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Mechanisms of glomerular crescent formation

Author
Pierre Ronco, MD, PhD

Section Editors
Richard J Glassock, MD,
MACP
Fernando C Fervenza, MD,
PhD

Deputy Editor
John P Forman, MD, MSc

All topics are updated as new evidence becomes available and our peer review process is complete.
Literature review current through: Jul 2015. | This topic last updated: Jan 22, 2013.
INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION Cellular glomerular crescents are defined as two or more layers of
proliferating cells in Bowman's space (picture 1 and picture 2) and are a hallmark of inflammatory
glomerulonephritis and a histologic marker of severe glomerular injury. In general, the severity of the renal failure
and other clinical manifestations of glomerulonephritis (eg, hypertension, edema) correlates with the percentage of
glomeruli that exhibit crescents [1-5]. The duration and potential reversibility of the underlying disease correspond
with the relative predominance of cellular or fibrous components in the crescents. (See 'Course of crescents' below.)
Crescentic glomerulonephritis is typically associated with the syndrome of rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis,
which can occur in most forms of inflammatory glomerular injury, including postinfectious glomerulonephritis, IgA
nephropathy, lupus nephritis, renal vasculitis, membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis, and anti-glomerular
basement membrane (GBM) antibody disease. (See "Differential diagnosis and evaluation of glomerular disease",
section on 'Moderate to severe glomerulonephritis'.)
This topic will review the mechanisms of glomerular crescent formation. The classification, clinical presentation,
evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of crescentic glomerulonephritis, as well as the mechanisms and
pathogenesis of glomerular injury, are discussed elsewhere. (See "Overview of the classification and treatment of
rapidly progressive (crescentic) glomerulonephritis" and "Mechanisms of immune injury of the glomerulus".)
INITIATING EVENTS Glomerular crescent formation appears to represent a nonspecific response to severe
injury to the glomerular capillary wall [5]. The initiating event is the development of physical gaps (also called rents
or holes) in the glomerular capillary wall, glomerular basement membrane, and Bowman's capsule (picture 2 and
picture 3) [6,7]. These gaps permit the entry into Bowman's space of coagulation factors, which lead to fibrin
formation (due to conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin polymers and delayed fibrinolysis) and cellular elements (such as
monocytes and lymphocytes), both of which promote crescent formation (picture 3) [5,8].
Based upon experimental murine studies, crescent formation is believed to be primarily mediated by a T helper 1
(Th1) nephritogenic immune response involving CD4+ T cells, macrophages, and fibrin as effectors of cell-mediated
immunity [9]. Th17 CD4 effector cells also appear to play an important role [10,11] with a potential cytokinechemokine-driven cross-regulation of Th1 and Th17 subpopulations [12]. Recruitment of Th1 is also controlled by
regulatory T cells [13]. (See "T helper subsets: Differentiation and role in disease".)
FORMATION AND COMPOSITION Disruption of the integrity of the glomerular capillary wall with severe
glomerular injury initiates a series of events that can result in crescent formation. These factors, which are
discussed in detail in the following sections, include:
Rents in the glomerular capillary wall and glomerular basement membrane allow circulating cells, mostly
macrophages and T cells, inflammatory mediators, and plasma proteins, particularly coagulation proteins, to
pass through the capillary wall and basement membrane and into Bowman's space.
The contents in Bowman's space can enter the interstitium, contributing to periglomerular inflammation.

