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FERROUS AND

NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
INTRODUCTION
Ferrous and non-ferrous alloys form the most important group among all engineering
materials in the world. These alloys have a very wide range of properties and are used in
every walk of our life. The study of ferrous and non-ferrous alloys, therefore, is very important.
This chapter is wholly devoted to the study of these materials, their types, compositions,
properties and applications.

FERROUS ALLOYS
Ferrous alloys can be broadly classified into two groups- Steels and Cast Irons.
Steels are those alloys of iron and carbon which contain upto 2.1 % carbon by weight
whereas Cast Irons are those alloys which contain carbon between 2.1 % and 6.67%. Another
difference between them is that, steels always have carbon in the combined form i.e., combined
.with iron to form phases like a - ferrite, austenite, cementite etc., whereas cast irons generally
have carbon in the free form, i.e, as graphite. But there are a few exceptions in cast irons
where carbon is also found in the combined form, as in the case of white cast iron. Ferrous
alloys in practice are not made up of only iron and carbon but many alloying elements like
silicon, manganese, nickel, chromium and several others are added in order to enhance their
properties.

STEELS
Steels can be classified in several ways. Some of them are according to :
i) Carbon Content:
1) Low-carbon, medium - carbon and high - carbon steels.
2) Hypo-eutectoid
Hyper-eutectoid

steels 0.8 % C)
steels (>0.8 % C)

ii) Method of manufacture:


1) Bessemer steel.
2) Open - hearth steel.
3) Electric furnace steel.

4) Crucible steel etc.,

Hi) Applications of steel:


1) Machine steel
2) Spring steel
3) Boiler steel
4) Structural steel
5) Tool steel etc.,

iv) Chemical Composition:


1) Plain carb~n steels and alloy steels

v) Standard Institutions:
1) AISI - Americal Iron &. Steel Institute
2) BIS - Bureau of Indian Standards.
3) SAE - Society of Automotive Engineers.
4) ASTM - American Society for Testing & Materials.
The above Institutions have classified steels also according to chemical composition.
For convenience, we shall study the different types of steels classified according to
their chemical composition, i.e., Plain carbon steels and Alloy Steels.
-

1) PLAIN CARBON STEELS

P~ain carbon steels can be classified once again according to the percentage of carbon .. _
a) Low - carbon steel- up to 0.25% carbon.
b) Medium - carbon steel - 0.25 % to 0.55 % carbon.
c) High - carbon steel- above 0.55% carbon.
Although by definition, plain carbon steels contain only iron and carbon, they always come
with traces of sulphur and phosporous and also sometimes small quantities of Silicon & Manganese.

a) Low - Carbon Steels:


Of all the different kinds of steels, those produced in the greatest quantities are low carbon steels. The charecteristics of low - carbon steels are :

Composition
Microstructure
Properties

- upto 0.25 % C
- Predominantly cc-ferrite and small quantities of pearlite.
- Relatively soft and weak but outstanding ductility and toughness.
They possess very good machinability and weldability
Eg. : Mild Steel.

Advantages

- Least expensive to product.


"

Disadvantages.

- Unresponsive to hardening heat treatment because mastensite is


difficult to form owing to very low carbon content. Strengthening
can be accomplished only by cold work. Very low hardenability.

Application

- Automobile body components, structural shapes (I - beams, Channel


and angle irons), buildings, bridges and small cans.

b) Medium Carbon Steels:


Composition

- From 0.25% to 0.55% C

Microstructure

- a - ferrite and pearlite

Properties

- Stronger than low - carbon steel but less toughner than it.

Advantages

- Best range for adding alloying elements.


Good mix of ductility & strength.

Applications

- Railway wheels and tracks, gears, crant shafts and other machine
parts.

c) High - Carbon Steels:


Composition

- From 0.55% C upto 2.1 % C

Microstructure

- Cementite (Fe3C) and pearlite (when C > 0.8%), a - ferrite and


pearlite (when C < 0.8%)

Properties

- Hardest, strongest and least ductile when compared with low and
medium carbon steels.

Advantages

- Best range to make tool steels.

Disadvantages

- Cannot be used for operations where ductlity & maIleaIiIity are


required.

