild relatives. Seed is highly rival
with low cost of exclusion, but the genetic resources embodied in seed are non-rival and the costs of controlling their
use can be high. The handful of seed or planting material a farmer places in the ground is private good that is consumed
as a production input. No two farmers can plant the same physical unit of seed. To those same farmers the genetic
resources embodied in the seed grow the same variety simultaneously, and it is costly to prohibit others in one’s
community from doing so. As the value of one potential landrace is exceedingly high, it must be conserved for future
utilization. There is now an increasing body of evidence that organic agriculture supports and maintain much higher
level of biodiversity than conventional farming systems, including species population that have significantly declined.
The relationship between organic agriculture and agricultural biodiversity is expressed at the philosophical and theoretical
levels in basic principle, standards and regulations that govern organic agriculture. Conceptually, the highest benefit-
cost ratios for managing crop genetic resources on farms as compared to their management ex-situ in breeding
programmers will occur where the utility farmers derive from managing them as well as public value associated with
their biodiversity is high. Since farmers are already bearing the costs of maintaining diversity in those areas and they
reveal a preference for doing so, the cost of public interventions to support conservation will also be least. Where
genetic diversity is assessed as relatively low, no unique traits have been identified in local genetic materials, and
farmers derive few benefits from it, there may be no need to invest in any form of conservation. Where the contribution
to diversity is great but farmers derive little private value from it, ex-situ conservation is the only option. Where there is
little diversity but farmers care a lot about it, there is no need for public investment at all since no value is associated
with conservation. None the less, some societies might decide to pay farmers to grow certain land races. In an economy
where markets are unreliable and people depend on the diversity of their crops and varieties to cope with climate risk,
match them to specific soil and water regimes and meet a range of consumption needs. In such environments the
Session 3.2
opportunity costs of maintaining diversity are likely to be low because development alternatives are limited. Cash-
earning opportunities may be few and low. Economic principles suggest that as an economy changes, maintaining
intra crop diversity on farms should occur to the extent that trade-offs between productivity and diversity maintenance
is consistent with social preferences. The article highlights the potential of organic agriculture while enhancing the
biodiversity in North Eastern Hill Region (NEHR) of India. We have to look into ecologically sound sustainable agriculture
comprising of two-way opportunities i.e., feasibility of biodiversity conservation as well as improvement of farmers’
income. Dynamics of the local landraces and farmers’ varieties needs to be understand in detail and, simultaneously,
appropriate scientific know-how should be infused with the traditional agricultural practices through optimum exploitation
of natural resources and ensuring the synergistic effect of biodiversity-organic agriculture in NEH Region.
Crop-Crop Diversity for Preservation of Natural Enemies of Insect Pests

and Promote Conservation Agriculture
M. Srinivasa Rao*, K. Srinivas and B. Venkateswarlu

Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, 500 059, Andra Pradesh, India
(*Email: msrao@crida.ernet.in)
Crop diversity is a situation wherein different crops are grown simultaneously. Crop-crop, crop-border and crop-weed
diversities are different forms of crop diversity. Intercropping and mixed cropping systems are more popular forms of
crop-crop diversity practiced in rainfed agriculture. Research in diverse agro-ecosystems demonstrated that these
systems tend to suffer less herbivore load than the corresponding monocultures. Thus, there is considerable scope to
develop a system that is diverse and can facilitate in-situ culturing of natural enemies of insect pests. Research was
carried out both on-station and in the farmers’ fields during kharif of 2003-2005 in Andhra Pradesh, India involving the
different pigeonpea and castor based intercropping systems. The diversity created by introducing sorghum, greengram
and groundnut as intercrops in medium duration pigeonpea resulted in the build up of natural enemies of major pests
of pigeonpea and also caused less congenial conditions for insect pests. Among various species of coccinellid predators,
viz., Menochilus sexamaculatus (F), Brumoides suturalis (F), Illois indica Timberlake, Coccinella transversalis (L) and
Coccinella septempunctata (L), M. sexamaculatus was found most dominant accounting for more than 80% of the total
430
coccinellid population. Among various spiders recorded, Clubiona spp was dominant. Similarly the diversity created by
introducing clusterbean or cowpea or greengram as intercrops in castor crop resulted in the build up of natural enemies
(Micropliotis, Euplectrus, coccinellids and spiders) of the major pests of castor. Coccinellids and spiders were found to
have significant negative correlation with E. kerri. The population of H. armigera was significantly and negatively
correlated with that of coccinellids in pigeonpea intercropped with sorghum. Initially aphids and shoot bug on sorghum
represented the main prey, followed by E. kerri, H. armigera and M. usitatus, on pigeonpea after flowering, which is
reflected in correlation coefficient that are significant. The population dynamics of insect pests and coccinellids over
time showed that both followed a quadratic trend. The population of natural enemies was higher in the intercropping
systems compared to the monocultures. In a diverse crop situation, the predators and parasitoids are more likely to
find their prey (pests on the intercrops) and multiply sooner and thus have a higher possibility to reduce the insect
pests of the main crop.
Avian Diversity in Kole Paddy Lands
Mani Chellappan
All India Network Project on Agricultural Ornithology, Department of Entomology,
College of Horticulture, KAU, Thrissur, Kerala, India
Session 3.2
Kole paddy land of Kerala, India is unique and internationally important because it is the newly declared Ramsar site.
It comes under Central Asian-Indian flyway of migratory birds. The area is located between 10°20’- 10°35’N latitude
and 76°11’ - 76°66’ E longitude and rice is the predominant crop (18602 ha). The study was mainly on direct observational
methods and conducted between 2003 and 2008. Altogether 170 bird species were recorded in the last five years. The
birds belong to 16 orders and 48 families. Family Passeriformes had the maximum species followed by the
Charadriiformes, Ciconiiformes and Falconiformes. Out of the 170 taxa, 100 were resident species. Local migrants
account 36 species. The total number of birds varied from few hundred to 13500 per month. Highest bird density was
recorded in November-December and the lowest density during the monsoon (June-August). Species richness of
birds varied in different months. Maximum number of species were recorded in December and the minimum in July.
Shannon diversity index was 3.1. The higher diversity index might be due to the stability of the system. More than 45
bird species were insectivorous accounts 48% of the total species recorded. Nearly 28% birds caused damage to the
rice crop in the nursery, maximum tillering, grain filling and maturity stages. In Kerala, the highest productivity of rice is
recorded in the kole lands due to the large congregation of birds; the birds serve as potent biocontrol agents against
number of vermin viz., insect pest, rodents, crabs, etc. and the guano of the birds enrich the soil. In spite of the
beneficial roles of birds, conservation becomes the major problem. The birds are harmed by poaching, habitat destruction,
over use of pesticides, etc. As the kole lands are serving as stepping stone for the trans-continental migrants, urgent
measures are needed to protect the wet land ecosystem.
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Phospholipid Fatty Acid- A potential Sensitive Bioindicator to Assess

the Imposed Stress of Herbicide on Microbial Ecosystem and the
Dynamics of Microbial Community Structure
Monidipta Saha1*, Saswati Pradhan1, Ashim Chowdhury1,

Anirban Majumdar2 and Manabendra Nath Saha2
1
Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, University of Calcutta, West Bengal, India
2
Department of Crop Production, CRIJAF, Barrrackpur, Kolkatta, India
(*Email: moni25saha@gmail.com)
Since the prime component of sustainable agriculture is the proper functioning of soil microbial ecosystem which
influences the fundamental soil nutrient cycling processes, soil structural dynamics, degradation of soil pollutants etc.;
an intense monitoring of the functional capacity of soil microbial community plays an important role to understand how
microorganisms are affected by the various agricultural management including fertilizer uses, pesticide application or
any other environmental changes. From this point of view, a rapid and sensitive indicator should be there which can
assess the microbial responses to these various stress conditions. The recent development of molecular and biochemical
techniques has been enabled a better bioindicator to monitor the response of soil microbial community and approaches
to the study of microbial phospholipid-linked fatty acid (PLFA) composition which are particularly promising constituents
for investigating microbial communities due to their chemical diversity and cellular abundance. These compounds
Session 3.2
(PLFA) rapidly degrade on cell death; as a result the variation in types of PLFA provides a “Finger print” of living
microbial communities and has been used to study microbial community changes in agricultural soil. Thus the study of
soil phospholipid fatty acid represents the current living community, both qualitatively and quantitatively, they seem to
have high indicative value to assess and monitor the microbial community structure, physiological and stress state.
The changes of soil microbial biomass (SMBC), basal respiration along with other conventional microbial activity
measurement along with PLFA estimation gives a realistic approach to interpret the imposed stress condition on soil
microbial community.
In order to evaluate the effects of imposed stress by the application of pesticides at or above the recommended
field rate on functional behavior of microorganisms of soil ecosystem as well as the soil microbial community structure,
a laboratory incubation study was carried with 60% water holding capacity of soils under 250C over a period of 90 days.
A widely used selective pre-emergence herbicide, Pendimethalin [N-(1-ethylpropyl)-3,4-dimethyl-2,6-dinitroaniline)]
was applied in sandy loam soil of Baruipur Agricultural Farm of West Bengal, India (pH-6.58 and organic carbon-
1.31%) at recommended field rate (FR), two times (2FR) and ten times (10FR) of the FR. The PLFA estimation was
carried out with six fatty acid (C14:0, C15:0, C16:0, C16:1w9, C17:0, C18:1w9c) for bacterial biomass and one fatty
acid (C18:2w6, 9c) for fungal biomass and the dynamics of changes of PLFA was compared with the microbial biomass
carbon. From the incubation study it was revealed that a significant reduction of soil microbial biomass occurred at FR,
2FR and 10FR up to days 15 compared to control followed by increase of SMBC was also occurred. The variation of
PLFA amount also revealed the changes of microbial biomass under these treatments and showed a reduced biomass
pool throughout the incubation period for control. The total amount of bacterial and fungal PLFA also showed an
increased value up to day 90 after a significant reduction up to 15 as was also supported by the SMBC. The increased
PLFA amount for higher doses may support the fact that after adopting the stress, microbial populations increased in
numbers far in excess than those of untreated soil due to reduced microbial competition and use of cell debris of killed
cells by survivors. The increased fungal PLFA amount with proceeding of time also supported the fact; Pendimethalin
may be degraded by various soil fungi which were more in population by using the herbicide as a carbon source.
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Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Biodiversity in Fruit Crops as a Tool for

Conservation Horticulture
Som Dev Sharma1* and Pramod Kumar2

1
Department of Fruit Science, Dr. Y S Parmar UH&F, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India
2
Agriculture and Biotechnology, RCF Ltd., Mumbai, 74, Maharashtra, India
(*E-mail: somdevsharma2001@rediffmail.com)
The arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis is a mutualistic association formed between plants and a wide variety of
fungi from the phylum Glomeromycota and is found in ecosystems throughout the world. AM fungi may be essential for
ecosystem sustainability, maintenance and conservation of biological diversity. The participation in the biodiversity and
ecosystem functioning is now being evaluated and recognized, particularly due to their effect on plant diversity and
productivity.
A comprehensive study was conducted on the frequency of occurrence and distribution of indigenous AM biomarkers
in the fruit orchards and nurseries especially, apple, citrus, mango, litchi and apricot being grown in the Shiwalik hill
ranges of north-western Himalayan region (NWHR) of India particularly, Himachal Pradesh to prepare orchard profile
by marking trees, recording the growth parameters, gaps-in-technology and existing package of practices. Fifteen AM
fungal biomarkers of genera viz., Glomus, Gigaspora, Scutellospora, Sclerocystis and Entrophospora were isolated,
indentified, quantified and characterized on the basis of their morphological behaviour using standard taxonomic keys.
Session 3.2
Major AM species isolated were Glomus fasciculatum (Thaxter) Gerdemann and Trappe, G. mosseae (Nicol and Gerd)
Gerdemann and Trappe, G. macrocarpum Tul and Tul, G. epigaeum Daniels and Trappe, G. magnicaule Hall and G.
sinuosum (Gerdemann and Bakshi) Almeida and Schenck; Gigaspora albida Schenck and Smith, G. heterogamma
Gerdemann and Trappe and G. margarita Trappe; Entrophospora spp. Ames and Schneider; Scutellospora pellucida
(Ferr and Herr) Walker and Scander and S. calospora (Nicol. and Gerd.) Walker and Scander. Glomus species were
most ubiquitous and generally, spores density in soil samples seemed to be dominated. Glomus fasciculatum (Thaxter)
Gerdemann and Trappe occurred more frequently in all the orchards and nurseries followed by G. mosseae (Nicol. and
Gerd.) Gerdemann and Trappe, G. macrocarpum Tul. and Tul and Gigaspora albida Schenck and Smith. Large variations
were recorded in AM spore population and per cent root colonization at different locations and also within the same
location and even from orchard to orchard. Qualitative as well as quantitative differences among locations were
significantly noticed with a marked reduction in the number of AM species under the heavy chemical use and/or
intensive farming systems. The correlation and regression analysis among AM spore density and agro-meteorological
parameters, soil physico-chemical properties, plant growth, nutrient uptake and yield of bearing orchards were also
revealed the exciting results. More encouraging results were also noticed during the screening of indigenous AM
species on the survival percentage of inoculated nursery fruit plants in the farmers’ fields at varied levels of inorganic
fertilizers and at different moisture conservation regimes/ methods under solarized and disinfectant treated soils under
stress conditions in different agro-climatic zones.
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Conserving Biodiversity Studies in Orchard Plantations

from Bucharest Area
Ioan Rosca and Rada Istrate

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine-Bucharest, Department of Genetics,
Breeding and Plant Protection, Bucharest, Romania
Orchard plantations are considered stable ecosystems, with precise interrelations between different food chains in
which natural factors play an essential role. The disequilibrium between different populations categories some considered
pests, others deemed useful (usually called “natural enemies of pests”) calls for a change in the pest control strategy,
which focuses on maximizing natural control factors, and on directing control measures to the less polluted methods.
The observations and the harvest of the biological material have been done in the vegetation period of the trees. For
the harvest of the samples, a method of collection adopted was using yellow traps with glue (Pherocone AM), installed
at 1.5 m high and 50 m distance between them. The fauna spectrum for the crown of a tree has been represented by
the invertebrate species: phytophagous (specific prejudicial insect’s orchard plantation, prejudicial insects of the adjacent
cultures, or species that arrived by mistake from other cultures or from spontaneous plants); zoophagous (predators
and parasites); phantophagous and other species, without direct trophy chain connection with the orchard plantations.
The purpose of this paper is to enlarge the knowledge on the invertebrate communities form the orchards ecosystems,
with the minimum chemical treatment conditions, and to follow the evolution and the changes that appeared in time,
Session 3.2
under the influence of pesticides and the climate factors. The paper highlights the relationship between the fauna
structure of arthropod communities, at the epigeic level of the tree; divide arthropod species in useful and damaging;
characterize invertebrate communities from the point of view of abundance.
Significance of Seed Storage Behaviour in Conservation

of Agri-Biodiversity
S.S. Parihar and Malavika Dadlani

Division of Seed Science and Technology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110 012, India
There is a growing concern throughout the world about the loss of biodiversity as more than one third of worlds plant
species are currently threatened or face extinction. The extinction potential of a species is related to the degree of its
biological vulnerability and the degree of threat by biotic and abiotic factors. Since 1970s, about six million samples of
plant genetic resources are stored in National, International and private seed banks because storage of seeds in seed
banks/ gene banks is generally considered the safest, most inexpensive and most convenient method of conservation
as seeds occupy little space, and also they require little attention over considerable period of time. Preservation of
germplasm only in field condition is risky as it can be lost because of genetic erosion, pest or disease or adverse
weather conditions. However, storage of seeds in seed banks for ex-situ conservation needs a through understanding
of seed storage behaviour in order to determine whether or not seed storage is suitable as a method of conservation.
The majority of seeds are referred to as ‘orthodox’ (desiccation tolerant) in which desiccation occurs in the final stage
of their development and 90-95% of original water is removed during their development. Orthodox seeds can be stored
for long periods (several decades) under conventional conditions i.e., in dry state (with moisture content ∼ 5-7 % on
fresh weight basis) and at low temperature. Orthodox seeds are not only just desiccation tolerant to very low moisture
content, but their longevity also increases in a predictable way with reduction in seed storage temperature and/ or
moisture content. Therefore, orthodox seeds are ideal for ex-situ conservation in seed banks. However, a sizeable
section of horticultural plants and other species produce seeds that differ in their capacity to withstand water loss and
termed as recalcitrant or desiccation sensitive seeds. Recalcitrant seeds do not undergo maturation drying and cannot
withstand water loss of the magnitude of that experienced by orthodox seeds and seeds are shed at relatively high
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moisture content. In order to remain viable, they must not undergo any substantial change in moisture. Placing seeds
with high moisture content at sub-zero temperature results in the lethal disruption of cells due to formation of ice
crystals and therefore they are not storable under condition suitable for orthodox seeds and even when stored under
moist condition, their viability is brief from few weeks to months. Thus the term orthodox and recalcitrant have been
used to describe the storage behaviour of seeds. A category intermediate between orthodox and recalcitrant is also
recognized in which seed survive desiccation but becomes damaged during dry storage at low temperature. There are
standard methods for determining seed storage behavior and this is an active area of research in the field of seed
science in view of growing awareness globally for conserving the plant biodiversity for its use in crop improvement
programme and also its use as a source of compounds to the pharmaceutical, food and crop protection industries.
Some important horticultural species exhibiting recalcitrant storage behaviour are: Artocarpus heterophyllus, Eugenia
spp., Coffea spp., Litchi chinensis, Cola nitida, Theobroma cacao, Camellia sinensis, Mangifera indica, Garcinia spp.
etc.
There have been attempts to correlate seed storage behaviour with ecological characteristics such as seed shape
and size, seed weight, dormancy status, moisture content at shedding etc. Species with recalcitrant seeds typically
produce large round seeds, which are shed at high moisture content. Embryos in recalcitrant seeds are also large and
occupy more than half the volume of the seed. In general, recalcitrant seeds are non dormant and are capable of
germination immediately after dispersal while majority of orthodox seeds exhibit physiological, physical, morphological
or combinational dormancy. During the recent past various countries as well as international organizations have shown
a growing concern for global biodiversity which was culminated in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) following
the Rio Earth summit in 1992, which has been ratified by more than 170 countries. The CBD recognizes the important
complementary role of ex-situ conservation measures, including seed banking, as an insurance policy against species
Session 3.2
loss and as a means of providing propagating material for in-situ conservation schemes. The paper gives an account
of status of knowledge of seed storage behaviour in agricultural and horticultural crops and scope of seed banking in
recalcitrant and intermediate seeds.
Biochemical Diversity among wild Growing Fruit Species from Coruh

Valley in Turkey and Conservation Strategies of these Biodiversity
Sezai Ercisli* and Yasar Erturk

Ataturk University Agricultural Faculty Department of Horticulture 25240 Erzurum-Turkey
(*Email: sercisli@hotmail.com)
Recently, wild edible fruits have received much attention for their health benefit substances including antioxidants,
antimutagens and anticarcinogens in preventing various cancers and age-related diseases. However, scientific
information on antioxidant properties of various plants, particularly those that are less widely used in culinary and
medicine is still scarce. Therefore, the assessment of such properties remains an interesting and useful task, particularly
for finding new sources for natural antioxidants, functional foods and nutraceuticals. The Coruh Valley located
Northeastern part of Turkey is one of the most spectacular nature reserves in Turkey. With its rich biological diversity,
the Coruh Valley is one of the 35 world hotspots of biodiversity pointed out by The World Conservation Union as the
western section of “Caucasus Ecosystem”. The valley fully covered by a lot of wild edible fruits such as cornelian
cherry, sea buckthorn, rose hip, mountain ash, wild persimmon, wild apples, wild pears, mulberries, wild red raspberries,
wild blackberries, wild figs, wild almonds, wild apricots, wild cherries, pomegranates, wild plums etc. Local people are
living in this region mostly using wild edible fruits as a source of food and medicine for thousands of years. The
genotypic variation on antioxidant activity, ascorbic acid, fruit skin color, fruit weight, titratable acidity, total anthocyanins,
total phenolic and total soluble solid contents of a number of genotypes belongs to over 20 wild edible fruit species
grown wild in the Coruh valley in Turkey was investigated. The in-situ and ex-situ conservation strategies are also
discussed.
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Indigenous Crab Apples can Play a Vital Role for the

Improvement of Apples
K.K. Pramanick*, D.K. Kishore, Satish K. Sharma and Poonam Kashyap

IARI Regional Station (Cereal and Horticulture Crops), Shimla, 171 004, Himachal Pradesh, India
(*Email: kallol_pramanick@yahoo.co.in)
Apple, the premier table fruit of the world, has been under cultivation since time immemorial. The selection of suitable
rootstock of apples for a certain tract has been an important investigation. All successful apple rootstocks, either
seedling or clonal, are of the genus Malus. In early days, French crab seedlings (Malus sylvestris) were widely used in
the USA as rootstocks. Some of the Asiatic species of apples are apomictic and bred true from seeds even when
pollinated by other species. These apomictic species have been used as rootstocks for commercial apple cultivars
with the hope that they might be of value in controlling tree growth and age of fruiting. Thus, the crab apples can play
a pivotal role for the improvement of apple through proper utilization of their potentiality. A number of crab apples have
been found growing wild in the Himalayas. Botanically only two species of Malus have been identified viz. Malus
baccata and Malus sikkimensis. However, this botanical classification does not clearly reflect the existing genetic
variability. At the IARI Regional Station for Horticulture at Shimla, India, seven types of Malus baccata and two types of
Malus sikkimensis from different agro-climatic regions have been collected. Significant differences for their botanical
and horticultural traits have been observed. The crab apples from Shillong and Srinagar exhibited a very good propagation
Session 3.2
potential, showed a high degree of resistance to powdery mildew and apple scab, while that from Shillong produces
semi vigorous trees and Srinagar produces very vigorous trees when used as rootstock. All the crab apples exhibited
a considerably less chilling hour requirement as compared to the standard apple rootstocks M 9 and MM106. Thus,
these crab apples are likely to improve the productivity of apple varieties in areas where the chilling requirement is not
being fully met. The germplasm that holds promise for using rootstock viz., Malus baccata (Shillong), Malus baccata
(Srinagar) etc. or in breeding programme for disease resistance or as pollinizers has been identified for the improvement
of apple. An ideal rootstock should posses uniformity in vigour, resistance to diseases and pests without impairing the
productivity and quality.
Vital Role of Khejri in Conservation Agriculture in Arid and

Semi-arid Regions of India
R.P.S. Deswal, N. Kaushik and Krishan Kumar

CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Regional Research Station, Bawal, 123 501, Haryana, India
Khejri (Prosopis cineraria), a multipurpose tree species of Fabaceae family also called “Golden tree of Rajasthan”
constitutes natural component of agro-forestry systems in arid and semi-arid regions of India covering mainly the
Rajasthan and South-West Haryana and dry parts of Punjab, Gujarat and Central India. A systematic survey was
carried out in South-West Haryana and Rajasthan during 2006-07 and 2007-08 on farmers’ field to assess the impact
of Khejri trees on growth/yield of field crops and nutrient status of the soil. The yield of almost all the crops namely
cluster bean, pearl millet, sorghum, mungbean, mothbean, chickpea, Indian mustard, taramira, wheat and barley
grown under its canopy was higher as compared to the open fields. Also the concentration of essential nutrients like
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium was significantly higher in the soils under its canopy. Various properties of the
soil including organic carbon, water holding capacity, cation exchange capacity and soil pH were improved that in turn
resulted in better yield of various field crops with fewer doses of chemical fertilizers. Yield of the field crops was higher
and soil fertility status was better in the fields having more number of Khejri trees. Farmers in the areas have great
liking for this tree species not only because of nutritious fodder and valuable fuel wood during the scarcity but also for
its tender fruits, which are used as vegetables in ethnic foods. Protection of naturally grown and new plantation of
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Khejri trees seems to be very useful in conservation of agriculture in the arid and semi-arid regions of India as it checks
the wind erosion of the soils and protect the field crops from scorching heat from sun shine. The improved fertility
status and water holding capacity of the field soils is thereby providing stability to the crop production in the dry areas
to sustain the human and livestock population. Multiple uses and beneficial impacts of Khejri on crop production have
motivated the rural people to stop its felling and worship as a religious tree.
Himalyan Saffron: Origin, History, Biology, Importance, Propagation and

a Report on Flowering in Non-traditional Environments
R.K. Gupta
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Directorate of Research,
Main campus, Chatha, 180 009, Jammu, India
Saffron is cultivated for its red stigmatic lobes that constitute the high valued saffron of commerce. It is characterized
by bitter taste and hay like fragrance caused by chemicals picrocrocin and safranal. The major pigment giving saffron
its value as a dye is yellowish red glycoside crocin found at levels of up to 2%. The bitter glucoside picrocrocin is
responsible for saffron’s flavour. Medicinally, saffron has a long history for its medicinal potential as mentioned in the
Session 3.2
oldest treatises like Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita (approx. 500 BC), Chinese Materia Medica (1552-75)
and continues use in the Ayurvedic and Unani systems of medicines. Modern medicine has also discovered saffron as
having anticarcinogenic, antimutagenic, immunomodulating and antioxidant-like properties. Saffron is believed to have
been originated from Greece, Asia Minor and Persia. Its cultivation was widely spread in Asia Minor far before the birth
of Christ. Nagas were the first civilized settlers who are reported to have cultivated saffron in Kashmir. Emperor
Ashoka is reported to have introduced saffron cultivation in Pampore. The recorded account of its cultivation in Kashmir
dates back to 550 AD, nearly four centuries earlier to its recorded cultivation in Spain by Arabs around 961 AD. Saffron
belongs to family Iridaceae and the chromosome number of C. sativus is 2n =24. It is a short stature bulbous, perennial
plant with a spherical (globular) underground corms (or bulb), 15-20 cm high. It has 6-10 radially arranged narrow and
elongated sessile leaves. The plant is a sterile triploid, propagated vegetatively by corms borne underground as there
is no botanical seed set. In this paper we describe our attempts to explore possibility of saffron cultivation in the non-
traditional environments under sub tropical conditions of Jammu (at altitude of 300 m AMSL) wherein the saffron corms
planted (after vernalization treatment) during last week of September for two successive years (2002 and 2003),
resulted in emergence of shoots with in two weeks time and gained optimum size in about 4-5 weeks. Flowering was
initiated in first week of November and it continued for almost 3 week. This new approach of vernalization treatment
with some modifications can open new era of extending saffron cultivation under non-traditional environments in lower
altitudes including plains and foot hills where saffron normally does not grow. There is also possibility of further
improvement in flowering provided vernalization is combined with growth regulators. Thus systematic work needs to
be done on physiological manipulations, integrated management and genetic improvement for further exploring the
possibility of raising the commercial crop in non traditional areas.
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Below Ground Biodiversity of Soil Micro-arthropods in Natural and