Crescent formation results from the subsequent participation of coagulation factors, particularly fibrin; tissue
factor, which promotes fibrin deposition; and several different cell types, including macrophages, glomerular
parietal epithelial cells, glomerular visceral epithelial cells (podocytes), renal progenitor cells, and interstitial
fibroblasts.
In addition, limited data from experimental studies have identified other factors that may contribute to crescent
formation:
Stimulation of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) or 9 (TLR9) can promote the development of crescentic
glomerulonephritis by effects on both the adaptive and innate immune response [14,15]. TLR4 has a crucial
direct effect on renal cells.
Genetically determined differences in both glomerular and bone marrow-derived cells can influence individual
susceptibility to crescent formation [16,17].
Coagulation proteins A central feature of crescent formation is the presence in Bowman's space of coagulation
factors that lead to the cross-linking of fibrin and a deficiency in fibrinolytic mechanisms, both of which can facilitate
fibrin deposition (picture 4). The importance of fibrin is illustrated by the findings in animal models that defibrination
can prevent [18] or reverse crescent formation [19].
Tissue factor, tissue factor inhibitor, thrombin, and the plasminogen/plasmin system are procoagulant molecules
that are central to this process.
Tissue factor The primary stimulus to fibrin deposition in crescent formation appears to be tissue factor,
which binds to and activates factor VII [20]. Tissue factor is derived from endothelial cells, glomerular visceral
epithelial cells (podocytes), and macrophages [20,21]. In addition, macrophage-derived interleukin-1 and tumor
necrosis factor (TNF) stimulate tissue factor production by glomerular endothelial cells [22].
In early glomerulonephritis, tissue factor expression appears to derive from intrinsic glomerular cells; later, it
primarily originates from macrophages [20]. (See 'Glomerular visceral epithelial cells (podocytes)' below and
'Macrophages' below.)
Tissue factor pathway inhibitor Accompanying the increase in tissue factor activity is an early reduction in
tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI), which also favors fibrin deposition [23]. This early response is followed by
enhancement of TFPI expression in later stage disease, chronically inhibiting the deposition of fibrin [23,24]. A
similar effect can be induced by the administration of recombinant TFPI which, in experimental crescentic
glomerulonephritis, reduces both fibrin deposition and crescent formation [23].
Thrombin An important role for thrombin in crescent formation was suggested in a mouse model in which
hirudin, a selective thrombin antagonist, or the absence of protease-activated receptor 1, a cellular thrombin
receptor, significantly reduced both glomerular crescent formation and macrophage and T-cell infiltration [25]. (See
'Macrophages' below and 'T cells' below.)
Plasminogen/plasmin system The plasminogen/plasmin system plays a central role in fibrinolysis and the
resolution of glomerular crescents. In experimental and human crescentic glomerulonephritis, there is decreased
fibrinolytic activity due to both a reduction in tissue-type plasminogen activator and an increase in plasminogen
activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) [26-28]. The end result is that extraglomerular fibrin cross-linking occurs in Bowman's
space. Fibrin is a potent chemotactic factor that also helps recruit macrophages into the glomeruli [29]. (See
'Macrophages' below.)
Protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR-2), which is a cellular receptor in glomerular cells and macrophages,
aggravates experimental crescentic glomerulonephritis due to both augmentation of renal PAI-1 expression and
inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity [30]. In contrast, mice lacking PAR-2 have reductions in PAI activity,
fibrin deposition, and crescent formation [30].