Applications

- Knives, razors, hack - saw blades, high strength wire etc.

2) ALLOY STEELS
Steels which acquire some charecteristic properties due to the addition of alloying
elements, other than carbon, are known as alloy steels. Alloying elements are added to steels
for many purposes.
Some of the reasons are to :
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)

increase
improve
improve
improve
improve
improve
increase

hardenability
strength at ordinary temperatures.
wear and corrosion resistances.
mechanical properties at either high or low temperature.
toughness without greatly sacrificing strength.
magnetic properties.
red hardness (elevated temperature hardness)

Effect of alloying elements on Steel


Alloying elements that are added to steel may be classified according to the way they
affect the principal phases of steel i.e., a - ferrite, Iron carbide (Fe3C) and austenite.
i) Elements which tend.toform carbides: These elements combine with carbon to form
carbides just like iron forms Iron carbide (Fe3C). These carbides tremendously increase
the hardness and wear resistance of the steels but at the same time render them brittle.
Eg. : Chromium, tungsten, titanium, vanadium, molybdenum, manganese etc.
ii) Elements which tend to graphitize carbon : These elements when added to steels
oppose the formation of carbides where carbon is in the combined form but instead
stabilizes carbon to occur in its free form as graphite.
Eg : Silicon, cobalt, aluminium, nickel etc.

"

iii) Elements whech tend to stabilize austenite: These elements when added lowers the
A3 temperatures and raises the peritectic point, thereby increasing the range in which
austenite is stable.
Eg. : Manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper etc.
iv) Elements which tend to stabilize ferrite: These elements are more soluble in a-iron
than in y-iron. Hence they are ferrite stabilizers.
Eg. : Chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, silicon etc.
Some of the elements appear in more than one group and it means that they have more
than one effect.

Types of Alloy steels


Alloy steels may be dividedinto

four classes:

i) Structural steels
ii) Tool and die steels
iii) Magnetic alloys
iv) Stainless and heat - resisting steels

i) Structural Steels:
These are basically low - carbon steels with the carbon percentage between 0.15% to
0.30%. The principal alloying elements that are added are silicon, copper, chromium,
phosphorous and manganese is that order. The combination of copper and phosphorus increases
the resistance to atmospheric corrosion and the other elements improves its strength and
other properties.

The following characteristics of structural steels are important:


a) good yield strength.
b) enough ductility to avoid brittle fracture.
c) weldability.
d) low cost.
As the name suggests, structural steels are used for ships, bridges and buildings.
ii) Tool and Die Steels:
These are basically high quality special steels used for cutting, forming and die-making
purposes.
Different types of commonly employed tool steels are:
a)

Water hardening tool steels: They contain 0.7 to 1.3% carbon. They are used in
making drills, files, chisels, hammers and forging dies.

b) Shock resistant tool steels: These are chromium-tungsten, silicon molybdenum or


silicon - manganese alloys. They are used in making tools, punches, chisels and dies on
account of their outstanding toughness and ability to withstand repeated shocks.
c) Hot worked tool steels: In many applications the tool is subjected to excessive heat as
in hot forging, extruding, die casting etc. Tool steels developed for these applications
are known as hot-work tool steels and have good red hardness. The alloying elements
added to improve red hardness are chromium, molybdenum and tungsten.
d) High - Speed steels: These steels are among the most highly al!oyed of the tool steels
and usually contain large amounts of tungsten or molybdenum along with chromium,
vanadium and some times cobalt. The carbon content varies between 0.70 and 1.0%,
although some types contain as much as 1.5%. High speed steels have excellent wear
resistance, good red hardness and reasonably good shock resistance.
The major application of high speed steels is for cutting tools, but they are also used
for making extrusion dies, burnishing tools, blanking punches and dies.

Following are the important classes of high speed steels:


1) Class
Composition

18-4-1 steel
..

