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A flat roof must be strong, durable and stable throughout its lifetime. It must provide
adequate protection against the elements, keeping the buildings structure and
interior dry.
Flat roofs have a reputation of failing early but improvements in strength, flexibility,
ageing and weather resistance mean that, if built with care, using the correct
materials, todays high performance felts can have a life span of up to 20 years.
Roof Types
Flat roof constructions are generally classed as either Cold or Warm roofs depending on
the position of the thermal insulation.
Although not recommended today, and actually banned in Scotland, until recently
cold flat roofs were fairly common.
In a cold roof the thermal insulation is laid between the joists below the structural
deck.
As the insulation is not required to take any loads, quilts and other loose fill materials
can be used as well as rigid insulation.
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Because the structural elements of a cold roof are not protected by from the heat of
the sun by a layer of insulation they are liable to suffer the damaging effects of
thermal movement.
Ventilation is required above the insulation in a cold roof to prevent the build up of
moisture vapour in the roof void.
Foundations
Floors
In a warm deck roof the insulation is positioned above the structural deck and no
ventilation is required.
Throughout the course of the year the roof deck and all below it is kept at a
temperature close to that of the inside of the building, therefore the roof structure is
protected from extremes of hot and cold, lessening the potential for damage caused
by thermal movement.
A warm deck also provides added protection from the dangers of condensation as the
structure is kept warm, at a temperature above dewpoint, by the insulation above it.
Therefore water vapour which enters the roof structure from the room below will not
have a cold surface on which to condense. NHBC recommend that this type of roof be
considered as the standard form of construction.
Sandwich
Inverted
The sandwich warm deck roof is the most common type of flat roof. The insulation is
placed below the waterproof covering and is either mechanically fixed or bitumen
bonded on to the top of the deck.
The insulation boards in an inverted warm deck are laid over the structural deck and
the waterproof covering. The insulation is secured by a layer of ballast or paving
slabs to prevent wind uplift.
The waterproofing membrane has the added protection of the insulation from foot
traffic and degradation caused by exposure to solar radiation. However, it may be a
more difficult to locate defects in the membrane.
Proprietary systems are available now which combine the insulation and ballast
layers.
Thermal insulation ensures thermal comfort is maintained inside the building and
often provides support for the waterproofing membrane (warm roof).
Roof deck - provides a base for the waterproof membrane or the insulation.
Load bearing supportive structure - transmits the weight of the roof and any loads
acting on it onto the loadbearing walls. In domestic buildings the structure is usually
in the form of timber joists although it may be concrete or even steel structures can
be used.
The choice of materials for the different components will depend upon type of roof, whether
cold deck, warm deck or inverted (see below). Components must be compatible with each
other as some components, for example, may react badly when in contact with other
materials.
Built up bituminous membranes are probably the most economic and common form of roof
covering material for domestic flat roofs. They can be used on timber, metal and concrete
decks.
Todays high performance felts are reinforced with polyester or glass or a mixture of the two,
and are coated and impregnated with bitumen.
High performance felts are supplied in rolls and can be laid in two layers bonded together
with hot bitumen. The multiple layering reduces the risk of failure as any damage in one
layer will usually be covered by the next layer.
High performance felts are often referred to by the additive used in their manufacture:
Flexible sheets for waterproofing - reinforced bitumen sheets for roof waterproofing.
Class 5B can only be used for the top layer when provided with surface protection.
Class 5E can be used for the top layer and is already provided with a surface
protection in the form of mineral granules.
Type 3
Type 3 glass-fibre-based felts are less durable and are only suitable for intermediate
layers, but can be used as a base layer when partially bonded.
Type 3G is perforated and can be used as a venting base layer to give a partial bond.
Type 1 traditional organic woven rag based felts have been removed from the British
standards and should not be used.
with side laps of 50mm minimum and end laps of 75mm minimum.
the sheets should be laid, starting from the bottom, laying progressively up the slope
of the roof so that water will not run into the joints of the laps.
Torch-on membranes
Torch-on bitumen felts are pre-coated with bitumen. The top layer is usually polyester based
and the underlay may be polyester reinforced or glass fibre based.