Macrophages Macrophages play a central role in the formation of glomerular crescents since both tissue factor
expression and fibrin deposition are macrophage-dependent phenomena [31]. In an experimental model of antiglomerular basement membrane (GBM) antibody-induced glomerulonephritis, macrophages accounted for 42
percent of cells in early crescents and 64 to 71 percent of cells in advanced cellular or fibrocellular crescents [32].
Macrophages in the glomeruli presumably derive from the circulation and also probably enter from the
periglomerular interstitium via gaps in Bowman's capsule. These gaps may be caused by inflammatory processes
similar to those that result in rupture of the glomerular basement membrane (picture 3) [6,7] and/or by cell-mediated
mechanisms [33,34]. (See 'Initiating events' above.)
Localization of macrophages to the glomeruli in crescentic glomerulonephritis involves multiple chemoattractants.
These include:
The C-C chemokines macrophage chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), macrophage inhibitory factor (MIF),
macrophage inflammatory protein-1-alpha (MIP-1-alpha), and osteopontin [35-38]. Expression of chemokine
receptor 2B (CCR2B), which is the receptor for MCP-1, may be particularly important [39].
Adhesion molecules, such as vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1, intercellular adhesion molecule
(ICAM)-1, and CD44, which are all expressed on glomerular parietal epithelial cells [40,41].
Renal cell-derived granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) may increase expression of
VCAM-1, MCP-1, and interleukin (IL)-1 beta, thereby promoting crescent formation [42].
Once localized to Bowman's space, activated macrophages contribute to crescent formation by proliferating and by
releasing the following molecules:
Tissue factor. (See 'Tissue factor' above.)
Interleukin (IL)-1 and TNF upregulate adhesion molecule expression, stimulate cell proliferation, and recruit
more macrophages [32]. Selective blockade of IL-1 with IL-1 receptor antagonists [43] or of TNF with antiTNF antibodies or soluble TNF receptors markedly reduces crescent formation in experimental models
[44,45]. In contrast to the macrophage origin of most inflammatory mediators, some evidence suggests that
the principal source of TNF may be intrinsic renal cells [46].
Transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta may play an important role in both disease activity and the transition
from cellular to fibrocellular and fibrous crescents since it is a potent stimulus to the production of collagen I
[47]. With respect to disease activity, TGF-beta signaling appears to play an important role in the
development and progression of crescentic glomerulonephritis [48]. Further support comes from a study of
15 patients with crescentic glomerulonephritis in which higher urinary TGF-beta levels were associated with
a lower likelihood of response to immunosuppressive therapy, possibly reflecting more severe disease [49].
With respect to the development of fibrotic disease, an important role for TGF-beta was suggested in a rat
model of glomerulonephritis in which administration of a chimeric soluble TGF receptor that binds to and
inhibits the actions of TGF-beta reduced extracellular matrix accumulation in the glomeruli [50]. A reduction
in extracellular matrix accumulation has also been demonstrated in other studies by inhibiting TGF-beta
expression [51] or activity [52].
The mannose receptor, a pattern recognition receptor implicated in the uptake of endogenous and microbial
ligands, is upregulated on activated macrophages. Mannose receptor-deficient mice were protected from
crescentic glomerulonephritis in a mouse nephrotoxic nephritis model despite humoral and T-cell responses
similar to those of wild-type mice [53]. These data suggest that blocking the receptor might provide a more
specific approach than broad-based immunosuppressive therapy.
Several studies in patients with crescentic glomerulonephritis found increased glomerular expression of

matrix metalloproteinases (MMP)-2, 3, 9, and 11 and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases (TIMP)-1, which
correlated with cellular crescents and disease activity [54,55]. In experimental studies, MMP-9 protects
against experimental crescentic glomerulonephritis through its fibrinolytic activity [30,56].
T cells T cells are found in Bowman's space and in crescents [33,57]. Localization of T helper cells to the
glomeruli may involve a variety of factors. These include traditional chemoattractants (such as monocyte
chemoattractant protein [MCP] and macrophage inflammatory protein [MIP]-1-alpha), certain cytokines (such as
interleukin [IL]-12p40 and IL-18), mast cells, and costimulatory ligands on macrophages and non-lymphoid cells
(such as CD80 and CD86) [58-60]. Some of these cytokines may also stimulate production of proinflammatory
cytokines such as interferon-gamma and TNF [58].
The role of T cells in glomerular injury may be related to antigen recognition and macrophage recruitment via the
release of factors such as MIF and interferon-gamma [9,61]. In addition, a possible role for voltage-gated potassium
channel Kv1.3, which is expressed on effector memory T cells, was proposed in a rat model of GBM crescentic
glomerulonephritis [62]. In addition to effector memory T cells, Kv1.3 channels were also expressed on some
macrophages and in the glomeruli. Administration of a Kv1.3 blocker was associated with fewer crescents and less
proteinuria than in rats given the vehicle alone.
Glomerular parietal epithelial cells Glomerular parietal epithelial cells are significant constituents of
crescents [63,64]. Unlike glomerular visceral epithelial cells (podocytes), which are normally terminally
differentiated cells with little proliferative capacity (see 'Glomerular visceral epithelial cells (podocytes)' below),
glomerular parietal epithelial cells can and do proliferate, presumably in response to growth factors, such as
platelet-derived growth factor and fibroblast growth factor-2 (basic fibroblast growth factor) [29]. Studies performed in
a mouse model using genetic tagging of glomerular parietal epithelial cells demonstrated the significant contribution
of these cells to crescent formation [64].
Since glomerular parietal epithelial cells are not major sources of procoagulant molecules or growth factors, it is
unlikely that they are as important as macrophages and interstitial fibroblasts (as described above) in determining
the course and consequences of crescent formation. However, glomerular parietal epithelial cells can undergo
dysregulation and become macrophage-like inflammatory effector cells and may be the primary cells producing
type I collagen [65,66].
Glomerular visceral epithelial cells (podocytes) Glomerular visceral epithelial cells (podocytes) (figure 1)
were considered to be terminally differentiated cells and had not been regarded as participants in crescent
formation. However, lineage tagging experiments showed that new podocytes could be recruited from glomerular
parietal epithelial cells through differentiation and proliferation [67]. Evidence supporting the contribution of
podocytes to crescent formation was provided by studies in murine models of and humans with GBM antibody
disease in which podocytes adhered to both the glomerular basement membrane and the parietal basement
membrane, forming podocyte bridges between the glomerular tuft and Bowman's capsule [68-70]. It has been
suggested that podocyte bridging may be an important event that occurs early in the development of crescentic
glomerulonephritis [68].
Podocytes also populate crescents [69,70] and may undergo epithelial mesenchymal transformation to contribute
to crescent formation, particularly in early disease [70,71]. The following observations provide support for these
findings:
Nestin, a marker for the metanephric blastema that gives rise to podocytes, has been identified in crescents
of kidney biopsies from patients with crescentic glomerulonephritis [72].
Genetically tagged podocytes are an important component of cellular crescents in a murine model of antiGBM antibody disease [69].
In mice, selective deletion of the Von Hippel-Lindau gene in glomeruli leads to clinical evidence of
glomerulonephritis and spontaneous formation of crescent-like structures that are composed primarily of