18% tungsten, 4% Chromium,


1% Vanadium, 0.7% Carbon
Cobalt, rest iron

2) CLass

High - Mo steel

Composition

8.5% Molybdenum, 4% Chromium,


1.5% Tungsten, 1% Vanadium
0.8% Carbon, rest iron

3) CLass

W-MoSteel

Composition

6% Tungsten, 5% Molybdenum
4% Chromium, 2% Vanadium
0.8% Carbon, rest iron.

iii) Magnetic Alloys:


Magnetic alloys are basically made of the three magnetic materials namely iron, nickel
and cobalt. Magnetic materials can be broadly classified into soft magnetic materials and
hard magnetic materials .
. Soft magnetic materials are those whose hysteresis loop gives a small area under the
B-H curve (flux density - magnetic field curve)
These materialsposses

high permeability and are suitable for use in transformer cores.

Eg. : Permalloy (45% Ni), Supermalloy (79% Ni, 5% Mo)

Hard magnetic materials are those whose hysteris loop gives a large area under the
B-H curve. They make permanent magnetic materials and are used for making magnetic
poles for alternators and motors.
Eg. : High carbon steel, Alnico (AI + Ni + Co + Fe), Cunife (Cu + Ni + Fe)
iv)

Stainless steels or chromium

steels:

Excellent corrosion resistance, heat resistance and aesthetic properties have inade
stainless steel an outstanding material for both industrial and domestic purposes. Stainless
steels owe their corrosion resistance largely to the presence of chromium in them. Corrosion
resistance may also be enhanced by nickel and molybdenum additions.
Stainless steels are divided into three classes on the basis of the predominant phase
present in their microstructure - martensitic, ferritic or austenitic stainless steels.

a) Ferritic stainless steels:


Microstructure
- Predominantly a. -ferrite
Composition
- 11.5% - 27% chromium
0.8 - 0.2 % carbon, 1% manganese, 1% nickel, rest iron.

Properties

- Magnetic, heat and corrosion resistant, can be hardened and


strengthned only by strain hardening because they are not heat .
treatable.

Applications

- Valves (high temperatures),


combustion chambers etc.,

automotive

exhaust components,

b) Austenitic stainless steel:


Microstructure

- predominantly austenitic (even at room temperature)

Composition

- 16% - 26% Chromium,


6% - 22% Nickel
0.05% - 0.25% Carbon
2% - 4 % Molybdenum, rest iron.

Properties

- Non - magnetic, heat and corrosion resistant, strengthened and


hardened only by strain hardening because of low carbon.

Applications

- Chemical and food processing equipment,


welding construction, kitchen utensils.

cryogenic

vessels,

c) Martensitic stainless steel:


M ic rostructure

- Predominantly martensitic.

Composition

- 11.5%
1.25%
0.75%
0.15%

Properties

- Magnetic, heat and corrosion resistant, heat - treatable, high strength


and hardness, wear resistant.

Applications

- Cutlery, rifle barrels, jet engine parts, bearings, surgical tools etc.,

- 18% chromium
- 2.25 % Nickel
- 1% Molybdenum
- 1.2% Carbon, rest iron.

AISI Designation Steel


The American Iron and Steel Institute has classified steels according to their composition
and has devised a numbering system to designate different steels.
AISI designation steels normally have four or five digits. The first numeral always
represents the type to which the steel belongs. Thus 1 indicates a carbon steel, 2 indicates a
nickel steel, 3 a nickel - chromium steel etc. In other words, for plain carbon steels, the first
digit is 1 whereas different alloy steels start with numbers other than 1. In the case of alloy
steels, the second digit indicates the approximate parcentage of the predominant alloying
element. The last two digits are common to all steels and usually indicate the mean carbon
content divided by 100. Thus the symbol 2520 indicates a nickel steel of approximately 5%
Nickel and 0.2% carbon. The symbol 1060 would indicate a plain carbon steel with 0.6%
carbon. The second digit of a plain carbon steel indicates usually the type of production of
steel or the maximum residual percentages of sulphur, phosphorus or manganese.

The basic numbers for the four-digit series of a few grades of carbon and alloy steels
with approximate percentages of identifying elements are listed below. The last two digits
have been marked 'XX' indicating that carbon percentage in variable.

AISI No.

Type, Composition

10XX

Plain carbon steels made from basic open - hearth and Bessemer
process.

llXX

Basic open-hearth and Bessemer carbon steels, high sulphur, low


phosphorus.

