Evolving Femtocell Coverage Optimization

Algorithms using Genetic Programming

Lester T.W. Ho, Imran Ashraf, Holger Claussen
Bell Laboratories, Alcatel-Lucent, Swindon, UK
{lester.ho, iashraf, claussen}@alcatel-lucent.com
Abstract The use of a group of femtocells to jointly provide
coverage in an enterprise environment introduces several
challenges in the introduction of self-configuration and selfoptimization capabilities required for plug-and-play styles of
deployment. In this paper, an approach to automatically derive a
distributed algorithm to dynamically optimize the coverage of a
femtocell group using genetic programming is described. The
resulting evolved algorithm showed the ability to optimize the
coverage well, and is able to offer increased overall network
capacity compared with a fixed coverage femtocell deployment.
Keywords-Femtocell,
coverage
programming, self-organizing networks.

optimization,

genetic

I.
INTRODUCTION
Femtocells are low power, low-cost, user-deployed cellular
base stations with a typical coverage range of tens of meters,
that operate in licensed spectrum [1]. In order to minimize
operational expenses, femtocells have extensive selfconfiguration and self-optimization (given the term self-x here
for brevity) capability to enable plug-and-play deployment.
These self-x capabilities are implemented using algorithms that
are designed to automatically change certain network
configuration parameters in response to any changes in the
environment it is operating in. In order to maintain scalability
when used in large networks, these algorithms should work in a
distributed manner whenever possible, using only local
information but achieving good global performance. Designing
these highly distributed self-x algorithms can be difficult,
particularly if the network environment varies significantly.
One example of self-x capability in femtocells deployments
is coverage optimization. The aim of coverage optimization in
residential femtocell deployments is to ensure that leakage of
coverage by a single femtocell into public spaces is minimized
while at the same time maximizing indoor coverage [2][3]. For
femtocell deployments in enterprise environments however, a
group of femtocells are deployed where the individual cells
need to work together to jointly provide continuous coverage in
a large building or campus. The requirements for coverage
optimization in this case differ significantly from residential
femtocell deployments, and the existing solutions described
above would not be applicable.
In this paper, we present the use of genetic programming
(GP) in order to derive a distributed algorithm for coverage
optimisation in enterprise femtocell deployments. This is to
demonstrate the feasibility of automating the process of
creating self-x algorithms for femtocell networks. Section II
provides an overview of the state of the art in the area of
coverage optimization for cellular networks. In Section III the
problem description for the algorithm is given. Section IV

978-1-4244-5213-4/09/ $26.00 2009 IEEE

gives a brief background of GP and the process of setting up

the GP procedure to evolve a dynamic distributed coverage
optimization algorithm. Then, the performance of the resulting
is evaluated and compared with static coverage in a simulated
enterprise environment in Section V. Finally, the conclusions
are drawn in Section VI.
II. STATE OF THE ART
The related work in the literature on cellular coverage
optimization mostly deals with centralized computation
methods. Such mechanisms involve the calculation of
parameters such as the number and locations of base stations
(BS), pilot channel transmit powers or antenna configurations
using a central server running an optimization algorithm. The
configuration statistics of the whole network are passed on to
the central entity, which then computes the optimal/quasioptimal configuration settings. The algorithmic techniques
span Genetic Algorithms, Greedy Algorithms, Simulated
Annealing or other classical optimization methods [6].
A major portion of the related literature focuses on
determining the optimal BS numbers or placements to achieve
the operator's QoS or coverage targets; a brief review of which
is provided in [47]. However, as pointed out in [5], such an
approach is not always practical because network design is
constrained by restrictions on BS placements. It is therefore
more pragmatic to optimise the configuration of cellular
networks where the locations of the base stations have been
fixed.
The research presented in [4, 5, 8, 9, 10] concentrates on
devising optimal transmitter antenna configurations in postnetwork roll-out scenarios. Siomina et al., in [4], propose a
simulated annealing based centralized algorithm for optimizing
pilot channel power, antenna tilt, and azimuth in UMTS
networks, such that the total pilot channel power is minimized.
In [5], Fagen et al. present an algorithm that centrally computes
the optimal transmit power levels for each cell site in the
network, which maximizes the coverage area while minimizing
interference for a desired level of coverage overlap. The
research in [8, 9, 10], and the references therein, focuses on
algorithms for fine-tuning transmit power on the common
channel in order to provide load and coverage balancing.
The algorithms mentioned above improve on the network
performance in typical large area macro-cellular environments.
However, with femtocell networks, the deployment scenarios
exhibit much more randomness. The concept of precise preroll-out network planning becomes difficult to follow and
economically unviable as the deployments could exhibit
random plug-and-play patterns by the end-users. This

