NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENTS

STRUCTURE

1.0

Introduction

1.1

Meaning of Negotiable Instruments

1.2

Types of negotiable Instrument

1.2.1 Promissory notes
1.2.2 Bill of exchange
1.2.3 Cheques

1.3 Conclusion

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Negotiable Instruments Act was enacted, in India, in 1881. Prior to its enactment,
the provision of the English Negotiable Instrument Act were applicable in India, and
the present Act is also based on the English Act with certain modifications. It extends
to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir. The Act operates subject
to the provisions of Sections 31 and 32 of the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.
Section 31 of the Reserve Bank of India Act provides that no person in India other than
the Bank or as expressly authorised by this Act, the Central Government shall draw,
accept, make or issue any bill of exchange, hundi, promissory note or engagement for
the payment of money payable to bearer on demand. This Section further provides that
no one except the RBI or the Central Government can make or issue a promissory note
expressed to be payable or demand or after a certain time. Section 32 of the Reserve
Bank of India Act makes issue of such bills or notes punishable with fine which may
extend to the amount of the instrument. The effect or the consequences of these
provisions are:
1.

A promissory note cannot be made payable to the bearer, no matter

whether it is payable on demand or after a certain time.

2.

A bill of exchange cannot be made payable to the bearer on demand

though it can be made payable to the bearer after a certain time.

3.

But a cheque {though a bill of exchange} payable to bearer or demand

can be drawn on a persons account with a banker.

1.1 MEANING OF NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENTS

According to Section 13 (a) of the Act, Negotiable instrument means a promissory
note, bill of exchange or cheque payable either to order or to bearer, whether the word
order or bearer appear on the instrument or not.
In the words of Justice, Willis, A negotiable instrument is one, the property in which
is acquired by anyone who takes it bonafide and for value notwithstanding any defects
of the title in the person from whom he took it.
Thus, the term, negotiable instrument means a written document which creates a right
in favor of some person and which is freely transferable. Although the Act mentions
only these three instruments (such as a promissory note, a bill of exchange and
cheque), it does not
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1.2 TYPES OF NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENT

Section 13 of the Negotiable Instruments Act states that a negotiable instrument is a
promissory note, bill of exchange or a cheque payable either to order or to bearer.
Negotiable instruments recognised by statute are: (i) Promissory notes (ii) Bills of
exchange (iii) Cheques. Negotiable instruments recognised by usage or custom are: (i)
Hundis (ii) Share warrants (iii) Dividend warrants (iv) Bankers draft (v) Circular notes
(vi) Bearer debentures (vii) Debentures of Bombay Port Trust (viii) Railway receipts
(ix) Delivery orders.
This list of negotiable instrument is not a closed chapter. With the growth of
commerce, new kinds of securities may claim recognition as negotiable instruments.
The courts in India usually follow the practice of English courts in according the
character of negotiability to other instruments.

1.2.1 Promissory notes

Section 4 of the Act defines, A promissory note is an instrument in writing (note
being a bank-note or a currency note) containing an unconditional undertaking, signed
by the maker, to pay a certain sum of money to or to the order of a certain person, or to
the bearer of the instruments.

Essential element
An instrument to be a promissory note must possess the following elements:
1. It must be in writing: A mere verbal promise to pay is not apromissory note. The
method of writing (either in ink or pencil or printing, etc.) is unimportant, but it
must be in any form that cannot be altered easily.
2. The instrument must be signed by the maker: The person who promises to pay
must sign the instrument even though it might have been written by the promisor
himself. There are no restrictions regarding the form or place of signatures in the
instrument. It may be in any part of the instrument. It may be in pencil or ink, a
thumb mark or initials. The pronote can be signed by the authorised agent of the
maker, but the agent must expressly state as to on whose behalf he is signing,
otherwise he himself may be held liable as a maker. The only legal requirement is
that it should indicate with certainty the identity of the person and his intention to
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be bound by the terms of the agreement.

3. The Instrument must contain a promise to pay: There must be an express
undertaking to pay. A mere acknowledgment is not enough. The following are not
promissory notes as there is no promise to pay.
If A writes:
Mr. B, I.O.U. (I owe you) Rs. 500
I am liable to pay you Rs. 500.
I have taken from you Rs. 100, whenever you ask for it have to pay .
The following will be taken as promissory notes because there is an express
promise to pay:
If A writes:
I promise to pay B or order Rs. 500
I acknowledge myself to be indebted to B in Rs. 1000 to be paid on demand, for
the value received.
4. Promise to pay must be unconditional: A conditional undertaking destroys the
negotiable character of an otherwise negotiable instrument. Therefore, the promise
to pay must not depend upon the happening of some outside contingency or event.
It must be payable absolutely
5. The maker of the instrument must be certain and definite: The note self must
showclearly who is the person agreeing to undertake the liability to pay the
amount. In case a person signs in an assumed name, he is liable as a maker because
a maker is taken as certain if from his description sufficient indication follows
about his identity. In case two or more persons promise to pay, they may bind
themselves jointly or jointly and severally, but their liability cannot be in the
alternative.