podocytes [73].
De novo induction of heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor (HB-EGF) has been
demonstrated in podocytes in both mice and humans with crescentic glomerulonephritis [74]. In addition,
deficiency or conditional deletion of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) gene from podocytes of
mice alleviates the severity of anti-GBM nephritis, suggesting an autocrine loop that involves induction of HBEGF in podocytes [74].
De novo expression of HB-EGF in podocytes is also found in crescentic glomerulonephritis in humans
[74,75]. This observation raises the possibility of new therapies since EGFR inhibitors (eg, cetuximab,
panitumumab) are clinically available for use in selected patients with cancer.
Renal progenitor cells Renal progenitor cells localized in Bowman's capsule are capable of regenerating
podocytes. These cells are identified by stem cell markers CD133 and CD24 and are in various stages of
differentiation. Different types of progenitor cells seem to be located at the vascular and urinary poles, [76]. Data
obtained in human crescentic glomerulonephritis suggest that crescent formation may primarily result from
dysregulated proliferation of renal progenitor cells in response to the injured podocyte [77].
Interstitial fibroblasts In some models of experimental crescentic glomerulonephritis, interstitial fibroblasts are
the second most prominent cell type after macrophages [6,7]. These cells are believed to enter Bowman's space
from the periglomerular interstitium through gaps in Bowman's capsule. In the crescent, the fibroblast is a major
source of interstitial collagen, which characterizes the transition from cellular to fibrous crescents. Fibroblast
proliferation is thought to be growth factor-dependent, probably involving basic fibroblast growth factor (also called
fibroblast growth factor-2) [29,78].
COURSE OF CRESCENTS The presence of crescents does not necessarily predict irreversible glomerular
damage. In IgA nephropathy, for example, there may be crescents in a small proportion of glomeruli (usually less
than 25 percent) during episodes of gross hematuria and acute worsening of renal function, but the lesions resolve
in most patients with little or no scarring [79-81]. This lack of progression occurs when the crescents are
predominantly cellular, without a significant fibroblast or collagen component. (See "Treatment and prognosis of IgA
nephropathy", section on 'Acute kidney injury with gross hematuria'.)
Whether crescents progress or resolve may depend upon the integrity of Bowman's capsule and the cellular
composition of the crescent. Production of interstitial collagen and progression to fibrous crescents are more
common when capsular rupture occurs and fibroblasts and macrophages are prominent in Bowman's space [29].
(See 'Interstitial fibroblasts' above and 'Macrophages' above.)
Although the presence of fibrous crescents generally correlates with glomerular sclerosis, there is no evidence that
events in the crescents cause injury to the glomerular capillaries. As an example, defibrination abolishes crescent
formation in animal models without improving renal function [18,19]. Thus, crescent formation appears to be a
consequence, not a cause, of severe glomerular injury. (See 'Initiating events' above.) However, there is increasing
evidence that large crescents may occlude the outlet from Bowman's capsule to the proximal tubule to produce
"atubular glomeruli" with subsequent degeneration of both glomeruli and tubules [82,83].
The treatment and prognosis of the renal disease varies with disease severity and the cause of the
glomerulonephritis. These issues are discussed in detail elsewhere. (See "Overview of the classification and
treatment of rapidly progressive (crescentic) glomerulonephritis", section on 'Treatment'.)
SUMMARY
Cellular glomerular crescents are defined as two or more layers of proliferating cells in Bowman's space
(picture 1 and picture 2) and are a hallmark of inflammatory glomerulonephritis and a histologic marker of
severe glomerular injury. In general, the severity of the renal failure and other clinical manifestations of
glomerulonephritis (eg, hypertension, edema) correlates with the percentage of glomeruli that exhibit