2132

phenomenon, coupled with the expected large scale

deployment of such networks, prohibits the use of central
global knowledge-based algorithms. On the other hand, it
necessitates the use of decentralized and distributed
configuration algorithms that are operational locally at the
nodes and only make use of locally available information.
In contrast to the centralized approaches summarized in this
section, we focus on devising decentralized, distributed
algorithms that use local knowledge available to the femtocell
at its deployed location.
III. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
We consider an intended area of coverage, such as an
enterprise environment, where a group of N femtocells is
deployed to jointly provide end-user services. The problem
entails distributed coverage optimization by adjusting the
coverage of the femtocells to satisfy the following three
objectives:
To minimize femtocell coverage holes within the
femtocell groups intended area of coverage.
To balance the load amongst the femtocells in the
group to prevent overloading or underutilization.
To minimize the pilot channel transmission power.
This objective is to prevent, whenever possible,
leakage of the femtocell groups coverage outside its
intended area of coverage.
This constitutes a multi-objective optimization problem
with conflicting objectives. For example, increasing the
coverage of a femtocell would reduce the amount of coverage
holes, but doing so may increase the load of the femtocell, and
increase its pilot channel power. There is, therefore, a need to
balance the requirements of all three objectives according to
their importance.
Figure 1. highlights a scenario where 45 femtocells are
deployed in an area, with the coverage of each femtocell
represented, for illustrative purposes, as a circle surrounding
each base station. Also shown in the figure are the coverage
overlaps and coverage holes.
cell overlap
(= transmission of
unnecessary power)

coverage
hole

Figure 1. Illustration of joint coverage problem

IV.

GENETIC PROGRAMMING SETUP

GP is used to generate algorithms that adjusts the coverage

of a femtocell group according to the stated objectives. In this
paper, the term program and algorithm is used interchangeably.
Genetic programming [11] is an evolutionary computation

technique that evolves programs, typically represented in a tree

structure, to perform a defined task. The program tree
representation consists of component building blocks called
functions (branch nodes of the tree, with at least one child
node below it) and terminals (leaf nodes of the tree, with no
child nodes). GP creates programs by searching through and
refining useful combinations of these tree building blocks.
The first steps prior to performing the evolution process
are: (a) to specify the functions and terminals used to construct
the algorithm; (b) to determine the objective of the algorithm
and formulate an appropriate fitness function based on those
objectives; and (c) to specify the simulation scenarios that
would be used to test the generated algorithms.
Once these have been specified, the algorithm evolution
process shown in Fig. 2 is performed. Firstly, an initial
population of program trees is created through random
combinations of functions and terminals. These programs are
then tested individually in a simulated scenario and the fitness
of the programs are then calculated using the fitness function.
Next, parent programs are selected based on their calculated
fitness, and genetic operations such as mutation and crossover
are performed on them. For crossovers, a branch (comprising a
node and all its child nodes if they exist) in a parent tree is
selected and swapped with the branch of another parent tree.
Mutation involves the replacement of a branch of a parent tree
with a new, randomly generated branch.
Select parents in
proportion to their
fitness

Initialise
population with
random
individuals

Evaluate fitness
of individuals
using fitness
function

Create new
offspring

Populate new
generation

Figure 2. Overview of evolutionary process

These genetic operations create new child programs that

retain some characteristics of the parents that they were derived
from. This process of parent selection and reproduction is then
repeated for a set number of generations or computation time,
or when a program that is good enough has been found.
A. Specification of Function and Terminal Sets
In order to reduce the amount of network signalling and
increase its scalability, the GP procedure is set up to generate
decentralized algorithms, where decisions are made by
individual femtocells using only locally available information.
The algorithm to be produced is one that adjusts the
femtocells pilot channel power (and hence, coverage area)
after collecting sufficient measurements and statistics. The
statistics collected by the femtocell over the data collection
period are the highest load experienced (L), the estimated
coverage overlap (O), and the probability of users entering a
femtocell coverage gap (D). The unit for load, L, considered
here is voice traffic measured in Erlangs, although other
metrics of load can be used.
The overlap, O, is the proportion of a femtocells total
coverage area that is experiencing overlap with coverage from

