Geomorphology, river hydrology

and natural processes

SNH Sharing Good Practice Event: Identifying and

planning river restoration projects
Strathpeffer, 24th September 2013

Steve Addy

Outline
Controls on channel morphology
Fluvial processes
Channel morphology variability
River types

Links to river ecology

Some definitions
Fluvial geomorphology
Fluvial: rivers and streams
Geomorphology: the study of landforms and the processes
that form them

Hydromorphology
WFD leglislative term that encompasses fluvial
geomorphology and hydrology (i.e. the physical factors that
govern river ecosystems)
Alluvial

Sediment moved and deposited by rivers

Why is fluvial geomorphology important?

Fluvial forms and processes are recognised as a key
component of river systems in EU WFD and national
legislation
River landforms and flows constitute the basic physical
template that influences riverine biota
Fluvial geomorphology input is needed for sustainable river
management and restoration

For mitigating flood risk and geomorphic hazards

Channel morphology
Consists of 5 variables that are inter-dependent i.e.
change of one variable leads to change in others in
response to alteration of the fundamental drivers

Water and sediment inputs

Valley width

Width
Roughness
(sediment and
bedforms)

Depth

Channel pattern

(Church, 2006)

Scales of channel adjustment

(Buffington, 2012)

Boundary conditions: inherited topography,

geology and sediment sources
Topography reflects millions of years of landscape
development

Scottish landscapes have been conditioned by glaciation

and rivers are still adjusting to this legacy.

Boundary conditions: bed and bank material

Sparse vegetation, noncohesive alluvial banks

Dense vegetation, cohesive Bedrock banks

alluvial banks

Alluvial bed

Alluvial bed

Bedrock bed

Increasing channel boundary resistance

Boundary conditions: large dead wood

Wood is an important component of natural river ecosystems
Can create significant flow resistance (hydraulic roughness)
Influence on sediment transport and river bed habitats

(Soulsby, 2006)

Drivers: sediment supply

Tributaries

Hillslopes

Alluvial banks

Glacigenic landforms

Drivers: hydrology
Determines channel size and the movement of material
How catchments respond to precipitation and snowmelt
and in turn generate river flow depends on:
- Climate

- Topography
- Land use
- Vegetation
- Soil
- Geology
- Superficial drift cover

(Source: Metoffice, 2012, Open Government License)

River flows over time

Understanding how flows change (magnitude and frequency) over
time is important for understanding channel changes, predicting
and managing flood risk
Sources of information:
Flow gauging network (~100 years)
Historical record (centuries)
Geomorphic record (1000s of years)

Old Bridge, Perth

River Dee at Woodend

Source: http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/cy/hiflows/

River flow in open channels

Bankfull
Wetted perimeter
(WP)

Area (A)

Hydraulic radius (R) a

measure of channel shape
Depth is given by the formula:
(stage)

R = A/WP

Discharge (Q, m/s3) or flow, is defined as the rate at which a volume of water
travels through a cross-section per unit of time. Given by the formula:
Q=AxV

Velocity (V, m/s) is given by the Manning equation:

V = (1/n) x R0.66 x S0.5

Where S slope (m/m) and n Mannings roughness

Energy
Stream power and boundary shear stress are often
calculated to give a measure of the energy available to do
geomorphic work in a river.
du Boys (1879) boundary shear stress equation (, N/m2):

gdS
where is the water density (1000 kg/m3), g is gravitational
acceleration (9.81 m/s 2), d (m) is the average channel depth
and S (m/m) is the channel slope.

Variability of shear stress

Determined by differences of flow, channel geometry (depth)
and slope

Higher shear stress

Lower shear stress

Same discharge and

channel geometry

Same channel slope and

geometry

Same discharge and

channel slope

Fluvial processes: sediment transport

Dissolved load

Turbulence

Rolling
Sliding
Bed surface

Fluvial processes: sediment transport

Washload or suspended load is the movement of fine
(generally < 2 mm) material in suspension

Bedload movement is the movement of coarse sediment

along the bed; most important in terms of shaping
channel morphology
Transport capacity the volume of sediment that can be
transported

Competence the maximum size of sediment that can

be transported

Predicting sediment entrainment

When shear stress applied by a flow exceeds the critical
shear stress (i.e. the resistive force) required to mobilise a
particle, entrainment occurs
Critical shear stress (c, N/m2) can be calculated by using the
Shields (1936) equation:

= s*Dig
where s is the specific density of sediment set to 2650
kg/m3, * is the Shields dimensionless critical shear stress
value, Di is the particle size of interest and g is gravitational
acceleration (9.81 m/s 2)

Further controls on sediment entrainment

Armour layer

Flow direction

Sub-surface
layer

Armouring

Imbrication

Bedform and
grain roughness

Packing, protrusion and

hiding effects

Fluvial processes: sediment deposition

Occurs when sediment in transport falls below a
threshold velocity

Controlled by channel geometry, roughness and changes

of discharge

Washload deposition

Bedload deposition

Dominant discharge
Exceptional flood events that exceed bankfull can
significantly alter channel morphology through sediment
transport and have a long lasting morphological impact
However smaller flows, dominant discharge (~bankfull)
flows that occur every 1-2 years (~median annual flood)
may have a greater control on average channel size,
sediment characteristics and pattern.