6. The money must be payable to a definite person: The instrument must point
outwith certainty the person to whom the promise has been made. The payee may
be ascertained by name or by designation. A note payable to the maker himself is
not pronate unless it is indorsed by him. In case, there is a mistake in the name of
the payee or his designation; the note is valid, if the payee can be ascertained by
evidence. Even where the name of a dead person is entered as payee in ignorance
of his death, his legal representative can enforce payment.
7. The promise should be to pay money and money only: Money means legal
tender money and not old and rare coins. A promise to deliver paddy either in the
alternative or in addition to money does not constitute a promissory note.
8. The

sum

of

money

to

be

paid

must

be

certain:

One

of

the

importantcharacteristics of a promissory note is certaintynot only regarding the

person to whom or by whom payment is to be made but also regarding the amount.
However, paragraph 3 of Section 5 provides that the sum does not become
indefinite merely because
there is a promise to pay amount with interest at a specified rate.
the amount is to be paid at an indicated rate of exchange.
the amount is payable by installments with a condition that the whole balance shall
fall due for payment on a default being committed in the payment of anyone
installment.

9. Other formalities: The other formalities regarding number,place, date,

consideration etc. though usually found given in the promissory notes but are not
essential in law. The date of instrument is not material unless the amount is made
payable at a certain time after date. Even in such a case, omission of date does not
invalidate the instrument and the date of execution can be independently
ascertained and proved.
On demand (or six month after date) I promise to pay Peter or order the sum of
rupees one thousand with interest at 8 per cent per annum until payment.

Specimen of a Promissory Note Payable on Demand

Mumbai,
1st June, 1999

Rs. 5,000/-

On Demand, I promise to pay Prakash or order the sum of rupees five thousand
with interest at 18 per cent per annum, for value received.

Specimen of a Promissory Note PayableSd/after Date

To

Specimen of a Promissory Note Payable after Date

Prakash,

Mumbai,
1st June, 1999

Empty Stomach,
Rs. 5,000/Mumbai 400 052.

Three months after date, I promise to pay Srichand Rohra or Bearer/Order the
sum of rupees five thousand, for value received.
Stamp
XYZ

Sd/-

To
Srichand Rohra,
Jai Palace,
Mumbai 400 052.

1.2.2 Bill of exchange

Section 5 of the Act defines, A bill of exchange is an instrument in writing containing
an unconditional order, signed by the maker, directing a certain person to pay a certain
sum of money only to, or to the order of a certain person or to the bearer of the
instrument.
A bill of exchange, therefore, is a written acknowledgement of the debt, written by the
creditor and accepted by the debtor. There are usually three parties to a bill of
exchange drawer, acceptor or drawee and payee. Drawer himself may be the payee.

Essential conditions of a bill of exchange

(1)

It must be in writing.

(2)

It must be signed by the drawer.

(3)

The drawer, drawee and payee must be certain.

(4)

The sum payable must also be certain.

(5)

It should be properly stamped.

(6)

It must contain an express order to pay money and money alone.

For example, In the following cases, there is no order to pay, but only a request to pay.
Therefore, none can be considered as a bill of exchange:
(a)

I shall be highly obliged if you make it convenient to pay Rs. 1000 to

Suresh.

(b) Mr. Ramesh, please let the bearer have one thousand rupees, and place it to
my account and oblige
However, there is an order to pay, though it is politely made, in the following
examples:
(a) Please pay Rs. 500 to the order of A.
(b) Mr. A will oblige Mr. C, by paying to the order of P.
(7)

The order must be unconditional.

Distinction Between Bill of Exchange and Promissory Note

1. Number of parties: In a promissory note there are only twoparties the maker
(debtor) and the payee (creditor). In a bill of exchange, there are three parties;
drawer, drawee and payee; although any two out of the three may be filled by
one and the same person,
2. Promise and order :A promissory note contains anunconditional promise by
the maker to pay to the payee or his order, whereas in a bill of exchange, there
is an unconditional order to the drawee to pay according to the direction of the
drawer.
3. Acceptance: A note is presented for payment withoutany prior acceptance by
the maker. A bill of exchange is payable after sight must be accepted by the
drawee or someone else on his behalf, before it can be presented for payment.
4. Liability: The liability of the maker of apromissory note is primary and
absolute, but the liability of the drawer of a bill of exchange is secondary and
conditional.
5. Relationship: The maker of the promissory note stands in
immediate relation with the payee, while the maker or drawer of an
accepted bill stands in immediate relations with the acceptor and
not the payee.
6. Notice: When a bill is dishonoured, due notice of dishonour is to be
given by the holder to the drawer and the intermediate indorsers,
but no such notice need be given in the case of a note.
7. Protest: Foreign bill of exchange must beprotested for dishonour w such
protest is required to be made by the law of the country where they are drawn,
but no such protest is needed in the case of a promissory note.

