Topic X Analysing

2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Analyse information, data and facts through classification;
2. Analyse data through cause-and-effect relationships as well as
compare-and-contrast functions; and
3. Analyse facts as evidence.

INTRODUCTION

One of the aims of education is to develop in us, the ability not only to
understand and accept what we learn, are told or read, but also to analyse, in
greater detail, the content of what we read  information, data and facts. Analysis
involves examining, studying, scrutinising and evaluating details contained in
texts, speech and graphics and then drawing appropriate conclusions from them.
The details we may need to examine range from general features to specific facts
and examples.

2.1

ANALYSING THROUGH CLASSIFICATION

When we read something, we often organise the information in a certain way to

make understanding of the information easier. The content of the text may be
grouped or classified into meaningful units or categories. Categorisation helps in
our analysis of the text content.

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17

The word classification comes from the word class, which means a group of
things that have some common features or characteristics. If an object or animal
is classified under a certain group, we can make predictions about its
characteristics by looking at some of the common features possessed by other
members of the group.
In this section, we will learn some ways in which we can use classification to
analyse and understand text.

SELF-CHECK 2.1
Read the passage below about the planets in our solar system.
The solar system is made up of nine planets.
These planets orbit around the sun. Planets
inside the Earths orbit of the sun (Mercury
and Venus) are called inferior planets.
Planets outside the Earths orbit of the sun
are called superior planets. Mercury, Venus,
Mars and Pluto, which are similar in size to
the Earth, are called terrestrial planets.
Jupiter, Uranus, Neptune and Saturn are
called the major or larger planets because
they are bigger than the planet Earth.
Source: www.ioncmaste.ca.

The planets in the solar system may be classified according to:

(a)

Size;

(b) Composition;
(c)

Distance from the sun; or

(d)

Date of discovery.

(You may choose more than one option)

Were you able to identify some ways to classify the planets of the
universe? Good! Now let us learn more about classification.

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TOPIC 2 ANALYSING

2.1.1

How Classifications Work

Classification has a structure. When making classifications, we usually include:



A general class
Planets  The solar system is made up of nine planets.

A specific item
These planets are called Earth, Mars, Saturn, Jupiter, Uranus, Venus,
Neptune, Mercury and Pluto.

A basis for classification i.e. at least one thing in common.

Jupiter, Uranus, Neptune and Saturn are called the major or larger planets
because they are bigger than the planet Earth.

There are two general ways to make classifications.

(a)

Ordering classifications from general to specific

The world may be classified into five continents: Europe, the Americas,
Asia, Africa and Oceania. These continents can be further divided into
continental countries and island countries as shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: The world

(b)

Ordering classifications from specific to general

Malaysia, China and Nepal are continental countries while Indonesia,
Singapore and Taiwan are island countries. They are all countries in the
Asian continent. The world comprises five continents, and Asia is one of
them. The other continents are Europe, the Americas, Oceania and Africa as
shown in Figure 2.2.

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Figure 2.2: Continental and island countries

When classifying from specific to general, the items do not have to cover all the
subdivisions of the general category, that is, there are many other countries in the
Asian continent not mentioned in the above statements.
Before continuing with the lesson, do the following activity to see how far you
understand what you have learned.

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TOPIC 2 ANALYSING

ACTIVITY 2.1
1.

Read the text, which provides a simple classification of matter.

All things in the world are made of matter. All matters may be classified
as solid, liquid or gas. Solid matters are dense and hard. These are
usually unyielding and firm. Liquid matters are fluid and flowing while
gases are unpredictable and unstable. Solids may be further divided into
two classes: crystalline and amorphous. Crystalline solids have
particular shapes and forms. Amorphous solids are formless and
shapeless. Rubber and cotton are examples of amorphous solids while
wood, iron and glass are examples of crystalline solids.

2.

2.1.2
(a)

Fill in the blanks in the diagram to show how matter is classified

in the above text.

Language Patterns for Classification

Passive Voice
Scientific language is often marked by the passive voice and the passive
form of verbs. This means the words used to show action take priority over
the person performing the action. Look at the examples given below:
(i)

Scientists classify tin as metal.

active voice  less preferred in scientific writing)
(a

(ii)

Tin is classified as metal.