12XX

Basic open - hearth carbon steels, high sulphur and high phosphorus.

13XX

Manganese - 1.75 %

23XX

Nickel - 3.5

25XX

Nickel- 5.0

31XX

Nickel - 1.25, Chromium - 0.60

33XX

Nickel- 3.5, Chromium - 1.5

40XX

Molybdenum - 0.20 or 0.25

43XX

Nickel - 1.05, Chromium - 0045, Molybdenum - 0.2

50XX

Chromium 0040

61XX

Chromium, Vanadium steels

86XX

Nickel, Chromium molybdenum

92XX

Silicon - 2.00

94BXX

Nickel, Chromium, Molybdenum, 'Boron'

The above classification is for only carbon and alloy steels. As far as tool steels are
concerned. they have been grouped into seven major headings, and each group or subgroup
has been assigned analphabeticalletter
as follows:

GROUP

Symbol and Type

Water hardening

Shock - resisting

Cold - work

- Oil hardening

A - Medium alloy air hardening


D - High - carbon, high - chromium
Hot work

H - HI to Hl9 - Chromium based


H20 to H39 - Tungsten based
H40 to H59 - Molybdenum based

High Speed

T
M-

Mould Steels

- Tungsten base
Molybdenum base
- PI to PI9 - low carbon
P20 to P39 - other types

Special purpose

- Low - alloy

F - Carbon - tungsten

BIS Designation Steels and Cast Irons


The Bureau of Indian Standards was set up in 1956 to establish standards for aI
engineering materials, products and different processes in India. As far as steels and cast
irons are concerned, each and every ferrous alloy or group of ferrous alloys are desigriated
particular numbers. Under each Indian Standard Number, the composition, properties,
production, testing and applications of the particular alloy are explained. The Indian Standard
numbers of some importnat steels and cast irons are listed below.

Alloy or Alloy group

BIS CODE
IS 7887 : 1992

Mild steel (low carbon steel)

IS 3748 : 1990

Tool & die steels

IS 6528 : 1995 }

Stainless steels
Chrome steel

IS 6527 : 1995
IS 963 : 1958

IS 4522 : 1986

Heat resistant alloy steels

IS 7806 : 1975

Martensitic & Austenitic (high alloy) stainless steels.

IS 210 : 1993

Grey cast iron

IS 7754 : 1975
IS 9630 : 1980

Spheroidal graphite iron

IS 14329: 1995

Malh~able iron

IS 1570 Part I - 1978


While the above list gives the IS codes for various grades of steels, IS 1570 Part I 1978 lays dows exclusively the various basis for classifying steels. One such classification is
A-I which designate steels on the basis of their mechanical properties. Under this A-I.l
gives the designation forplain carbon & low alloy steels.
A few grades of steels according to this classification is :
Fe410CuK,
Fe 600 T4'

FeE300P35,
Fe E 555 F"

Fe41OQl,
Fe 400 R,

Fe520L

Fe E 500 S5

Explanation of the grades


1) Symbol 'Fe' or 'FeE' are specified depending on whether the steel has been specified
on the basis of tensile strength or yield strength respectively.
2) The digits following this symbol give the tensile strength or yield strength as the case
may be in Nzrnrrf
For example in Fe E300 P35, the yield strength of the steel is 300 Nzmm'.
3) The value of strength is followed by the major alloying element present in the steel. For
ego Copper as in Fe 410. Cu K: ..
4) The alphabet or the alphabet - numeral combination that follows alloying element gives
the various charecteristics of steel which is explained as follows:
a) Method of oxidation:
R (Rimming steel)
K (Killed steel)
b) Steel Quality - Q, to Q5
(depending on grain structures)
c) Resistance to brittle fracture

B, BO, B2 or B4 (Extent of resistance)


d) Surface conditions - SI to S7
(Peeled, rolled, scaled etc.,)
e) Formability - DI to D3 (drawing quality)
fJ

Surface finish

- F 1 to F 14

g) Heat treatment - TI to T14


h)

Cryogenic quality - L

CAST IRONS
Cast irons are those alloys of iron and carbon where the carbon content varies between
2.1 % and 6.67%. However, since high carbon content tends to make the cast iron very brittle,
most commercially available types of cast irons are in the range of 2.5% to 4% carbon.
Cast irons are low in ductility and therefore cannot be rolled, drawn or worked easily
at room temperature. Most of the cast irons are not malleable at any temperature. But their
melting temperature are considerably lower than those of steels and therefore can be melt
readily. Fluidity of molten cast iron is very good and therefore can be cast into complicated
shapes which can be later machined to final dimensions. Since casting is the only suitable
process applied to these alloys, they are known as cast irons.