2133

neighbouring femtocells. The overlap is approximated using

measurements sent back by the user terminals. An area of
overlapping coverage is defined as an area where the user
terminal measures pilot powers above a threshold from more
than one femtocell. The femtocell keeps track of the total
number, Mthr>1, of received measurement reports received from
user terminals where more than one pilot channel power
measured by the user terminal is higher than a threshold. The
overlap is estimated by the ratio of Mthr>1 to the total number of
pilot power measurements sent back by the femtocells users,
Mtotal, i.e. O= Mthr>1/Mtotal.
The probability of users entering a femtocell coverage gap
is calculated as D = nD/(nD+nF), where nD is the number of
times a femtocells user enters a coverage gap, which can be
derived from the number of handovers between the femtocell
and the underlay macrocell. Alternatively, if a macrocell
underlay does not exist, nD can be the number of times that
users reports back pilot power measurements that are below a
minimum threshold. nF is the total number of users that have
left the femtocell via a femtocell-to-femtocell handover.
TABLE I.
FUNCTION AND TERMINAL LIST
Function
Description
Name
If L is higher than a threshold Lthr, excecute branch 1,
if_L_large
else, excecute branch 2. Lthr is set here to the
maximum load capacity of the femtocell, 8.
If O is higher than a threshold Othr, excecute branch
if_O_large
1, else, excecute branch 2. Othr is set here to 0.3.
If D is higher than a threshold Dthr, excecute branch
if_D_large
1, else, excecute branch 2. Dthr is set here to 0.1.
combine2

Excecute branches 1 and 2 consecutively.

combine3

Excecute each branches 1, 2 and 3 consecutively.

Terminal
Name

Description

increasepow

Increase the pilot channel power by 0.5dB.

decreasepow

Decrease the pilot channel power by 0.5dB.

donothing

Do nothing (i.e. keep the pilot channel power

unchanged).

The functions and terminals used are described in Table I.

The functions if_L_large, if_O_large and if_D_large are
specialized forms of simple if-else loops with the inputs from
the femtocells measurements built in directly. The reason for
using these specialized functions instead of using the basic ifelse loop is to speed up the discovery of useful algorithms by
the GP procedure. The thresholds used in if_L_large,
if_O_large and if_D_large are user defined, and set according
to the requirements of the network.

if_L_large
do nothing

combine 2

if_O_large

decrease
power

increase
power

decrease
power

decrease
power

0
otherwise
where N is the total number of femtocells in the network, Li is
the load experienced by the femtocell i. CL increases as the
femtocell takes up more load, but drops to zero when the
femtocell exceeds a threshold (to prevent overloading).
These metrics are all normalized such that their values are
0Cx1.Weights wD, wO and wL are applied to each metric, so
that it is possible to place more emphasis on different
objectives according to the requirements of the network
operator. Here, all the weights are set to 1. The coverage gaps,
overlap and load considered here are those of the whole
network, rather than any one individual femtocell. This is so
that the distributed algorithm is evolved to optimize the
coverage globally. It should be emphasized that these
parameters are used only to evaluate the global performance of
the network and are not used by the distributed algorithms,
who only use local information.
C. Simulation scenario for evaluation
The simulated scenario used to calculate the fitness of the
algorithms is an office environment shown in Fig. 4. The
building simulated is an office with partitioned cubicles, closed
meeting rooms, and toilet facilities. We assume that the
femtocells are deployed in the building with some rudimentary
planning, but without performing a detailed cell planning
survey of the building. This depicts a realistic plug-and-play
femtocell deployment, where the placement of femtocells is
done fairly intelligently, but can be sub-optimal due to the lack
of cell planning.

if D>Dthr
if L>Lthr
donothing;
else
if O>Othr
decreasepow;
else
increasepow;
else
decreasepow;
decreasepow;