(p
passive voice  more preferred in scientific writing)

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21

The second sentence is preferred because it gives importance to the object

being focused on. It focuses on how tin is classified. The fact that it is the
scientists who did the classifying is recognised and understood. They are
not mentioned but can be if required. Therefore, the passive form of the
verb is often used in classifying activities.
(b)

Structure of Passive Sentence (see Table 2.1)

Table 2.1: Structure of Passive Sentence
Appropriate
Form of the
Verb to
be

Past Participle
of Verb

Tin

is

classified

as a metal

Water

is

made of
oxygen

and
hydrogen

Object in
Active
Sentence

Agreement

Optional
Phrase 
Subject in
Active
Sentence
by scientists

Remember the following:

(i)

If the action is in the present, use the present tense of the verb to be
 is for a singular subject and are for plural subjects.

(ii)

If the action is in the past, use the past tense of the verb to be 
was for a singular subject and were for plural subjects.

(iii) If modals like can or must are to be used, change to can be or

must be.
(iv) Include the subject of the active sentence if this information is
necessary; use by as a connector.
It is hoped that you are now able to construct passive sentences. Test your
understanding of what you have learned by doing the following exercise.

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TOPIC 2 ANALYSING

ACTIVITY 2.2
Read the list of active sentences below carefully. Change them into
passive sentences. Include the:


Correct tense  present or past

Correct form of the verb to be  singular or plural

Subject of the active phrase if you think it is important

ACTIVE SENTENCE

PASSIVE SENTENCE

We produce Proton cars in Malaysia.

They discovered the first rubber trees in
Brazil.
Penicillin can cure pneumonia.
Luigi Galvani invented the electric battery
in 1786.
Meteors probably caused the craters on the
moon.

2.2

CAUSE-EFFECT AND COMPARE/CONTRAST

RELATIONSHIPS

In analysing facts and details, we may use several strategies. Two of the most
common strategies are looking for cause-and-effect, and comparing-andcontrasting relationships.
Sometimes, you may find that one event causes the occurrence of another and the
second event may cause the occurrence of a third. This is where we need to know
cause-and-effect relationships. Studying such relationships will help us to
discover how and why something happens.
On the other hand, focusing on comparisons helps us to identify relationships
between things. Comparisons help us to see things in new ways and solve
problems which normally cannot be solved without looking at the similarities
and differences of the things involved.

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2.2.1

23

How Cause and Effect WorksG

Now, we will see how events or situations in a cause-and-effect relationship

relate to each other.
(a)

Causes and effects connect events or situations. Causes explain why

something happens.
Example:

(b)

Sometimes the effect may be stated before the cause.

Example:

(c)

Continuous heavy rainfall leads to floods.

(Cause)
(Effect)

Floods are the result of continuous heavy rainfall.

(Effect)
(Cause)

Sometimes causes and effects are more complex. One cause may have many
effects or one effect may have many causes.
Example:

Continuous heavy rainfall, together with bad drainage, lead to

floods, as shown in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3: Two causes with one effect

Example:

Continuous heavy rainfall leads to floods and damage to

property, as shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: One cause with two effects

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(d)

TOPIC 2 ANALYSING

Sometimes an effect can become a cause. There can also be a cycle of causes
and effects.
Example:

Continuous heavy rainfall leads to floods, which can disrupt

traffic and lead to missed appointments, as shown in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5: Cycle of causes and effects

Now, you should be able to identify the causes and effects of events. You should
also be able to understand how causes and effects work and how they relate to
each other.
Test your understanding by trying the following exercise.

ACTIVITY 2.3
Read the following sentences carefully. Underline the cause(s) and
circle the effect(s) in each sentence.
1.

When wax is heated, it melts.

2.

The gravitational pull of the moon creates ocean tides.

3.

No sound can be heard when a bell is struck in a vacuum.

4.

Chlorophyll makes leaves look green.

5.

Severe droughts lead to famine.

6.

Carbon dioxide turns solid when frozen.

7.

Smoking may result in cancer.

8.

Overeating may lead to obesity and hypertension.