Application
Melt the bitumen by heating on the underside of the membrane from a gas torch.
The torch-on technique is very reliant on good workmanship and is unsuitable for laying on
to timber decks or flammable materials.
Pour the heated bitumen onto the substrate in front of the felt.
Providing a perforated underfelt, for example Type 3G, laid loose over the decking or
over rigid insulation boards before applying the bitumen.
Pouring the hot bitumen in a series of strips, before rolling the felt into it.
Mechanically fixing the felt by nailing it to the substrate using 20mm galvanized clout
nails at approximately 150mm centres in both directions. This is the usual method of
fixing when laying the felt on to timber board substrates.
Partial bonding will allow the waterproofing layer to be isolated from the substrate so that it
accommodates differential movement that might otherwise cause it to split.
However, the reduced contact between membrane and substrate in a partial bond will mean
there is a greater potential for wind uplift.
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The deck must be free from any dust, dirt, moisture etc and may need to be primed
with special primer.
The deck must be free from any dust, dirt, moisture etc and may need to be primed
with special felt primer.
The backing paper should be pealed off and the membrane stuck to the prepared
deck.
Self adhesive membranes are ideal for the diy market for application on small roofs,
garages, sheds. Self adhesive membranes should not be laid in cold weather.
Todays single-ply membranes are strong, flexible and durable and have a typical life span of
about 20 years but are often known to last longer.
However, there are no national standards for single-ply membranes and installation should
be in strict accordance the manufacturer's details, the British Board of Agreement (BBA)
certificate or WIMLAS certificate.
Single-ply membranes are made from synthetic polymers or rubber often reinforced with
glass fibre or polyester. They can be categorised as either thermoplastic or elastomeric.
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Thermoplastic
Thermoplastic membranes include PVC (polyvinyl chloride). These can soften when heated,
allowing them to be hot welded.
However, thermoplastic membranes can be susceptible to damage when in contact with
other chemicals including bitumen, therefore compatibitly with other materials should
always be checked.
Elastomeric
Elastomeric membranes include Butyl rubber and EPDM. Common in the UK, these
membranes are less sensitive to temperature than thermoplastic and provide good weather
resistance.
Installation
Single-ply membranes can be laid as one entire piece with the eaves and verge already
formed in the factory or in rolls which are laid in strips. The laps can then be joined by heat
welding or proprietary solvent to melt and fuse laps together or adhesive tapes, depending
on the type of membrane.
Single-ply sheets should always be laid starting from the lowest point of the roof so that
rainwater is shed over all lapped joints rather seeping between the sheets.
Insulation manufacturers often recommend an additional 12mm plywood to be provided
between the insulation and the membrane.
Fixing to the substrate
Single-ply membranes can be attached to the substrate using any of the following methods;
Mechanical fixing
This is the most common type of fixing.
The membrane is loosely laid and mechanically fixed through the insulation to the
substrate using proprietary metal or plastic screw fastenings.
Single-plys can also be mechanically fixed by heat or chemically welding special
membrane coated discs or strips to the deck.
Adhesive bonding
Adhesive bonding provides a full bond to the insulation or deck. The membrane is
rolled into a proprietary adhesive applied directly to the substrate. A few single-plys
come with the adhesive already bonded to the membrane.
Bitumen bonding
Some single-ply membranes are fully compatible with bitumen and can be rolled
directly into hot bitumen poured onto the substrate.
In a warm roof design, the single-ply membrane is laid loose over the insulation. The
ballast, in the form of round washed stones, paving slabs or soil and planting (green
roof systems), is then laid over the membrane. The weight of the ballast holds the
membrane in place.
A polymeric layer should always be provided between the membrane and the ballast
to protect the membrane from abrasion.
Mastic Asphalt
A mastic asphalt roof gives a seamless covering and can be used on timber, metal and
concrete decks. It is not as common as built up felt for small domestic roofs, even though it
is known to be more durable and generally performs better as a waterproofing material.