Cultivated Systems
Sharmila Roy*1 and Ruquaeya Bano2

1
2
NBPGR, New Delhi, 110 012, India
(*E-mail1: roysharmilaigfri@gmail.com)
Soil biota contributes to a wide range of essential services to the sustainable function of all ecosystems. Soil micro-
arthropods viz., Acari, Protura, Diplura, Thysanura and Collembola are considered as valuable indicators of soil
ecosystem on account of their association with litter decomposition and nutrient cycling. Their sedentary lives reflect
the local conditions of a specific habitat. Stable communities of these fauna are generally associated with undisturbed
natural ecosystems, while they fluctuate in anthropogenic ecosystems. In this paper, an account of soil micro-arthropod
diversity, their seasonality and dynamics in natural and cultivated system is compared.
The study was conducted at Jhansi (25027’N latitude and 78035’E longitude and about 275 msl). The soil of the
area is classified as neutral red alfisol of low to medium fertility. The crop cultivation was a round the year intensive
fodder production system consisted of cowpea + maize - lucerne with recommended agronomical practices. The
natural system consisted of a mix pasture stand of indigenous grasses like Heteropogon contortus, Sehima nervosum,
Chrysopogon fulvus and Dichanthium annulatum and trees like Albizia, Acacia, Zizyphus and Azadirachta. At every
Session 3.2
sampling occasion (quarterly), nine soil samples (15 cm depth) from each system were collected for assessing soil
biodiversity. The standard methodologies were followed for extraction estimation and identification of the biota.
Fourteen genera of collembola representing five families were encountered. Folsomia was the most abundant
genus (32%) followed by Brachystomella (23.9%), Proisotoma (21.0%) and Symphyleona (10%). Brachystomella was
the most abundant species of natural system while Folsomia was abundant in cropland. The conserved native vegetation
supported all the fourteen species of collembola while only eight were recorded from the cultivated system. The soil
mites observed in this study belonged to three groups namely Cryptostigmata, Mesostigmata and Prostigmata. The
cryptostigmata mites were the dominant (72.8%) followed by prostigmata (17.0%) and mesostigmata (9.9%). Sixty
genera of soil mites were recorded in this study out of which 53 mite species were observed from the native system
and sixteen from cropping system. The epilohmanniidae (54.7%) were the most abundant cryptostigmata followed by
scheloribatidae (14.1%). The Gamasellus species (44.2%) were chiefly abundant mesostigmata while Tarsenomidae
(55.4%) were mainly abundant prostigmata.
The analysis of community structure in these land uses revealed that cropland had low species diversity. The
Simpson’s dominance exhibited a higher ratio of rare species to dominant species in the natural system. This is an
indication of superiority in such systems in maintenance of ecological equilibrium in comparison to crop cultivation.
This finding may be useful in planning land management issues based on indicators of below-ground soil diversity.
Managing Genetic Resources for Sustainable Development of

Aquaculture and Fisheries
W.S. Lakra
National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Canal Ring Road, P.O.- Dilkusha,
Lucknow, 226 002, Uttar Pradesh, India
Recent years have witnessed a great excitement towards conservation of genetic resources and the environment both
at national and international levels. It is a fact that majority of the biological resources are with developing countries in
contrast to the developed countries who possess technological edge. With the biotechnological and genomic revolutions,
438
sovereign rights of the native inhabitants on the IPRs related to aquatic genetic resources and associated traditional
knowledge form the integral components of the strategies of management of genetic resources. Fisheries plays a
promising role in social development by providing nutritional security for the burgeoning world population and contributes
to economic upliftment of farmers and fisher folks, especially in developing countries. In view of the significance and to
achieve sustainable utilization of these resources, scientific inputs to plan management strategies are of utmost
importance. The greatest challenge is to conserve the genetic variability and secure the IPRs related to aquatic
germplasm. Conservation of natural resources inhabiting aquatic ecosystems is important from the fact that majority of
the genetic resources for food still come from the wild repository due to low domestication level in fisheries. This is in
contrast to the animal farming and agriculture where domestic varieties only contribute to food security. Today, it is a
known fact that the environmental degradation has caused damage to aquatic biodiversity. The damage to biodiversity
can range from loss of genetic diversity; populations and even consequences leading to extinction of species are not
unknown. The environmental threats could be man-made and natural or in combination with interlinked impacts. Such
threats are wide ranging including overexploitation of resources, habitat alterations, construction of dams, diversion or
reclamation of river beds for urbanization, that reduce water discharge in rivers, introduction of non-native species and
pollution etc. In situ enhancement of fisheries is an important aspect of management of aquatic resources. Besides
various protection measures, propagation-assisted rehabilitation of fish species that are declining in their abundance
is very important. However, such strategies need to look beyond rehabilitating the species physically but to repopulate
while maintaining its natural genetic variability. The management strategies with long-term impact on fisheries and
aquaculture development can be achieved through integration of scientific information on biological traits, genetic
stocks, captive breeding, brood bank, gene bank and genetic improvement plans.
Session 3.2
439
Session 3.3: Environmental Services
Environmental Impact from Mountainous Almond Orchards Under two

Cover-crop Strips in a High Slope in SE Spain
B. Cárceles-Rodríguez*1, E.J. González Sánchez2, J.R. Francia-Martínez1 and A. Martínez-Raya1

1
IFAPA Centro Camino de Purchil, Apdo. 2027, 18080-Granada, Spain
2
AEAC/SV. Avdª Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004-Córdoba, Spain
(*Email: belen.carceles@juntadeandalucia.es)
Soil erosion is one of the main physical processes of land degradation in Spain. Several studies in the Mediterranean
environment have demonstrated the positive effect of vegetation covers on the reduction of water erosion and their
indirect improvement of the soil physical and chemical properties, essentially by the incorporation of organic matter.
Soil loss and surface runoff patterns over a four-year period were monitored in erosion plots from hillslope with two
different cover-crop strips: (1) non-tillage with leguminous (Lens sculenta L.) and (2) non-tillage with and a mixture of
autochthonous thymes (Thymus baeticus Boiss. ex Lacaita, Thymus capitatus (L.) Hoffmanns and Link., Thymus
vulgaris L.) of 3 m width, in Lanjarón (Granada) on the south flank of the Sierra Nevada of southeast Spain. The
erosion plots were located on the hillslope at 35% incline, at 580 m in altitude and with 144 m2 (24 m x 6 m) in area. The
area selected for the experiment is the part of the rainfed orchard given entirely with almond ( Prunus amygdalus Basch
cv. Desmayo Largueta) trees, the planting grid were 6 m x 7 m. The cover-crop strips were tested in order to provide
information on the erosional response. In the leguminous strips, runoff ranged from 51.5 to 29.5 mm yr-1 and erosion
from 7.4 to 1.5 Mg ha-1 yr-1, while under thymes strips, runoff ranged from 7.8 to 1.4 mm yr-1 and erosion from 1.0 to 0.1
Mg ha-1 yr-1. According to the results the strips of thymes reduced the runoff and soil losses with respect to the Lens
sculenta. Thus, cultivation of medicinal and aromatic shrub (medicinal, aromatic, culinary and mellipherous), on the
slopes of almond orchard can provide a positive impact on the environment while representing an extra-income for
local farmers.
Impact of Irrigation on Arsenic Load and Water Productivity of Rice

Session 3.3
B. Basu, M. Kundu, C.K. Kundu and S. Sarkar

Directorate of Research, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Kalyani,
In recent past arsenic has become one of the most hazardous pollutants in aquifer water of Bengal delta. It enters into
human body not only through drinking water but also through food-chain. Besides, availability of fresh water is decreasing
with time. Thus appropriate curtail in irrigation water will reduce in arsenic load in crop, conserve water resource
without significant decrease in yield. Considering this, a field study was carried out during summer season of 2008 to
assess the performance of rice crop and arsenic status in different plant parts under deficit irrigation. Rice crop (var.
GS-3) was tested against four irrigation regimes which were imposed during 15 to 45 days after transplanting. The
treatments were: continuous ponding (CP), intermittent ponding (IP), saturation (ST) and aerobic (AR). A total of 1200,
1000, 880 and 740 mm of irrigation water was applied under CP, IP, ST and AR treatments, respectively. Arsenic status
of irrigation water was 0.163 mg kg-1. Arsenic concentration in root, shoot, leaf and rice grain increased with advancement
of age of the plant. Arsenic status in root was highest (6.14-25.33 mg kg-1) under saturated and lowest (10.60-23.1 mg
kg-1) under aerobic condition. In shoot the arsenic content was 11-13 mg kg-1, which was around 50 % than that of the
root and 10-14 % lower than that in leaves. Arsenic status in rice husk and grain were 0.12-0.77 and 0.29-0.86 mg kg-
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1
, respectively. No significant change in arsenic status was observed between perboiled head and cooked rice. Grain
yield under IP was highest (4.693 Mg ha-1) and in other regimes it was 4.331 (AR), 3.927 (ST) and 3.652 Mg ha-1 (CP).
Irrigation use efficiencies were 0.585, 0.459, 0.445 and 0.304 kg m-3 respectively under AR, IP, ST and CP regimes.
Environmental Impacts of Agricultural Practices of Farms Located in

Hills in the Northwest of Tunisia
H. Bahri1,2*, M. Annabi1, N. Chakroun3 and K. Latiri1

1
Laboratoire d’Agronomie, INRAT, rue Hédi Karray Ariana, Tunisie
2
INRGREF, Pôle Régional de Recherche Développement du Nord-Ouest Subhumide, Béja, Tunisie
3
Institut National Agronomique de Tunisie
(*Email: haithem.bahri@gmail.com)
Intensive agricultural practices adopted during the last decades have contributed to the degradation of soil and water
resources. This degradation is mainly due to the inappropriate use of mechanization and chemical inputs with dramatic
consequences on natural resources such as erosion, loss of land resources, and pollution of water table. The evaluation
of risks related to the current agricultural practices is an important step leading to proposals involving improvements
and alternatives. The aim of this work is to evaluate environmental impacts of agricultural practices in farms located in
the Tunisian Northwest, in a region subject to high erosion risks. However, direct measures of environmental impacts
of farmers’ agricultural practices are often difficult to implement. Since the 1990s, numerous agri-environmental indicators
and indicator-based methods have been developed, allowing to assess environmental impacts and the sustainability
of agricultural systems and to simulate potential effects of agricultural practices. A survey was conducted in 64 farms
located in the Tunisian Northwest plains and hills and main agricultural practices were assessed by using an indicator-
based method developed by INRA-France (INDIGO) and giving scores from 0 (bad) to 10 (good), 7 being the optimal
score. Results presented in this work are related to nitrogen fertilization (IN), energy consumption (IEn) (machine
consumption and consumption related to production of fertilizers and pesticides), pesticide treatments (IPhy) and soil
organic matter management (IOM).
A negative nitrogen fertilization impact, due to nitrogen leaching, was observed. This impact is more pronounced
for plains farms than for hill farms and is related to the high production potentiality of plains farms and to their level of
intensification in contrast to farms located in hills. Concerning pesticide treatments, no environmental risk was observed
Session 3.3
(IPhy >7) which could be related to the high cost of pesticides and cause farmers to limit the quantities used. The plain
farms that were investigated consumed more energy (13339 MJ/ha = 278 l fuel ha-1) than hill farms (11425 MJ ha-1 =
238 l fuel ha-1). Therefore, the environmental impact of energy consumption for hill farms is lower than that for plain
farms. This difference could be related to differences in agriculture intensification in plains. Management of soil organic
matter indicator showed a low level of soil fertility for plain and hill farms, which is related to the weak restitution of crop
residues and to the grazing of sheep after harvest. In order to test the environmental efficiency of various new agricultural
systems, such as direct seeding, the evolution of some indicators is simulated. Thus, when energy consumption due
to machine use is reduced, for the direct seeding system, the energy gain per hectare is about 35% for plains farms
and 39 % for hill farms. Simulating the addition of 7 t manure ha-1 year-1 would result in an increase of IMO 2.7 to 7 in
plains and from 2.6 to 6.4 in hill farms. Assessing and simulating agricultural practices and their effects on the environment
is a first step in reducing environmental impacts and could contribute into improving agricultural practices in a sustainable
way.
441
Environmental Services of Continuous no-till in Tropical and Subtropical

Conditions in Brazil
J. Miguel Reichert1* and Cimélio Bayer2

1
Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Soils Department, Av. Roraima 1000,
Santa Maria-RS, 97105-900, Brazil
2
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Soils Department,
Av. Bento Gonçalves, Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil
(*Email: reichert@smail.ufsm.br, cimelio.bayer@ufrgs.br)
Agriculture is responsible for over 20% of anthropic greenhouse gas emissions globally. This includes about a quarter
of all anthropic carbon dioxide (CO2) fluxes, mainly from deforestation and fossil fuel use; about over half of total
methane emissions, mainly from ruminant livestock, rice cultivation, biomass burning, and animal wastes; and about
two-thirds of total nitrous oxide fluxes, mainly from cultivated soils, animal wastes, and biomass burning. In Brazil, over
50 million hectares are currently used for grain production. The expansion of agriculture frontier in Brazil with forest
clearing, over the last 140 years, has generated a net emission of 121 Gt of carbon to the atmosphere, characterizing
our country as the single greatest emitter of greenhouse gases from land use change. In contrast, substantial area of
grain production is currently under no-tillage, which may contribute to several ecological benefits. No-till is one of few
agricultural practices that can deliver services that benefit farmers, society, and the environment, including benefits
such as reduced erosion, C sequestration, energy conservation, and decreased N loss. No-till management increases
soil aggregation, reduce erosion and sedimentation, and increase soil organic matter across a range of soil types,
cropping systems, and climates. In southern Brazil many fields have been under continuous no-till since farmers see
agronomic and environmental benefits, particularly since long-term yields equal or exceed those in tilled soils. In some
systems, even if yields were to occasionally decline, no-till can still be economical because of reduced production
costs. Soil fertility and soil structure increases over time under continuous no-till, whereas cultivating no-till systems
can decrease soil aggregation and accelerate C and N losses. Two challenges to continuous no-till is the increase are
the increase of exchangeable aluminum with depth and the presence of a compacted soil layer (no-till pan), which
affects water infiltration and root growth, and have induced farmers to till again the soil, with negative impact on the
environment. Direct payments programs to encourage no-till due its benefits to society are still incipient in Brazil, but
many extension programs funded by national and international organization promote the adoption of no-till as a low-
cost technology to improve sustainability in agriculture. This work reviews research performed under tropical and
subtropical Brazilian soils, with an emphasis on soil structure (aggregation and pores), surface and subsurface hydrology,
erosion and sedimentation, organic matter dynamics, carbon sequestration, and greenhouse gases emission.
Session 3.3
Interactive Effects of Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations and

Soil Nitrogen Availability on Yield and Quality of Wheat in
Sub-tropical India
Manoj Kumar1, Subhendu Bhadraray1, Lokesh Babar2 and Madan Pal3

1
Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, 2Division of Agriculture Chemicals,
3
Division of Plant Physiology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110 012, India
Atmospheric CO2 concentration is expected to exceed 600 µmol mol-1 by the end of the 21st century, and its impact on
crop plants is increasingly becoming a matter of major concern. Wheat crop which accounts for 21% of the food
sources worldwide, with its C3 photosynthetic pathway, is expected to respond to ongoing rise in atmospheric CO2
442
concentration. But, the plant response to increasing CO2 has widely been reported to depend on several factors, one
of which is availability of mineral nitrogen in the soil. Interestingly, Indo-Gangetic plain of India which accounts for 15%
of global wheat production is all set to face both of these conditions i.e., increased atmospheric CO2 and limited
availability of nitrogen in the soil. In such a scenario, it becomes quite pertinent to investigate how yield and grain
quality of wheat would respond to impending rise in atmospheric CO2. In order to unravel all these speculations, wheat
(Triticum aestivum L.) was grown in an open top chambers (in soil taken from research farm of IARI, New Delhi, India)
under ambient (370 µmol mol-1) and elevated (600±50 µmol mol-1) concentrations of atmospheric CO2 at three (low,
medium and high) levels of N fertilization equivalent to 120, 180 and 240 Kg N ha-1 respectively, with adequate supply
of phosphorus, potassium, iron and zinc. Grain yield of wheat responded positively under elevated CO2 at all three
levels of N application but the responses was maximum at medium and high doses of nitrogen. Relatively small
increase in yield at low level of nitrogen application can be attributed to nitrogen deficiency faced by plants under
elevated CO2 as indicated by the appearance of nitrogen deficiency symptoms (yellowing of the leaves) at low nitrogen
treatment. Nitrogen concentration of wheat grain which is an important determinant of grain nutritional quality, also
decreased under elevated CO2 at low level of N supply but medium and high level of N application caused an improvement
in nitrogen content of wheat grains under elevated CO2. The results underline the requirement of enhanced nitrogen
application to wheat crop for sustaining higher productivity and maintaining nutritional quality of wheat grains under the
futuristic ecosystem of elevated atmospheric CO2.
Assessing Vulnerability of Stream Bank Erosion on Ephemeral Streams

of Mahi Ravines under Real Field Conditions
M.L. Gaur
Stream Bank Erosion (SBE) is a major cause of land degradation along streams and rivers, foremost to non-point
source pollution and increased sediment supply. It also causes the deteriorated environment and drainage systems
leading to vast natural calamities like floods. Problem remains more acute on stream systems under alluvial soil
groups (in particular the ephemeral streams of ravenous lands of Gujarat), where prolonged flood inundations and
back water flows are common. A preliminary field assessment of prevailing physiographic and geomorphologic conditions
of certain ephemeral alluvial streams of Mahi ravines is presented. Field monitoring of SBE was performed at
representative sites using alternative simple field methods (repeated cross sectional surveys and erosion pins). Study
Session 3.3
area comprised 14 reaches on 6 categorized locations (main Mahi river, adjoining lower order streams directly draining
into Mahi, 1st order streams, 2nd order streams, 3rd order streams, and 4th order streams) encompassing 15 Km stream
length. About 600 erosion pins were installed and revisited with critical observations on their exposures (average
values ranged 7 to 23.1 cm yr-1) to asses SBE which showed vast variability towards vulnerability of problem. Erosion
pin based predictions gave higher values in comparison to cross-sectional based results. Discrepancies increase
while moving from lower order to higher order streams. River flows of main Mahi river (near Vasad) were observed with
daily flow stages and concentrations of suspended silts during monsoon season. At most observed locations bank
erosions were restricted to inner concave banks of meandering streams. Stream bank characteristics involving
measurements of bank heights, angles, materials, presence of layers, vegetative cover etc. are used to reflect categorical
morphological features of study reaches of streams. Average values of bankfull flow indicators encompassing width,
depth, width-depth ratio, degree and lengths of bank slopes on both banks were worked out. Ratio of bankfull width to
bankfull depth was adopted as a simple effective indicator to moderately judge prevailing geomorphologic scenario
with severity of SBE hazards. Its value was found highest (33) at main Mahi river sections against general range of 2.1
to 6.1 in other low order streams. The tail ends of tributaries/ lower order streams directly draining into Mahi, were
found as most vulnerable locations/ points giving highest bank erosion rates (0.6 kg m -2 area). Preliminarily estimated
rates for other categories of stream are also analyzed and presented. Observed field information and results may
serve as an useful base for synthesizing best management plans (viable bio-engineering options) for eroded banks
and adjacent riparian lands.
443
Environmental Pesticide Exposure: Threat to Human Health
Surendra Kumar Yadav

Environment Management, Vikram University, Ujjain, 456010, Madya Pradesh, India
(Email: sk_yadav11043@yahoo.com)
Pesticides are a broad group of biologically active chemicals used for pest management which act mainly on receptors
and are used on a large scale for agricultural purposes. Both texture of soil and hydraulic affect the leaching loss of the
pesticides. Environmental exposure of pesticides to human may be during cropping/ agriculture, food materials or air
inhalation etc. Many pesticides and chemicals are not biodegradable and due to bioaccumulation can enter into food
chain and ultimately affect human and animal health. Toxicity of pesticide is measured according to a number of
indices (such as oral and dermal LD50) based on tests carried out on laboratory animals. The toxicity and effect on
exposure depends on many factors like duration of exposure, dose, weather conditions, age and health conditions of
individuals. In agriculture, mixing-loading step is the most contaminated task in open field accounting for two-thirds of
the total daily exposure. The developed countries have already addressed the pesticide problem, but are still facing
some problems in certain locations/ regions and problems associated with pesticide hazards are not confined to the
developing countries only. FAO surveys agricultural ministries in each country regarding pesticide use every year, but
responses are not always reliable. Many of the banned or withdrawn pesticides from developed countries are still
produced or sold in developing countries; these include DDT, and other persistent organo-chlorine (OC) insecticides,
which represent about 15% of the value of insecticide sales in the regions outside USA, Western Europe and Japan.
There are about 1844 pesticide compounds currently in commercial use in the USA. In India, 145 pesticides are
registered for use at present and production has increased to approximately 85,000 metric tones. Though consumption
in India is just about 0.5 kg ha-1 but 51% food commodities are contaminated with pesticide residues. Pesticides can
affect human health, and short-term acute exposure effects have been well documented. Adverse health effects include
acute and persistent injury to the nervous system, lung damage, injury to reproductive organs, and dysfunction of the
immune and endocrine systems, birth defects and cancer. Even small amounts of some of these chemicals cause
death; disrupt hormones and reduce the ability to successfully reproduce; and have been associated with specific
cancers. The World Health Organization estimates that 20,000 women, men and children die of accidental pesticide
poisonings each year; three million are non-fatally poisoned and nearly three-fourths of a million new people each year
experience chronic effects from exposure. Although both animal toxicology and human epidemiologic studies have
shown that pesticides may operate through hormonal or genotoxic pathways to affect spermatogenesis. Better
understanding of the patterns of exposure, the underlying variability within the human population, and the links between
the animal toxicology data and human health effects will improve the evaluation of the risks to human health posed by
pesticides. Improving epidemiology studies and integrating this information with toxicology data will allow the human
Session 3.3
health risks of pesticide exposure to be more accurately judged by public health policy makers. There is need to
educate farmers for judicious use of pesticides, use of biotechnology and bio-pesticides, use of pesticides obtained
from natural products such as neem via proper application of integrated pest management (IPM) programs would
positively reflect on human health, agriculture, biodiversity and ecosystem management.
444
Evaluation of Economic and Environmental Impact of Resource

Conservation Technology in Irrigated Rice
A. Pouchepparadjou1*, S. Sundaravarathan2 and D. Adirubane3