9.

Driving at high speed and fatigue may result in road accidents.

10.

No one was killed because the landslide happened away from the
villages.

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2.2.2

25

How Compare/Contrast Technique Works

Compare and contrast are useful skills when analysing text for details. It is
important to remember the following things when comparing and contrasting.
(a)

Compare and contrast involve the study of two or more items to discover
the similarities and differences between them.
Example: The world has two polar caps  Arctic in the north and Antarctic
in the south.
However, the northern and southern polar regions are different
in many ways.

(b)

Comparing involves looking for similarities between things.

Example: The Arctic and the Antarctic caps are covered with ice.

(c)

Contrasting is often linked to looking for differences between things.

Example: The Arctic region is an ice-covered sea almost completely
surrounded by land. The Antarctic region is a large ice continent
surrounded by a huge ocean.

2.2.3

Language Structures for Making Comparison

and Contrast

To compare and contrast, two types of sentence can be used:

(a)

Structure 1: Talking about Similarities (see Table 2.2)

Table 2.2: Similarities between a Space Shuttle and a Space Rocket
The space shuttle is

like
similar to
comparable to
as important as

a space rocket.

The space shuttle

resembles
parallels

a space rocket in many ways.

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(b)

TOPIC 2 ANALYSING

Structure 2: Talking about Differences (see Table 2.3)

Table 2.3: Differences between a Helicopter and a Space Shuttle

A helicopter

is unlike
is different from
differs from

Unlike a helicopter
In contrast to a helicopter
Compared with a helicopter
In comparison to a helicopter

a space shuttle.

the space shuttle can fly

to outer space.

The helicopter is

slower than
smaller than

the space shuttle.

The helicopter is a

relatively cheaper
comparatively cheaper

aircraft.

Now, take a break by doing the following exercise before continuing with the
lesson.

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ACTIVITY 2.4
1.

Read the text below about big things. Find as many comparisons as
you can.

The blue whale is the largest animal that has ever lived  even bigger
than the largest of the dinosaurs. But even the blue whale is dwarfed by
the redwoods and giant sequoia trees that grow in California. The
Californian redwoods are the worlds tallest trees. Many of them reach
more than 100 metres in height. A mature redwood towers over a space
shuttle or a jumbo jet. The redwood tree is about 50 times as tall as a
fully grown person. The giant sequoias are not as tall as the redwoods
but have much thicker trunks. One sequoia tree called General Sherman
is 83 metres high and the base of its trunk is more than 11 metres wide.
General Sherman is the largest living thing.
Tick ( )the sentences that highlight the comparisons found in this
text. Put a cross ( )for sentences that are inaccurate.
Sentence

2.

(i)

The blue whale is the largest living thing.

(ii)

The blue whale is bigger than the largest dinosaur.

(iii)

The giant sequoia is the tallest tree.

(iv)

The Californian redwoods have thicker trunks than the

sequoia.

(v)

A redwood tree is taller than a space shuttle.

(vi)

A jumbo jet is bigger than both the redwood and the

sequoia.

(vii)

The redwood is the tallest living thing in the world.

(viii)

General Sherman is the biggest of all living things.

(1+G

Underline the correct words or phrases in the text below.

Dolphins and submarines are (similar/different) because they can

both be found underwater. The dolphin is (smaller/larger) than a
submarine and in contrast is much (slower/faster). But the dolphin
is (more/less) agile compared to the submarine. The dolphin can
make quick turns easily (in contrast/similar) to the submarine. The
dolphin (resembles/varies) in shape to most submarines. The
dolphin is a living creature (unlike/similar to) the submarine. The
dolphin is as (important/ unnecessary) to marine life as the
submarine is to human transportation.

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TOPIC 2 ANALYSING

2.3

ANALYSING THROUGH EVIDENCE

When we read or hear something, we need to distinguish whether it is fact or

fiction. To do this, we must look for and examine data to obtain evidence which
will point towards a conclusion. Evidence can be found through careful
observation or experimentation, together with proper reasoning.

2.3.1

Learning about Evidence

Giving evidence is an important aspect of academic and scientific language. Here

are some important things to remember when giving evidence.
(a)

Evidence must be based on fact, not opinion.