Mastic asphalt is a mixture of asphalt, bitumen and aggregates. Asphalt occurs naturally in
asphalt lakes and rock but is more commonly obtained from the process of refining crude oil.
Modern mastic asphalt products incorporate polymer which enables an extremely durable
and flexible material to be produced.
Mastic asphalt should be laid to the recommendations of BS 8218 Code of Practice for mastic
asphalt roofing.
Mastic asphalt is delivered on to the site as solidified blocks and is re-melted before applying
to the deck. The number of coats should be appropriate to the waterproofing requirements
and anticipated traffic, but will usually be two coats a minimum 20mm thick over an
isolating membrane of type 4A black sheathing felt to BS747.
The sheathing felt should be laid loose with 50mm overlaps and will protect the mastic
asphalt covering from damage caused by thermal movement of the deck. Insulation
manufacturers often specify an additional 13mm fibreboard over the insulation.
The effects of solar radiation on the mastic asphalt can be reduced by rubbing sand into the
surface of the topcoat breaking up any build-up of bitumen.
Brush, roll or spray the liquid applied membrane on to the substrate in three or four
layers.
Some form of reinforcement fabric(scrim) to deal with the tensile stresses, either
glass fibre or polyester fleece, should be laid loose before the second coat is applied
(some types are already fibre-filled and do not require additional reinforcement).
Lead is specified in codes from Code 3 to 8. The higher the code number, the thicker and
more durable the lead will be. Flat roofs will require a minimum of Code 6 lead. Expansion
joints known as rolls and drips must be formed in lead sheeting.
Service Perforations
Air leakage and water ingress should be prevented by sealing around pipes or ducts passing
through the roof, for example around soil and vent pipes or roof ventilators. The roofing
membrane should be taken up around the pipe or duct and provided with a cover flashing.
Any services through the vapour control layer must also be sealed.
UV rays - The covering of a flat roof will spend many years exposed to ultra violet
light from the sun, this can lead to oxidisation of the roof surface causing the
plasticisers leak out and the surface to become brittle. This can significantly affect
the performance and durability of the roof.
Thermal movement - Heat from the sun can also cause solar radiation, where heat is
transmitted to the roof system causing continual expansion and contraction which
can be very damaging. This is a particular problem for built-up felt and asphalt roofs
as dark membranes absorb more heat.
Differential movement - The temperature difference between the roof covering and
the structure below, in a warm roof, may be high, leading to thermal stresses and
possible splitting of the membrane.
Fire protection - The Building Regulations Approved Document B4 sets out certain
specified performance levels of surface finishes on flat roof to control the spread of
flame.
Surface protection should be light in colour because it will provide good solar reflectiveness
and emit absorbed heat more efficiently.
Self finished mineral- surfaced felts are available which limit UV radiation, these
should be of Class 3E or 5E to BS747. Some of these felts also give an AA external
fire rating although AB is more common.
The felts are ready surfaced with a granular material of fine sand, green mineral
aggregate, small crushed slate flakes or granite. Membranes faced with metal
(aluminium, copper, stainless steel) are also available.
However some self finished felts have little reflective quality and do not provide
protection from the damaging effect of temperature rises in the membrane surface or
solar gain.
Single-Ply Membranes
These membranes are generally self finished with good reflectivity and resistance to UV
ageing and so do not usually require additional solar protection. However the fire rating of a
single ply membrane must be checked with the manufacture.
The chippings can be laid loose or bonded in hot or cold bitumen compound to the
roof covering.
Chippings can be used provide a ballast layer to help hold down the roof surface in
exposed locations.
However, the chippings can move around or conceal defects in the roof and should
not be walked on as they may puncture the membrane.
Foot Traffic
Where flat roofs are designed for regular access such as a terrace or balcony the surface
layer will need additional protection.
The form of protection will depend upon the anticipated usage and the appearance required,
but will usually be in the form of slabs or paving tiles, placed on raised supports to allow
rainwater to drain away.
The roof structure, the covering and insulation should be designed to support the dead
weight of the paving and live loads from foot traffic.
Ordinary chipboard is not recommended as it may absorb moisture when damp and lose its
structural integrity.