1
Department of Agricultural Economics, 2Department of Microbiology and 3Department of Entomology
PJN College of Agriculture and Research Institute, Karaikal, 609 603
Union Territory of Puducherry
(*Email: pouchepparadjou@rediffmail.com)
Integrated pest management (IPM) is resource conserving technology that substitutes local knowledge, skills and
resources for the external inputs. The Government of Puducherry has reoriented its policy in 1994-1995 with the
introduction of IPM for irrigated rice and since then the pesticide consumption has shown a declining trend. The study
was carried out to examine the impact of resource conserving IPM technology in irrigated rice cultivation on the yield,
profit, pesticide use, biodiversity and residual toxicity in the Union Territory of Puducherry, India.
Contrary to the indispensed belief that IPM leads to reduction in yield, the yield level of rice among adopters was
2018 kg/acre, as against the non-adopters who realized only 1783 kg/acre. A Cobb-Douglas regression was fitted for
the decomposition of the output difference of rice between the adopter and non-adopter farms and it was found that the
difference of around 19% could be attributed to adoption of superior resource conserving technology (53%) and use of
inputs (47%) which proves the superiority of IPM technology over the conventional method of rice cultivation. The
increase in net returns of the IPM farms by 26% over the non-IPM farms shows the economic advantage of using IPM.
The analysis of technical, economic and allocative efficiencies using a frontier production technique of adopter farms
reveals that there is a considerable room for improvement in the above efficiencies in adopter farms than the non-
adopter farms. A logistic regression model was used to understand the degree and direction of influence factors
influencing the adoption of the resource conservation technology. The analysis revealed that small and marginal farms
were influenced by membership of several organizations and contact with the AEP. On the other hand large farmers
were influenced by the IPM trainings. However, the over-riding consideration for the adoption of IPM was the attitude
to reduce the use of pesticides across size groups. The Biodiversity index in adopter farms was more diverse than
non-adopter farms, so was the case with reference to Evenness index, indicating more stable population in IPM farms
than non-IPM farms. The result of residue analysis of rice grains, straw, husk, bran, and soil reveals that the IPM
products are having low pesticide residues. Establishment of a national IPM policy framework providing a useful first
step in implementing an IPM strategy at national level and orientation of research and technology policies to generate
a steady supply of relevant pest management information and technologies, including adequate budget allocations for
research, extension and training were suggested.
A Crop Cafeteria Study for Investigations of Arsenic Accumulation in Session 3.3

Plant System with Special Reference to Rice and Sesame in Some
Endemic Areas of New Alluvial Zone of West Bengal
Pradip Kumar Giri*, Biswajit Sinha, Nihar Ranjan Roy, Tanmoy Sarkar, K. Bhattacharyya and S. Sarkar
Arsenic Research Laboratory, ICAR-Niche Area of Excellence, Directorate of Research,
Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal, India
(*Email: pradipbckv@gmail.com)
Arsenic is a potentially toxic heavy metal ubiquitous in soil-water systems. Arsenic toxicity in groundwater has been a
major concern in the Bengal delta for the last two decades. The exploratory activities were predominantly confined
within the gamut of arsenic toxicity through drinking water although possibilities of arsenic contamination through food-
445
chain were also envisaged by several workers in West Bengal and Bangladesh. The present study has been laid to
explore the possibilities of arsenic accumulation in plant-system with special emphasis to cereal (rice) and oilseed
(sesame) in some endemic areas of West Bengal. The observations showed alarming level of arsenic accumulation in
root crops (5.70 to 132.80 mg kg-1) > vegetables (1.05 to 57.60 mg kg-1) > fruits (0.99 to 2.96 mg kg-1) > cereals (1.78
to 3.52 mg kg-1) > pulses and oil seeds (0.99 to 2.96 mg kg-1) while the permissible level of arsenic in drinking water is
50 mg L-1 (WHO). In an experiment conducted under controlled condition with rice (var. MTU 7029) was exposed to
varying levels of arsenical application. Arsenic accumulations to the tune of 42.84 (root), 16.85 (shoot) and 2.26 (grain)
mg kg-1 were observed when the crop is exposed to 45 mg kg-1 soil application of arsenic. In an insitu experiment
conducted with sesame (cv. Rama) under shallow tube-well water (0.32 mg L-1) and pond water (0.03 mg L-1) irrigated
condition, the uptake of arsenic was significantly more in shallow tube well over pond water. The concentration of
arsenic varies significantly over growth stages in all the plant parts examined. Generally, the arsenic concentration
was highest in leaf followed by in an order of root, shoot and pod.
Environmental Benefits of Zero till Wheat in Tube Irrigated

Rice Ecosystem
S.B. Goswami*, S. Saha1 and P. Chattopadhyaya1

AICRP on Water Management, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Gayespur, Nadia, 741 234, West Bengal, India
1
Faculty of Engineering
(*Email: sbg_bckv05@rediffmail.com)
In the lower Gangetic plains of West Bengal rice-rice cropping is prevalent under irrigated ecosystem. But there is a
growing demand for crop diversification to substitute the summer rice requiring huge irrigation water, causing soil
health deterioration and groundwater contamination with arsenic. Therefore, zero tillage and surface seeding of wheat
in low land rice field provide an option for conservation agriculture like energy saving, timely sowing, residual moisture
and nutrient utilization, controlling weeds, better utilization of purchased inputs and low cost of cultivation. On-farm
trials on zero till seed drill, surface seeding of wheat was under taken in the tube well irrigated low and medium land
rice ecosystem for 3-seasons of 2005-2008. More than 50 farmers participated in 3 years of demonstration. After the
harvest of aman (winter) rice, wheat cv. UP 262 was sown on 3 rd week of November with ‘Pantnagar zero tilled fertilizer
seed drill’ using seed rate of 150 kg ha-1 and complex fertilizer Suphala (15:15:15) @ 150 kg ha-1 having seed and
Session 3.3
fertilizer ratio of 1:1. Seed was sown at the depth of 5-7 cm. Soil moisture content at 0-30 cm depth varied from 26.2 to
31.7% during sowing of wheat in typical clay soil. Depth of irrigation for zero tillage (ZT) and surface seeding (SS) of
wheat (paira) was 4 cm against the conventional tillage (CT) 6 cm. Three irrigations were applied for CT and ZT at CRI
stage, maximum tillering and grain filling stage. Two irrigations are applied to SS crop. Nitrogen @ 60 kg ha -1 was top-
dressed in the form of urea in two splits – one at CRI and 2nd at maximum tillering stage. Crop received 86 mm rainfall
during growing period. Zero-tilled wheat with three irrigations recorded 19.5 - 26.5 q ha -1 grain yield and ZT wheat with
two irrigations (F6) recorded the lowest grain yield of 17.5 q ha-1. Surface seeding of wheat in standing rice recorded
16.5q ha-1 grain yield. Conventional tillage recorded the highest grain yield of 32.5 q ha-1. Two irrigations in ZT and SS
reduced the grain yield by 11.8 to 35.1% over three irrigations. Conventional tillage in clay soil was not promising due
to drainage congestion made by irrigation at CRI stage, which results yellowing of leaf at early stage. Water use
efficiency (kg ha-1 mm-1) of ZT wheat was 8.3 to 11.6 with 3 irrigations but two irrigations in ZT and SS reduced the
WUE (7.7). Three irrigations in CT recorded the highest WUE (12.2). ZT wheat was very accepted by the farmers in
the deep tube well commands with the benefits like early sowing by 10-12 days, saved land preparation cost by Rs.
2000 ha-1, saved one irrigation water, crop yield was at par with CT or more, saved lobour cost by Rs. 3250 ha-1 for
weeding and early maturing by one Week. Environmental benefits of ZT wheat instead of summer rice were groundwater
conservation by 1 m, betterment of soil physical structure by improving soil bulk density (6-10%), reducing soil compaction
by improving porosity (10-12%), reduction in soil erosion by improving the soil aggregates, reduction in pesticide use
and saving liquid fuel energy by 45-50 lit ha-1.
446
Effect of Different Irrigation Sources and Nutrient Management on

Growth, Yield and Arsenic Accumulation by Rice (Oryza Sativa L.)
Sanchita Mondal*, Pintoo Bandopadhyay and S.K. Sanyal

*Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur,
(*Email: sanm04@gmail.com)
Arsenic contamination in groundwater has been reported from different districts of West Bengal, India. Long-term use
of such arsenic contaminated groundwater to irrigate crops, especially rice (Oryza sativa L.), has increased the levels
of arsenic both in soil and crops. A field experiment was conducted to study the effect of different irrigation sources (I1:
Irrigation from shallow tube well water i.e., STW, and I2-: Irrigation from harvested rain water i.e., pond water, PW) and
nutrient sources (N1: control, N2: organic, @ 10 t FYM ha-1, N3: inorganic, Government of West Bengal recommended
dose of NPK, N4: integrated, 50% of recommended nitrogen replaced by 5 t FYM ha-1 with full complement of P and K)
on the growth, yield and arsenic uptake by the rice plant in Boro season during 2005-06 and 2006-07. Irrigation
through pond water led to higher plant height, dry matter accumulation, leaf area index (LAI), number of effective tillers
m-2 as well as grain and straw yield, as compared to STW. Among the nutrient sources used, the integrated administration
of nutrients (organic+ inorganic) favoured both the growth and yield parameters. The amount of arsenic uptake was
much lower when the crop was irrigated with pond water, as compared to STW. Among the nutrient sources, organic
matter applied as sole source of nutrient (N2) recorded the least accumulation of arsenic in all the plant parts at
different growth stages of rice. These findings open up the future scope of studies to work out the practicable management
practices for rice-based cropping sequences in the arsenic endemic areas.
People’s Participation in Managing and Utilizing Natural Resources for

Agriculture
R.K. Sharma and Bir Pal Singh

Water Technology Centre, IARI, New Delhi, 110 012, India
Session 3.3
Rainfed area accounts for two-thirds of the total cultivated land of 142 million hectares (M ha) in India, contributing only
45% of the total food grain production from nearly 90 M ha (66%) as compared with 55% of total food from irrigated
areas of 52 M ha (34%). Out of the 400 M ha-m precipitation received in the country, 115 M ha-m is lost as runoff,
resulting in droughts in the catchment areas and floods downstream. Harvesting of 25% of this runoff water in farm
ponds can provide life-saving irrigations to the entire rained area of the country. On the other hand, there is an over-
exploitation of groundwater through excessive pumping, resulting in the fast depletion of groundwater resources.
Declining water-table levels in highly potential and productivity regions have raised the concerns like hydrological
sustainability of intensive irrigated cropping system, which is the back-bone of India’s food grain production. Under
such a scenario, it has become increasingly felt that the country must frame a long-term policy of conservation,
management and sustainable utilization of these water resources to address the newly emerging challenges. If food
grain production in the country is to be raised, productivity enhancement in the rainfed areas becomes national priority
in the production front. Integrated watershed management is the only approach to meet this challenge. It is the way to
sustain the limiting resource base and enhance the productivity through increasing the supply side of water resources
and reducing the demand side in the watershed. The watershed approach has been able to generate additional water
resources and improve their quality through new strategies like artificial groundwater recharge, rainwater harvesting,
and adoption of suitable water management techniques. The large scale introduction of watershed programmes in the
rainfed dryland areas has opened up the scope for sustainable water utilization from a long-term perspective. Studies
have been carried out under these programmes to evaluate the impact of soil and water conservation measures in
terms of increased productivity through farmers’ participation on-farm trials.
447
Sustainable development and management of land and water resources within a watershed calls for precise
estimates of the temporal availability and demand for water. These estimates are very difficult at present because of
the lack of hydrological data-base and the techniques to be used. Under such a scenario, a view is emerging to
endeavour for holistic and integrated development and management of water resources. None of the present research
and development approaches can do this. An Attempt has been made in the present paper to discuss the need for the
approach, its suitability to Indian conditions and its impact on water resources generation and productivity front due to
various strategies adopted by the communities. The paper presents the results of the analysis of data on some biophysical
parameters considered by the studies in watershed management projects implemented by various agencies. The
various constraints associated with this approach and their solutions have also been highlighted.
Occurrence of Heavy Metal Contamination in Some Vegetable

Crops of West Bengal
Tapas Kumar Pandit*, Pradip Kumar Giri, P.K. Patra and D.K. Das
(*Email: tapas_pandit@ rediffmail.com)
Heavy metal contamination of land through use of municipal waste including sewage, sludge and urban compost, has
became a serious concern towards human health in the urban and periurban areas in the recent years. Heavy metals
like cadmium and arsenic are extremely poisonous; mercury, lead and nickel are nearly poisonous, whereas B, Cu, Zn,
Fe, Mn and Mo are low poisonous. In this background, the present study was undertaken to study occurrence of heavy
metals in some selected soils and crops of West Bengal. The Cd, Cu, Zn and Fe content in different vegetable crops
of Kalyani, Barrackpur, Jagaddal, Titagarh, Dhapa are sufficiently higher as compared to their concentrations in soil.
The mean Cd, Cu, Zn and Fe content in plant were 1.07, 24.65, 139.18 and 859.2 mg kg-1, respectively while the mean
concentration of Cd, Cu, Zn and Fe in soils of the five places were 0.08, 18.32, 30.47and 45.72 mg kg-1 respectively.
Among all soils and crops, the concentrations of heavy metal were higher in Barrackpur, Titagarh and Dhapa.
Session 3.3
Impact of Agricultural Practices on Ecosystem Services
Shakeel A. Khan and D. K. Sharma

Division of Environmental Sciences, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110 012, India
As human populations grow, so do the resource demands imposed on ecosystems and the impacts of our ecological
footprint. The impacts of anthropogenic use and abuse are becoming evermore apparent – air and water quality are
increasingly compromised and pests and diseases are extending beyond their historical boundaries, deforestation is
eliminating flood control around human settlements. There is a need for its long-term monitoring and for developing
analytical tools for rapid detection of probable toxicants/contaminants in soil, water, air, agricultural products as well as
by-products. Humankind benefits from a multitude of resources and processes that are supplied by natural ecosystems.
Collectively, these benefits are known as ecosystem services and include products like clean drinking water and
processes such as decomposition of wastes. Ecosystem services are distinct from other ecosystem products and
functions because there is human demand for these natural assets. Services can be subdivided into five categories:
provisioning such as the production of food and water; regulating, such as the control of climate and disease; supporting,
such as nutrient cycles and crop pollination; cultural, such as spiritual and recreational benefits; and preserving, which
includes guarding against uncertainty through the maintenance of diversity. So, sustainable agriculture will require that
448
society appropriately rewards farmers and other agriculturalists for the production of both food and ecosystem services.
Agriculture and ecosystem services are interrelated in at least three ways: (1) agro-ecosystems generate beneficial
ecosystem services such as soil retention, surface water, nutrient balance and food production; (2) agro-ecosystems
receive beneficial ecosystem services from other ecosystems such as pollination from non-agricultural ecosystems;
and (3) ecosystem services from non-agricultural systems i.e. forest, hydrology etc. may be impacted by agricultural
practices. Agriculture is a dominant form of livelihood and land management in our country. Therefore, there is a need
to understand how agriculture impacts ecosystem services, which in turn affect agricultural productivity.
Climate Change Mitigation Opportunities from Low

Carbon Agriculture
Lokesh Chandra Dube

Emergent Ventures India, Gurgaon
(E-mail: Lokesh@emergent-ventures.com)
Agriculture is a major sector leading to net positive radiative forcing of the atmosphere. Reducing emissions from
agriculture in developing countries (READ) is an area with high potential of climate change mitigation. These activities
are eligible for carbon credit generation in various sections of compliance and voluntary carbon market. Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
accepts agriculture as potential sector. Presently four small scale and two large scale methodologies are approved
under agriculture sector in CDM including methane recovery from agricultural activities and fertilizer switch i.e. urea
offsetting in soya-corn rotation. New CDM methodologies on Low Carbon Agriculture (LCA) are required to be developed;
particularly for N2O reduction by fertilizer switch, various organic farming practices, methane avoidance through low-
tillage or zero-tillage agriculture and methane avoidance and CO2 emission reduction through adoption of agriculture
technologies involving reduced irrigation.
Voluntary Carbon Standard-2007 (Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use- AFOLU) identifies Improved cropland
management, Improved grassland management and Cropland and grassland land-use conversions as eligible categories.
Emission reduction (ER) potential has been calculated for the LCA/READ activities including converting continuously
flooded irrigation to intermittently flooded irrigation and switching from synthetic fertilizer to organic fertilizer. Assumptions
Session 3.3
and results of ER potential calculation are given in the paper and are indicative as emissions will strictly depend on
actual conditions of soil, land quality, fertilizer type etc. Eligibility of these options has been assessed in the paper
under the CDM and VCM (Voluntary carbon market) from the methodological aspects.
This is concluded that going forward with high quality project activities with sustainable co-benefits, designed on
multiple standards would attract good prices and would help developing countries to attain sustainable development
and developed countries to meet their emission reduction targets.
449
Session 4.1: Impact of Conservation Agriculture
Assessment of Production Losses due to Water Erosion

in Rainfed Areas of India
Session 4.1
V.N. Sharda*, Pradeep Dogra and Chandra Prakash

Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
(*Email: vnsharda1@rediffmail.com)
As per harmonized database on land degradation in India, it is estimated that about 120.7 Mha area is subjected to
various forms of land degradation with erosion due to water being the chief contributor, amounting to 68.4% of the total
degraded area followed by chemical degradation, wind erosion and physical degradation. The estimation of potential
erosion rates by CSWCRTI, Dehradun in collaboration with NBSS&LUP, Nagpur using 10 km x10 km grid size data for
the parameters of Universal Soil Loss Equation indicated that about 39% area in the country has erosion rate of more
than the permissible rate of 10 t ha-1 yr-1. About 11% area falls in very severe category with erosion rate of more than
40 t ha-1 yr-1. Among the negative impacts of soil erosion by water, loss in crop productivity, reduced reservoirs capacity,
deterioration in water quality, loss of biodiversity and natural disasters like floods and droughts have a strong bearing
on national food and environmental security. Experimental data revealed that removal of 1 cm of top soil reduced
maize grain yield by 76 kg ha-1 in the lower Himalayan region while in the Shiwalik region, the reduction was up to 103
kg ha-1. Similar findings have been reported for sorghum, pearlmillet and casterbean crops in the southern region.
Though limited and scattered data are available on loss of production due to water erosion in the country, no systematic
effort has been made to compute the losses in production of rainfed crops in different states of the country based upon
experimental data, major soil groups and prevailing erosion rates.
In this study, the production losses in major rainfed cereal, oilseed and pulse crops in different states of India have
been computed by using the data on potential erosion rates and the loss in production based upon the experimental
findings in different agro-ecological regions of the country. The potential erosion rates in four different categories, viz.
< 10, 10-20, 20-40 and > 40 t ha-1 yr-1 were considered in conjunction with three major soil groups, viz. alluvial, black
and red for each crop. The production losses were computed by integrating the potential erosion rates, type of soil
group and experimental findings for various crops in a given state/region. It was assumed that the area affected by a
given erosion category on agricultural lands is in proportion to the total area of the state affected under that category.
Following this procedure, the total production loss due to water erosion under rainfed crops of all states of India has
been estimated as 13.34 M tonnes, which is equivalent to about Rs. 11,100 crores in economic terms, considering
minimum support prices of different crops for the year 2005-06. The analysis revealed that maximum monetary loss
occurs in the state of Madhya Pradesh (Rs. 1880 crores) followed by Karnataka (Rs. 1728 crores) and Maharashtra
(Rs. 1318 crores). Among the six major zones of India, Southern zone comprising of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Kerala and Tamil Nadu states experiences maximum production loss of 27.6% (29.15% monetary loss) followed by
Central zone covering Madhya Pradesh and Chhatisgarh states (22.8% production loss and 23.1% monetary loss) and
Western zone comprising of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Goa states (20.2% production loss and 22.9%
monetary loss). In terms of production loss among various crops, cereals contribute 66% to the total loss followed by
oilseeds (21.2%) and pulses (12.8%). A similar trend was observed for the monetary loss amounting to 44.5% for
cereals, 33.3% for oilseeds and 22.2% for pulses. Since the losses are cumulative over time, it is imperative to
undertake appropriate conservation measures for rehabilitation of degraded lands to prevent huge decline in productivity
levels, which may escalate further due to population pressures.
450
Conservatino Agriculture with Social Projection
Mauricio Zambrano
URDIMBRE Foundation, Kra 35 A # 18 – 128 Pasto, Colombia. S.A
(E-mail: obonuco gmail.com )
Session 4.1
Since 2005, the Social and Natural Reserve Janacatuir is active partner of the Red Colombiana de Reservas Naturales
de la Sociedad Civil RESNATUR. The developing of the Sustainable Conservation - Production Systems has become
the fundamental element of our process. Being itself essentially coincident with the Conservations Agriculture´s principles
established by FAO. We are working on the project: Urdir Tejido Social (To weave the social net). It is directed towards
youngsters of social high vulnerability who inhabit the 10 th Commune situated in Pasto City in the southwestern side
of Andean Region in Colombia. We have been implemented what we have named the Five Social Bussines and we
are hoping to be able to support a considerable group of families. Our purpose is to plant a seed so they themselves
will be able to be empowered by this initiative so they can build their own productive enterprise. The Social Bussines
have been named after quechua concepts: PILLKU: Colors and flavors of the andean orchards. HUMI: organic compost
elaborated by the red californian worm. YUYUS: Fresh herbs, flowers and vegetables from our garden to your home.
WAYRASASHA: Ecological Tourism through the Paths of the Wind. RUMIAULLY: Breeding and exhibition of farm
animals. We will present the background of URDIMBRE´s Social and Educational Foundation process in the Social
and Natural Reserve Janacatu, wich includes: description of the process of the ecological resaturation of the soil that
have been violentally exploited before our arriving in 1997. Nonstopping training of the yongsters in the field of
conservation agriculture. Implementation of the traditional andean techniques and tools. The use and exchange (Trueque)
of andean traditional seeds and the solidary marketing through the Agrosolidaria Network (www.agrosolidaria.org).
We feel that the experience of working together with the social high vulnerability young population is a vital and crucial
element to contribute, in one hand, to open new horizons of action to the youngsters, and, in the other hand, it
contributes to the protection of the last remaining andean high forest. New opportunities are offered in the productive
area under the principles of Conservation Agriculture as well.
Role of Conservation Agricultural Practices on Insect Pest Dynamics of

Wheat in Rice – Wheat Cropping System
K. Srinivasa Babu, R.K. Sharma, A.K. Sharma and B. Mishra

(Email: kumarbabu@ahoo.com)
The normal soil preparation practices before sowing in India follow thorough field preparation every season after
season and year after year, leading to degradation of soil structure and a compacted soil composed of fine particles
with low levels of soil organic matter. This process can directly and indirectly cause a wide range of environmental
problems. To address these issues soil conservation techniques were developed known as conservation agriculture
(CA), it involves soil management practices that minimize the disruption of the soil’s structure, composition and natural
biodiversity, thereby minimizing erosion and degradation. Conservation tillage is the collective umbrella term commonly
given to no-tillage, direct-drilling, minimum-tillage and/or ridge-tillage, to denote that the specific practice has a
conservation goal of some nature.Rice and wheat are the staple food crops and contribute more than 75% of the total
food grain production of India. Rice followed by wheat cropping system occupying nearly 10.5 Mha of the Indo-Gangetic
plains (IGP) of India is seminal to the country’s food security. The prevalence of this system over the last three
decades has given signals that the sustained production is at a risk. There are several studies indicating that the rice-
wheat system has brought changes in patterns of yield losses in both these crops caused by several pests. To address
the above problems, an experiment on conservation agriculture in rice – wheat cropping system was conducted with
seven main residue management options, viz. removal of rice and wheat straw, incorporation of rice and wheat straw,
incorporation of rice and removal of wheat straw, burning of rice and wheat straw, burning of rice and removal of wheat
451
straw, retention of rice and wheat straw and finally removal of both the straws. The three years data indicated that the
removal of residues from both the crops increased termite damage, burning of crop residues decreased the root aphid
populations and residue management did not influence foliar aphids to a greater extent. The grasshopper population
was found to be active in severe winter in the plots where there was no tillage. Residue incorporations also tend to
increase the populations of this grasshopper as the surface residue provides favorable conditions for the survival of
grasshoppers. So while promoting the conservation of residues in situ one should address the problem of grasshoppers,
as the epidemics of grasshoppers were experienced in Haryana in kharif 2008 at several locations on cereal crops.
Session 4.1
Utilization of the Income Generated Through Non-Farm Income

Generating Activities of Rual Women in Bikaner District of Rajasthan
Santosh Kumari1, D.Dhawan2, A.K. Jhajharia3 and H.Ram4