Cast irons are brittle and have lower strength properties than most steels but are much
cheaper than them. In addition, a wide range of properties can be given to cast irons by
proper alloying. good foundry control and appropriate heat treatment. All these advantages
have combined to make cast iron the most popular material for casting and has led to the.
production of large tonnages of cast iron in the industry.
According to the Iron carbon equilibrium diagram (fig 4.1), the phases that are observed
in the microstructure of cast iron at room temperature are a-ferrite and cementite (Fe3C),
.which occur at equilibrium conditions. But cementite being a meta stable compound, under
certain circumstances, decomposes to form a - ferrite and graphite, according to the reaction,
Fe3C

3Fe(a) + C (graphite)

Thus the actual microstructure of cast irons would contain the phases a - ferrite and
free carbon in the form of graphite rather than a - ferrite and cementite. '
Therefore, cast irons can be generally distinguished by the presence of free carbon in
their microstructure. But there are a few exceptions like white cast iron which contain carbon
in the combined form of cementite and pearlite.

Types of Cast Irons :


Cast irons are classified according to their microstructure. In other words cast irons
are classified accordi ng to the shape of the free carbon (graphite) present in their microstructure
or the absence of.carbon itself.
1) Gray cast irons
2) White cast irons
3) Mat'leable cast irons
4) Nodular or S.G. Iron or Ductile iron.
Cast irons are also classified according to carbon content - hypo-entectic cast irons
(between 2.1 & 4.3 %C) and hyper-eutectic cast irons (between 4.3 and 6.67%C). What
ever be the classification, in all types of cast irons, apart from carbon, silicon isalso a principal
alloying element. Fig 6.1 shows the approximate carbon content and silicon content of different
types of cast irons and also that of steel. Please note.the overlapping compositions of the
various grades.

5.0.------------------------------------,
4.0

3.0

Carbon % 2.0

1.0

STEELS

1.0

2.0
Silicon %

3.0

4.0

Fig. 6.1 : Carbon and Silicon percentages in various-Cast irons

1) Gray Cast Irons:


Gray cast irons are the most widely used type of cast irons. They are distinguished by
the presence of graphite in the form of flakes (like fibres). Gray cast irons can be divided into
different types based on the average length of the flakes in them. The general charecteristics
of gray irons are:
Composition

- 2.5% - 4% carbon
1% - 3% silicon, rest iron

Microstructure

- a-ferrite and flake graphites (fig 6.2 and fig 4.13)

Properties

- High fluidity, very high compressive


damping vibrations, low cost.

Fracture surface

- Greyish, blackish surface when fractured


flakes). Hence the name grey iron too.

Applications

- Pressure vessels, cylinder heads, pistons, clutch plates, base


structure for machines and heavy equipment that are exposed to
vibrations, valves, fittings, levers etc.

strength, very effective in


(because of graphite

2) White Cast Iron:


White cast irons are those alloys which are hypo - eutectic in composition and an
exception among cast irons. This is because all the carbon present in them are in the combined
form as cementite (Fe3C) & pearlite as against the free carbon (graphite) form present in
other cast irons. White cast iron is also an intermediate stage for producing malleable iron.
Composition

- 1.8% - 3.2% Carbon


0.3% - 1.8% Silicon, rest iron

Microstructure

- Iron carbide (lightphase), pearlite (dark phase)


No graphite (fig. 6.3 and fig 4.15)

Properties

Very hard and brittle, highly wear resitant,


malleability, not machinable

no ductility

and

Fracture surface

- Whitish surface (hence the name too)

Applications

- Liners for cement mixers, ball mill, certain types of drawing dies,
extrusion nozzles etc.,

Fig. 6.3 : White casf iron


(cementite + pearlite)

Fig. 6.2 : Grey Cast iron


(ferrite + flake graphite)

~<

Fig. 6.4 : Malleable iron


(ferrite + temper carbon)

0'"
t .
,

..