crescents. Crescentic glomerulonephritis is typically associated with the syndrome of rapidly progressive
glomerulonephritis. (See 'Introduction and definition' above.)
Glomerular crescent formation appears to represent a nonspecific response to severe injury to the glomerular
capillary wall. The initiating event is the development of physical gaps (also called rents or holes) in the
glomerular capillary wall, glomerular basement membrane, and Bowman's capsule (picture 2 and picture 3).
(See 'Initiating events' above.)
Rents in the glomerular capillary wall and glomerular basement membrane allow circulating cells, mostly
macrophages and T cells, inflammatory mediators, and plasma proteins, particularly coagulation proteins, to
pass through the capillary wall and basement membrane and into Bowman's space. The contents in
Bowman's space can enter the interstitium, contributing to periglomerular inflammation. Crescent formation
results from the participation of these factors (see 'Formation and composition' above):
Coagulation factors, particularly fibrin and tissue factor (see 'Coagulation proteins' above).
Macrophages (see 'Macrophages' above).
T cells (see 'T cells' above).
Glomerular parietal epithelial cells (see 'Glomerular parietal epithelial cells' above).
Glomerular visceral epithelial cells (podocytes) (see 'Glomerular visceral epithelial cells (podocytes)'
above).
Renal progenitor cells (see 'Renal progenitor cells' above).
Interstitial fibroblasts (see 'Interstitial fibroblasts' above).
The presence of crescents does not necessarily predict irreversible glomerular damage. The potential
reversibility of the injury corresponds in part with the relative predominance of cellular versus fibrous
components in the crescents. (See 'Course of crescents' above.)
ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors and editors would like to thank Dr. William Couser, who contributed to earlier
versions of this topic review.
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Topic 3069 Version 8.0

GRAPHICS
Light micrograph showing crescentic
glomerulonephritis

High-power light mic rograph in c resc entic glomerulonephritis. The

hyperc ellular c irc umferential c resc ent (arrows) is c ompressing the
glomerular tuft in the c enter of the glomerulus and c losing the
c apillary lumens.
Courtesy of Helmut Rennke, MD.
Graphic 68861 Version 4.0

Normal glomerulus

Light mic rograph of a normal glomerulus. There are only 1 or 2 c ells

per c apillary tuft, the c apillary lumens are open, the thic kness of
the glomerular c apillary wall (long arrow) is similar to that of the
tubular basement membranes (short arrow), and the mesangial
c ells and mesangial matrix are loc ated in the c entral or stalk
regions of the tuft (arrows).

Courtesy of Helmut G Rennke, MD.

Graphic 75094 Version 4.0

Light micrograph showing crescentic

glomerulonephritis II

High-power light mic rograph showing an ac tive hyperc ellular c resc ent
c ontaining fibrin, whic h has a bright red appearanc e (long arrow).
Note that the severe inflammatory injury has led to fragmentation of
the glomerular tuft (short arrow) and to c reation of a rent in the
c apsule (double arrow).
Courtesy of Helmut Rennke, MD.
Graphic 76472 Version 4.0

Normal glomerulus

Light mic rograph of a normal glomerulus. There are only 1 or 2 c ells

per c apillary tuft, the c apillary lumens are open, the thic kness of
the glomerular c apillary wall (long arrow) is similar to that of the
tubular basement membranes (short arrow), and the mesangial
c ells and mesangial matrix are loc ated in the c entral or stalk
regions of the tuft (arrows).