1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Sangria,- 335 063, Hanumangarh, Rajasthan, India
2
Department of H.Sc. Extension Education, College of Home Science, Rajasthan Agricultural University,
Bikaner, 334 006, Rajasthan, India
3
Department of Extension Education, S.K.N. College of Agriculture, Jobner, Rajasthan Agricultural University,
Bikaner, 334 006, Rajasthan, India
4
Department of Extension Education, College of Agriculture Bikaner, Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner,
334 006, Rajasthan, India
Rural women constitute an important component of rural development. Economic self-sufficiency of rural women can
greatly contribute to the eradication of poverty in rural areas. The term non-farm income generating activities in the
present study refers to the activities other than agricultural field performed by rural women for income generation.
Participation of rural women in agriculture is well recognized but women’s participation in different non-farm income
generating activities have not been established and it varies with regional and cultural norms. It demands a lot of
involvement, efficiency and timeliness in work on the part of women. Like any other occupation, entrepreneurship may
also have its own share of general and specific problems for women. The study was conducted in Bikaner district of
Rajasthan. There are five Panchayat Samities in Bikaner district. From which one panchayat samiti i.e. Bikaner panchayat
samiti was selected. In this samiti, there were 171 villages, four village was selected, Thus the total sample size from
all the four villages were 160 of which 50% (80 rural women) were from Stitching and 50% were from Woolen Yarn
Making.
This study deals with the information about the utilization of income generated through non farm income generating
activity. Stitching was considered important and interesting to find out utilization of the income of rural women. Majority
of the rural women (86.25%) reported that their income was generally used to meet out the household needs i.e. their
daily requirements. most of the women faced difficulties in rearing the whole family from their own single income. More
than half (51.2%) of the rural women said that their income was spent on children (e.g. their education, clothes, etc.)
because most of the women were from young age groups. It is also reported that 48.7% rural women spent their
income on themselves, while 47.5% rural women utilized their income for income generating activity because they
purchased the stitching material from their own income. While 36.2% rural women said that a part of their salary was
forcefully taken up by their husband, it was spent on bad habits like drinking, smoking and gambling etc.. One fourth
part (25%) of the rural women reported that as they were living in a joint family so their full salary was given to the in-
laws. As high as 11.2% rural women said that they gave their whole salary to the husband. Ten per cent of rural women
reported that their salary was spent for medical purpose and on treatments.
452
Woolen Yarn Making is an important income generating activity in Bikaner Panchayat Samiti most of the women
were engaged in this income generating activity to meet their house hold needs. It was seen that more than half of the
rural women (57.5%) who were engaged in Woolen Yarn Making spent their income in meeting household needs as
this is the only source of income for them. About 37.5% of rural women reported that their income was spent on the
education, clothes, and meeting other needs of the children because they were aware of the bright future and
development of their children. It was seen that 32.5% rural women spent their income in meeting their own personal
needs. About 31.25% rural women saved a part of their salary for the marriage of daughter or future emergencies in
some cases. 30% rural women said that a part of their salary was goes in husband’s bad habit like drinking, smoking,
Session 4.1
gambling etc; 20% rural women reported that their a part of their salary was spent for repayment debts/loans because
they were to take credit because of some emergencies in their house hold. 18.75% rural women said that they was
gave their whole salary to the husbands. Ten per cent rural women reported that they gave their whole salary to the In-
laws. Most of the rural women do not buy the raw material instead they were engaged in finishing them they were paid
for working on the raw material the middle men give them raw material they work on it and make yarn and then return
it back to middle man and middle man paid for the job done. So they did not spent much of income on their activity only
3.75% women spent this income on this activity.
Conservation, Organic and Conventional Agriculture Compared –

Impacts on Food Production and the Environment
Jens B. Aune
Department for International Environment and Development Studies (Noragric),
Norwegian University of Life Sciences
(Email: jens.aune@umb.no)
Conservation agriculture, conventional agriculture and organic agriculture can be considered as pathways for agricultural
development. Conventional agriculture is characterized by ploughing, use of mineral fertiliser and pesticides and often
monocropping. Organic agriculture does not allow any use of mineral fertilizers and pesticides, but ploughing is often
practiced. More diversified cropping systems are typically found in organic agriculture. Conservation agriculture is
based on zero tillage/reduced tillage, direct sowing, complete soil cover and crop rotations. This approach has similarities
to natural ecosystems because the soil is left undisturbed. FAO has estimated that food production will need to be
doubled by 2050 as a result of population growth, changes in food consumption and production of biofuels. This a
tremendous challenge particularly because climate change is expected to make agriculture production increasingly
difficult. This increase in food production will have to be achieved while at the same time minimizing the environmental
problems related to land degradation, global warming, eutropication and accumulation of harmful products.
The pathways for agricultural development have different impacts on food production and the environment.
Conventional agriculture may be able to produce sufficient food, but there will be negative environmental consequences
related to more erosion, lower soil quality, release of GHG, eutropication of waterways and accumulation of harmful
products in the environment. The greatest challenge related to organic agriculture will be to produce enough food.
Currently about 50% of world food production depends on plant nutrients that have mineral fertilisers as their origin.
Excluding mineral fertiliser in food production makes doubling of food production by 2050 unlikely. The climatic effects
of organic agriculture are also uncertain as more land will be need to be cultivated, even though less nitrogen will be
used. Conservation agriculture is likely to be able to produce enough food because this system allows use of mineral
fertiliser and improves soil quality. Use of fossil fuel is less in conservation agriculture as compared to other systems
because the plough is not used. Conservation agriculture will furthermore build more soil organic carbon than organic
or conventional agriculture. Minimising nitrogen use in conservation agriculture is a particular challenge, but can be
achieved through increased internal nitrogen recycling by improving soil quality, reducing soil erosion, crop residue
management and improved crop rotations. These factors reduce the need to use mineral fertilisers in conservation
agriculture. The choice of agricultural pathway is a compromise between the interests to produce sufficient food while
at the same time minimizing the environmental consequences of agricultural production. Conservation agriculture
appears to be the best compromise between these interests.
453
Impact of Evaluation of Cultivars of Major Oilseed Crops for the

Production System for Moisture and Nutrient Constraints in
Different Soil Types
S.V. Ramana Rao and S.N. Sudhakara Babu

Session 4.1
Oilseeds in India, are primarily raised by resource poor farmers with little or no input in terms of improved genotype and
nutrients on different soil types to an extent of 70% under rainfed /residual moisture situations. The present study was
undertaken to assess the impact of the technology(s) on farmers’ fields in different agro-ecological regions of the
country covering oilseed crops, viz. soybean, groundnut, sunflower, castor and safflower, wherein different interventions
of the improved technologies focusing on the moisture and nutrient conservation techniques were introduced on
participatory mode.
Castor: The productivity due to adoption of improved technology enhanced by 26.4%, while the incremental
cultivation costs by adopters was 16.4% over non adopters. The net returns on the adopters category was Rs.7653
vis-a-vis Rs.5584 ha-1 on the non adopters category.
Soybean: The productivity increased by 17.2% on the adopter category over the non adopter category. The per
hectare net returns on adopter and non adopter category was Rs.15501 and Rs. 10607 respectively.
Sunflower: The yield differential was 18.7% in kharif and 10.89% in rabi. The increase in net returns realized due
to the improved technology was 45.0% in kharif and 18.03% in rabi. Under Alfisols, the cultivation cost reduction was
28.4%, while yield enhancement was 14.9%.
Groundnut: Under Vertisols, the productivity increased by 21.7%. This led to net returns of Rs.11747 and Rs.8022
on adopters and non adopyers category. On Alfisols, incremental yield increase was 17.4% with net returns accrued
were Rs.1877 ha-1 with technology vis-à-vis Rs. 1412/ha without the technology. The gain in net returns per hectare
due to the improved technology was 32.9%.
Safflower: Under Vertisols, the incremental cultivation costs was 17.01% with incremental productivity of 16.26%.
The incremental net returns accrued was 11.91%.
The technology made positive impact with respect to soil moisture conservation techniques, soil/nutrient conservation
and increased biomass. The study also evidenced the several bottlenecks in the scale of adoption of the technology.
This warrants for institutional linkage mechanism for furtherance of productivity of oilseeds and minimization of the
negative externalities.
Valuation of Ecosystem Services from Cropping System with the

Adoption of Conservation Tillage in Wind-erosion Region of
Agropastural Zone: A Case Study of Wuchuan County, China
Yuanquan Chen and Wangsheng Gao*

College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, 2,
Yuanmingyuan West road, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, PR China
(*Email: wshgao@.cau.edu.cn)
Maintaining or restoring the ecological functions of agroecosystem is significant for environmental conservation and
agricultural production. The value of ecosystem services to farmers may provide an economic argument for the further
development of conservation farming and the implementation of ecological, economically, and socially sustainable
454
forms of land use. In China, particularly in wind erosion region of agropastural zone, it is necessary for national and
local to improve the improper agricultural production fashion. In this article, we taking Wuchuan County of Inner
Mongolia, China, for case study, evaluated the ES from cropping system with the adoption of conservation tillage in
wind-erosion region of agropastural zone, by introducing the methods of ecosystem services valuation. In Wuchuan
County, there are two patterns of conservation tillage were proved to suit for this areas, that are stubble with no-tillage
and intercropping. The results showed that in the intercropping system, the value of good production is 1784 RMB ha-
1
, and the indirect values including the soil loss preventing, soil water saving, soil nutrient cycling and climate regulating
are achieve at 7524 RMB ha-1. In the field of stubble with no-tillage, the value of good production is 3412 RMB ha-1,
Session 4.1
and the indirect value is 7874 RMB ha-1. Through the valuation, we get that conservation tillage system in wind erosion
of China, in contrast with traditional tillage system, providing more ecological values which making the farming system
more sustainable.
Conservation Agriculture and Livestock: Farmer Perceptions and

Experiences in the Indo-Gangetic Plains
A. Samaddar1*, N. Teufel2 and O. Erenstein1

1
CIMMYT
2
ILRI
(*Email: a.samaddar@cgiar.org)
The rice-wheat cropping system plays a very important role in farmers’ livelihoods in the Indo-Gangetic plains and
thereby affecting cultural practices and traditions. The differential adoption of new seeds, chemical inputs and irrigation
across this region resulted in significant changes in the regional pattern of development, agricultural output and rural
livelihoods. However, due to intensive rice-wheat rotation, the Indo-Gangetic plain is experiencing declining productivity,
diminishing ground water supplies, degradation of soils, and depletion of nutrients; threatening the future system
sustainability and livelihood security of the farmers. Research on conservation agriculture based resource-conserving
technologies (RCTs) - which includes zero tillage, permanent beds and mulching - continue to show improvements in
resource use and efficiency for crop production (RWC, www.rwc.cgiar.org) thereby contributing to the sustainability
and enhancement of the rice-wheat system and the livelihoods it supports.
Adoption of conservation agriculture practices involves trade-offs between crop and livestock production with
varying implications for landed and landless households in terms of land allocation decisions for food and fodder
production and dependence on market for purchase of livestock inputs. This study assesses these tradeoffs between
system components and social groups in nine contrasting sites in the Indo-Gangetic plains. Rural stakeholders were
consulted in two villages in each site, one village practicing RCTs and one that does not. This is a primarily qualitative
study of conservation agriculture and the importance of livestock in the livelihood systems of the farmers in each site
. This study documents how farmers perceive the components of conservation agriculture as seen through their
knowledge and experience as well as their understanding of this concept in terms of their livelihood strategies and
livestock management.
The study thereby shows how different farmer perceptions and traditions of wheat and rice cultivation result in
different farmer preferences and practices resulting in socially and geographically diverging trade-offs between
conservation agriculture and livestock in the Indo-Gangetic plains. The results have important implications for the
potential uptake of RCTs and the adaptations needed.
455
Socio Economic Evaluation of Zero-Tillage Technology
B.L. Dhaka*, B.S. Meena and R L. Suwalka

Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Post Box No. – 4, Bundi, 323 001, India
(Email: bldhaka@gmail.com)
As the supply of right kind of technology to farmers particularly those living in risk prone areas is critical for mitigating
Session 4.1
the wide spread inequalities and enhancing the economic growth. The technologies that we want to transfer to the
farmers should be simple, communicable and understandable, involve less risk, less cost, take minimum time in giving
results, have high productivity and profitability, adaptable to local environmental conditions, compatible to socio-
economical, bio physical and cultural situation of the farmers. It is imperative to enhance yield per unit of resources
used with efficient and judicious use of land and water resources. The sowing of wheat following zero tillage technology
has shown encouraging results. Under zero tillage, wheat is sown using residual moisture with no or minimum tillage
without irrigating the fields with the aim to sow wheat in time after rice, conservation of water, and reduced cultivation
cost. Zero tillage is an innovation that not only offers conservation of water and energy resources but also results in
better crop yields. This technology had been in use since long in many parts of the world and India as well but it could
not be popularized among the farming community despite lot of advantages. Keeping all above consideration in view,
the socio economic aspect zero-tillage technology in rice wheat system was evaluated in participatory mode. The
concept behind this study lies in a faster technology adoption by the way of testing technologies under situations
where it is to be adopted with full involvement of its ultimate client with their resources. The high yield grain and less
cost of production per hectare were noted on zero tillage farms as compared with conventional farms. The zero tillage
found adaptable to local environmental conditions, compatible to socio-economical, bio physical and cultural situation
of the farmers. Over all results shows that zero tillage has both economic and environmental advantage over conventional
tillage.
Constraints in Adoption and Planning for Resource Conservation

Technologies (RCTs) in Bihar, India
B.C. Choudhary1*, M. Kumar1, S.S. Mandal1 and R.P. Sharma2

1
Rajendra Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, 848 125, Bihar, India
2
BAC, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
In Bihar, RCTs are taking place mostly in the irrigated and flood prone regions, where water recedes late or soil remain
wet for longer period and after harvest of paddy constraints in adoption of these technologies. The study was focused
in seven districts of Bihar (India) state, i.e. Buagalpur, Begusarai, Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, Samastipur, Purnia and
Vaishali. Ten farmers each from RCTs and non RCTs village were selected in each district for questionnaire. Impact
summary of farmers’ opinions were moisture retention, reduction in urea, root growth, higher tiller, more grain and
straw, pulverised field, high panicle length, longer duration of crop, late maturity of wheat due to less effect of westerly
wind, bold grain, high quality grain, high straw yield, less lodging, less height and more number of branches in pulses,
large number of pods due to moisture, less damage of rat on crop, less irrigation requirement, high per rupees income
and less labourers requirement. Laser levelling saves irrigation time about 2 hrs per acre, in first year reduces yield up
to 10% and from 2nd year yield increases up to 20% as per farmers’ opinion. Training provides farmers to develop skill
and they were able to do work as master trainer. Among the extension activities surveyed FLDs (24.8%) has highest
contribution. Contribution of other media in descending orders were training (12.2%), exhibition (11.8%), radio (11.4%),
farmers fair (10%), TV ( 9.6%), pamphlet (7%), farm publication ( 6.7%), education (3.3%) and News paper(3.2%).
Constraints in adoption of RCTs were because of less faith of farmer, misguidance of tractor owner, lack of
training, lack of quality machine, mulch, adjustment of depth of sowing. Weeds were one of the associated problems
456
in RCT and trends of use of herbicides were very low in the state. Unlevelled field condition also makes problem in
proper seeding and germination. Costly laser levelling machine, need of high power tractor, lack of awareness , 4 hrs
electricity, small plot size, ploughing before levelling, only work from March to Oct. (before rainy season), high cost of
operation ( Rs. 230 hr-1) and high diesel consummation ( 6 L hr-1) were hurdle in adoption of Laser levelling. For proper
adoption RCTs, employment may be made available at subsidized rates through agricultural department or cooperative
societies, local manufacturer and market may be encouraged. Front line demonstrations (FLDs), farmers’ festivals,
farmers training may be organized to over come any doubts and misperceptions like lower grains yield and the fear of
even non-emergence of the seeds from their perceptions. Employments may be designed to smooth operation on
Session 4.1
mulch and technology may be also evolved to placement of seeds at proper depth. Electronic media may be also
involved in extension of these technologies. Scientist from natural, social and applied stream may be involved in
extension of moral technology are some of suggestions/recommendations for the rapid adoption of RCTs in Bihar.
Livelihood Improvement through Resource Conserving Technologies in

the Lower Gangetic Plains of Northern Bangladesh
M. Elahi Baksh1, Olaf Erenstein2 and Sam L.J. Page3

1
Wheat Research Centre, Dinajpur, Bangladesh
2
CIMMYT India
3
CABI Europe-UK
(Email: me.baksh@yahoo.com)
Bangladesh is the world’s most densely populated country with a pronounced concentration of poverty in Northern
Bangladesh. This area is located in the Lower Gangetic plains, has a predominant rice-wheat cropping pattern and
represents about 30% of the national wheat area. The soils are primarily light acidic and low in organic matter. The
productivity and profitability of wheat cultivation has been increasingly undermined by resource fatigue, continued use
of old wheat varieties (Kanchan) and delayed planting due to conventional tillage practices. Resource conserving
technologies (RCTs) have shown particular promise in terms of enhancing yields and income despite the prevailing
socioeconomic and biophysical constraints. Conventional tillage comprises several intensive tillage operations drawing
on a combination of power tillers (two-wheel tractors) and animal traction. A Power Tiller Operated Seeder (PTOS) was
introduced to allow the tillage and seeding to be completed in a single pass and enable timelier wheat seeding. The
reduction in tillage was complemented by the adaptation and introduction of other innovations to improve farmers’
livelihoods: liming to increase nutrient availability, the use of the Leaf Colour Chart (LCC), introduction of mungbean
after wheat during the short pre-monsoon fallow period and the introduction of new improved varieties of wheat and
rice. The innovations were demonstrated on 200 farmer’s plots in 12 villages of Rangpur and Dinajpur districts between
2004 and 2007. The on-farm results indicated that through these innovations productivity was increased and farmers’
gross margins increased by 38-300% for T. Aman rice, 73-121% for wheat and 100% for mungbean. An impact study
was done in 2008 to compare adoption rates in four adjacent villages: two that had been exposed to the technologies
and two that had not. It was found that there were differing rates of adoption between both the villages and the
technologies. Liming, new wheat varieties, wheat sowing by PTOS were adopted by the majority of farmers in all four
villages. Planting mungbean after wheat was favoured by farmers in one village. However, farmers were reluctant to
use the LCC for urea management in T. Aman rice or short duration T. Aman rice varieties. By adopting the selected
technologies farmers gained higher wheat productivity and profitability, and their livelihoods improved significantly.
The research shows the prospects of combining various innovations to boost system productivity and income. A
sole focus on conservation agriculture based RCTs would have proven a difficult sell, particularly in view of low system
productivity, competing crop residue use and lack of appropriate planting equipment. The new varieties proved particularly
attractive and farmers were encouraged to multiply and sell the new seeds. So far, 700 farming families in northern
Bangladesh were trained in the production, selection and storage of seed from new, improved wheat varieties. This
seed was sold at the beginning of the next wheat season. All farmers benefited from this enterprise and were able to
improve their livelihoods in terms of human, financial, social, natural and physical resources. The livelihoods of the
majority portion of marginal, foods insecure farming families were transformed into food secured and surplus farmers
within four years by using their new skills to set up a seed trading business as a result of the training.
457
Rehabilitation of Tsunami Affected Farmers through Integrated

Agricultural Technological Interventions in Andaman Islands
R.C. Srivastava, T. Damodaran, N. Ravisankar, S. Jeyakumar, S.K. Zamir Ahmed and M. Balakrishnan
Central Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, 744 101, India
Session 4.1
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands popularly known as the bay islands are situated 1200 km away from Indian mainland
and are well known for their wide range of biodiversity. The dreaded tsunami hit the island on 26th December 2004
leading to devastation of livelihood, biodiversity, water and land resources. The aim of the study was to restore the
livelihood of the tsunami affected farmers through various agriculture and allied technological interventions in the
tsunami affected cluster of villages namely, Guptapara, Manjery, Manglutan and Indira nagar of South Andaman. Post
tsunami scenario was characterized in three situations through participatory mode, namely i) low lying coastal area
where there was permanent inundation of sea water in the agricultural lands, ii) low lying coastal areas where sea
water reaches the agricultural land with every high tide and recedes with low tide and iii) low lying coastal areas where
sea water intruded the agricultural fields only during the event of tsunami and later receded permanently. Rehabilitation
package and technological module specific to the location was developed and implemented for restoration of livelihood
of target group in all the situations. Livestock based (dairy, goatery, piggery and backyard poultry) interventions were
implemented for the first situation, where in no option was available for immediate income to the affected farmers. In
the second situation, interventions like sea dyke construction along with sluice gate were made to arrest the ingression
of sea water in to the agricultural land during high tide and Brackish water based integrated farming system were
implemented to raise the income of the affected farmers. Crop diversification through broad bed and furrow (BBF)
method of rice and vegetable cultivation, mat nursery technique, system of rise intensification (SRI), fresh water based
integrated farming system, raised bed vegetable cultivation, high yielding varieties in cereals, vegetables, spices and
plantation crops, saline tolerant crops, composting, azolla cultivation, integrated pest management practices to advocate
bio pesticide applications were the need based interventions made in the third situations. In addition to technological
interventions, efforts were made to intensify agriculture through creating water resources by open dug well cum water
recharge structures (gabions along the nallah) in the affected village. Further, Water User Association (WUA) was
formed by the farmers of the affected villages by registering under Societies Act in the island for the first time. This
helped in sustainable use of water resources for irrigation and house hold. The socio-economic impact of the interventions
were also analysed and found that there was significant in restoring the livelihood and nutritional security of the
affected farmers and establishing an agrarian model village in the tsunami affected area. Efforts of the technological
interventions led to conservation of natural resources in the post tsunami scenario. Development departments of A&N
Administration and NGOs have come forward to multiply this interventions made by the institute in the affected areas
of the other district of these islands. It is suggested that all these models could be useful for mitigating the disaster and
providing them with an opportunity for decent livelihood.
The Lost Gardens of Khajuraho: An exercise in

Johan D’hulster
INTACH Belgium
(Email:info@intach.be; akelei.jd@gmail.com)
The mighty temple complex of Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh is a rich heritage site and tourist attraction alike. The
Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) has established a comprehensive masterplan for the
development of the Khajuraho Region. This masterplan mentioned for the first time the existence of historic royal
gardens in the administration town Rajnagar, 5 km of Khajuraho and the former residence of the local maharajas.
These gardens, some 13 in total, all have the same features : walled, with irrigation canals, wells, kothi, temple. These
458
1, to 3 ha domains are mostly in ruins. It is believed that these gardens in their former glory were innovating examples
for the local farmers.
In 2004, the Belgian Chapter of INTACH took up the restoration of these gardens as their project. This restoration
is not merely about restoring the buildings, but one of the main features of the project is to make the gardens into
training centres for the local farmers to introduce the principles of conservation agriculture and agroforestry. After an
extensive study of the local agricultural situation, it became clear that the biggest problem is the loss of landscape,
combined with drought prone conditions, resulting in a clear desertification of the area. The logic strategy has been to
Session 4.1
look for an innovating holistic approach of minimal soil disturbance, permanent soil cover and crop rotation in combination
with shadowing trees. This implies a sensibilisation of all stakeholders in the Khajuraho society. INTACH Belgium has
undertaken following actions: (i) the setting up of a nursery with indigenous trees to enable landscape repair, (ii)
replantation and care of trees in the village context, (iii) lay-out of a first restored historic “Lost Garden” (Pateriya ka
Bagh) following a multi cropping system of mango, papaya, guava and vegetables, (iv) the assembling of innovation
sensitive farmers with a good praxis, and to link this group with the consultancy of the Navdanya movement, for regular
assistance and the introduction of the conservation agricultural principles, and (v) the setting up of a seed bank with
local (Bundelkhand) varieties of grains, pulses and vegetables. Our primary concern with regard to the basic concepts
of conservation agriculture is that it should lead to a sustainable ecological holistic strategy, with a guarantee for the
social-economic autonomy of the farmer.
Impact Assessment of Agroforestry System on Yield of Associated

Barley (Hordeum vulgare) and Gram (Vigna radiata) Crops
Seema Jaggi, A.S. Gill1, Cini Varghese, V.K. Sharma and N.P. Singh
Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, Library Avenue, PUSA, New Delhi, 110 012, India
1
Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Pahuj Dam, Gwalior Road,
Jhansi, 284 003, Uttar Pradesh, India
(*E-mail: seema@iasri.res.in)
In today’s challenging agricultural settings, new and innovative approaches to farm production are required that are
practical, profitable, and low in cost. Agroforestry is a dynamic, ecologically-based natural farm management system
that, along with agriculture and the integration of trees on farms, has many environmental benefits. In order to understand
the mechanism underlying an agroforestry system, many variables have to be studied simultaneously, both in time and
space, and the possible interactions among the different components of the system are to be taken into account.
Quantification of the tree-crop interface is important to understand the competition between species and for the success
of agroforestry system. Tree has its impact both positive and negative on the yield of crops by way of its wind break,
shade etc. Under some circumstances, crop productivity is lower under tree canopies, whereas in other instances
productivity is higher.
The purpose of this paper is to investigate how far the yields of barley (Hordeum vulgare) and gram (Vigna radiata)
are affected in an agroforestry system under semi-arid conditions of India and to identify the factors that have significant
impact on the yield. Linear model containing four factors, viz., tree species [Siris (Albizia lebbeck), neem (Azadirachta
indica), shisham (Dalbergia sissoo) and babul (Acacia nilotica)], location of the trees in the plot, direction of the crop on
either side of the tree and distance of the crop from the tree, has been defined along with the interaction effects. The
data pertaining to the two crops for six years (1999-2000 to 2004-2005) was analyzed separately. Contrast analysis
has been performed to study the performance of the crops under different trees and without tree. It is found that yield
of both the associated crops (barley and gram) is affected by the tree species as well as the distance of the crops from
the tree base. The yield decreases over the years under the different tree species. The yield on north side of the tree
is more as compared to south side for all the years. The combined analysis of six years yield data revealed that tree,
year and its interaction (tree ´ year) has significant impact on the yield.
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Effect of Fertility Levels and Row Spacings on Growth,

Seed Yield and Seed Quality of Chinese Cabbage
(Brassica napus var. teeri-uttam)
V.K. Shukla, Keshav Chouhan, Amit Jha and S.K. Vishwakarma

Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, JNKVV, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India
Session 4.1
(Email: amitagcrewa@rediffmail.com)
A field experiment was carried out during the winter season of 2005-06 on a sandy loam soil having 7.3 pH, analyzing
low in available nitrogen and sulphur and medium in available phosphorus and potassium to study the effect of fertility
levels and row spacing on growth, seed yield and seed quality of Chinese cabbage at research farm, JNKVV, Jabalpur.
Treatments comprising of two fertility levels viz. F1 (60:30:20 NPK kg ha-1) and F2 (90:45:30 NPK kg ha-1) and three row
spacing viz. S1,S2- and S3 (20, 30 and 40 cm). Application of 90:45:30 NPK kg ha-1 produced significantly higher
number of leaves/plant (12.93), LAI (6.26) and also the yield attributing characters viz. number of silquuae/plant
(173.20), number of seeds/silquae (22.0) with higher seed yield (1.65 t ha-1) than the lower levels of fertility. The widest
row spacing i.e. 40 cm produced significantly higher LAI and yield attributing characters than the narrow row spaced
plant. The interaction effect of fertility levels and row spacing, the higher fertility levels and widest row spacing produced
the maximum oil content (37.95%) and content of protein (4.64%) in seed which was closely followed by higher fertility
levels and 30 cm row spacing.
Socio-economic Impact Analysis of a Participatory Watershed

Development Project in Chambal Ravine Region of India
Ashok Kumar, S.N. Prasad, R.K. Singh, Shakir ali and A.K.Parandiyal
Socio-economic impact analysis of Bada Khera Watershed project which was taken up during 1996-2003 in Bundi
district of south-eastern Rajasthan by CSWCRTI, Research Centre, Kota to demonstrate field implementation of
conservation technologies with financial assistance from Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development,
Government of India, New Delhi. Primary data were collected through PRA and personal survey method and covering
all the beneficiaries. Pre and post project approach was adopted for the analysis. Different indices apart from budgeting
techniques were employed to assess the impact of the programme. Major components of the project were various soil
and water conservation techniques and crop improvement packages. The results indicate that bunding alone and
bunding + leveling increased mustard seed yield by 89 and 200%. Chickpea, soybean and sorghum also recorded 65
and 108%, 29 and 84%, 30 and 90% improvement in seed yield, respectively. On an average, improved package of
practices with bunding and bunding+ leveling recorded 74.7 and 44.1% higher grain yield of crops during kharif and
rabi season, respectively than traditional cropping in the watershed. Crop Diversification Index (CDI) decreased from
0.799 initial value to 0.541 due to adoption of lesser number of high yielding food and remunerative cash crops. Crop
Fertilizer Index (CFI) values showed a significant improvement in fertilizer use after the implementation of watershed
programme. The impact of the project on environment / ecology was worked out by calculating watershed eco
development index which increased by 0.0539 after project implementation. Crop Productivity Index (CPI) indicated an
improvement in productivity of crops, where CPI valued from 0.829 to 0.995. But cultivated land utilization index (CLUI)
showed slight improvement only in irrigated area. The highest community participation at the planning stage (64.3%)
followed by implementation stage (38.4%) indicated that stakeholders in the watershed were reluctant in taking part in
community related developmental works and they only showed greater interest in the developmental activities taken
up on their own fields. Farmer’s contribution was only made for the works taken up at private agriculture fields and
contribution for community lands was almost negligible. Despite of increase in milch animal population in the watershed
only marginal improvement in the milk production was estimated. The gender analysis reveals that males played major
460
role in crop production activities while women took lead role in dairy production activities. In response to efforts made
for women empowerment, the participation of women substantially increased towards the project activities and
improvement in decision making power was also observed. Total family income increased by 44%.The maximum
overall incremental family income was observed in case of large farmers (62%) and minimum in marginal category of
farmers (28%). However, increase in income from agriculture interventions was highest for small farmers. It is, thus,
concluded that watershed management project in ravine areas helped not only to increase production and productivity
but also helped in restoring the ecological balance and upgrading the environmental status.
Session 4.1
Bio-Economic Evaluation of Maize (Zea mays L.) based Intercropping
System as Influenced by Weed Management Practices
M. Haque and B. Kumar

Rajendra Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, Campus, Sabour, Bihar, India
(Email: mizanul.haque@yahoo.co.in)
A field experiment was conducted at Birsa Agricultural University, Research farm, Kanke, Ranchi during rainy seasons
of 2005 and 2006 on sandy loam soil under rainfed up land eco-system of eastern plateau and hill region of agro-
climatic zone VII of India to determine the effectiveness of intercropping system and weed management practices on
production potential and economic efficiency of maize based intercropping system. The soil had 0.52% organic carbon,
261.6 kg ha-1 available nitrogen 21.5 kg ha-1 available phosphorus and 195 kg ha-1 available potassium and pH 5.9.
The total rainfall received during the crop season was 889.3 and 934.9 mm, respectively. The cultivars used were
Suwan. Composte (maize), Bragg (soyben) and AK 12-24 (groundnut). The treatment consists of five (5) cropping
systems (sole maize at 78 cm, sole soybean at 30 cm, sole groundnut at 30 cm, maize + soybean (1:2) and maize +
groundnut (1:2) in main-plots with five different weed management practices (weedy check, hand weeding at 15, 30
and 45 DAS, oxyfluorfen @ 0.2 kg a.i. ha-1 pre emergence, alachlor @ 2. kg a.i. ha-1 pre emergence and butachlor @
1.5 kg a.i. ha-1 pre-emergence + quizalofop-ethy1 @ 100 ml ha-1 in sub-plots were replicated 3 time in split-plot design.
Sole and intercrops were sown simultaneously in the second week of July following normal and recommended package
of practices.
Intercropping system recorded significantly higher maize-equivalent yield, reduction in weed population and weed
biomass than the sole cropping of maize. Maize + groundnut (1: 2) intercropping system recorded higher maize-
equivalent yield 6.6 t ha-1 and was statistically at par with maize-equivalent yield obtained from maize + soybean (1:2)
intercropping system. Higher value of land equivalent ratio, competition functions, viz. competitive ratio and competition
index were obtained by intercropping system compared to sole cropping indicating thereby that the intercropping
systems were biologically more efficient in the utilization of strategic input resources. Maize + groundnut (1:2)
intercropping system recorded the maximum values of gross return (Rs. 36277=00), net return (Rs. 21360=00) and
B:C ratio (2.4). Intercropping of maize either with soybean or groundnut in 1:2 row ratio markedly reduced the density
and dry weight of weeds along with higher weed control efficiencies. Based on the experimental finding it may be
concluded that intercrops (soybean and groundnut) between the wider row distance of maize could successfully be
grown for making intercropping a potential, cost-effective, efficient and remunerative system of crop production providing
certain insurance against biotic and abiotic stress and bringing stability in production and productivity under rainfed
upland ecosystem. Intercropping may also be treated as low input-sustainable agriculture and reduced chemical input
concept of conservation agriculture.
461
Reducing the Air and Soil Pollution through Conservation Agriculture
S.S. Singh, A.R. Khan, M.A. Khan and Raj K. Gupta

ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region, P.O BV College, Patna, 800 014, India
(*Email: sssinghpatna@yahoo.co.in)
The Indo Gangetic plains(IGP) occupy one-sixth of south Asia’ s geographical area, hold nearly 42% of its population
Session 4.1
and produce more than 45% of its food. Rice-wheat is grown on more than 12 Mha and provides livelihood for millions
in the IGP. Observations suggest that during the 1990s the atmospheric abundance of almost all greenhouse gases
(GHG) reached their highest values in recorded history, According to recent estimates by IPCC, by 2100 A.D., the
average global surface temperature is projected to increase by 1.4 to3 0C above 1990 levels for low emission scenario
of GHG and between 2.5 to 5.8 0C for higher emissions. By using no-till (Zero tillage) and other soil conservation
practices that preserve crop residue, farmers can help reduce GHG emission and curb global warming. Water and
agricultural sectors are likely to be most sensitive to climate change in South Asia. Increasing demand for waters by
competing sectors may limit the viability of irrigation as a sustainable adoption to climate change. An increase of
temperature by 1 0 C in the indo- Gangetic plains would be equivalent to a 150 Km Northward shift of isotherms (lines
joining places with similar temperature) or about 150m lower altitude. There is a 5% decrease3 in rice yield of every 0c
rise above 320C.
To assess how environmentally efficient the various production systems are with respect to GHG emission and
how much food is actually placed on the table, a carbon to productivity ration (CPR) is an ideal measure. CPR the
value obtained by dividing the total annual on-site GHG emissions stated as Carbon Equivalents (CE) by the total
annual food production in that area. Yield data of a long-term experiment at Pantanagar with NPK fertilizers at 50,100
and 150% of the recommended dose when analyzed after construction annual GHG budgets individually for CO2 CH4
and N2O indicated that CPR values of 0.45 to 0.48 were possible with zero tillage and retention of crop residues at all
three levels of N fertilizer use as against 0.54 for control, i.e., without fertilizer. However, with conventional tillage
practices and burning of crop residue the CPR values were between 0.57 to 0.73 showing a higher level of ineffectiveness
in the production system. The lower the CPR, the more efficient the system is at producing food with respect to the
health of the global environment.
Groundwater that is used by the people for drinking and irrigation is recently reported to contain high concentrations
of toxic arsenic in 70% of the 64 districts, mostly in the Gangetic flood plains. Many people have developed serious
skin diseases from drinking the contaminated water and from extended contact with it in the irrigated fields. It believed
that arsenic content has increased to dangerous levels in these areas due to excessive lowering of the water table in
the dry season for irrigation of boro rice. Positive changes in agronomic practices like tillage, manuring and irrigation
can help reduce greatly the release of greenhouse gases in to the atmosphere. Adoption of zero tillage and controlled
irrigation can drastically reduce the evolution of CO2 and N2O. Reduction in burning of crop residues reduces the
generationCO2, N2O and CH4 emission from rice paddies by 28 to 30% as per the findings at IARI (Delhi) and at
Pantnagar. Use of calcium nitrate or urea instead of ammonium sulphate and deep placemat instead of surface
application of nitrogenous fertilizers can increase its efficiency and plant uptake thereby reducing N2O emission.
Adoption of zero tillage systems on one hectare of land would save up to 100 liters of diesel and approximately one
million liters of irrigation water. Using a conversion factor of 2.6 kg of carbon dioxide per litter of diesel burned, this
represents a quarter ton less emission per hectare of carbon dioxide, a principal contributor to global warming. Zero-
tillage even on 5 Mha of rice-wheat system area would save 5 billion cubic meters of water each year. That would fill a
lake 100 km long, 5 km wide and 100 meters deep. About 0.5 billion liters of saving in diesel every year will help reduce
carbon dioxide emissions by 1.3 million tons every year.
462
Comparative Assessment of Soil Biological Health Parameters in Rice

under Organic and Conventional Farming Systems
O.P Sharma*1, Mahaveer P. Sharma2, Sushil K. Sharma2 and D.K. Garg1

1
National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management (NCIPM-ICAR),
LBS Bhawan, Pusa Campus, New Delhi, 110 012, India
(*E-mail: opsharmadelhi@rediffmail.com)
Session 4.1
2
National Research Centre for Soybean (NRCS-ICAR),
Khandwa Road, Indore, 452 001, Madha Pradesh, India
The activity and populations of microorganisms in soil play a pivotal role in the management of ecosystems. The level
of soil biological activity depends on farming practices (organic, inorganic/conventional and integrated) and environmental
conditions prevailing in the area. Changes that are made through these management practices on chemical and
physical environment in soil influence the biological processes and subsequently soil fertility. In the current study, we
compared the soil health parameters in organic versus inorganic practices (includes uses of pesticides) in rice farming
system. A trial was carried out at farmer’s fields in Kaithal district of Haryana. Treatments include fields belonging to
organically managed adopting IPM practices (IPM), indigenous traditional knowledge (ITK) and chemical dependent
conventional farmers practices (FP). Soil enzyme activities (fluorescein diacetate (FDA); soil dehydrogenase (DHA);
acid-and-alkaline phosphatases) and arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis were assessed in rhizosphere soil and plants
drawn from rice fields managed organically and conventionally. Data of two years field experimentation showed that
FDA as a measure of total microbial activity in soil (fungal and bacterial) was found maximum (61.9 pKat/g soil) in ITK
fields where as DHA activity was at par across the fields of three management systems. This indicates that DHA as an
indicator is not able to differentiate these systems. However, IPM-organic fields did show higher activity. Similarly IPM-
organically managed field did also support higher activities (80.2 and 96.7 nKat/100g soil) of acid and alkaline
phosphatases respectively. In general conventionally managed fields showed lower activity of soil enzymes. Density
of AMF is directly related to the ecological conditions of agro-ecosystem and present analysis indicates that fields of
farmers belonging to FP and IPM were more conducive for maintaining high AMF density than ITK. Mycorrhizal root
colonization in rice harbored by indigenous populations of AM fungi was more (up to 10.47%) in IPM-organic and FP
and least (7.91%) was in ITK fields. Current study suggests that a long-term field experimentation is required to get the
discernable impact of soil biological processes for sustaining the rice productivity under organic farming system.
Short Term Dynamics of the Organic Matter in a Palexerult Managed

under Direct Drilling
I. Mariscal1, P. Gonzalez2, R. Ordoñez2, R. Espejo1

1
Dpto. Edafología. ETS Ingenieros Agrónomos. Ciudad universitaria sn 28040 Madrid
2
CIFA Córdoba Alameda Obispo
A study has been made about the evolution in total organic matter (TOM) and particulate organic matter (POM) contents
in the top 5 cms layer of a Palexerult in the “raña” surface of Cañamero (SW Spain) managed under the direct drilling
system, in comparison with that of the same soil cultivated as traditionally in the area, with tillage. The influence of the
application of a double amendment consisting in two industrial by-products: red gypsum and sugar foam waste, with
both direct drilling and tillage, also was studied. Sampling was carried out three years after the beginning of the
experiment. Both the direct drilling and tillage amended plots showed an increased biomass production with respect to
the non amended ones as a result of the elimination of toxicity by Al. Slight increases were observed in the TOM and
POM contents in the case of the plots amended and managed under direct drilling although these differences were not
significant. The POM/TOM ratio was always higher in the case of the amended/direct drilling plots, which indicates a
preferential enrichment trend in this labile component of the soil organic matter.
463
Assessment of Erosion Status of the Soils of Almora District of

Uttarakhand for their Conservation
S.K. Mahapatra, D. Martin and J.P. Sharma

National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Regional Centre,
IARI Campus, New Delhi, 110 012, India
Session 4.1
Improper use, poor management and indiscriminate exploitation of soils lead to their degradation. The soils of hilly
region are highly prone to soil erosion because of sloppy landscape and hence need attention to protect the soils from
further degradation for their sustainable use. Thus, a study has been undertaken to make an inventory of the soils of
Almora district of Uttarakhand state and assess their erosion status for suitable conservation measures.
The study area belongs to Kumaon region of North West Himalayas, spread over 29o 26' to 30o 20' N latitudes and
79 3.5' to 80o 11' E longitudes, covering 3,68,928 ha geographical area. The altitude ranges from 600 to 3000 m above
o
mean sea level and climate is warm humid. Remote sensing data IRS1D, LISS III, FCC were used for physiographic
analysis, and ground truth studies were conducted using interpreted physiographic maps and Survey of India toposheets
on 1:50,000 scale.
The study reveals that the soils of the district occur mostly on moderately steep slopes (37.1%), followed by
moderate slopes (27.1%), escarpments (13.3%), steep slopes (11.1%), gentle slopes (7.4%) and very steep slopes
(4.1%), respectively. Twenty five soil series have been identified in the district and mapped into 44 soil mapping units
(soil series associations). Soils are mostly very severely eroded (48.5%), followed by severe erosion (33.3%), slight
erosion (13.3%) and moderate erosion (4.8%), respectively. Since sloppy landscape is the main cause of soil erosion
in the district, proper engineering measures as well as soil and water conservation practices should be adopted to
arrest further degradation of soils. Land up to 33% slopes may be cultivated with agricultural crops. Sloping lands can
be bench terraced and may be improved by providing shoulder bunds, leveling and inter-terrace drains. Agricultural
crops should be raised using good agronomic practices like contour farming, mulching, inter-cropping with legumes,
high yielding improved seeds, fertilizers, manures, pesticides etc. and also on watershed management basis for
harnessing the water resources. Landforms with slopes from 33 to 50% may be brought under horticultural plantations
and orchards after constructing proper engineering structures. The areas of shallow soils which are not suitable for
agriculture and tree growth, may be used for pasture development.
Lessons from Long-term Tillage Experiences on Rainfed

K.P.R. Vittal
The traditional indigenous knowledge based default conservation agriculture consisted of practices of organic{s)
application, broadcasting of mixture(s) of seeds and shallow till with animal- drawn implements. Integrated pest and
nutrient management are embedded into the system for maintaining biodiversity and recuperation of soil health. The
farmers were also wise in changing the direction of planting every year to demolish weed concentrations. Livestock
helped in reinforcing the conservation efforts. The scenario changed with the advent of outlook in rainfed agriculture
for higher production with population explosion. The mixed cropping system made way to a crop/intercrop system. The
need for additional water requirement is met by deep tillage, which also buried the weeds. Research experiences over
the past three decades showed the advantage of deep tillage on shallow tillage, its interaction with rainfall. In both less
than 500 mm and more than 1000 mm, the difference in productivity with deep and shallow tillages varied negligibly.
The weeds are a prime menace in above 1000 mm zone, while with less than 500 mm the constraint was on plant
464
growth itself. Mostly the advantage is harvested in 500 to 1000 mm rainfall zone. It is also seen that a set back
occurred in productivity while shifting from present day practices to conservation agriculture. The period of recovery
varied between 3 to 8 years in arid to semi arid regions. Organic carbon build up usually plateaued at about 0.5 to 0.8%
in the arid and semi arid region. The limitation on build up is the exposure of land surface to the high temperatures for
a long duration. The termite invasion is also a major problem for carbon sequestration. These invariably limited useful
microbial and other vertebral biota generation. Under these circumstances, any implementation of conservation
agriculture alongwith integrated pest and nutrient management does need a foundation of build-up fertility and availability
of (root) channels for water intake. A change-over needs policy support of payment for loss of production with agro-
Session 4.1
ecoregion based varying pro-rata. It also needs a huge financial support for initial soil fertility restoration to overcome
multiple nutrient deficiencies. Thus, the environmentally-friendly conservation agriculture before extensification do
need a critical relook in view of less information on soil resilience to mitigate adverse effects of climate chanqe.
Impact of Some Selected Resource Conservation Practices

Studied in North-East India
P.K. Ghosh, R. Saha, Anup Das, A.K. Tripathi and S.V. Ngachan
The term conservation of agriculture (CA) refers to the system of raising crops without tilling the soil while retaining
crop residues on the soil surface. The key elements which characterize CA include: minimum soil disturbance by
adopting no-tillage and minimum traffic for agricultural operations, leave and manage the crop residues on the soil
surface, and adopt spatial and temporal crop sequencing/crop rotations to derive maximum benefits from inputs and
minimize adverse environmental impacts. Intensive tillage in conventional systems leads to gradual decline in soil
organic matter content through accelerated oxidation, with a consequent reduction in the capacity of soil to regulate
water and nutrient supplies to plants. When crop residues are retained on the soil surface in combination with no
tillage, it initiates processes that lead to improved soil quality and overall enhancement of resource-use efficiency.
The North Eastern Region, comprising the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura, lies between 22005’ and 29030’ N latitudes and 87055’ and 97024’ E longitudes. The
region is characterized by diverse agroclimatic and geographical situations. The region has remained economically
backward, though there is an ample potential for development due to abundant natural resources. Organic matter is
rich in valley land but mostly unpurified. On steep slope, because of continuous removal of topsoil, organic matter
status is poor to medium. In this region where soil degradation is already high practice of conservation tillage is a better
proposition for conserving resources. Some resource conservation practices followed in upland terrace are highlighted.
In upland terrace growing of second crop is not possible during winter season due to scarcity of water. A simple
and low-cost technique of in-situ moisture conservation practice was developed at foot hills of Meghalaya. The technique
consists of putting 10t fresh biomass of a local weed Ambrossia spp. between standing maize before its harvest
followed by spreading of maize stalk after its harvest over and above Ambrossia as a double mulch. By this technique
seed yield of 0.7 – 0.8 t/ha was obtained against only 0.0056 t yield of mustard under no maize stalk covers. Water use
efficiency (14 kg/ha-mm) was also highest with maize stalk + Ambrossia against 2.41 kg/ha-mm in control plots. The
new technique of in-situ residue management recharges the soil profile and carries over soil moisture for rabi crop.
Thus ensures double cropping under upland terraces using only Ambrossia weed as external input. Ambrossia leaf
and stem being rich in the nutrient on decomposition enriches soil fertility in the field. It was found that within three
years the practice of in-situ soil moisture conservation under zero tillage performed better than the conventional tillage.
Zero tillage seeding offers the benefits of retained surface residues and reduced soil water losses. In case of field
pea crop, which has been taken as succeeding crop followed by upland rice, not only crop performance was better
under 50% rice residue retention (89% higher green pod yield of pea) but also maintained 15% higher soil moisture as
compared to residue removal plots.
465
In an another experiment four cropping systems (rice-mustard, rice-field pea, rice bean-mustard, rice bean-field
pea) were evaluated under conservation and conventional tillage practices with the objective to select water efficient
cropping system. In conservation tillage residues of all the crops grown in the system along with weed biomass are
incorporated, while conventional tillage residues are removed after harvest. It was observed that within two years all
the crops performed well in conservation tillage than conventional tillage. This was attributed to quick build up of
organic matter through incorporation of huge weed biomass along with residue in high rainfall area particularly during
rainy season. The results revealed that upland rice and rice bean grown during rainy season under conservation tillage
could support second crop of mustard without any protective irrigation.
Session 4.1
Maize and Conservation agriculture: The Potential Systems in Farming
Sain Dass, M.L. Jat and Ishwar Singh

Directorate of Maize Research, Pusa campus, New Delhi, 110 012, India
Maize, the most versatile crop with wider adaptability in varied agro-ecologies has highest genetic yield potential
among the food grain crops. Globally, it is cultivated on nearly 150 m ha in about 160 countries under diverse soil,
climate, biodiversity and management practices and contributes 36 % (712 m t) in the global grain production. Maize
is generally cultivated on marginal soils and environments prone to multiple stresses across the globe. In India, despite
major chunk of maize farming concentrating in marginal environments, maize contributes more than 8 % in the national
food basket and over Rs. 100 billion to the agricultural GDP at current prices apart from the providing employment to
over 100 million man-days at the farm and downstream agricultural and industrial sectors. As the demand for maize is
growing globally due to its multiple uses in farming and industrial sectors, we need to produce more from more marginal
environments. Hence, the conservation Agriculture (CA) which has been addressing the issues of marginal environments
globally is a potential technology for maize farming systems.
The CA and maize farming systems has great potential for improving crop yields, enhancing farm profitability,
improving the quality natural resource base under marginal environments. Maize being a photo-insensitive crop has
better options for adaptation and mitigation to climatic changes effects whereas CA systems helps in adaptation and
mitigation to climate change effects. The CA technologies are driving the maize in non-traditional regions in India i.e.
diversification of rice-rice with rice-maize systems in peninsular and eastern India wherein no-till maize is replacing the
winter rice due to potential advantages of water saving, advancing planting, reducing cost of production and enhancing
farm income. The studies on conservation agriculture in maize systems revealed that conservation agriculture in
maize-wheat, rice-maize, maize-maize systems has resulted in significant increase in crop and water productivity,
farm profitability with better soil health. Furthermore, conservation agriculture technologies have shown potential benefits
for addressing the issues of climate change through developing new maize systems (rice-maize currently being practiced
on 0.5 m ha in India). Although significant genotype x tillage x environment interactions has been observed in maize,
but single cross hybrids (SCH) has shown better adaptability to new set of cropping systems and management practices
including tillage and new environments.
Therefore, conservation agriculture and maize has a synergy with respect to input price index, natural resource
base, globalization and industrialization under the changing farming scenario and hence are potential future farming
systems.
466
Impact of Bio-Inoculation on Microbial Activity and Disease Incidence

under Conservation Tillage in Terai Agro-Ecological Zone of West Bengal
P.M. Bhattacharya1, A.K.Chowdhury1, P. Mukherjee1, S. Kundu2, D. Mandal2 and B. Rudra3