Timber Boarding
Softwood timber boarding is the traditional material for the deck.
The timber used for the deck should be:
laid with the edges of the board corresponding with joists or noggins.
Tongued and grooved boards are preferred over plain-edged to help minimise warping after
natural shrinkage, which may cause damage to the waterproof covering.
Plywood
Plywood for a roof deck should be of marine grade and suitable for external use to BS EN
636 or a bond Class 2 or better, complying with BS EN 314 (check).
Plywood boards used for the deck should be:
laid with the edges of the board corresponding with joists or noggins.
provided with expansion gaps of 3mm should be provided between the boards.
laid with the edges of the board corresponding with joists or noggins.
Concrete
Concrete is a strong and steady deck material providing both the loadbearing
supportive structure and roof deck.
Concrete decks are either reinforced cast in situ (poured on site), or supplied as precast concrete units.
The surface of a concrete deck should be free from ridges and hollows. A screed of
sand and cement is usually provided over the surface to get a smooth base for the
insulating or waterproofing layer above and to create the desired fall. The fall can
also be produced by proprietary decking or insulation products which are produced
ready-cut to a suitable fall.
Woodwool slabs are a rigid timber and cement based panels, which can be reinforced
if long spans are required.
Woodwool slabs should be no less than 50mm thick and conform to BS EN 13168.
The lightweight construction has the advantage of being able to cope with very long
spans, enabling large room spaces to be created and reducing the load on the
building's structure.
Profiled metal decking does not provide a continuous surface and therefore can only
be used when supporting a timber deck or rigid insulation which can then be covered
with a bitumous or polymeric membrane.
This type of decking is not suitable for cold roof design unless it is subsequently
overlaid with plywood or OSB.
Insulation is required to minimise heat losses in the winter and control excessive solar gains
in the summer. This will help to conserve energy and ensure thermal comfort is maintained
within the building.
Insulation can also help to limit condensation and contribute to acoustic insulation
(depending on the type of insulation used).
To comply with Part L of the building regulations 2010, all roofs to rooms (except
those in unheated buildings) should be thermally insulated to a maximum U-value of
of 0.18 W/mK.
U-values calculations take into account the thermal resistivity and thickness of the
insulation.
Thermal resistance is the rate of heat transmission through a unit area for each
degree of temperature difference from inside to outside the building.
When calculating the U-value of a flat roof, screeds, timber, air spaces, plasterboard
etc contribute to the thermal performance and should all be considered.
Insulation Materials
The choice of a insulation will be usually dictated by the roof design. Some of these are
fibrous materials which derive their performance from air trapped between fibres. Several
different insulation materials are available including:
Mineral wool
Loose fill
Quilt
Cellular glass CG. Cellular thermal insulation materials are composed of materials of
polymeric and mineral origin.
Polymeric materials
Polyurethane PUR
Polyisocyanurate PIR
Phenolic foam PF
About Materials
Where a roof is to be finished in gravel, a water permeable filler fabric can be laid on
top to protect the membrane from any fines which may be washed down below the
insulation.
If the waterproofing is asphalt or BUR felt, depending on the size of the gravel being
used, it may not be necessary to use a filler fabric.
Rigid board cellular material which derives its performance from the thermal
resistance of gases trapped in the cell structure and from the thermal resistance of
the cell walls.
The insulation for a warm roof will usually be boards of extruded polystyrene or rigid
compressed boards of glass fibre or rock fibre. These are can be supplied with rebated edges
which interlock reducing the risk of uplift.
The insulation material for a warm flat roof should:
be able to resist moisture. This is particularly important for inverted roofs where the
insulation is directly exposed to the rain.
An overlay between the membrane and the insulation will protect the insulation from heat
when laying hot bitumen and provide a slip layer to account for any thermal movement.
Tapered Insulation
Tapered insulation boards are designed and pre-formed to provide the appropriate drainage
falls.
Composite
Composite board can be found on both warm and inverted roof applications.