Specimen of a bill of exchange payable on demand

Mumbai,
20th August, 1999

Rs. 20,000/-

Stamp

On demand, pay to Prof. P.P. Prakash, or order, a sum of rupees twenty

thousand only for value received.

For Airedale & Company,

Sd/Partner
Specimens of bills of exchange payable after
date and after sight
420, P.P. Road, Mumbai 400 004.
Mumbai,
20th August, 1999

Rs.
To 20,000/Prof. P.P. Prakash,
25, Raja Mahan,

Accepted

Stamp

Mumbai 400 001.

Sd/Three months after pay M.N. Patel, 12 V.P. Road, Surat, or order, the sum of
R S T 21-8-1999
rupees ten thousand only for value received.

Sd/A.G. Joshi,
245, Mahatma Gandhi Road,
Mumbai 400 001.

To
M.N.Patel
15, Netaji Subhash Lane,
Surat.

Accepted
9

Sd/B.K. Shah 10-6-1999

1.2.3 Cheques
Section 6 of the Act defines A cheque is a bill of exchange drawn on a specified
banker, and not expressed to be payable otherwise than on demand.
A cheque is bill of exchange with two more qualifications, namely,
(i) it is always drawn on a specified banker, and (ii) it is always payable on demand.
Consequently, all chequeare bill of exchange, but all bills are not cheque. A cheque
must satisfy all the requirements of a bill of exchange; that is, it must be signed by the
drawer, and must contain anunconditional order on a specified banker to pay a certain
sum of money to or to the order of a certain person or to the bearer of the cheque. It
does not require acceptance.
exclude the possibility of adding any other instrument which satisfies the following
two conditions of negotiability:

1.

the instrument should be freely transferable (by delivery or by endorsement.

and delivery) by the custom of the trade; and

2.

the person who obtains it in good faith and for value should get it free from all

defects, and be entitled to recover the money of the instrument in his own name.

As such, documents like share warrants payable to bearer, debentures payable to bearer
and dividend warrants are negotiable instruments. But the money orders and postal
orders, deposit receipts, share certificates, bill of lading, dock warrant, etc. are not
negotiable instruments. Although they are transferable by delivery and endorsements,
yet they are not able to give better title to the bonafide transferee for value than what
the transferor has.

Essential feature of Cheque :

1. A cheque must fulfill all the essential requirements of a bill of exchange.
2. A cheque may be payable to bearer or to order but in either case it must be
payable on demand.
3. The banker named must pay it when it is presented for payment to him at his
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office during the usual office hours, provided the cheque is validly drawn and
the drawer has sufficient funds to his credit.
4. Bill and notes may be written entirely by hand. There is no legal bar to cheques
being hand- written. Usually however, banks provide their customers with
printed cheque forms which filled up and signed by the drawer.
5. The signature must tally with the specification signature of the drawer kept in
the bank.
6. A cheque must be dated. A banker is entitled to to refuse to pay a cheque which
is not dated. A cheque which is not dated. A cheque becomes due for payment
on the date specified on it.
7. A cheque drawn with future date is valid but it is payable on and after the date
specified. Cheques are called postdated cheques.
8. A cheque may be presented for payment after the due date but if there is too
much delay the bank is entitled to consider the circumstance suspicious and
refuse to honour the cheque. The period after which a cheque is considered too
old or stale varies according to custom from place to place. It is usually six
months in indian cities.
9. In some certain circumstances the bank is not bound to pay the cheques.

Distinction Between Bills of Exchange and Cheque

1.

A bill of exchange is usually drawn on some person or firm, while a

cheque is always drawn on a bank.

2.

It is essential that a bill of exchange must be accepted before its

payment can be claimed A cheque does not require any such acceptance.

3.

A cheque can only be drawn payable on demand, a bill may be also

drawn payable on demand, or on the expiry of a certain period after date
or sight.

4.

A grace of three days is allowed in the case of time bills while no grace
is given in the case of a cheque.

5.

The drawer of the bill is discharged from his liability, if it is not

presented for payment, but the drawer of a cheque is discharged only if
he suffers any damage by delay in presenting the cheque for payment.

6.

Notice of dishonour of a bill is necessary, but no such notice is

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necessary in the case of cheque.

7.

A cheque may be crossed, but not needed in the case of bill.