Courtesy of Helmut G Rennke, MD.

Graphic 75094 Version 4.0

Electron micrograph in crescentic glomerulonephritis

Elec tron mic rograph in rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (RPGN)

showing c harac teristic breaks in the glomerular basement membrane
(GBM) (arrows). These rents allow fibrin and c ellular elements to enter
Bowman's spac e and initiate c resc ent formation.
Courtesy of Helmut Rennke, MD.
Graphic 78020 Version 4.0

Electron micrograph of a normal glomerulus

Elec tron mic rograph of a normal glomerular c apillary loop showing

the fenestrated endothelial c ell (Endo), the glomerular basement
membrane (GBM), and the epithelial c ells with its interdigitating
foot proc esses (arrow). The GBM is thin, and no elec tron-dense
deposits are present. Two normal platelets are seen in the c apillary
lumen.
Courtesy of Helmut Rennke, MD.

Graphic 50018 Version 6.0

Immunofluorescence microscopy showing fibrin

deposition

Immunofluoresc enc e mic rosc opy showing intense deposition (bright

areas in the upper right portion of the glomerulus) of fibrin within a
c irc umferential c resc ent surrounding the glomerular tuft in any form of
c resc entic or rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis, inc luding that due
to anti-GBM antibody disease.
GBM: glomerular basement membrane.
Courtesy of Helmut Rennke, MD.
Graphic 57096 Version 3.0

The glomerular filtration barrier

Blood enters the glomerular c apillaries and is filtered ac ross the endothelium and the
glomerular basement membrane and through the filtration slits between podoc yte foot
proc esses to produc e the primary urine filtrate. In healthy glomeruli, this barrier restric ts the
passage of mac romolec ules. CatL, the expression of whic h is inc reased in human proteinuric
diseases and in an LPS-induc ed mouse model of proteinuria, c auses proteinuria and foot
proc ess effac ement through c leavage of the GTPase dynamin, an ac tin-binding protein. The
same effec ts are induc ed by gene delivery into mic e of dynK44Aa mutant form of dynamin
that does not bind GTPor of the CatL-c leaved produc t of dynamin (p40). Conversely, gene
delivery into proteinuric mic e of dynL356Q and dynR725A, two CatL-resistant dynamin
mutants, reverses proteinuria and foot proc ess effac ement.
Reproduced with permission from: Ronco P. Proteinuria: is it all in the foot?. J Clin Invest 2007;
117:2079. Copyright 2007 American Society for Clinical Investigation.
Graphic 70765 Version 3.0

Disclosures
Disclosures: Pierre Ronco, MD, PhD Nothing to disclose. Richard J Glassock, MD, MACP
Consultant/Advisory Boards: Bristol-Myers-Squibb [lupus nephritis (Abatacept)]; Abbvie [lupus nephritis
(no product)]; Sanofi-Genzyme [FSGS (Fresolimumab)]; Chemocentryx [diabetes (CCR2 antagonist)];
QuestCor [nephrotic syndrome (ACTH Gel)]; Eli Lily [kidney disease (no product)]; Astellas [kidney disease
(Tacrolimus)]. Speaker's Bureau: Genentech [vasculitis (Rituximab)]. Other Financial Interest: Karger
[editor]; AAKP [patients w ith kidney disease]; American Renal Associates [dialysis]. Equity
Ow nership/Stock Options: Reata Stock [diabetes]. Fernando C Fervenza, MD, PhD
Grant/Research/Clinical Trial Support: Genentech [Membranous nephropathy, fibrillary glomerulonephritis
(Rituximab)]; Questcor Pharmaceutic [Membranous nephropathy, IgA nephropathy (ACHTar gel)]; Biogen
Idec [Lupus nephritis (BIIB023)]; Sanofi [FSGS (Fresolimumab)]. John P Form an, MD, MSc Nothing to
disclose.
Contributor disclosures are review ed for conflicts of interest by the editorial group. When found, these
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