These often have a deck of plywood with a cellular insulation and metal foil vapour control
layer bonded to the underside and a top layer with an overlay factory-bonded to it.
Bonding
The insulation may be fully or partially bonded to the vapour control layer or laid
loose.
If the insulation has a sufficiently high vapour resistance, a separate vapour control
layer may not be required and the insulation can be bonded directly to the deck.
However, the insulation must be compatible with the bonding materials used.
Design Falls
When specifying a fall for a flat roof, the designer should take account of:
Any potential deflection of the structural members and decking under dead and
imposed loads (a particular problem with timber and metal deck roofs).
Because the desired fall may be difficult to achieve in practice, the designer may need to
adopt a design fall considerably steeper (often twice) than the recommended finished fall.
The building regulations encourage a minimum fall of 1:40.
Aluminium 1:60
Copper 1:60
Zinc 1:60
Green roofs should have a fall of not less than 1:60 and be built in accordance with
manufacturers details and British Board of Agrment certification.
Sloping decks
The fall of the roof may be created in the structure itself by laying the supporting
beams, or joists at a slope (giving a sloping soffit) or by installing tapered beams with
horizontal soffits.
Firrings
It is normal practice for the joists of a flat roof to be set level thus creating a perfectly
level ceiling. The required fall is then formed using strips of tapered shaped timbers
known as firrings fixed along the tops of the joists before the deck is laid. These
firings should be the same width and length of the joists. The firrings may also
provide the fall by each one decreasing in thickness along the slope of the roof.
The firrings can be fixed at right angles to the joists instead of along the length of the
joists, this will provide a better level of ventilation. However, when fixing in this
manner it is essential that the firrings are of suitable structural strength to span
between joists and should not be less than the following sizes.
Size of Firrings
Width of Firrings
Depth of Firrings
400 / 450 mm
600 mm
38 mm
38 mm
38 mm
50 mm
A Selection of Detail Drawings by Categories. This is just a Small Sample from our Drawing
Library.
Foundations
Guttering
Gutters and downpipes should be adequately sized to deal with storm conditions in
accordance with BS EN 12056-3. Flat roofs should be designed to drain the roof to
one or two edges towards gutters and outlets.
There should be a smooth transition into the gutters which can often be lined using
the roofing membrane to achieve a completely uniform finish (check the
manufacturer's details).
Internal gutters can be used but conventional eaves gutters are preferable.
If unavoidable, internal outlets should be fitted with leaf and gravel guards.
Welted drips should extend to the middle of the rainwater gutter, and there should be
a minimum of 50mm turndown.
To ensure the rainwater is directed towards the gutters, the sides of the roof surface
(apart from the gutter edge) require a minimum of 50mm upstand verge provided
using triangular pieces of timber called tilt fillets nailed to the edges of the decking,
not to the wall.
Weathering Details
Upstands
At the point where the roof deck meets the external wall or at parapets, careful
detailing will be required to prevent water ingress.
To avoid a sharp bend where the membrane is folded up the wall, which could cause
a split, a small strip of timber angle fillet a minimum 75mm x 75mm is fitted under
the felt and fixed firmly to the deck.
The waterproofing membrane must be taken up the wall at least 150mm (providing
an upstand) above the roofing surface.
Flashing
Lead should be cut into the horizontal mortar joint and overlap the top edge of
roofing material not less than 50mm, finishing no closer than 75mm above the roof
surface.
Cavity Tray
If the wall is a cavity wall, a cavity tray must be fitted, stepping downwards at least
150mm and weep holes should be provided.
Flat roofs shall be designed to carry all imposed and dead loads acting on the structure of
the roof. These may include:
Environmental loads - such as snow, water and wind loads should be calculated in
accordance with BS EN 1991.
Roof terraces and gardens must be able to carry the additional loads expected from foot
traffic, planting and furniture etc.
Uplift
Flat roofs should be constructed to provide protection from wind uplift this can be achieved
by either
by fixing the joists to the wall plates and securing the wall plate with vertical holding
down straps, at least 1m long and 30mm x 2.5mm in cross section at 2.0m centres.