450
400
350

Femtocell 5

Femtocell 1

Femtocell 3

300
Y [m]

if_D_large

Figure 3 shows an example of an algorithm represented in

parse tree form constructed from the functions and terminals in
Table I, along with the pseudocode of the algorithm.
B. Fitness Function
The fitness function is used by the GP process to determine
the quality of the potential algorithms when applied to a whole
network. Denoted by Ffemto, it describes the fitness of all the
femtocells in the network:
w (1 C D ) + wO (1 CO ) + wL C L
F femto = D
(1)
wD + wO + wL
where CD and CO are the mean of D and O amongst all
femtocells in the network. The load metric CL is defined as:
N
Li
1
CL =
if Li Lthr
(2)
N i =1 Lthr

Femtocell 7

Femtocell 8
250
200
150

Femtocell 4
Femtocell 6

Femtocell 2

100

Figure 3. Example of an algorithm in parse tree form (left) and written in

pseudocode (right).

50
50

100

150

200

250
300
X [m]

350

400

450

500

Figure 4. Layout of building simulated and locations of femtocells.

2134

Each femtocell has a maximum capacity of Lthr=8 voice

calls, and a macrocell underlay coverage is assumed. A
pathloss map is generated for the 450m x 500m area for each
femtocell. The pathloss [dB] at a distance d [meters] from BS
is modelled as 38.5 + 20log10(d) + PLwalls for shorter distances,
with a smooth transition to 28 + 35log10(d) + PLwalls in other
cases. In addition, correlated shadow fading with a standard
deviation of 8 dB is and spatial correlation of r(x)=ex/20 for a
distance x in metres is considered. The exterior of the office
consists mainly of glass walls, with the interior consisting
mostly of light interior walls and cubicle partitions. There are
four stairwells at each corner of the building that have thick
concrete walls (denoted by thicker lines in Fig. 4). The
assumed transmission losses for the explicit building model are
a function of the incident angle and are taken from [12].
A user mobility and traffic model is used. The users moves
to pre-defined waypoints in the map at a speed of 1 ms-1, and
spends a certain amount of time in a waypoint before moving
to another waypoint. At the start of a simulation, the users are
placed at waypoints randomly. A total of 300 users are
modelled, and each user has a voice traffic model such that
each user produces 0.2 Erlangs of traffic. When evaluating an
algorithm, the scenario is run to simulate 24 hours of operation
time, with the algorithm adjusting the femtocell pilot power
after collecting statistics for 30 minutes. The algorithm start
time for each femtocell is randomly dithered so that the
femtocells do not update their pilot powers synchronously,
with each femtocells initial pilot channel power set to -40
dBm. To keep the users connected to the femtocell network as
long as possible, femtocell to macrocell handovers are only
triggered when a user terminals pilot channel receive power
goes below -100 dBm. The fitness of the algorithm is
calculated based on the converged coverage configuration at
the end of the simulation.
V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
A GP approach using the function and terminal sets, fitness
function and evaluation scenario described in Section IV is
implemented. The running parameters for the experiment are as
follows:
Population size: 100
Crossover rate: 0.9
Mutation rate: 0.1
Maximum tree depth: 8
Maximum number of generations: 100
A roulette wheel selection process is used, where the
probability of an individual being selected as a parent is
proportional to its fitness. Figure 5 shows the distributed
femtocell algorithm in tree form that was obtained after an
evolution run of 100 generations. The algorithm can be
translated into a more machine readable form such as XML or
a decision table. This makes the implementation of evolved
algorithms into femtocells easier and more straightforward.
The evolved coverage algorithm has a fitness of
Ffemto=0.832. Since it is difficult to interpret the algorithm by
examining the tree form shown in Figure 5, an analysis of the
responses given by the algorithm to different input conditions
was made. The analysis found that the algorithm always
increases the coverage whenever the load is lower than Lthr.
This increase is reduced drastically when the overlap becomes

higher than Othr. This causes the femtocell to increase its

coverage aggressively when it is underutilised, until the
amount of overlap is high whereupon the coverage increase
becomes more gradual.
Conversely, the coverage is always decreased when the
load is higher than capacity, Lthr, and the decrease is more
aggressive when both load and coverage gaps are high. The
end effect is that any overloaded femtocells will reduce their
coverage until a coverage gap appears. Any neighbouring
femtocells with spare capacity will increase their coverage and
pick up the additional load, which balances the load amongst
the femtocells. The femtocell coverage does not remain static
after convergence, but rather oscillates slightly because the
algorithm does not have a state where the pilot power kept
unchanged.
combine3
if_load_higher
combine3
combine3
if_ho_higher combine3
donothing