Fig. 6.5 : SG Iron


(ferrite + nodular carbon)

3)

Malleable Cast Iron:

Malleable cast irons are those alloys where almost all the carbon is in the free form in
the shape of irregular particles known as temper carbon. As the name suggests, they are
extremly malleable, and are obtained by heat treatment of white cast iron.
This heat treatment process is known as malleablization and is carried out toconvert
all the combined carbon in white iron to temper carbon and a. - ferrite. Fig 6.6 shows the
cycle of temperature and time for malleablizing white iron, which is self -explanatory.
1000
9500C

900

1\

1/
U

--1\-

--:: --

700

8-

d)

r< 600

500

/
10

1---

6800C

\
20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Hours
Fig.,6.6: Malleablization of White Iron

The Charecteristics of malleable iron are


Composition

- 1.8% - 3.2% carbon,


0.3% - 1.8% silicon
rest iron

Microstructure

- dark graphite rosettes (temper carbon) in an a. - ferrite matrix


(fig 6.4 and fig 4.16)

Properties

- Highly malleable, very good machinability,


properties, wear resistance

Applications

- Connecting rods, transmission gears, flanges, pipe fittings,


differential cases for automative industry, valves, parts for rail roads
and marine works.

good magnetic

4) Spheroidal Graphite (SG) Iron:


S.G. Iron is characterised by the presence' of free carbon in the shape of compact
spheroids or nodules. S.G. Iron is also very well known for its ductility. Hence the other
names of SG iron are Nodular Iron or Ductile Iron. Spheriodal shaped graphite is obtained
by adding a small percentage of magnesium or Cerium to the alloy in the molten state.
Composition

- 3% - 4% Carbon,
,
1.6% - 2.8% Silicon, rest iron

Microstructure

- Dark graphite nodules surrounded by a - ferrite matrix


(fig 6.5 and fig 4.14)

Properties

- Highly ductile, very good machinablility, high corrosion resistance


and good creep properties at elevated temperatures.

Applications

- Flywheels, furnace doors, wrenches, lathe chucks, motor frames,


pump bodies etc.,

NON - FERROUS ALLOYS


We know that steels and other ferrous alloys are consumed in exceedingly large quantities
because they have such a wide range of mechanical properties, may be fabricated with relati ve
ease, and are economical to produce. However, they have some distinct limitations like:
i) a relatively high density
ii) a comparatively

low electrical conductivity

iii) susceptibility to corrosion in some common environments.


Therefore, for many applications it is advantageous or even necessary to use nonferrous alloys rather than ferrous alloys in order to have more suitable property combinations
and overcome the limitations. Among non-ferrous materials, the bulk of them are made up of
the alloys of copper, aluminium, magnesium, nickel, tin, lead and zinc. Other non-ferrous
metals and alloys that are used to a lesser extent inlude cadmium, molybdenum, cobalt,
zirconium, beryllium, titanium, tantalum and theprecious metals gold, silver and the platinum
group.
Among the wide variety of non-ferrous alloys, the following alloy groups are discussed
in detail :
I)

Copper and its alloys.

2) Aluminium and its alloys.

COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS


Copper and copper based alloys which posses a desirable combination of several
properties have been utilized in a variety of applications since antiquity. The properties of
copper that are most important are high electrical and thermal conductivity, good corrosion
resistance, machinability, strength and ease offabrication. In addition, copper is non-magnetic,
has a pleasing colour, can be welded, brazed and soldered and is easily finished by electro
plating. And all these properties can be further improved by adding alloying elements!. All
these have made copper and its alloys very popular and widely used range of materials.
The most important commercial copper alloys may be classified as follows:
i) Brasses (alloys' of copper and zinc)
Alpha brasses
a) Yellow alpha brasses
b) Red brasses
2) Alpha plus beta brasses
ii) Bronzes (alloys of copper and elements other than zinc)
1) Tin bronzes
2) Silicon bronzes
3) Aluminium bronzes
4) Beryllium bronzes
iii) Cupronickels - alloys of copper and nickel
iv) Nickel silver - alloys of copper, nickel and zinc.
J)