Wall plates are to be fixed to masonery using hardened nails 4mm in diameter x
75mm long or 50mm long wood screws if fixed into timber.
The roof covering membrane may also require additional fixing using mechanical fasteners
to prevent uplift high wind load areas.
Sizing Joists
The joists should be sized using either the TRADA span tables or BS EN 1995.
The sizing and spacing will depend upon the loads imposed on them and the required
span.
Common joists sizes are 200 x 50mm, 175 x 50mm, and 150 x 50mm.
The joists will normally be placed at 400mm centres but no more than 600mm
centres.
Packing
Hard packing, for example tiles or slates bedded in mortar, can be use to ensure the
joists are level.
Fixing Joists
The joists can be built into the wall or hung from joist hangers.
The joist hangers must be the correct size for the joists and conform to BS EN 845.
The joists should be placed on and fixed to timber a wall plate which is bedded in
mortar on top of the inner skin and strapped down using galvanised holding-down
straps.
Where a new flat roof abuts an existing external wall, the joists can be hung on metal
joist hangers which are fixed to a horizontal timber plate wall bolted to the wall.
A cavity closer should be provided to the top of the walls to prevent fire spread and
to stop damp air entering the roof space.
Lateral Restraint
Lateral restraint should be provided to walls by:
ensuring concrete elements and timber joists where they are built in have a minimum
bearing of 90mm.
Strutting
Strutting is required in order to prevent twisting of the joists at the following points:
or
Any strutting provided should not obstruct the cross ventilation. required to cold deck roofs.
Surface Condensation
Another type of condensation is surface condensation which is visible on surfaces within the
building and occurs when the temperature of the surface is at or below the dew point of the
moist air.
This type of condensation is often identifiable by black mould on the walls, windows, ceilings
etc.
Interstitial Condensation
Condensation which occurs within the roof structure is called interstitial condensation. It is
particularly dangerous because it can cause unseen decay in roof timbers and fixings.
Interstitial condensation is a particular problem in cold deck roofs where the insulation is
placed in-between the joists in the void above the ceiling.
The position of the insulation means that the roof deck and most of its structure has no
protection from low temperatures during the winter.
These elements then become much colder than the interior of building, and moisture vapour
which has made its way up from the room below is then liable to condense on the timber
structure possibly leading to decay.
Cold deck roofs are not recommended for new work, and actually banned in Scotland.
Cross-Ventilation
To help disperse the moisture vapour, the building regulations require cross ventilation to be
provided in the form of a 50mm air gap between the deck and the insulation and continuous
gap of about 25mm at the eaves.
This can be difficult to achieve where roofs abut external walls and propriety mushroom
vents to provided the equivalent 25mm continuous ventilation are available.
A reinforced bitumen sheet. - one layer of BS 747 Type 5U felt, fully bonded or
mechanically nailed to the deck.
Two layers of Type 5U felt fully bonded in hot bitumen. check - all laps must be sealed
with bitumen.
Designers often specify readymade composite decking that combines together plywood,
insulation, vapour control layer and felt covering into one product.
Extensive
Supplied as a complete system this type of roof can be built using a only 50mm soil
base and lightweight construction.
However vegetation for this type of roof is limited to sedum, grasses, and mosses
contained within a sedum blanket.
This type of green roof requires minimal maintenance is required, although an
irrigation system may be required for use in dry weather feeding with a slow release
fertilizer a biodiverse roof is the soil seeds naturally and no watering is required.
Construction
The majority of green roofs both intensive and extensive are build-from the following
elements:
Rigid slab insulation must be strong enough to withstand the additional loads.
Where the insulation is above the weatherproofing, only extruded polystryrene (XPS)
should be used.
Waterproof root barrier - for an intensive roof this should be reinforced bitumen
membrane (RBM) or mastic asphalt.
This will prevent roots penetrating the roof membrane. Suitable materials include,
rubber mats, bitumen, slate-surfaced layers or polyethylene.
Filter layer - prevents the soils etc from blocking the drainage layer or causing
damage includes foams, mineral wool, plastic sheets and granular drainage.