Examples:

(b)

Fact  The sun rises in the east.

Opinion  It rains on cloudy days. (This is not always true.)

Evidence is usually introduced using clue words like indicates,

confirms and demonstrates.
Examples:

a. The observations cited above demonstrate that all animals

sleep at one time or another.
b. The observations cited above confirm that all animals sleep
at one time or another.

(c)

Sometimes evidence is introduced without clue words and may be

identified by the context.
Example:

The lack of sleep among some animals causes their body

temperatures to fall rapidly. The animals may die as a result of
this.

The context in this sentence is the relationship between the animals need for
sleep and the consequence of the lack of sleep.

2.3.2

Looking for EvidenceG

By now, you should be able to provide evidence when presenting facts. You
should also be able to identify evidence when you read something. Do the
following activity to test and improve your understanding of what has been
discussed in this topic.

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ACTIVITY 2.5
1.

Read the passage below.

Much research on sleep has been carried out in recent years.

However, we are still uncertain about how much sleep a person
needs. There is also disagreement among scientists regarding the
reasons for us to sleep. Some scientists say that sleep is necessary
for the body to restore itself while others believe that sleep is a
practice conditioned by the environment. Here are some
observations regarding sleep:
(a)

Armadillos sleep 18 hours or more a day.

(b)

Sheep and goats sleep less than four hours a day.

(c)

Many travellers sleep irregularly for a few days after flying

across time zones.

(d)

Some animals sleep during the night while others do so

during the day.

(e)

Gorillas sleep for several hours while small rodents sleep for
a few minutes at a time.

(f)

Newborn babies sleep for an average of 16 hours every day

but their sleep time decreases as they grow older.

(g)

Young organisms suffer less as a result of lack of sleep than

older ones.

(h)

Sleep is important for animals that need to maintain regular

body temperatures.

Based on the above evidence, what conclusions can you draw?

Read the conclusions below and identify which are appropriate
and which are not.
No

Statements

(i)

Each species has a typical sleep pattern.

(ii)

All living things need the same amount of sleep.

(iii)

Older creatures are affected more if deprived of sleep.

(iv)

Sleep helps some animals to remain young.

(v)

Some animals need sleep to regulate their body

temperatures.

(1+

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2.

3.

TOPIC 2 ANALYSING

In each of these pairs of sentences, underline the evidence (if any).

(a)

Plastic is impermeable to water but cotton is not. A plastic coat

prevents the rain from penetrating but a cotton coat does not.

(b)

Human life exists on Mars. Scientists have found that there is

no water or oxygen on this planet.

(c)

Smoking is related to many heart and circulatory ailments.

Nicotine in cigarettes increases the heart rate and places more
stress on the heart.

(d)

The Arctic Circle has animal life. It is the habitat of penguins

and walruses.

(e)

Certain combinations of drugs and alcohol may be fatal. Death

has occurred when drugs and alcohol are used together.

(f)

A person travelling south from Malaysia in a straight line is

likely to return to Malaysia eventually. The earth is a sphere.

(g)

Alcohol is dangerous for drivers. Alcohol impairs judgment.

Driving under the influence of alcohol may lead to accidents.

(h)

A glass vase dropped on a hard surface is likely to break. Glass

is fragile and breakable.

Read the text below and answer the questions that follow.
Why Leaves Change Colour

Changes to the colour of leaves are most obvious in countries which have clear
seasons  summer, winter, spring and autumn.
Inside a leaf, there are millions of tiny packages of colour  yellow, orange and green.
These colours have special names. The yellow is called xanthophylls, the orange is
carotene and the green is chlorophyll. The green colour is stronger than the others, so
leaves stay green while chlorophyll works under the summer sunlight.
Water enters the leaf through tiny tubes in the leafs stem and near the end of
summer, a thin layer of cork grows over these tubes and seals them up. Now, no
more water can get into the leaf. Without water, the green chlorophyll fades and
disappears. Then, the yellow xanthophylls and orange carotene can be seen. This
is why many leaves turn yellow or orange in autumn.
Some autumn leaves look purple or red. All autumn long, the leaves make sugar
for the plants food. The sugar is carried from the leaf to other parts of the plant in
a liquid called sap. But sometimes sugar gets trapped inside the leaves when the
tubes are sealed up. Then, the sugar turns the sap into purple or red.