(i) BRASSES:
Brasses are essentially alloys of copper and zinc. But they may have small amounts of
other elements such as lead, tit).or aluminium added to improve their properties.
Fig 6.7 shows a portion of the copper - zinc phase diagram which is applicable to
commercial alloys. The two important types of commercially used brasses are shown in the
phase diagram - a - Brasses and (a + P) Brasses.

1) Alpha Brasses:
Composition
Microstructure

- Copper + upto 36% zinc


Only solid solution a - brass (FCC structure) (fig 4.17)

Properties

- High corrosion properties, suitable for cold working.

Types of a - brasses

- a) Yellow a - brasses
b) Red brasses

1100
1083
Liquid

1000 I-----+--~~~,___-__+---.-

i
+-----1

900
800
700

r-c
600
500
400
0
Cu 100%

10

20

30

Zinc %

50%
)

Fig. 6.7 : Portion of Cu - Zn phase diagram

a) Yeilow a - brasses:
Composition
- Copper + 20 to 36% zinc
Properties
- High ductility, good strength, yellow in colour, susceptile to season
cracking (weakening due to inter-granular corrosion)

Common Type

i) Cartridge brass
ii) Leaded yellow brass
iii) Admiralty brass

i) Cartridge Brass:

Composition
Applications

70% Cu + 30% Zn

- Bullet shots, military ammunition, automotive radiator core, storage


batteries etc.,

ii) Leaded Yellow Brass:

Composition
Applications
I

- Cu + 29% Zn + 3% Pb + 1% Sn
- Furniture hardware, radiator fittings, light fixtures etc.,

iii) Admiralty Brass:


Composition

- 70% Cu + 29% Zn + 1% Sn

Applications

- Ship parts, general marine use, pump parts,

b) Red Brasses:
Composition

- Copper + 5 - 20% Zinc.

Properties

- Better Corrosion resistance than yellow a brasses, not susceptible


to season cracking, red in colour.

Common Types

- (i) Gilding metal (95% Cu + 5% Zn)


(ii) Low Brass (80 Cu + 20% Zn)

Applications

- Coins, medals, tokens, name plates, musical instruments, rivets,


screws, costume jewellery etc.,

2) Alpha Plus Beta Brasses:


Composition
- Copper + 38 ~46% zinc
Microstructure

- Solid solution a - brass (FCC)


Electron compound

P - brass

(BCC) (fig 4.18)

Properties

- Suitable for hot working, harder and more brittle at room temperature
than a - brass and therefore difficult to cold - work.

Types

- a) Muntz metal
b) Naval Brass

a) Muntz Metal:
Composition

- 60% Cu + 40% Zn

Applications

- architectural work, condenser tubes, brazing rods etc.,

b) Naval Brass:
Composition

- 69% Cu + 39.25% Zn + 0.75 % Sn

Applications

- Marine hardware, propeller shafts, condenser plates etc.,

II) BRONZES
Bronzes are those copper alloys which contain upto approximately 12% of the principal
alloying element, with the exception of copper - zinc alloys. Bronzes are generally higher
class alloys than brasses. Commercial bronzes are primary alloys of copper and tin, aluminium,
silicon and beryllium. In addition they may also contain phosphorus, lead, zinc or nickel.
Based on the alloying addition bronzes are classified as tin bronzes, silicon bronzes, aluminium
bronzes and beryllium bronzes.

1) Tin Bronzes (Phosphor bronzes) :


Composition
- Copper + 1 - 11% Tin + 0.01 - 0.5% P
Microstructure

- a - phase and dark 0 - phase (fig 4.19)

Properties

- High strength, toughness. low co-efficient of friction, free from


season cracking, high corrosion resistance.