Growing medium (soil) - the depth of the growing layer will depend on the type of
roof. For an extensive roof the growing medium could be just a 20mm geotexile mats.
However soil 400mm deep is typical for an intensive roof.
Vegetation this is the planted layer which could be sedum, mosses and grasses for
an extensive roof or shrubs and trees for an intensive roof.
Green roof systems should be installed by a specialist installer to drainage falls of 1:60 min.
The majority of houses in this country are constructed with pitched roofs.
Modern tiles permit shallow pitch but some of the older traditional coverings, such as
hand made clay tiles, require quite steep slopes to ensure rain does not penetrate
the roof covering.
Shallow pitches are generally cheaper to construct with savings in both timber and
tiling.
In traditional pitched roofs, the rafters are supported by a wall plate at the bottom
and a ridge board at the top.
Most modern roofs for new houses are built from prefabricated components erected
on site.
Lean-to Roofs
The simplest of pitched roofs is the Lean-to roof, commonly found forming the rear
extensions to terraced housing.
The sloping timbers are known as rafters and are supported at the top by building
them into the solid wall (not recommended nowadays) and at the bottom by securing
to a wall plate.
The wall plate is a strip of timber which is bedded in mortar on top of the wall, and
which evenly distributes the load from the roof and provides a good fixing for the
rafters.
Ceiling joists are often built into the wall or supported on a wall plate bedded within
the wall (not recommended).
The depth of the rafter depends on its span and loading, and the width is primarily to
prevent twisting and to provide a sufficiently wide surface on which to nail the
battens supporting the tiles
It is good practice to notch the bottom of the rafter where it sits on the plate as this
gives a good bearing and aids alignment of the rafters.
In most houses, the guttering is supported by the facia board. This is fixed to the feet
of the rafters and it can be flush against the wall or it can form an overhang.
considered in this guidance and consultation with the Local water authority should be sought
when building near or over a public sewer see below.)
The Building Regulations 2010 require that the foul water should be discharged in order of
priority, therefore where it is reasonably practicable to do so, a connection should be made:
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1) to a public sewer.
4) to a cesspool.
The first solution on the list should preferably be adopted, where this is not possible move
down the list to the next.
1) Combined system - In a combined system the foul water and the rainwater are
carried in the same underground pipes. The advantages of this system are firstly that
the rainwater helps to clean the pipework minimising blockages, and secondly less
pipe work is required, although the pipe sizes may need to be increased.
2) They produce an increased amount of water to treat. New developments are often
required to provide a separate system of drainage up to the point of connection with
a combined sewer.
Pipe materials
In the past, drainage pipes have been made from a variety materials, including pitch fibre,
vitrified clay, uPVC, concrete, glassfibre reinforced plastics (GRP), iron and asbestos cement.
Not all of the materials used have performed well, for example, pitch fibre has a tendency to
collapse under heavy clay soils and expensive repair work may be required.
Today, most new domestic drainage is constructed using plastic (flexible) pipes or clay (rigid)
pipes, usually 100mm and 110mm in diameter, or 150mm and 225mm in diameter for public
sewer pipes.
Types of pipes
Socketed clayware.
Plastic 100/150mm.
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Clay
Clay drainage pipes date back to the Victorian times, their inherent strength means they are
more durable and less likely to deform under loads than plastic. They are also:
Rodent resistant.
Clay pipe manufacturers promote their environmental advantages claiming clay uses less
energy in production as well as requiring less aggregates for bedding and backfilling.
Plastic
Typically golden brown in colour, 110mm plastic pipes are the most common material used
for underground drainage today.
The advantage of plastic pipework is that it is:
Frost resistant.
Simple to cut to size with a hacksaw and lightweight, making the pipes easy to
handle and work with.
Flexible and can remain watertight and resist fracture when subject to small amounts
of movement.
However, excessive pressure from loads or ground movement may cause plastic pipes to
deform. Therefore they must be surrounded by a good bedding material such pea-shingle to
provide support and prevent the pipe from cracking.
http://www.buildingregs4plans.co.uk/guidance_flat_roof_types.php