Low flow

~Bankfull flow

Fluvial processes: bank erosion

Common mode of adjustment in

coarse bedded rivers.

Rate controlled by material

properties, vegetation, weather
and degree of scour by flowing
water

Allows accommodation of
prevailing flow regime and
creates habitat

Fluvial processes: channel migration

(Hooke, 1977)

(Winterbottom and Gilvear, 2000)

Channel variability in space

Magnitude

Stored sediment

Bed material size

Channel
gradient

Stream flow

Stream power

Drainage area, distance downstream

(adapted from Church, 2002)

Local step changes

Alluvial reach

Bedrock reach

Channel morphology equilibrium and

variability over time

(from Buffington, 2012)

Channel morphology equilibrium and

variability over time
Channels in perfect equilibrium: sediment input =
sediment output

Seldom occurs in reality, channels tend to be in a state of

dynamic- or quasi-equilibrium
Channel equilibrium can be perturbed but will evolve
towards a new state of equilibrium

Quasi

Dynamic

Response to a major disturbance

(Knighton, 1998)

Channel degradation

Incised channel

Unaffected section

A useful link: River Geomorphology Videos

http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/geomoph/emriver/i
ndex.html

Sudden channel change

Jan 2007
March
2009

30 m

Channel response to impoundment:

upper River Moriston

(RCAHMS, 2010)

10 years before dam completion

(RCAHMS, 2010)

15 years after dam construction

Get Mapping, 2010)

48 years after dam construction

Channel classification

(Montgomery and Buffington, 1998)

Bedrock channels
High gradient for a given drainage area and high transport
capacity relative to sediment supply

Limited sediment storage and highly stable

Often form knick-points in river profiles and base levels

Boulder-bed channels
High gradient, confined channels dominated by boulder
and cobble substrate

High transport capacity relative to sediment supply

Exhibit cascade or step-pool morphologies that are
stabilised by large key-stones

Plane-bed and plane-riffle channels

Medium to low channel gradient characterised by a
relatively featureless bed topography

Transport capacity to sediment supply ratios are in

balance
Low sinuosity and variable floodplain extent

Meandering channels
Low channel gradient characterised by an undulating bed
topography
Tend to have pool-riffle sequences and extensive floodplain

Sediment deposition over point bars balanced by erosion on

outside of meanders

(SNH/Aerographica)

Wandering channels
Low gradient channels with locally braided planform and extensive
sediment storage
Characterised by a high sediment supply to transport capacity ratio

Associated with rapid channel migration and avulsion (channel switching)

Braided channels
Low gradient channels with mutliple channels and a wide active
channel width
Characterised by a high sediment supply to transport capacity ratio due to
coarse sediment inputs from upstream and weak banks
Associated with the highest rates of channel migration

(SNH)

(Scottish Rivers Handbook, 2013)

Fluvial geomorphology and lotic habitats

Catchment and river
processes
Channel geomorphology

Physical habitat

Biota

Water quality,
temperature and
species pool

(Gilvear, 2011)

(Scottish Rivers Handbook, 2013)

Connectivity and complexity in river systems

(from Naiman et al., 2006)

The biophysical complexity

(heterogeneity) of rivers underpins their
long-term vitality
Naiman, 2006

River Nethy

(Gilvear, 2011)

(Gilvear, 2011)

Ballinluig Island (SSSI), River Tummel

1946

1989

1994

1999

150 plant species: two national

rarities Purple Iris and Jacobs
Ladder (both introduced) and the
native nationally rare plants
Maiden Pink and Shady Horsetail,
plus 31 locally rare higher plants.
(Gilvear and Wilby, 2006)

Distribution of channel types and spawning

habitat

Riffle units in
low gradient
alluvial reaches
preferred.

Freshwater pearl mussel habitat

Physical habitat quality dictated by the ability of mussels
to burrow into bed sediments and the stability of the
substrate over time
Survival also depends on a healthy salmon population and
the habitat to support it

Summary
For a given river section, its morphology is characterised by five
variables: cross-sectional shape, sediment size, slope, bedforms
and planform
Rivers naturally adjust these variables to the imposed natural
drivers and ultimately evolve towards the most stable and
efficient condition for transporting water and sediment
Artificial alteration of controlling factors may cause a departure
from its natural adjustment or equilibrium and in turn have
undesired consequences
Different river types and features will play a role in maintaining
differing species and lifestyles. River complexity, heterogeneity
and a shifting habitat mosaic is important