8.

A bill of exchange must be properly stamped, while a cheque does not

require any stamp.

9.

A cheque drawn to bearer payable on demand shall be valid but a bill

payable on demand can never be drawn to bearer.

Unlike cheques, the payment of a bill cannot be countermanded by the drawer.

Types of Cheques:

There are two types of cheques:

1) Those which are uncrossed are popularly known as bearer or open cheques;
and
2) Crossed Cheques.
1) Bearer Cheques or Open Cheques:
Bearer or open cheques are payable at the counter of drawee banker on presentment.
As the bearer cheques carry risk of being lost or stolen and the finder may be able to
get it encashed, crossing of cheques avoids such a contingency and secures payment.
2) Crossed Cheques: Crossing of cheques is of different types:

Cheques crossed generally (Sec. 123 &126).

A cheque is crossed generally when;
A. It has two parallel lines marked across its face; or
B. It bears an abbreviation & Co. between the parallel line; or
C. It bears the words not negotiable between the two parallel
lines (Sec. 123).
A cheque crossed generally will be paid to the banker through which it is presented. It
is a direction to the drawee banker to pay the sum only through a banker. Where a
cheque is crossed generally, the banker on whom it is drawn shall not pay it otherwise
than to a banker (Sec. 126).
Cheques crossed specially (Secs. 124 & 126):When a cheque is crossed by two parallel
transverse lines and also the name of the banker is written between the two parallel
lines, with or without the words, not negotiable it is called special crossing (Sec.
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124). It is to be payable to that person only on which the bill is drawn which means it
is not a risky document as Bearer Cheque is. The banker on whom it is drawn shall not
pay it otherwise than to the banker to whom it is crossed or his agent for collection
(Sec. 126). It will paid only when presented by the banker.
Payment of cheque crossed especially more than once (Sec. 127):A cheque cannot be
crossed more than once specially, except the banker on whom it is crossed specially
can cross it again to his agent for purpose of collection only. If the cheque is crossed
especially more than once, the banker has a right to refuse payment thereof.
Cheques crossed A/c. Payee: Often cheques are crossed with two parallel transverse
lines and in between the two parallel lines the words a/c payee or a/c payee only
are written. This means that the proceeds of the cheque are to be credited to the
account of the payee only. This type of crossing is also called Restrictive crossing.
Insertion of words A/c. Payee does not restrict its negotiability. It serves a good
protection to drawer from loss or theft.
Cheque bearing Not Negotiable (Sec. 130): A cheque crossed generally or specially
may bear additional words not negotiable. A person taking a cheque crossed
generally or specially bearing in either case the words not negotiable shall not have
and shall not be capable of giving a better title to the transferee than that which the
person from whom he took it had.It will be observed that writing the words not
negotiable is a type of special crossing or general crossing. Cheques crossed generally
or specially, can be added with the words not negotiable. The words not negotiable
are not the same thing as special crossing, because in a special crossing, the banker on
whom it is drawn shall not pay it otherwise than to the banker on whom it is crossed or
his agent for collection. When the cheque is marked with the words not negotiable in
addition to the special crossing, it deprives the cheque of its main feature of
negotiability.
Crossing after issue (Sec. 125): Crossing of cheque other than that authorized by the
act is unlawful. The following crossings are permissible:
a. Where a cheque is uncrossed, the holder may cross it generally or specially.
b. Where a cheque is crossed generally, the holder may cross it specially.
c. Where a cheque is crossed generally or specially, the holder may add the words
not negotiable.
d. Where a cheque is crossed specially, the banker to whom it is crossed may again
cross it specially to another banker or his agent, for collection.
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1.3 Conclusion
The law relating to negotiable instruments is not the law of one country or of one
nation, it is the law of the commercial world in general, for, it consists of certain
principles of equity and usages of trade which general convenience and
commonsense of justice had established to regulate the dealing of merchants and
mariners in all the commercial countries of the civilised world. Even now the laws
of several countries in Europe are, at least so far as general principles are concerned,
similar in many respects. Of course, on questions of detail, different countries have
solved the various problems in different ways, but the essentials are the same, and
this similarity of law is a pre-requisite for the vast international transactions that are
carried on among the different countries.
The main object of the Negotiable Instruments Act is to legalize the system by which
instruments contemplated by it could pass from hand to hand by negotiation like any
other goods. The purpose of the act was to present an orderly and authoritative
statement of leading rules of law relating to the negotiable instruments. To achieve
the objective of the Act, the legislature thought it proper to make provision in the Act
for conferring certain privileges to the mercantile instruments contemplated under it
and provide special procedure in case the obligation under the instrument was not
discharged. A Negotiable Instrument is a document guaranteeing the payment of a
specific amount of money, either on demand, or at a set time.

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