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(a)

Why do leaves change from green to yellow or orange?

(b)

What makes leaves remain green in summer?

(c)

What causes some leaves to turn purple?

(d)

What happens when a layer of cork forms over tubes in leaves?

4.

Read carefully and underline the effect in each sentence.

(a) Leaves turn red, yellow or orange when chlorophyll
disintegrates.
(b) When sound waves reflect off a mountain, an echo is heard.
(c) Mercury melts when it is heated to 38.9C.
(d) A person becomes far-sighted when his lens are too thin or his
eyeballs are too short.
(e) When acid is dissolved in water, ions are formed.

5.

Read the passage and fill in the chart below.

Moss and Lichen

Both moss and lichen are usually found on tree trunks. Moss is a green
furry cushion usually found growing on trees. If you touch the cushion, it
feels soft. It is really thousands of tiny plants growing closely together.
Moss does not have seeds. At some point during the year, the moss
produces spores in cases called capsules.These capsules look like little
pips on stalks. When they split, microscopic spores are released into the
air. If a spore lands in a suitable place, it sends out tiny threads. One kind
of thread is like a root. Another sends out branches, and from these
branches new plants shoot up. Moss is usually found in cool and damp
places.
Lichen is the crusty patch of plants we sometimes see on trees. It can also
be found on rocks and old walls. Lichens are actually two plants living
together. One plant is a fungus, the other is a green plant called alga. The
alga makes the food for the fungus. Lichens are amazingly tough plants.
They can grow on bare rocks and in deserts. Lichens grow very slowly
and live for a very long time. But lichens do not like poisoned air or
water. That is why, unlike moss, lichens do not grow near factories.

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TOPIC 2 ANALYSING

Moss

Lichen

Where are they found?

What are they?
What is their habitat?

6.

Read the text below and answer the questions that follow.
Have You Ever Wondered Why Most Flowers Have A Sweet Smell?
The sweet smell of flowers attracts insects. Most flowers need insects to help
them make seeds. All flowers are seed-makers but to make seeds, a flower
must get some pollen from another flower of similar species. Insects help
take the pollen from one flower to another. This process is called pollination.
Some flowers make a sweet juice called nectar that many insects feed on. The
sweet scent of the flowers and their white or brightly coloured petals tell
insects that there is nectar for them. So bees and other insects fly to these
flowers. The nectar is often down at the bottom of the flower. To reach the
nectar, the insect has to push right down into the flower. As it does so, pollen
from the flowers anthers is brushed onto the insects body. The insect then
flies off to another flower and pushes down into it. Some of the pollen on its
body brushes off on the sticky stigma. Part of a grain of pollen travels down
to the ovule where a new seed starts to grow.
Flowers that need the help of insects to make seeds usually have a strong
scent. Luckily for us, these are usually sweet smells. But some plants such as
the wild arum and Rafflessia smell rotten. They attract insects, especially
flies, that like bad smells.

Locate appropriate evidence in the text above to support the

statements below.
(a)

Insects help flowers to grow seeds.

(b)

Flowers produce sweet nectar.

(c)

Insects transfer pollen using their body.

(d)

Flowers do not smell sweet for the sake of humans.

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33

Information should be organised into meaningful units or categories to make

it easier for us to analyse it.

Classification comes from the word class, which means a group of things
that have some common characteristics.

When making classifications we usually include:



a general class;

a specific item or items; and

a basis for classification.

When classifying from specific to general, the items do not have to cover all
the subdivisions of the general category.

Scientific language is often marked by the passive voice and the passive form
of verbs.

In searching for facts and details, we may look for cause-and-effect or

compare-and-contrast relationships.

Compare and contrast are useful skills in analysing text for details.

To distinguish fact from fiction, we must examine data to obtain evidence.

Evidence must always be based on fact, not opinion.

Cause-effect relationship

Data

Classification

Facts

Comparison-contrast relationship

Information