Types of tin bronzes

- a) Admiralty gun metal


b) Bell metal

a) Admiralty Gun Metal:


Composition

- Cu - 88%, Tin 10%, Zn 2%

Applications

- Bearings, steam pipe fittings

b) Bell Metal:
Composition

- Cu - 70%, Tin 30%

Applications

- Casting of bells, canons. (Eg. Malik-e-rnaidan


Bijapur, North Karnataka)

- a 55 ton canon in

2) Silicon Bronzes:
Composition

- Copper + upto 5% silicon

Microstructure

- Single a - phase

Properties

- Very strong, mechanical properties comparable to those of mild


steel, high corrosion resistance.

Applications

- tanks, pressure ressels, marine construction. hydraulic pressure lines.

3) Aluminium Bronzes:
Composition

- Copper + 4 - 11% aluminium

Microstructure

- Two phases primary a - phase, Eutectoid (a + Y2) (fig 4.20)

Properties

- Suitable for cold working, good strength combined with corrosion


resistance to atmosphere, and water attack.

Applications

- Corrosion resistant
bushings etc.,

vessels, nuts and bolts, blades, bearings,

4) Beryllium Bronzes:
Composition

Copper + 1.5 - 2% Be + 0.2% Co

Microstructure

- dark y - phase at the grain boundaries of a - phase (fig 4.21)

Properties

- Excellent formability, good fatigue and creep resistance


hardened, high electrical conductvity.

Applications

- Diaphragms, surgical instruments, bolts, firing pins etc.

when

ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS


Aluminium and its alloys are charecterized by a relatively low density (2.7 g/cm' as
compared to 7.9 g/cm' for steels), high electrical and thermal conductivities, and a resistance
to corrosion in some common environments, including the ambient atmosphere. Aluminium
and most of its alloys are highly ductile and malleable as observed by the thin foil sheets
made out of them and being used to cover and roll other materials. Aluminium is non-toxic,
non-magnetic and non-sparking. Other important characteristics of aluminium are that it is
machinable, it ca~ be cast by any known method, rolled to any desired thickness and so on.
Aluminium alloys are generally classified according to the principal alloying elements
that are added to them.

1) Aluminium Copper Alloys:


AI - Cu alloys generally contain from 2.5 to 5% copper. These alloys may also contain
small amounts of silicon. iron, magnesium, manganese, chromium and zinc. The most well
known aluminium copper alloy is the Duralium which contains 4% copper.
Name of the alloy

- Duralium

Composition

- AI + 4% Cu

Microstructure

- Solid solution a - phase, Intermediate phase - Cu Al2 (fig 6.8)

Properties

- One of the best non-ferrous alloys for age - hardening, high strength,
corrosion resistant etc.,

Applications

- rivets in air craft construction,


components etc.,

electrical

cables,

automobile

2) Aluminium - Silicon alloys:


The aluminium - silicon series of alloys is most widely used for the production of all
types of castings due to excellent fluidity and casting characteristics of the molten metal.
This alloy system forms an eutectic at 11.7% silicon at 577C (fig 6.9). One of the
most used commercial alloys, LM6, is of approximately eutectic composition.
Compostion

- upto 12.5% silicon

Microstructure

- Solid solution ex - phase + Eutectic (a + B)

Properties

- Good forgeability, low co-efficient ofthermal expansion, excellent


castability and resistance to corrosion.

Applications

- Intricate castings, food - handling equipment. marine fittings.

700
Liquid

600
~

1.65%

500

400

300

200

Al 100%

10

Silicon, %

12

14

16%

Fig. 6.9 : Portion of At - Si phase diagram

3) Aluminium - Magnesium alloys:


Composition

- upto 5% magnesium

Properties

- good weldability, good corrosion resistance, moderate strength, poor


casting properties.

Applications

- architectural extrusions, tubings for automotive gas and oil lines,


fittings for chemical and sewage use, aircraft brake shoes etc.,

4) Aluminium - Lithium alloys:


Composition

- upto 2.5% Lithium, 1% Mg

Properties

- Very low densities (2.5 to 2.6 g / em') excellent fatigue strength,


low - temperature toughness, high specific modulus (elastic modulus
I specific gravity), very expensive.

Applications

air craft and aerospace industries

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