combine3
combine3
decreasepow
increasepow
donothing
if_ho_higher
donothing

if_load_higher
if_load_higher
donothing

if_load_higher
donothing

combine3
if_load_higher
combine3
if_load_higher
if_load_higher
if_ho_higher
if_ho_higher
if_ho_higher
combine3
combine2combine3
decreasepow
combine3
if_load_higher
combine2
if_ho_higher
if_ho_higher
if_load_higher
if_load_higher
if_load_higher
if_load_higher
combine3
if_olap_higher
if_olap_higher
if_olap_higher
if_load_higher
if_ho_higher if_load_higher
if_olap_higher
combine2
decreasepow
decreasepow
donothing
increasepow
decreasepow
donothing
decreasepow
donothing
combine2
if_ho_higher
if_ho_higher
if_olap_higher
combine2
if_load_higher
if_ho_higher
combine2
if_olap_higher
if_olap_higher
combine3
if_load_higher
if_ho_higher
combine2
combine3
if_ho_higher
if_ho_higher
if_olap_higher
combine3
if_ho_higher
combine3
increasepow
donothing
donothing
donothing
decreasepow
increasepow
decreasepowdonothing decreasepowdonothing
donothing

combine3
combine3
combine3
if_ho_higher
decreasepow
increasepow

increasepow
increasepow
increasepow
donothing
increasepow
donothing
decreasepow
decreasepow
increasepow
decreasepow
decreasepow
decreasepow
donothing
donothing
increasepow
donothing
increasepow
increasepow
decreasepow
donothing
decreasepow
increasepow
donothing
decreasepow
donothing
increasepow
donothing
increasepow
donothing
decreasepow
decreasepow
donothing
increasepow
increasepow
donothing
decreasepow
donothing
increasepow
donothing
increasepow
donothing
donothing
donothing
decreasepow
donothing
decreasepow
increasepow
decreasepow
decreasepow
donothing
increasepow
donothing
increasepow
donothing
donothing
donothing
donothing

Figure 5. Evolved coverage algorithm

Figure 6 shows the converged coverage of the algorithm,

with white regions denote areas without femtocell coverage. It
can be seen that the pilot powers for the femtocells 1, 2, 5 and
6 that are placed in the corners of the building are higher than
those placed in the middle of corridors. This is due to them
being next to the concrete stairwells that blocks the propagation
of their pilot channel broadcasts to many user waypoints. This
is an outcome of the lack of detailed cell planning during plugand-play deployment. This leads to an initial imbalance of load
with the femtocells placed in the corridors. That imbalance is
addressed when the corner femtocells starts to increase their
pilot powers, while corridor femtocells start to decrease theirs.
It can be seen that there are rooms in the building without
coverage, causing users that enter them to handover to the
macrocell. The existence of these gaps in coverage is because
the femtocells are already operating close to their maximum
capacity, as shown in Fig. 8a. Figure 7 shows the load
(normalised to Lthr), O and D averaged over all femtocells in
the network, as the algorithm is run. The results shows the
ability of the algorithm to adjust the coverage to balance the
three objectives set in the fitness function.
As a comparison, the same simulation scenario was
performed with all the femtocells deployed with a fixed pilot
power of 11dBm. While the amount of coverage gaps is
eliminated when this is done, the amount of coverage overlap
(and hence transmission of unnecessary power) is high, and
there is a large load imbalance amongst the femtocells. Figure
8b shows the resulting requested load of the femtocells,
showing how some femtocells are overloaded (and having to
reject call requests), while some femtocells are underutilized.
The end effect of this is that the amount of traffic that is served
by the femtocells with fixed coverage is 50.3 Erlangs,

2135

compared with 54.2 Erlangs when using the evolved, adaptive

algorithm.

In this paper, we demonstrated the generation of an

algorithm for distributed coverage optimization for a group of
UMTS femtocells using GP. The results of the experiments
show that the evolved algorithm is able to adjust the coverage
of the femtocells to balance load, reduce coverage holes and
control coverage overlap globally, using only localised
measurements and statistics.
The GP technique was set up to generate algorithms in the
form of a computer program in this paper. A future extension
of this work is to use GP to generate algorithms in the form of
mathematical functions, which may create algorithms capable
of more finely tuned adaptations.
In the medium term, GP may be a feasible means of
automating the design of self-x algorithms in networks, which
can reduce design costs and increase time to market of network
self-x capabilities. In the longer term, an interesting avenue of
investigation is the use of GP online to introduce more
adaptability and learning to networks in general, where
network nodes are able to continuously evolve and adapt their
algorithms according to their environment.