1
2
KVK, Uttar Dinajpur, UBKV, Chopra, 3KVK, Malda, UBKV, Ratua, Malda
Session 4.1
As a principle of CA, the use of sensible and profitable rotations has progressed and adopted in worldwide scenario.
Cereal -legume rotations and green manure cover crops have been a major topic of research and development efforts.
The beneficial effects and practicality of crop residue mulches have been well researched worldwide, and they are
widely used by farmers in more productive areas, largely, however, where animals form only a minor component of the
system. On the other hand, the depletion of soil fertility by the intensive cereal-cereal production systems is considered
to be a major cause of the yield decline. A rice-wheat system removes huge quantity of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium
and significant amounts of micro-nutrients. Refinement of nutrient management strategies would help maintaining the
crop productivity and soil fertility, but other rotational strategies could also help especially in situation where exhaustive
cropping system are not proving well and yield are stagnating. Therefore, under such situations inclusion of legumes,
commercial crops, oilseeds, aromatic and medicinal crops play a pivotal role in the rationalization of the resources use
and to break the yield barrier. Legumes are known to increase soil fertility through their capacity to fix atmospheric-N
and hence the soil fertility can be improved by inclusion of a legume in the cropping system. Yield of cereals following
legumes are reported to be 30 to 35% higher than those following a cereal in cropping sequence. Beside N-fixation,
legumes also help in solubilization of P, increase in soil microbial activity, organic matter restoration and improvement
of physical health of soil. The benefits of legumes in rotation are not solely due to biological nitrogen fixation, but result
from improved soil structure, reduced disease incidence. Under the light of these findings an attempt was taken to
include legumes namely cowpea and green gram in rice-wheat cropping system following the principles of conservation
agriculture. The legumes were grown within the wheat residue with the help of a punch planter with and without bio-
fertilizer treatments. Bio-fertilizers included Rhizobium and Acenitobacter (as phosphate solubilizer) delivered as seed
pelleting as well as soil application through vermicompost. After 5 crops taken in two different tillage systems namely
continuously zero tillage and alternate zero and conventional tillage, the bio-fertilizer treated plots not only yielded
higher biomass of legumes but also enhanced the soil properties relating to soil health. Apart from increased plant
performance under biofertilizer treatments in zero tilled system, lower incidence of foliar blight of wheat (Bipolaris
sorokiniana), Cercospora leaf spot of cowpea and green gram were also observed.
Evaluation of Tillage Management Practices on Wheat (Triticum

aestivum) under Rice- Wheat System in Eastern Plains of Rajasthan
B.S. Meena and R.L. Suwalka
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology,
Bundi, 323 001, Rajasthan, India
Water use, Ploughing, yield and economics of wheat (Triticum aestivum) after rice were studied under three tillage
management practices, viz. farmer practice, conventional tillage and zero tillage during winter season of 2006-07 and
2007-08 on clayey loam soil in Ganeshpura village of Bundi district in eastern plains of Rajasthan in randomized block
design replicated eight times. Among the three treatments, zero-tilled wheat recorded significantly higher seed yield
(4.31 t ha-1) and net return (Rs 30 990 ha-1) as well B: C ratio (2.74), respectively over farmer practice (4.02 t ha-1, Rs
26 510 ha-1 and 2.06) and conventionally tilled wheat (4.03 t ha-1, Rs 27 329 ha-1 and 2.24).Zero tillage resulted in
7.09% higher seed yield over conventional tillage. In zero tillage 25% irrigation water as plava, 20% seed and 66.29%
treatment cost as ploughing were saved compared with farmer’s practice as well as conventional tillage. Production
467
cost under farmer practice and conventional tillage were 66.29 and 29.82%, respectively more than that of zero tillage
sown-wheat. Zero tillage planted wheat gave additional net benefit of Rs 4480 ha-1 over farmer practice. Sowing under
zero tillage after rice was advanced by 9-12 days in certain situations compared to farmer practice and conventional
tillage. It may be concluded that zero-till sowing of wheat gives higher crop yield and monetary returns with saving
resource conservation in rice-wheat system.
Session 4.1
Economic Evaluation of Integrated Pest Management Technology in

Paddy Crop: A Study of Farmers’ Awareness and Behaviour in Bihar
Amalendu Kumar and D.K. Sinha

Department of Agricultural Economics , Rajendra Agricultural University,
Pusa, Samastipur, 848 125, Bihar, India
The high yielding varieities grown under high doses of inputs like fertilizer, water and pesticides have played a key role
in raising agricultural production. The use of HYVs has also increased the incidence of pests, diseases and weeds in
almost all the crops, resulting in substantial loss of crops. For reducing the losses occurred by pests, diseases and
weeds since the early green revolution period, farmers used numerous synthetic pesticides. But the indiscriminate use
of these chemicals caused serious damages. Keeping in view the global concern of harmful effects of pesticides in the
environment, a number of measures were introduced to limit the application of pesticides. This paper has assessed
the impact of integrated pest management technology on adoption in paddy crop using household information from the
state of Bihar. The result clearly revealed that the farmers were using HYVs of paddy seeds like Saryug-52, VIP Dhan,
Sona Mansuri, etc and it was attacked by a number of pests such as stem borer, Gundhibug, BPH, Army Worm, GLH,
etc. since tillering to harvesting stages and cause damage up to 30% as reported by the farmers. The awareness
regarding different components of pest control was found higher in case of medium categories of farm followed by
large, small and marginal farms. The small and medium categories of farmers were found more aware in the study
area. The study also revealed that the awareness regarding ill effects of pesticides on environment was found more in
case of medium categories of farm in comparison to other farms. The awareness of pest control technology and uses
was observed higher in case of small category farms followed by medium, large and marginal farms. This indicates
that the awareness regarding technology was higher in medium and large farmers but the use of technology was more
in small category farms. Major constraints on the adoption of technology was lack of proper training, inputs, involvement
of experts, lack of confidence and unavailability of biocontrol agent, etc. and thus farmers used indigenous knowledge
and chemical pesticides for controlling the pest attack on their farms. The overall findings of the study indicate that the
partial demonstration of technique, adoption of defective method of training (lack of interaction on between officials
and farmers) as well as non- avaibility of required inputs for adopting integrated approach of pest control technology
are powerful barriers which restricts the adoption of the technology by the farmers in crop production as reported by
majority of the farmers.
The study suggests that an effective system should be developed by department of Plant protection, Agriculture
and Extension for encouraging the adoption of pest management technology in the study area.
468
Balanced Input Use for Sustainable Production and Profitability of

Vegetable Crops in the Western Himalayas
D.K. Parmar* and H.L. Thakur

CSK HPKV, Hill Agriculture Research & Extension Centre, Bajaura 175 125, Kullu, Himachal Pradesh, India
(*E-Mail: dkpharec@yahoo.co.in)
Session 4.1
Among different agro climatic zones in Himachal Pradesh, the mid hill zone (zone II) is most important (681 to 1800 m
above mean sea level). This zone is also the main producer and exporter of the off- season vegetables particularly
tomato, cauliflower, cabbage, capsicum, french bean, peas etc. The farmers of the mid-hill area generally do intensive
vegetable cultivation and indiscriminately use nitrogenous fertilizers in abundance, while the use of phosphatic and
potassic fertilizers are very limited/disproportionate resulting in yield stagnation and deteriorated soil health. To increase
productivity and profitability of cropping systems in a sustainable manner, the trials were conducted on farmers’ field
using integrated nutrient management approach in cauliflower-cauliflower-pea cropping system during 2006-07 and
2007-08 in Mandi and Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh. Five different treatment combinations of fertilizers and
organic manure were compared with current farmers’ practice.The data revealed that there was no significant effect of
treatments on soil pH; however, SOC content was greatly influenced in all the treatments over farmers’ practice at both
the locations. The availability of N, P, K and B significantly increased in all the treatments over control however, the
highest build up was recorded due to integrated use of fertilizers and manure. The balanced inputs use involving
fertilizers and FYM significantly increased the uptake of N, P, K and B over other treatment combinations. The Annual
productivity and net returns were the maximum with combined application of fertilizers and organic manure. The
quality of different vegetable produce improved with balanced inputs use involving chemical fertilizers (NPKB) and
organic manure (FYM). It may be therefore, concluded that higher productivity and net profit of different cropping
systems under mid hill conditions of Himachal Pradesh can be obtained with integrated use of recommended fertilizers
(NPKB) and organic manure (FYM).
No- Till Maize under Rice-Maize Rotation – A Revolutionary Resource

Conserving Technology in Peninsular India
D. Sreelatha1, Y. Sivalakshmi1, M. Anuradha1, S. Hemalatha1, G. Lakshmikantha Reddy1, R. Sai Kumar1,

K. Jhansi1, R. Ranga Reddy1, M. R.Sudarshan1, J.C. Sekhar2 and M.L. Jat3
1
Maize Research Center, ARI, ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India
2
WinterNurseryCentre,Directorate of Maize Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, AndhraPradesh, India
3
Directorate of Maize Research, Pusa Campus,New Delhi, 110 012, India
In coastal peninsular India, rice-rice rotation is dominant system but during recent years, double cropping of rice is
becoming difficult due to shortage of irrigation water particularly during winters. Under such situations, possibilities for
alternative potential crops with economical competence that can be taken under water scarcity regions have been
explored wherein maize has shown promise. However, due to high energy requirement (25-30% of total energy
requirement) in field preparation for upland crops under heavy textured soils of rice ecologies, the alternate crops are
not remunerative. In view of this, no-till maize after rice wherein tillage can be avoided and crop can be established in
residual moisture has shown promising results in non-traditional maize regions like Krishna, Guntur, Godavari districts
wherein it has been adopted in nearly 0.2 m ha area. However, due to non-awareness of the technology, the farmers
are going with manual random planting with ineffective weed management practices due to which the potential benefits
of the no-till technology are not realized.
Keeping in view, a field experiment was conducted during 2006 to 2008 at Maize Research Centre, Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad to evaluate the no-till technology with integrated crop management practices for rice-maize system. The
469
soil of experimental plot was clay loam in texture having pH 7.7, low in organic carbon, available nitrogen, rich in P and
K. Eight treatments consisting of tillage, crop establishment and weed management were evaluated in randomized
block design with three replications.
The results indicated that, among the different treatments, no-till maize in row geometry with pre-plant application
of Paraquat @1.0 kg a.i ha-1 + pre-emergence application of Atrazine @1.0 kg a.i. ha-1 resulted in significantly higher
yield of maize being 8.1 and 8.4 t ha-1 respectively during 2006-07 and 2007-08 which was nearly 21% higher compared
to farmers’ practice of maize in rice fallow. The yield loss in other treatments was associated with weed incidence as in
Session 4.1
random planting crop establishment was poor where in weed competition was more. Further, heavy weed incidence
also resulted in incidence of pink borer (Sesamia inferens) that causes losses during winter season. The no-till maize
in rice fallow had also potential benefit of saving on cost of production ranging from US$80 to 120 ha-1. The findings of
the study indicate that no-till technology with integrated crop management practices has a vast potential for diversification
of winter rice under double cropping of rice in water scarcity areas of peninsular India wherein this technology can
improve resource use efficiency and farm profitability.
Evaluation of Planting Dates Effects on Yield and Size of Produced Seed

Tubers of Savalan and Agria Cultivars in Ardabil Region, Iran
D. Hassanpanah1*, H. Hassanabadi2, A.A. Hosienzadeh1, B. Dehdar1, N. Allahyari1 and L. Imanparast3

1
Ardabil Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Centre, Iran
2
Seed and Plant Improvement Research Institute Karaj
3
Ardabil Agricultural and Natural Resources Engineering Organization
(*Email: Davoud_Hassanpanah@yahoo.com)
This experiment was conducted for determination of the most suitable planting dates for cultivation of potato mini-
tubers Savalan and Agria cultivars in Ardabil Agriculture and Natural Resources Research Station during 2007 and
2008. Experimental design was split plot on the basis of RCBD in three replicates that main-plots had four planting
dates (20 April, 4 May, 21 May and 4 June) and the sub-plots had two cultivars (Savalan and Agria). In growth period,
plant height, main stem number, total and marketable tuber yield, total and marketable tuber number and weight per
plant were measured. Analysis of complete variance showed that the differences were significant between years on
marketable tuber yield, tuber number per plant and marketable tuber weight per plant, between planting dates on total
and marketable tuber yield, between cultivars on total and marketable tuber yield, plant height, total and marketable
tuber number and weight per plant, between years and planting dates on total and marketable tuber yield, plant height,
main stem number and marketable tuber weight per plant and between year, planting dates and cultivar on marketable
tuber yield, plant height, total and marketable tuber number and weight per plant, main stem number and marketable
tuber weight per plant. The maximum total and marketable tuber yield, total and marketable tuber number and weight
per plant belonged to 4 and 21 May planting dates. Savalan cultivar had high total and marketable tuber yield, plant
height, total and marketable tuber number and weight per plant toward Agria cultivar.
470
Ecological and Economical Valuation of the Impact of Agricultural

Practices on Ecosystem Services
D.K. Sharma* and Shakeel A. Khan

Division of Environmental Sciences, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110 012, India
(*Email: dks_env@rediffmail.com)
Session 4.1
Globally, it is estimated that 38% of land is in agricultural use, and excluding boreal lands, desert, rock and ice, this
amount rises to 50%, agriculturalists are the de facto managers of the most productive lands on Earth. Sustainable
agriculture will require that society appropriately rewards ranchers, farmers and other agriculturalists for the production
of both food and ecosystem services. Many other functions are important, such as land conservation, maintenance of
landscape structure, sustainable management of natural resources, biodiversity preservation, and contribution to the
socioeconomic viability of rural areas. Paying farmers for the environmental services they provide is an approach that
has generated growing interest worldwide from policy makers. Linking ecosystem service conservation with the
improvement of farmer livelihoods require an interdisciplinary approach that understands factors driving livelihood
strategies and ecological processes at multiple scales (i.e. local, national and international). In recent years, however,
ecologists and economists focusing on agriculture have forged a more complete vision of the capacity of agricultural
lands. They see farms as housing the natural capital capable of providing a stream of diverse good and services,
including ecosystem services such as increased biodiversity, carbon sequestration, pollination, groundwater recharge,
and improvement of water quality. Conventional agriculture is at a crossroads, facing pressure to improve its
environmental performance profile at the same time it is facing pressure to produce more food, fiber, and fuel commodities
on the one hand or to give way to urban development on the other. The ecological implications of the various agricultural
practices could be translated into economic valuations using studies that relate soil loss to future losses in agricultural
productivity (production approach), increased fertilizer costs necessary to replace N (replacement cost), and increased
downstream water treatment costs (avoided costs) or recreational fishery losses (contingent valuation). The valuation
of ecosystem services is also necessary for the accurate assessment of the trade-offs involved in different management
options. Ecosystem Services provided by agro ecosystem remain un-accounted for the lack of current policies and
practices. There are markets for carbon trading and agricultural/ managed landscapes offer great potential to store
and trade carbon at national and international level. Similarly, global agriculture is changing from being a primary
producer to multifunctional agriculture, for example producing food, feed, energy and ecosystem services. Therefore,
the need is to design agro ecosystems that can maintain production and protect ecosystem services upon which they
depend to promote social well-being of rural communities, industry and society as a whole. The challenge lies in
developing a holistic framework of how Indian agriculture can address the loss of biodiversity and declining natural
resources and introduce ecosystem services strategies to minimize the impacts of changing environment.
Improper Treatment and Management of Drainage Line Affects Tank’s

Rejuvenation in Semi Arid Region of Karnataka – A Case Study
A.K. Singh¹*, R.N. Adhikari² and M.S. Rama Mohan Rao³

(*Email ashokgsingh@rediffmail.com)
In south India alone about 1,21,825 tanks (more than 50% of total tanks in India) are available. Irrigation from such
storages was prominent in the arid and semi-arid parts of India, during pre-independence period, due to the fact that
rivers are seasonal and limitations in well irrigation due to presence of hard granites and gneises and further more non-
availability of modern drilling technology. Such rain water harvesting systems which are site specific, proved to be
environmentally sound, integral with traditional knowledge and socially acceptable. The negative effect of dry years in
filling the tanks is mostly compensated by a normal and above normal years. Findings based on 15 years data show
471
that intensive drainage line treatment through water harvesting structures and increased groundwater extraction have
drastically reduced average inflows to the tanks. The present case study shows about 50.44% reduction in inflows and
average spill over amount by more than 11% into Inchigari tank of Doda Halla watershed in Bijapur district of North
Karnataka. As a consequence, the quantity of water spilling from the tank is reduced to negligible and less water is
available to downstream users. As the tank remains dry for longer periods, the utility of the tank has declined for
activities such as washing, bathing, watering livestock, pisciculture, growing water loving crops etc. On the positive
side, this changed pattern has resulted in providing better access to irrigation to the farmers in the tank catchment and
command area. Irrigated area have been increased from 121 to 388 ha (220% increase) in catchment and command.
Session 4.1
This study further analysis the degradation of tank system due to over exploitation of ground water buffer and unfavorable
government polices. This situation calls for restoration of traditional tanks and their proper management rather than
developing the new ones. Specific issues and policies intervention are related to community management of both
tanks and ground water, ban on ground water extraction from tank bed area and also from certain depth, appropriate
drainage line treatment on the basis of hydrological and geo-hydrological analysis of the area, renovation of existing
diversion drain, feeding water to tanks, proper maintenance of feeder channel, redesigning of existing water harvesting
structures of feeder channel to increase inflow of water in to tanks, alternate techniques in artificial ground water
recharging and ensuring more water use efficiency by adopting suitable cropping system etc. The feasibility of re-
establishing tank inflows to original levels without impacting severely on the livelihoods of the new irrigators in the tank
catchment area was analyzed.
Water Conservation Cropping System for Limited Water Resources in

the North China Plain
Yu-yi Li1, Huan-cheng Pang1*, Tian-zhi Ren1, Fu Chen2, Hai-lin Zhang2

1
Institute of Agro-resources and Regional Planning, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences,
Beijing 100 081, China
2
College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100 094, China
The North China Plain (NCP) is China’s most important region of grain production and home to more than 200 million
people. The region produces about one fourth of the country’s total food grains, 58.1% of wheat, 33.4% of maize,
42.6% of cotton, and 34.6% of oil crops with only 6.65% of total national available water resources. At present, the
water shortage in the NCP is very acute, the average available water per capita is only 450 m3 annually, which is about
one quarter the national average and one eighteenth the world average. Similarly, water supply in per hectare cultivated
land is 7218 m3, which accounts for about 25% of the national average. In the nationally critical region, winter wheat
and summer maize are the two staple crops that are combined in a single-year rotation. Irrigation is essential for the
practice of this double cropping system, especially to winter wheat. In the recent years, the rapid development of
industry and urban areas, population growth and rising living standards have all resulted in an increased water demand
for non-agricultural uses in the region, therefore decreasing the water availability for irrigation. Crop production in the
region relied heavily on the groundwater resources. In consequence the groundwater table has fallen rapidly and has
become the principal concern regarding the available water resource. These facts reveal that dominating double
cropping system of wheat and maize was not favorable to the conservation of water resources and the development of
water conservation cropping system is essential in order to assure the sustainability of water use in the NCP. This
paper presents main research results relative to yield, water utilization and economic benefits under two different
cropping systems of winter wheat-summer maize (WM) and winter wheat-summer maize spring maize (WMM) based
on the long-term field experiment in Fengqiu and Wuqiao station. The results were that: (1) Water consumed by WM
greatly exceeded the annual precipitation, and the satisfactory fraction of its precipitation in the crops growing period
was 72.9%. With the increase of irrigation water especially during the whole wheat growing season and maize seedling
stage, the groundwater table was decreasing, and the lowest groundwater table usually occurred in June. To maintain
the local relatively high yield of 12000kg/hm2 for WM, it was found that the groundwater levels declined approximately
1 m every two years. (2) Compared with the WM, the rate of its precipitation meeting the demand of total water
472
consumption under WMM was 80.4%, the total water productivity of WMM was reduced by 23.1%, and total water
consumption was reduced by 12.0%. In addition, the water use efficiency for WMM was also reduced by 15.8%, and
net margin decreased by 21.9% as compared to the WM. Although the yield, water use efficiency and economic
benefits under WMM was lower than that of WM, WMM can potentially make agricultural production sustainable in this
area in terms of water usage and prevent further depletion of the groundwater resource. So in the NCP, WMM is the
good cropping system choice of giving attention to grain safety and good environment impact due to reduced agricultural
water use.
Session 4.1
Economic Impact Assessment of Precision Leveling for
P. Ramasundaram, R.P. Mishra and M.S. Gill
Laser assisted precision land leveling saves irrigation water, nutrients and chemicals against the traditional land leveling.
A survey of 55 adopters and 30 service providers of laser leveling technology in Western Uttar Pradesh of Indo-
Gangetic Plains was conducted during 2006-07 and 2007-08 to study the benefits accrued to the individual adopter
and the region, and economics of custom service. The average time required for laser leveling of one acre was 4.5 hrs
depending on the size, slope and shape of the filed and the average rent turned out to be Rs.362 hr-1. Post leveling the
time saved per irrigation ranged between 1 hour 30 minutes in paddy to 1 hour 45 minutes in wheat and the corresponding
savings in electricity was 2.28 and 4.06 units. The approximate saving in irrigation water ranged between 9.72 –
10.57% and the electricity charges between Rs.190 to Rs.205 depending upon the number of irrigation. The partial
budgeting worked out for this three year period for wheat showed that the additional cost included leveling expenses
(Rs.4545/-), additional FYM needed for compensating the top soil loss (Rs.515/-), and interest on capital invested
(Rs.848) all totaling up to Rs.6630 ha-1. The increase in additional yield due to added net area sown when the bunds
and channels are dismantled and improved nutrient and water use efficiency was 1.40 t which @ 75 t-1 worked out to
Rs.10523 ha-1. Thus there was a net gain of Rs.3893 ha-1 over a three-year cycle for a single crop. The benefit more
than doubled if the entire system is considered.
On an average one laser leveler costs about Rs. 4 lacs and a 50 HP tractor costs about Rs. 4.7 lacs that amounted
to the total cost of the unit at Rs. 8.7 Lacs. It takes around five hours to level a one-acre plot and the hiring charge on
an average was Rs.437.50 hr-1. One unit on an average can cover 2.67 acres in a day. The life of the technology was
3.5 years depending upon the type of machines and implements used for subsequent land preparation operations. The
cost of the operation of one new laser unit was Rs.437402/= over fuel, driver’s wages and bonus, maintenance, repair,
insurance, miscellaneous and interest on investment. The gross revenue for the period of engagement was Rs.606660
and the net revenue was Rs.169258.
The average age of the units was 4.5 years and the approximate period of engagement in a year was 110 days.
Based on the age of the machine, number of days engaged in a year and the area covered/day, the total area laser
leveled was estimated to be 220058 acres (89092 ha) over the past eight years. Multiplied over the life of the technology,
the actual area under laser leveling since its introduction exceeds two lakh ha. For quantification purposes, the entire
area was assumed to be under rice-wheat. The estimated water savings per ha was 2000.70 m3 and 1750 m3 in rice
and wheat respectively, 139.06 and 86.82 units of electricity worth Rs.556.24 and Rs.347.28. For the region as a
whole, the estimated additional production (million tones), savings in water (M3) and savings in electricity (million Rs)
in rice and wheat are 0.37 and 0.34, 2805 million and 2692 million and 551 and 95.74 respectively.
473
Conservation of Agriculture for Sustainable Development in Ladakh
Usha Tuteja1 and Tehmina Rahman2

1
Agriculture Economics Research Centre
2
Miranda House College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
Traditional agriculture in Ladakh was based on human labour, animal power and hand-made tools. Fields were irrigated
Session 4.1
with glacial melt water and fertilized with human “night soil”. Families also tended small vegetable gardens and sometimes
apple or apricot orchards, and kept a few animals, such as, goats, sheep. The technologies were simple, yet in the four
months between the spring and autumn frosts, the Ladakhis produced more than enough food for the entire year. It
was ecologically sustainable.
For the last three decades or so, Ladakh has been increasingly exposed to modern influences brought on largely
by tourism and economic “development”. Modernization is undermining the very foundations of the traditional culture
and giving rise to a familiar pattern of devastating environmental and social problems. Ladakhi agriculture has been hit
particularly hard. Local agriculture now seems “uneconomic”. In addition to this, the threat of melting of Himalayan
glaciers because of climate change can bring further bad news for the Ladakhi agriculture. Since the rivers and the
streams coming from these glaciers are the only source of irrigation for the people of Ladakh.
The study is an attempt to know the current landuse and cropping pattern of Leh and Kargil districts of Ladakh. It
also presents a discussion of the problems faced by Ladakhi agriculture today in terms of productivity, Income and the
available economic services. In view of the above, the study tries to suggest alternative landuse for sustainable
development of agriculture in Ladakh.
Changes of Agricultural Cropping Pattern in the Char-Lands Due to

Devastating Floods in Padma River Basin: An Alternative Approach for
Crops Conservation
Shafi Noor ISLAM

Dept. of Ecosystems and Environmental Informatics, International Study Course Environmental and Resource
Management, Brandenburg University of Technology at Cottbus
P.O. Box 101344, D – 03013 Cottbus, Germany
(Email: shafinoor@yahoo.com)
The char-land landscapes of Bangladesh are of great importance for its exceptional hydro-geographical setting. The
physical characteristics of the land, geographic location, the multiplicity of rivers and the monsoon climate render
Bangladesh highly vulnerable to natural disaster, such as massive floods and cyclones. Flood is a natural annual
phenomenon of a river system which occupies a unique position in the culture, society and economy of Bangladesh.
The char settlements and the agricultural cropping systems of char-lands are under threatened due to devastating
floods and river bank erosion. The char-lands of Padma River are undergoing rapid hydro-morphological changes as
a consequence of natural and anthropogenic causes. The Padma is a meandering river and has high rate of river bank
erosion and accretion character in the channel. The excesses of water during the monsoon cause wide spread flooding
which damages char-land settlements, agricultural crops, infrastructures, communication networks and life. The Char
agriculture is depending on the soil quality and fertility. Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mouza of Char Janajat is highly
affected by annual floods and as a result, the traditional agricultural cropping pattern is rapidly changing. The Char
agriculture of Padma river basin is unstable; therefore an alternative stable agricultural cropping system is necessary
for the char dwellers. The study shows the unstable char agricultural cropping pattern and people displacement cycle
at Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mouza in the river channel. The objective of this study is to develop a comprehensive char
flood management and conservation strategies for char traditional agricultural crops in the Padma River Basins in the
Ganges delta in Bangladesh.
474
Promotion of Conservation Agriculture: Lessons from RCTs

in the Rice-Wheat System
Rashi Mittal, Sanjeev Kumar and Suresh Pal

National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research, Pusa, New Delhi, 110 012, India
Session 4.1
Conservation Agriculture (CA) is gaining acceptance in many parts of the world as an alternative to both conventional
agriculture and to organic agriculture. Conservation Agriculture is an application of modern agricultural technologies to
improve production while concurrently protecting and enhancing the land, water and genetic resources on which
production depends with careful management of residues and wastes. It promotes food sufficiency, poverty reduction,
and value added production through optimizing yields and profits. Increasing population pressure, low land and water
productivity, degradation of land resource base, high water losses, shrinking of water resources and dwindling land for
agriculture are the major challenges in agriculture for food security.
Conservation Agriculture is based on the technological options that are alternative use of reclaimed lands and
system diversification, conjunctive use of fresh, saline and ground water, low cost sub-surface drainage and resource
conservation technologies (RCTs) for reclaimed lands. New varieties of paddy and mustard for salt affected areas, use
of sewage water, bio drainage, salinity management in dryland vertisols, etc are the new technologies developed and
up scaled for conservation of agriculture. The RCTs mainly include water course improvement, laser land leveling,
zero tillage technology, bed and furrow irrigation system/bed planting and management of crop residues. Most widely
adopted resource conserving technology (RCT) has been zero-tillage (ZT) for rice-wheat system which is one of the
major cropping systems in India. There is an increase in the yield with zero-tillage technology over the conventional
tillage and the savings made through less fuel consumption and machinery use. Economically zero tillage is superior
over conventional method of sowing because more net returns were recorded on zero tillage farms than that of
conventional wheat farms. These benefits explain the widespread interest of farmers and the rapidity of the diffusion
across the Indo-Gangetic Plains, further aided by the wide applicability of this mechanical innovation.
Zero-tillage is being practiced by farmers nearly a decade and therefore has spread to large area. A notable
feature is that all categories of farmers were adopting zero-tillage and its advantages were well understood. Initially,
there was considerable resistance to zero tillage, as it is against the traditional system of intensive land tillage for
sowing of crops “more the land tillage, higher the yield of wheat’. This resistance has gradually overcomed with
persistence demonstration of zero-tillage technology. The advantages are: (a) cost saving and thus higher profit, (b)
saving of irrigation water, especially in first irrigation, and (c) improvement in soil fertility due to decomposing of paddy
stubbles in soil. The date of sowing is also advanced for a couple of days. Another significant advantage, however, is
control of weed population. This is because zero-tillage does not provide conditions conducive for germination of the
weed seeds. As a result, weed infestation is very thin and plant population is good, increasing wheat yield significantly.
It had been observed that adoption of an RCT will be rapid if it gives some economic benefits like cost reduction,
besides conserving of natural resources. There are two important lessons to be learnt: (i) persistency in technology-
transfer efforts can help overcome social and traditional barriers, and (ii) input suppliers are useful ally in technology
transfer and therefore government should encourage their participation in the technology system.
Conservation Agriculture is contributing to the national food security, increasing agricultural income through higher
productivity, and generating wealth through improvement of the quality of land and water resources. These impacts
were also realized on small farms in resource-poor regions and thereby making a significant impact on the reduction of
rural poverty. Farmers are becoming more and more enterprising by adopting new technologies and responding to
emerging stresses. They are aware and concerned about degradation of land and water resources, but needs suitable
policy, technology and infrastructure support.
475
Economic Assessment of the Happy Seeder for Rice-Wheat

Systems in Punjab, India
R.P. Singh1, H.S. Dhaliwal3, Manpreet Kaur3, Jason Crean2, H.S. Sidhu3,
Yadvinder-Singh3and John Blackwell4
1
NSW Department of Primary Industries, PMB Yanco 2703 NSW, Australia
2
NSW Department of Primary Industries, PMB Orange 2800 NSW, Australia
Session 4.1
3
Punjab Agricultural University Ludhiana, 140 001 Punjab, India
4
Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga NSW 2678
Lack of suitable machinery is a major constraint to direct drilling wheat into heavy combine harvested rice residues.
Consequently, rice stubble burning prior to seedbed preparation for sowing wheat is widely practised in the mechanised
rice-wheat systems of south Asia, as it is a rapid and cheap option, and allows for quick turn around between crops. As
well as loss of organic matter reduced soil fertility due to loss of nutrients, rice stubble burning is causing widespread
air pollution adversely effecting human and animal health and releasing of green house gas (GHG) emissions in the
north-west Indo-Gangetic Plains of India. For example, in Punjab where more than 17 Mt of rice residues are burnt
within 3-4 weeks after rice harvest each year.
The recently developed Happy Seeder (HS) technology, which combines mulching and direct drilling functions is
capable of both improving farm productivity and improving and air quality and could generate substantial economic
benefits in India. These benefits arise from conservation farming, agricultural production, biodiversity, resource
management, environmental, and human and animal health improvements. The use of this technology can also create
a planting window to grow another short duration leguminous crop into wheat stubbles and provides further environmental
and economic benefits to the rice-wheat system in Punjab.
The primary aim of the present economic study was to evaluate the financial viability of the Happy Seeder technology
to farmers; evaluate the benefits of the technology to the community more generally; compare these benefits with the
costs involved in adoption of the technology and to identify policy barriers to the adoption of the Happy Seeder technology.
The results of the benefit cost analysis over a 30-year time period suggest that the HS technology is more profitable
than conventional cultivation or direct drilling after burning, and that it is viable for farmers from a financial perspective.
In addition to financial benefits to farmers, there are significant economic, community and environmental benefits
through adoption of the HS technology.
The study has also assessed and identified through meeting with a variety of national and state government policy
makers, technical experts, environmental policy groups and agencies and different stakeholders in India the range and
scale of potential mechanical, technical, agronomic, social, institutional and policy barriers to the adoption of the
Happy Seeder technology. The barriers need to be considered and addressed for widespread adoption of the technology
in Punjab and other rice-wheat areas in the Indo Gangetic Plains.
476
Enhancement of Productivity and Income of Small Land Holding

Adopting Diversified Farming Systems
K.K. Sahu and A.L. Rathore

Department of Land and Water Management, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
Session 4.1
Two farming system models i.e. (i) crop-livestock-poultry-fish-farm pond (IFS model 1) and (ii) crop-livestock-poultry-
fish-farm pond-shallow dug well (IFS model 2), were evaluated for three years (2005-06 to 2007-08). Both the models
were evaluated for 0.40 ha land holding. Availability of water, supply of fodder for animals, production of sufficient food
for domestic use, income and employment opportunities to farm family were the major apprehensions for assessment
of suitability of models. Rice, soybean, ladyfinger, maize, pigeonpea, marigold, drumstick (intercropped with brinjal
and tomato) and multi-cut sorghum were grown during rainy season and mustard and gram during postrainy season.
Of the total area of both the farming system models, 30-32% lower area was devoted to rice to meet-out domestic
requirement of the farm family. Ponds and/ or shallow dug well were constructed in 8-13% area of each farming system
models. Livestock shed was constructed in 3-5% areas of the models. Green fodder (multi-cut sorghum) was grown in
9-12% area. In upper 24-32% area soybean/maize and ladyfinger and in 11-17% area drumstick was grown. Pigeonpea
and marigold were grown on bunds of field and pond in all models. Sufficient water was available in ponds and dug
wells for supplemental irrigation to different crops. In vegetables 5-6 number of irrigation were applied while in other
crops, 1-3 irrigations were given. Harvested water in the ponds was however sufficient but due to seepage and percolation
losses (10-30 mm day-1), only 30-55% of collected water was used for supplemental irrigation. Therefore, the pond
water should be utilized efficiently using drip or sprinkler systems to maximize water productivity.
In IFS models 1 and 2, rice production from 0.12-0.15 ha was about three-forth to that a rainfed rice farmer
harvested from 0.40 ha land in Chhattisgarh state whereas production of soybean, pigeonpea, mustard, ladyfinger,
tomato, brinjal, marigold, drumstick and gram were obtained as bonus. Rice equivalent production of above crops in
the IFS models 1 and 2 was 2-4 times higher compared to traditional rainfed rice. Gross income was Rs. 77427 from
IFS model 1 and Rs. 77976 from IFS model 2. Net income from all the enterprises was Rs.49383 in model 1 and Rs.
49040 in model 2. Besides, production of rainy and postrainy sreason crops, vegetable, fruit, flower and livestock
product (milk and meat) were available to earn sufficient money round the year. Survey of traditional crop-livestock
farming in Bagbahra watershed, Chhattisgarh, showed that a farm family has average earning of Rs. 30730 as gross
income and Rs. 20882 as net income annually. This indicates that the returns from IFS models were >2-times compared
to traditional farming systems. By growing traditional rainfed rice in Chhattisgarh, a small farm (0.40 ha land) having
the opportunity of only 60-70 man-days work annually. However, the IFS models are able to provide more employment
(276 man days in model1 and 301 man days). Sufficient green fodder was available to feed a cow and calf in both IFS
model 1 and 2 for about six months. Dry fodder availability was sufficient in IFS model 2 whereas shortage was
observed in IFS model 1. In addition to above, farm yard manure obtained from crop-livestock helped in improvement
in soil health. Returns of all the models were quite high indicates that establishment cost of the models will be recovered
in 2-3 years from extra earnings.
477
Employment Generation through Agricultural Enterprises

in Rural India
Pooja Sah1 and O.P. Mishra2
Agriculture in India has been the backbone of the national economy since ages. As the largest private enterprise in
Session 4.1
India, agriculture contributes about 18% of the national GDP and sustains livelihood of about 60% of the population. In
the year of 1999-2000 agriculture provide 57% of employment to India’s population. A person working eight hours a
day for 273 days of the year is regarded as employed on a standard person year basis. Entrepreneurship means the
function of creating something new, organising and coordinating and undertaking risk and handling economic uncertainty.
The need to evolve a mechanism to supplement existing livelihood sources in rural areas was recognized early during
Development Planning in India. The Government implemented workfare programmes that offered wage employment
on public works on minimum wages.There are a lot of employment programmes in India which are running for the
generation of employment e.g.JRY (1993-94), SGSY (2001-02), NREGA (2005-06) etc. Agriculture also accounts for
9.6% (2005) of India’s exports. Agriculture sector has the major potential for providing the employment opportunities to
this huge population of unemployed people. Presently, about 43% of India’s total geographical area is used for agricultural
activity. Unemployment is a major problem of India and presently more than 4.5 crores of youth are unemployed in this
country. Agriculture sector has the major potential for providing the employment opportunities to this huge population
of unemployed people. So Indian rural people take agricultural based enterprises to generate employment in rural
areas and strengthen their and others condition by providing employment. These enterprises are Cultivation of medicinal
and aromatic plants, nursery production of all horticultural plants, compost and mushroom production units, fruits and
vegetable processing, preservation and canning including pickles, polyhouse cultivation of vegetables and ornamental
crops etc. The growth of rural entrepreneurs is not very healthy, because several reasons behind that and these
reasons are: Unorganized sector, lack of proper planning and management of resources, Inadequate flow of funds and
lack of financial control, Inadequate marketing link-up and quality control, lack of trained personnel to guide the artisans
and rural entrepreneurs etc.
Fighting Poverty and Unemployment with Efficient Fish

Farming in Nigeria
Sylvester Oluwadare Ojo

Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Federal University of Technology Akure, Nigeria
Most past agricultural policies to fight poverty and unemployment failed due to drudgery, large capital outlay, and low
return to resources. Fish farming, which requires small capital outlay has high returns to resources, is less tedious and
alleviates nutritional deficiency coupled with Nigeria’s high potentials in aquaculture production (about 1 million km2 for
subsistence and commercial aquaculture), will be the panacea for solving poverty and unemployment problems if
efficiently managed.
This paper examined how efficient fish farming can solve the hydra-headed poverty and unemployment problems
in Nigeria especially among the educated youths.
For the study, 100 fish farmers were selected using multistage sampling technique. Data were analysed using
budgetary and stochastic frontier (production and cost functions) analyses to examine the profitability, productivity and
efficiencies [technical (TE), allocative (AE) and economic (EE)] of fish farming enterprise in Nigeria. Results revealed
that young, educated, well-trained people were involved in fish farming and private hatcheries, surface concrete tanks
with spring water were the important technical factors in the enterprise. Average fish output of 12800 kg with net-profit
of N128.63 kg-1 showed fish farming as profitable. Productive resources were efficiently utilised while overall production
478
was in the economic efficient stage as shown by the return to scale (RTS) value of 0.381. The efficiency analyses
showed significant levels of inefficiencies with cooperative membership positively affecting TE while AE were positively
influenced by education, experience and cooperative membership. Though average TE, AE and EE were 0.866, 0.894
and 0.773 respectively, there was room for improvement in the fish farming efficiencies by paying attention to those
variables in the inefficiency models that negatively influenced efficiencies while fish farming output would increase if
attention is equally paid to those variables with negative elasticities of production.
The policy implication of the study is that efforts should be made by governments to mobilise and empower young
Session 4.1
school leavers to go into fish farming for income and employment generation.
Poverty Alleviation in Tribal Areas through Quality Seeds
Vaibhav D. Lohot, S. Natarajan and Asit B. Mandal

Directorate of Seed Research, Kushmaur, Mau, 275 101, Uttar Pradesh, India
(Email: pintuvd @ rediffmail.com)
Poor agricultural productivity and meager use of quality seeds of improved varieties with superior genetics are serious
constrains in tribal areas across states in the country. Hence with this developmental mission ICAR launched an
adhoc-project to elevate the socio-economic status of tribal farmers through introduction of quality seeds with special
focus on poverty alleviation in tribal areas to raise agricultural production. The project covered tribal dominated regions
of Assam, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. The project was operated in five centers viz. JNKVV
Jabalpur, BAU Ranchi, IGAU Raipur, OUA&T Bhubaneshwar and AAU Jorhat and coordinated by project coordination
AICRP-NSP crops/Project Director, DSR, Mau. The project aimed at enhancing coverage under HYV and to demonstrate
seed production practices including seed health care so as to produce quality seeds at farmers’ fields. Project emphasized
to impart training to tribal farmers/ field staff working at tribal areas of quality seed production, seed storage, seed
health etc. and documentation and validation of local practices/ indigenous technical knowledge particularly seed
drying, storage, seed treatment practice. The duration of project was from January 2004 to March 2007. Introduction of
new varieties at JNKVV, Jabalpur in kharif 2005-06, showed discernible increase in yield against local varieties.
Enhancement in yield of new varieties over local were, soybean (49.4%), urd (59.0%), rice (58.2%), maize (41.17%),
rice transplanted (41.18%) respectively. At BAU, Ranchi, 65 farmers were selected from tribal villages of block Kuru,
Lohardagga district for seed distribution of kharif crops. The use of quality seeds reduces cost of cultivation, seed
requirement, disease and insect pest incidence. Percent increase over local popular varieties of paddy was recorded
maximum in Mahamaya (26.91%) followed by Swarna (20.04%), MTU1010 (20.72%), IR 64 (19.84%), Poornima
(19.78%), Danteshwari (19.04%) and Shyamala (19.31%). Similarly, quality seed of urd variety LBG 20 showed average
23.61% increase over local varieties. Mung variety TM 99-2 showed 32.50% increase in yield over local variety. Arhar
varieties had increase over local variety was 19.82% at IGAU, Raipur. At OUA&T, Bhubaneshwar the project was
operated at drought prone Kandhamal district. Net profit per hectare by use of seeds of local and improved varieties
were found to be Rs.549 and Rs.5590 (rice), Rs.2002 and Rs.6250 (maize), Rs.1749 and Rs.5863 (groundnut), Rs.2566
and Rs.4258 (arhar), Rs.13193 and Rs.38015 (brinjal), respectively. The tribal populated area selected in Assam was
Dhakuakhana sub-division of District Lakhimpur. Ranjit, Mahsuri and Bahadur varieties of rice out yielded the local
traditional varieties of rice of the farmers in terms of yield. Tribal farmers learnt advantage of use of quality seeds of
improved varieties as well as modern methods of cultivation of crops. They could also learn seed production technologies
and improved storage practices of crop seeds and showed appreciable interest to adopt improved varieties and to
produce seed in their own plots. The project helped raise the socio-economic status of the tribal people.
479
Goat Husbandry through Grassland Based Feeding Practices in

Semi-Aid Zone of Rajasthan and Western Uttar Pradesh
T.K. Dutta, Prabhat Tripathi and R.K. Dular

Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom, Farah, 281 122, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India
Session 4.1
Traditional goat production in the semi-arid zone is centered mainly on resource poor rural population in semi-arid
zone of Rajasthan and Western UP. Total four districts of the semi-arid zone of western UP and Rajasthan were
selected for the survey. Two blocks in each district and two villages in each block were surveyed for feeding practices
followed by the goat farmers in this region. Total 210 goat farmers were interacted during the survey with average
13.12 goat farmers in each village. Out of total goat farmers surveyed in each village, average 26.66 and 52.86% goat
rearing is concentrated with the landless and marginal category farmers. Rest 20.48% goat farming is practiced by
small, medium and large category farmers. It was recorded negative relationship of goat farming with that of land
holding of the farmers. However, goat farming is negatively correlated (correlation coefficient = - 0.504) with the
literacy percentage of the goat farming family. Whereas, goat farming is positively correlated (correlation coefficient =
0.411) with the family size of the goat farmers. Average goat population per goat keeper was found maximum in Alwar
district (34.14) followed by Bharatpur (10.89), Agra (8.05) and Aligarh (3.70). The lands in villages of Aligarh, Agra and
some part of Bharatpur districts are highly cultivable; therefore, there is no suitable grazing land or rangeland in these
villages. Some goat farmers in this region supplement home-grown grain (barley, wheat etc) to their goats (mainly kids
and female goats) throughout the year. Whereas, Kaman block in Bharatpur district and surveyed regions of Alwar
district have hilly rangelands which are shared by the graziers of different villages. The grazing, lopping and browsing
biomass of different species are abundant in the hilly rangeland during monsoon season, while the ground cover dries
up during the winter and summer seasons. Therefore, goats in this region mainly depend on browsing and lopping
biomass. Major feed and fodder resources in semi-arid area of western Uttar Pradesh were Cynodon dactylon, Tribulus
teresstris, Calitropis sp., Cannabis sativa, Echinocloa colonum, Brichiaria sp. Commelina benghalensis, Pluchea
lanceolata etc. as ground vegetation and these were perennial in nature. However, there were sporadic occurrence of
Digera arvensis, Cyperus rotundus, Boerhavia diffusa, Dactylocteum aegypticum also observed on the banks of irrigation
canal and village ponds, sides of village roads and other waste lands which were utilized as grazing fields by the goat
keeper. In Bharatpur district of Rajasthan, grazing lands contained Tribulus terristris, Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon
dactylon, Cenchrus ciliaris, Echinocloa colonum, Cenchrus ciliaris, Calitropis spp. etc. plant species; however,
Chinopodium album and Ashphodelus tenuifolius was available only in crop fields and irrigation channels. Goats in
Alwar district of Rajasthan relished on grasses, shrubs and tree leaves available in grazing areas; the major forbs were
Commelina benghalensis, Tribulus terristris, Cyperus spp. Cynodon dactylon, Cenchrus ciliaris etc. Apart from these,
the area was observed rich in perennial bushes and these provide very nutritive and sufficient quantum of green
material to goats round the year. The main bushes were Dhonk, Rongi, Jall, Ber, Jharberi, Jhojhuru, Chapan etc. It was
observed that mineral contents (major and trace) in goat feed resources were found variable among different feeds.
District-wise variation was also encountered. Therefore, considering the variability of mineral contents and bio-availability
of such minerals deficiency of Ca, P, Mg, Na, Cl, Zn and Co was observed. Therefore, the farmers need to incorporate
latest goat production technologies to economize the goat rearing in this region.
480
Session 4.2: Equity Issues (Employment, Drudgery

and Regional Disparities, etc.)
Women and Water for Development: A Practical Journey to Food

Security and Poverty Reduction in Africa
David Anokye Asamoahe

Kwabina Yeboah enterprise Ghana, P O Box am 45 Amasaman, Accra, Ghana
(Email: davidasamoah123@yahoo.com)
Agriculture is the main source of Africa’s food supply and prime source of livelihood for millions of people in rural
areas in Africa. Irrigation for agriculture consumes large quantities of freshwater but very many countries in Africa
Session 4.2
still depend on rainfed agriculture. Poor management of Africa’s natural resources has led to pressure by the
growing population leading to land and water degradation. The International Decade for Action: ‘Water for Life’ 2005-
2015 presents an opportunity for all stakeholders including Members of Parliament (MPs) to promote sustainable
management of water in agriculture and to contribute to meeting the goals of food security, poverty eradication and
environmental sustainability in the continent.
The Challenge
Global food production will have to increase by 60% from 2000 to 2030, to meet growing demands resulting
from population growth. This requires a 14% increase in water used for irrigated agriculture.
Irrigated land, which represents only about 20% of the world’s farmland (even less of Africa’s farmland), produces
around 40% of the world’s food supply and 60% of cereals. Though more productive than rainfed agriculture which is
common in Africa, irrigation is coming under close scrutiny for the relatively poor yeilds, considering the resources
used. Growing water scarity in many regions including Africa calls for a much more productive use of water in agriculture
and for the transparent water allocation mechanism between sectors, giving special attention to the needs of the
environment.
Worldwide, 1 in 5 people depend on fish as their primary source of protein, and fisheries provide direct or indirect
livelihoods for 400 million people. This sector needs more development in Africa. Over 70% of the world’s fish stocks
are either fully expoited or depleted, according to the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) study, posing a serious
challenge to food sources and employment in Africa even today.
Poor natural resources managment in Africa also pose a threat to the sustainability of agricultural systems in many
parts of Africa. Shallow ground water in some parts have become important source of irrigation leading to over-
pumping of aquifers and pollution from agro-chemicals. The inappropriate use of fertilizers and pesticides has also led
to pollution of drinking water, rivers and lakes.
In some parts of Africa, wastewater is widely used for irrigation and can be invaluable where water is scarce.
However, it must be properly treated. In some parts of the continent, sewage is often applied directly to land, exposing
farmers and food consumers to parasites, organic and chemical contaminants.
Action Needed
During the ‘Water for Life’ Decade and beyond, a greater effort to help farmers across Africa produce food of better
quality with less water and less stress on the environment. The role of women farmers can not be over emphasized as
women in Africa produces about 80% of the food though mostly in the informal sector. Only then can we expect to meet
the goals of food security, poverty eradication and environmental sustainability.
481
Recommendations
Put the right policies in place: The need to employ policies that provide farmers with the right incentives to allow
them to contribute to Africa’s economy through sustainable agriculture practices that make productive use of water, in
both rainfed and irrigated agriculture.
Ensure the women have equal access to resources: The need for women to have access to land, appropriate
technology, water and research, and involve them equally in decision-making.
Investments: The need to support individual farmers/ farmers co-operative and the private sector to develop
efficient agriculture from public investments.
Improve governance and radically change the way water is managed with Africa’s agricultural sector: Water users
at levels in Africa must be involved in the planning and management of irrigation and empowered to make decisions
through appropriate mechanisms such as water users associations. Water services must become much more flexible,
reliable and equitable to ensure productivity gains in agricultural water use.
Continued research and capacity building of key stakeholders: The need for continous research and capacity
building of key stakeholders in sustainable agriculture techniques, appropriate technologies and efficient water usage
and sustainable farming
Session 4.2
Domestication of Native Plant Species Erythropalum scandens BL

for Food and Income Generation by Hill Tribe in the Northern
Mountainous Region of Vietnam
Dang Van Minh

Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture and Forestry, Vietnam
(Email: minhdangtn@hn.vnn.vn, dangminh08@gmail.com)
The Northern Mountainous Region is home to a large proportion of Vietnam’s population and includes representatives
of thirty-five ethnic minority groups. Poor literacy and low education levels create a poverty trap that is difficult to
overcome. Way of living of people in this region still follows self-sufficient method with heavily depending on forest and
agriculture. There are a lot of native plant species are popularly being used by local people as food. Among these
native species, Erythropalum scandens BL (local name is Bo Khai) has been widely used by local people as vegetable.
Recently, local people have collected these plants from forest to eat and/or sell to traders in city. These vegetables are
considered clean and special vegetable with very good taste and expensive. The overall objectives of the study are to
understand natural distribution and bio-characteristics of native plant species Erythropalum scandens BL as well as to
develop techniques for propagation and growing these native plant species. This will expect to improve vegetable
supply and income generation for hill tribe as well as to conserve of these species in the natural forests. The results
from the field and market survey indicated that these plant species were found in both limestone and hill land ecosystems.
Young plants of Erythropalum scandens BL grow well in shade light under thick forest. These plant species have been
over exploited, increasing scarcity in the region. Farmers have collected seedlings and seeds from forests to grow in
their gardens as new crops but without much success due to lack of knowledge and technology.
In order to develop techniques for propagation and growing these native plant species, two experiments were laid
out in 2007 including (1) apply some chemical subsistances known as auxin for rapid propagation of seedling and (2)
study the effects of light regimes on growth of young seedlings when planting in the garden. The results from the first
experiment indicated that three auxin substances being used named NAA, IBA and ABT have produced good results
in promoting root formation and bud growth. The best concentration of NAA to promote root formation and bud growth
is 200 mg L-1, while it is 50 mg L-1 for both IBA and ABT. By using these chemical substances, the number of cuttings
having roots significantly increased and time for propagation is shorter. Regarding sunlight treatment for young seedlings
482
in the second experiment, the best growth of young Erythropalum scandens BL was under shade of 50%. Under
this light system, young plants have more new buds and their growth is faster. This indicated that direct sunlight
was a limiting factor for the new bud formation and growth of plant at young growing stage. Farmers can apply these
results to multiply seedlings and grow them in their garden for vegetable supply.
Reconciling the Issues of Subsistence and Cash Generating Agriculture:

A Review on Agrarian Changes and Food Security in the Uttarakhand
Himalaya, India
Vishwambhar Prasad Sati

Department of Geography, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India
(E-mail: vishwambhars@yahoo.co.uk)
Session 4.2
The issues of subsistence and cash generating agriculture got a momentum in the 1970s when the concept of green
revolution first ever launched in India. A vast land of agriculture was devoted under the crops of wheat, paddy, pulses
and oilseeds with excessive use of chemical fertilizers and experimental seeds. This national trend of intensive cultivation
was also adopted in the Uttarakhand Himalaya though not in the same proportion. The agro-ecological conditions
ranging from sub-tropical to temperate and alpine are favourale for cultivating various types of crops; subsistence and
cash generating. This paper examines the issues of subsistence and cash generating crops in the Uttarakhand Himalaya
and review the impact of agrarian changes on food security. The subsistence farming system of the region is in
transition; transforming into cash generating crops but the pace of changes is slow and nonconforming. Case study of
the cluster of villages carried out to understand the changes, production and productivity of crops. This study reveals
that subsistence practices are eco-friendly. Meanwhile, per ha yield of crops are considerably low, which is not enough
to meet nutritional need of the people therefore, they are under-nutrition. Cash generating crops mainly fruits, off-
season vegetables and cultivation of herbs are though best suited with the agro-ecology of the region and per ha yields
of these crops are also high yet its proportion in cultivable land is insufficient. Furthermore, lacking in infrastructural
facilities such as proper marketing, food-processing units, cold storages and transportation systems do not support to
earn a proportional amount from the cash generating crops. Effort should be made to reconcile the issues of subsistence
and cash generating crops to maintaining agro-ecosystem and enhancing food security in the region respectively and
infrastructural facilities should be provided.
Fighting Poverty and Unemployment with Efficient Fish

Farming in Nigeria
Sylvester Oluwadare Ojo

Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Federal University of Technology Akure, Nigeria
(Email: drojoso@yahoo.com)
Most past agricultural policies to fight poverty and unemployment failed due to drudgery, large capital outlay, and low
return to resources. Fish farming, which requires small capital outlay, has high returns to resources, is less tedious and
alleviates nutritional deficiency coupled with Nigeria’s high potentials in aquaculture production (about 1 million km2 for
subsistence and commercial aquaculture), will be the panacea for solving poverty and unemployment problems, if
efficiently managed.
This paper examined how efficient fish farming can solve the hydra-headed poverty and unemployment problems
in Nigeria especially among the educated youths.
483
For the study, 100 fish farmers were selected using multistage sampling technique. Data were analysed using
budgetary and stochastic frontier (production and cost functions) analyses to examine the profitability, productivity and
efficiencies (technical (TE), allocative (AE) and economic (EE)) of fish farming enterprise in Nigeria. Results revealed
that young, educated, well-trained people were involved in fish farming and private hatcheries, surface concrete tanks
with spring water were the important technical factors in the enterprise. Average fish output of 12800 kg with net-profit
of N128.63 kg-1 showed fish farming as profitable. Productive resources were efficiently utilised while overall production
was in the economic efficient stage as shown by the return to scale (RTS) value of 0.381. The efficiency analyses
showed significant levels of inefficiencies with cooperative membership positively affecting TE while AE were positively
influenced by education, experience and cooperative membership. Though average TE, AE and EE were 0.866, 0.894
and 0.773, respectively, there was room for improvement in the fish farming efficiencies by paying attention to those
variables in the inefficiency models that negatively influenced efficiencies while fish farming output would increase if
attention is equally paid to those variables with negative elasticities of production. The policy implication of the study is
that efforts should be made by governments to mobilise and empower young school leavers to go into fish farming for
income and employment generation.
Session 4.2
Conservation Agriculture and Its Implication over Livelihood in

Lower Gangetic Plains of India and Bangladesh: Communalities
and Differences
Debabrata Basu1*, M. Elahi Baksh2, Nathuram Sarker3, Erenstein Olaf4, Nils Toefel5
and Arindom Sammadar4
1
Department of Extension Education, BCKB, Murshidabad, West Bengal, India
2
Wheat Research Centre, Bangladesh
3
Bangladesh Livestock Research Centre, Savar, Dhaka, Bangaladesh
4
CIMMYT, India
5
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), New Delhi, India
(*Email: drdbasu@gmail.com)
Lower Gangetic plains comprising of West Bengal and Bangladesh are characterized as most densely populated
areas in the world, stricken by high level of poverty, marginalization of land, increasing in rural labour force. Rice-
livestock based farming systems dominate the livelihood of most of the farming community and the systems have been
suffering from poor productivity/profitability, sustainability and to some extent equitability too. Conservation agriculture
which had been introduced off late with the promotion of zero/minimum tillage options in wheat for overcoming the
draft power shortage in the village level along with getting rid of the menaces of heavy tillage machines at a higher
rates leading to soil compaction, requirement of higher amount of water and seed and fertilizer leading to wheat
cultivation as unprofitable proposition. Observing the differential adoption of this resource conservation technology in
different micro situations in lower Gangetic plains, a study was undertaken to assess the crop-livestock-livelihood
interaction and its implications over trade-offs between enterprises and environment for identification of pathways for
future interventions. The study has covered eighteen villages of West Bengal and Bangladesh (six from West Bengal
and twelve from Bangladesh in two sites). It was observed that wheat area is decreasing in all the three sites with
dwindling wheat yields and profitability. Draft animals which support the earlier tillage operations are decelerating
significantly giving space to machines. Crossbreed cows are in general preferred against zebu cattle although there is
general trend in reduction of herd size and contrastingly number of small ruminants is increased at considerable extent
in all three sites. It also revealed that the average number of goat was observed highest (3.41 /household) in Dinajpur
location followed by Rajbari (2.72). The contribution of crop and livestock in household income was more than 70% in
all three locations in RCTs villages and landless farmers mainly depend on agricultural labour for their livelihood.
Similarly, cow dung was the main source of household fuel in all RCTs villages of three lower Gangetic plains whereas
LP gas use as household fuel was totally absent in both two locations of Bangladesh. Regarding straw management
484
practices, it was found that irrespective of RCTs and Non-RCTs villages, about 80% of wheat straw collected from
the field to use as fuel and roof making. On the contrary, more than 70% of the paddy straw was used as cattle feed
in all the three study areas of lower Gangetic plains. It is found that buffalos were almost absent in the two areas of
Bangladesh where as a few numbers swap buffalos were found in Murshidabad, West Bengal.
Improving Livelihood and Food Security for the Tribal People of

Bastar Region of Chhattisgarh through Integrated Approach and
Technology Sissemination
S.K. Patil, D.S. Thakur, R.L. Sharma and R.K. Naik

Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
S.G. College of Agriculture and Resaercah Station, Jagdalpur, Bastar
(*Email: spatil_igau@yahoo.com)
Session 4.2
Livelihood system represents a complex set of diversified, interlinked and interdependent activities. Community’s
access to biophysical resources, their usage pattern, their technological ability, institutional arrangements and the
trade opportunities determines the type of system adopted in a region. Livelihood approaches are passing through a
rapid transition phase on account of globalization, hence necessary insights for minimizing the adverse impact of
externalities is very much required. Further, in view of fast changing climate it is important to modify / improve the
livelihood systems so that the communities can cope up with these abnormalities. While some of the traditional livelihoods
practices are adversely impacted upon by emerging macro policies and climate change, new opportunities are created
in the process. Given the situation, the challenge for practitioners and researchers is to continue evolving innovative
techniques and approaches to provide livelihoods opportunities to the poor without them being excluded from the
cycle of change. New market opportunities need to be tapped through innovative institutional mechanisms. There is
need to bridge the gap between macro policies and micro interventions such that the new institutions are strengthened.
New approaches are required for formulation of public policy. This calls for a shift from the ‘business-as-usual’ approach
and the work on livelihood is to be carried out in an innovative way. In our country, and particularly in Bastar region of
Chhattisgarh, the livelihood of tribal farmers depends on agriculture, non timber forest produce and livestocks. The
tribal farmers can be considered as the most vulnerable community in this changing world. Their livelihood systems
are also quite different as compared to non tribal farmers. Agricultural technology empowerment of this community can
greatly help in improving their livelihood. However, a family focused, community technology transfer approach with
minimum external dependency is required so as to foster as well as sustain the changes. Research is required on how
to put “technologies on work” so that livelihood and food security can be ensured while conserving the biophysical
resources. We used some of the agro-technological options in tribal region of Bastar in order to achieve some of these
goals and found that low external input sustainable agriculture adoption of seed bank, INM technologies, dry-land fruit
plantation, vegetable cultivation, community nursery and fish farming can benefit the communities for ensuring livelihood
and food- nutritional security through employment and income generation. However, ways and means are to be worked
out by livelihood practitioners for effective convergence of all the government programs through PRIs so that the huge
financial aid provided by the government can be effectively utilized.
485
Second Green Revolution for Sustainable Livelihood Security

of Small Farmers
N.G. Hegde
BAIF Development Research Foundation, Pune, Maharashtra, India
(Email: nghegde@baif.org.in)
As rural poverty is a serious problem in India, we need to launch the second Green Revolution through promotion
of agri-horti-pastures on marginally productive and wastelands and livestock development, particularly dairy husbandry
with a special focus on generation of gainful self-employment for the poor and weaker sections of the society. The
programme should enhance agricultural production by involving a large number of small farmers and integrate with
women empowerment, literacy and development of community organisations for ensuring its success. Such an integrated
programme can empower the rural poor to come out of poverty and enable the country to achieve the Millennium
Development Goals, in the near future.
Session 4.2
Economic Viability of Kangar Watershed in Ahmednagar District of

Western Maharashtra
Y.C. Sale, D.S. Navadkar, D.B. Yadav and K.R. Waykar

Department of Agricultural Economics, M.P.K.V., Rahuri, 413 722, Maharashtra, India
In the Eighth Five-Year Plan, the National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas was implemented. Since
then, this activity is being extended to a large number of areas in the state. The Government of Maharashtra is
implementing the project on a priority basis for improvement of the farming systems and conservation of the most
important natural resources like soil and water. An economic evaluation of watershed programmes is essential for
providing justification to huge investment of scarce funds. The present study was attempted with the objectives to
evaluate the achievements with reference to the targets, to study the changes in the mode of cultivation of sample
beneficiaries and to evaluate the economic viability of a watershed project.
The village Kangar in Rahuri tahsil of Ahmednagar district was purposively selected for the study where the
Watershed Development Programmes was initiated during the year 1995-96. The information was collected from the
implementing agency (Rahuri Co-operative Sugar Factory). From the list of the beneficiaries of the watershed project,
50 sample cultivators were selected by the simple randomization which formed about 17% of the total beneficiaries.
The ‘ex-ante’ and the ‘ex-post’ approach were adopted for the data collection and analysis. The year 1994-95 was
taken as ‘ex-ante’ and the year 2000-2001 as the study year to represent the ‘ex-post’ situation.
The results indicated that the target of check weirs, check dams and nala bund construction was achieved to the
extent of 66.6, 80 and 50%, respectively. The achievement in earthen plug construction was 93.3%. It is noted that
there was reduction in current and permanent fallow land at absolute level as well as on percentage basis to the extent
of 52.3 and 42.8%, respectively after completion of watershed development activities as compared to the base year.
The increase in the cultivable land was to the extent of 35.1% and a remarkable increase of about 148% in irrigated
area was observed over the base year. The area under fodder crops, viz. lucerne, maize and kadval has also increased
to the extent of 307.4%. This is mainly because of the rise in the irrigation potential in the watershed area. The farmers
were motivated to grow the high value crops e.g. vegetables, fruit crops, etc
The cropping intensity increased to 113%. The productivity of pigeon pea has increased by 36.8%, groundnut by
28.9%, wheat by 28.5% and bajra by 23.9% over the base year productivities. The commercial crops, viz. sugarcane
and onion, however showed a marginal increase of 5.74 and 4.84% in the productivity. The per hectare gross income
from crop production worked out to be Rs.19,090/- in the study year which was Rs.10,006/- in the base year, indicating
486
thereby an increase of 90.7%. The net income has increased to Rs.1494/- ha-1. during the study year. The benefit-
cost ratio at Cost ‘A’ increased to 2.20 in the year 2000-2001, indicating the improvement in the farm earnings of the
sample households as a result of watershed development work. The per hectare total income from the crop production
and livestock together worked out to Rs.28803/- during the study year which was Rs.14975/- in the year 1994-95,
showing an increase of 92.3%. The increase in the employment was to the extent of 68.7 and 53.4% over the base
year in the case of female and male worker, respectively. The net present value, benefit-cost ratio and internal rate
of returns were worked out at 10, 12, 15 and 18% discount rates assuming project life of 10 years with the total
capital investment of Rs.87.1 lakh as original cost and Rs.16.9 lakh as per annum net benefits from the project. The
economic viability of the project holds better prospects at different rates of discount with BCR ranging from 0.99 to
1.26 at original cost and benefits and IRR of 15.2%. In the case of afforestation, CCT and CST, a target of 554 ha.
was set and at the end of February, 2001, 465 ha area was brought under these activities. Thus, 84% target was
achieved. In the case of contour / farm bunding, the target achieved was 100%.
The foregoing discussions lead to draw the conclusions that the Watershed Development Project not only contributed
to the soil and water conservation, afforestation and additional irrigation benefits but also resulted in improving
productivities of the crops. In view, to have the welfare of the farming community, the project be implemented on a wide
range with its aftercare.
Session 4.2
Impact of Land Use Management on Livelihood
Security – A Case Study
T.N. Hajare, D.K. Mandal, N.G. Patil, S.S. Goswami and A. Chaturvedi
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Amrawati Road, Nagpur, 440 010, Maharashtra, India
About 169 farm families residing in Waranga watershed (Dist Nagpur, Maharashtra) were surveyed for agricultural
resources. Management plan for the watershed was developed based on soil survey and other resources inventory.
Technological interventions and land use plans were modified to suit the socio-economical situations. The plan was
implemented in 1990 and continued till 1995. After a gap of eight years (no intervention by the scientists) an impact
analysis was carried out during 2003. Analysis indicated that there was stabilization of income and employment generation
in the watershed due to increased cropping intensity from 112 to 138% in all group of farmers. There was a notable
increase in area under irrigation and with soil-based crops planning and improved technology the employment increased
to the 123779 man days in kharif, 3976 in rabi and 238 to 304 in summer. The use of fertilizer in the village increased
from 32 to 101 kg ha-1. The cereals productivity increased by 13.6, 11.6 and 6.13 while oilseed productivity increased
by 14, 26.8 and 2.97% during 1995, 2000 and 2003, Significant change was noticed in the vegetable productivity
which 52.4% from 1990 to 2003. The crop and cropping pattern change was noted due to social, economical and
resource needs. Area under sorghum reduced by 72.8% and under soybean by 138% over the base year. The linseed
and sesame disappeared from the scheme and soybean was the crop that replaced it.
The profits were invested in land improvement as a first priority, purchasing additional land being the second and
creating water resources was the third priority. The number of wells increased from 7 to 21 and area under irrigation
through well increased by 17% of the total irrigated area. The dependence of farm families on forest for fuel wood was
reduced by more than 50%. Drastic improvement was observed in the animal population as compared to the base
year. The animal population increased from 558 to 794. The inverse was largely due to addition of buffaloes, followed
by goats. This growth was attributed to surplus income generated due to inversed agricultural productivity. Out of 23,
19 youth started to take up farming with new cropping and farming systems successfully. Additional per capita income
during 2003 was due to hike in prices about 60% as compared to 1990 and 71% increase in income due to adoption of
soil-based crop planning but simultaneously there was a hike in the input prices (more than 60%) and hence all the
economic gains were neutralized.
487
Influence of Various Factors on Livelihood Security of Rural India
Prachi Misra*, Anil Rai and Tauqueer Ahmed

Division of Sample Surveys, IASRI, New Delhi, 110 012, India
(*Email: rprachi@iasri.res.in)
Livelihood security is the adequate and sustainable access to and control over resources, both material and social, to
enable households to achieve their rights without undermining the natural resource base. According to Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) livelihood security is defined as adequate and sustainable access to income and
resources to meet basic needs (including adequate access to food, potable water, health facilities, educational
opportunities, housing, time for community participation and social integration). Livelihoods can be made up of a range
of on-farm and off-farm activities, which together provide a variety of procurement strategies for food and cash. Thus,
each household can have several possible sources of entitlement, which constitute its livelihood. These entitlements
are based on the household’s endowments and its position in the legal, political and social fabric of society. The risk of
livelihood failure determines the level of vulnerability of a house hold to income, food, health and nutritional insecurity.
Therefore, livelihoods are secured when household have secure ownership of, or access to, resources and income
Session 4.2
earning activities, including reserves and assets, to offset risks, ease shocks and meet contingencies. In this study an
attempt has been made to develop livelihood index for different agro-climatic zones of India based on available secondary
data on the basis of six sub-indices which are indicators of Infrastructure security, Agricultural security, Nutritional
security, Economic security, Health and Sanitation security and Food security in respective zone. A total of 57 variables
were considered for this study. Finally, a composite integrated livelihood index has been developed which indicates
the livelihood status on different agro-climatic zones in the country. Also, 103 districts of low agricultural productivity
were identified within low livelihood regions. The results of this study were compared with the results of backward
districts identified under wage employment programme by the task force of Planning Commission of India. It was
found that about 60% districts identified in this study are same as identified by the task force. Further, influence of
various factors on livelihood security of rural India has been studied by performing the sensitivity analysis which is the
study of how the variation in the output can be apportioned, qualitatively or quantitatively, to different sources of
variation in the assumption, and of how the given composite indicator depends upon the information fed into it. In
addition to this, the spatial distribution of the identified districts under the study has been mapped using GIS and it has
been observed that backwardness and agricultural productivity have strong association.
488
Session 4.3: Common Property Resources
Fisher Management Regimes and Fisheries Governance in Floodplain

Wetlands of Assam
Ganesh Chandra
Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Regional Centre, 4th floor, Housefed Complex,
Dispur, Guwahati, 781 006, Assam, India
(Email: ganeshicar@gmail.com)
Assam is endowed with copious aquatic wealth in the form of beels, swamps, ponds and rivers. The floodplain wetlands
(beels) extending over one lakh hectare, constitute the most important fishery resource of the state. The beels are
considered as one of the most productive ecosystems owing to their characteristic interactions between land and
water system. These wetlands are the common property resource and under different management regimes. Livelihood
of fishers’ family from time immemorial is dependent upon fishing in floodplain wetlands. Fishers include the actual
fishermen belonging to the Schedule castes and the Maimal community of the district of Cachar. Apart from these
communities other community and tribes also doing fishing in open access beel. There are about 1392 listed beels in
Assam of which 423 are registered and remaining 969 are unregistered. Registered beel are under the administrative
control of state mainly under revenue department, Assam Fisheries Development Corporation, local Panchayats. The
management rights of registered beels were given on lease to the highest bidder (either individual or Fishermen
Cooperative society).
A large number of stakeholders are associated directly and indirectly with the beel, these include fishers, lessees,
various state government departments, AFDC, financial institutions, research institutes, NGO’s etc. These wetlands
are under various management regimes, i.e. private management (individuals and groups), fishers cooperative
management, Community-based fisheries management (decentralized management, Government works as facilitator)
and open access. Most of the unregistered beels are under open access. The adoption of conservation measures and
sustainable production practices are embedded in Assam fishery rules 1953 (with amendments in 2005), which controls
the beel fishery.
Session 4.3
This communication describes fisheries governance in the frame work of stakeholders’ mechanism of access to
utilize the floodplain wetland resources for outcomes (positive or negative). Fisheries governance of two floodplain
wetlands, one under private management (lessee based management) and another under community-based fisheries
management are discussed in detail. This communication also discuss about the sharing arrangement in the private
managed wetlands.
489

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Acknowledgement

The Organizing Committee acknowledges the efforts of the

Part 1: Abstracts of Invited Papers

Part 2: Abstracts of Voluntary Papers

Session 1.1: Soil and Residue Management

No-Till System Applied to Northern Africa Rain-Fed

Critical Research for Dryland Conservation Agriculture in the Yellow

Innovations through Conservation Agriculture: Progress and Prospects

Strategies to Overcome the Competition for Crop Residues in Southern

The Importance of Crop Residue Management in Maintaining Soil Quality

Conservation agriculture- constraints, issues and opportunities in

B. Venkateswarlu, K.L. Sharma and J.V.N.S. Prasad

Session 1.2: Input Management

Perspectives on Nutrient Management in Conservation Agriculture

Amir Kassam* and Theodor Friedrich

Polymicrobial Formulations for Enhanced Productivity of a Broad

C.A. Reddy* and J. Lalithakumari

Session 1.3: Diversified Farming Systems

Lessons Learnt from the Extension of Direct Seeding,

Rakotondramanana1, O. Husson2 and A. Rakotondralambo3*

Direct Drilling is Behind Agronomy of Opportunity in Tunisia

A Model Suiting Small Farm Diversification : A Case Study from India

Session 1.4: Irrigated Systems

Rationale and Application of CA for Irrigated Production in Southern

Helena Gomez-Macpherson1*, Hakim Boulal1,2, Rachid Mrabet3, Emilio Gonzalez4

Rationale for Conservation Agriculture under Irrigated Production in

J.P.A. Lamers1, A. Akramhanov1, O. Egamberdiev1, A. Mossadegh-Manschadi1, M. Tursunov1,

Session 1.5: Mechanization and Energy Management

Energy Balance in Conservation Agriculture and Conventional

S.K. Tandon1* and Surendra Singh2

Actual Challenges: Developing a Low Cost No-Till Wheat Seeding

H.S. Sidhu1, Yadvinder Singh1, Manpreet Singh1, J. Blackwell2, Harmanjit Singh1,

Actual Challenges: Developing Low Cost No-Till Seeding Technologies

for Two Wheel Tractors

Research and Development of Light No-till Seeders in China

Li Hongwen, Wang Qingjie, Wang Xiaoyan, He Jin, Gao Huanwen, Li Wenying

Avoiding Soil Compaction in CA: Controlled Traffic Systems for

Improving No-Till Seeding Quality with Low Disturbance Furrow Openers

Augusto Guilherme de Araújo

force, vertical force and soil mobilization area are discussed.

Resource Saving Equipment for Conservation Agriculture Leading to

Session 1.6: Genetic Strategies

Constraints to Zero Tillage in Mediterranean Environments

E. Acevedo*, E. Martínez and P. Silva

Breeding for Improved Adaptation to Conservation Agriculture

Richard Trethowan1, Yann Manes2 and Tariq Mahmood1

Adapting Wheat to Zero Tillage in Maize-Wheat-Soybean

Man Mohan Kohli* and Jorge Fraschina

Challenges and Prospects to Realize Diversified Agriculture in the

Strategies for Developing Rice-Wheat Genotypes for Conservation

B. Mishra1 and Ravish Chatrath2

Session 1.7: Indigenous Knowledge and Practices

Blending Indigenous and Scientific Knowledge for Innovative CA

Adoption of Conservation Agriculture in Kazakhstan

M. Karabayev and M. Suleimenov

Session 2.2: Integrated Approach for Technology Development

CA Technologies Adoption — Constraints and Opportunities

Development, Integration and Dissemination of Resource Conservation

Suhas P. Wani*, T.K. Sreedevi, P.K. Joshi and B. Venkateswarlu

Session 2.3: Capacity Building

Capacity Building: Harnessing Off-farm Employment Avenues in

Session 2.4: Enabling Policies

Policies and Institutions to Promote the Development and Commercial

Brian G. Sims1*, Peter Hobbs2 and Raj Gupta3