40

50

Femtocell 5

Femtocell 1

Femtocell 3

60

Femtocell 8

Femtocell 7
70

Femtocell 4

Femtocell 6

Femtocell 2

80

90

100

Figure 6. Converged coverage using evolved algorithm, colourbar on the

right showing pilot channel powers in dBm.
1
0.9
0.8

normalised mean load

mean overlap metric, O
mean coverage hole metric, D

0.7

but there is also a possibility that algorithms that adopt

different strategies are produced.
VI. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

REFERENCES

0.6

[1]

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

12
Time [hours]

16

20

24

Figure 7. Mean values of normalised load, measured overlap and coverage

gap of all femtocells running evolved algorithm.
(a) Adaptive coverage

12

(b) Fixed coverage

12

10

10
Femtocell capacity

4
5
6
Femtocell ID

4
5
6
Femtocell ID

Figure 8. Average requested load of femtocells with (a) evolved algorithm

coverage, and (b) fixed coverage.

It should be noted here that due to the stochastic nature of

the evolution process, it is likely that a different algorithm is
evolved for every evolution run. The evolved algorithm shown
here is the result of just one run the GP, and running the
evolution process again would produce another algorithm. The
resulting difference in the evolved algorithms may be slight,

V. Chandrasekhar, J.G. Andrews, A. Gatherer, Femtocell networks: A

survey, IEEE Comm. Mag., vol.46, no.9, pp. 59-67, Sept 2008.
[2] L. T. W. Ho, H. Claussen, Effects of user-deployed, co-channel
femtocells on the call drop probability in a residential scenario, in
Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio
Communications (PIMRC), 2007.
[3] H. Claussen, L. T. W. Ho, L. G. Samuel, Self-optimization of coverage
for femtocell deployments, in Proc. Wireless Telecommunications
Symposium (WTS), 2008.
[4] I. Siomina, P. Varbrand, D. Yuan, Automated Optimization of Service
Coverage and Base Station Antenna Configuration in UMTS Networks,
IEEE Wireless Communications, vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 1625, Dec 2006.
[5] D. Fagen, P.A. Vicharelli, J. Weitzen, Automated Coverage
Optimization with Controlled Overlap, IEEE Transactions on
Vehicular Technology, vol. 57, no. 4, pp. 2395, Jul 2008.
[6] K. Lieska, E. Laitinen, J. Lahteenmaki, Radio Coverage Optimization
with Genetic Algorithms, in Proc. PIMRC, Boston, MA, USA,
Sep1998, pp. 318322.
[7] A. Molina, G.E. Athanasiadou, A.R. Nix, The Automatic Location of
Base-Stations for Optimised Cellular Coverage: A New Combinatorial
Approach, in Proc. IEEE VTC, Houston, TX, USA, May 1999, pp.
606610.
[8] Y. Sun, F. Gunnarsson, K. Hiltunen, CPICH Power Settings in
Irregular WCDMA Macro Cellular Networks, in Proc. PIMRC, Beijing,
China, Sep 2003, pp. 11761180.
[9] M. Garcia-Lozano, S. Ruiz, J.J. Olmos, UMTS Optimum Cell Load
Balancing for Inhomogeneous Traffic Patterns, in Proc. IEEE VTC,
Los Angeles, CA, USA, Sep 2004, pp. 909913.
[10] K. Valkealahti, A. Hoglund, J. Parkkinen, A. Hamalainen, WCDMA
Common Pilot Power Control for Load and Coverage Balancing, in
Proc. PIMRC, Lisbon, Portugal, Sep 2002, pp. 14121416.
[11] J. Koza, Genetic Programming : On the Programming of Computers by
Means of Natural Selection, MIT Press, 1993.
[12] S. J. Fortune, D. Gray, B. Kerninghan, O. Landron, R. Valenzuela, M.
Wright, WISE Design of Indoor Wireless Systems, IEEE
Computatuonal Sci. and Engineering, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 58-68, 1995.

2136