Executive Summary:

Motivation or work motivation is the set of internal or external forces that cause an employee to
choose a course of action and engage in certain behavior, these lead him/her to achieve the
targeted goals. This report described about different motivational drives like Achievement,
Affiliation and Power that affect and shape human behaviors. Also identified three need based
motivational theory of Maslow, Herzberg and Alderfer; these needs based theory emphasize on
motivating the employees in an organization by identifying and fulfilling their proper needs. The
similarities among the three models of human needs are quite apparent but there are important
contrast too. Maslow and Alderfer focus on the internal needs of employee, whereas Herzberg
identifies the conditions that could be provided for need satisfaction.
In addition to that there are several behavioral models which help to understand the human
behavior on the job and shape motivational process accordingly. They are briefly discussed using
Law of effect which talks about any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely
to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped.
The alternative consequences allow mangers to decide on applying or withholding positive or
negative reinforcement on employees. The process is shaped by Schedules of reinforcement; they
are an important component in the motivational process. When and how often managers should
reinforce a behavior can have a dramatic impact on the strength and rate of the response.
Apart from those, there is the Goal-setting theory of motivation, this theory states that goal
setting is essentially linked to task performance. It states that specific and challenging goals
along with appropriate feedback contribute to higher and better task performance. In simple
words, goals indicate and give direction to an employee about what needs to be done and how
much efforts are required to be put in. On the other hand the Expectancy model of Victor Vroom
suggested that the relationship between people's behavior at work and their goals was not as
simple as was first imagined by other scientists. Vroom realized that an employee's performance
is based on individuals factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities.
Lastly, the Equity model states about the comparisons and ratios employees do to plaid and
balance their satisfaction. These are all used to understand and fairly practice motivation in any
organization as well as to flourish the productivity of the organization as a whole.

Motivation
Introduction:
In an organization, employees drive themselves to achieve goals and fulfill organizations
mission; the fact behind this devotion towards the goal attainment is simply-motivation.
Motivation or work motivation is the set of internal or external forces that cause an employee to
choose a course of action and engage in certain behavior, these lead him/her to achieve the
targeted goals.
Motivating employees is a complex task because it is a combination of psychological forces
within each person and employers are interested in three elements of it,
1. Direction and focus of the behavior.
2. Level of the effort provided.
3. Persistence of the behavior.
All these includes the requirement of discovering and understanding employee drives and needs
as it originates within an individual. Employees will be more motivated when they will have
clear goals to achieve.

A Model of Motivation:
Apparently, all conscious behaviors are motivated or caused. A managers job is to identify
employees drives and needs and to channel their behaviors to motivate them, towards task
performance. The model below shows the role of motivation in performance.

Internal needs and drives create tensions that are affected by ones environment. Results occur
when motivated employees are provided with the opportunity to perform and the resources to do
so. The presence of goals and awareness of incentives to satisfy ones need are also powerful
motivational factors leading to the release of effort. Rewards will be distributed when an
employee is productive and the organization takes note of it. Employees original needs and
drives will be satisfied when the rewards are appropriate in nature, timing and distribution. The
process is cyclical because needs may arise again and following similar method motivation will
be provided. Here, the important starting point lies in understanding employee needs for any
employer or manager. Once it is done perfectly, motivating process will be much simple and
precise.

Motivational Drives:
Every people belong to cultural oriented behavior. These help them to form certain motivational
drives based on their culture. These drives affect peoples view towards their job and lives. David
C. McClelland of Harvard University, developed a classification scheme highlighting three of the
dominant drives and pointed out their significance to motivation. His research focused on the
drives for achievement, affiliation and power.
1. Achievement Motivation:
It is a drive some people have to pursue and attain goals. An individual with this drive wishes
to achieve objectives and advance up the ladder of success.
This group of people are motivated and will work harder when they perceive that they will
receive personal credit for their efforts, when the risk of failure is only moderate and when
they receive specific feedback about their past performance. They take responsibilities for
their own actions and results, and enjoy being part of a wining achievement through
individual or collective effort.
2. Affiliation Motivation:
This drive relates people socially. People with affiliation motives work better when they are
complimented for their favorable attitude and cooperation. They receive inner satisfactions
from being with friends; for this they tend to select likable people and friends to surround
them. These qualities also lead them to the want for job freedom to develop relationships.
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3. Power Motivation:
It is the third drive to influence people, take control and change situations. Power motivation
people wish to create an impact on their organization and are willing to take risks to do so.
Once the power is obtained, it may be used either constructively or destructively.
Managerial Application of the Drives:

Knowledge of the differences among the three motivational drives requires managers to,
Think contingently and understand the work attitude of each employee.
Deal with employees differently according to the strongest motivational drive.
Communicate with each employee according to that particular persons need.

Types of Human Needs and Need Based Motivational

Theories:
Merely needs can be classified as Primary needs, which are the basic physical needs and, Social
and Psychological needs called Secondary needs. The virtually universal primary needs arise
from the basic requirements of life and are important for survival. Secondary needs on the other
hand, are more vague because they represent needs of the mind and spirit rather than of physical
body.
To know further about the motivational process, several scholars build different motivational
theory. These theories attempt to classify human needs and help create an important basis for the
more advanced motivational model; they are also known as Content theory.
Three major theories of human needs of Maslow, Herzberg and Alderfer has been discussed
below.
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs:
Based on five levels of needs which are divided into two parts- lower-order needs and higherorder needs; A. H. Maslow built a need-hierarchy model which says needs emerge in a definite
sequence and people also focus on satisfying those needs consecutively. The need-hierarchy
model states that people have needs they wish to satisfy and that gratified needs are not as
strongly motivating as unmet needs. Employees are more enthusiastically motivated by what
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they are currently seeking than by receiving more of what they already have. This model has had
a powerful impact on contemporary managers and todays managers need to identify and accept
employee need, recognize that needs may differ among employees, offer satisfaction for the
particular needs currently unmet, and realize that giving more of the same reward may have
diminishing impact on motivation.

Figure: A comparison of Maslows, Herzbergs and Alderfers Models

Herzbergs Two-Factor Model:
Frederick Herzberg found that there are different types of conditions in an organization can
create good and bad feeling in employees minds. On the basis of this research he developed a
Two-factor model of motivation; the model says that two separate sets of factors influence
motivation.
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One of them is the Maintenance factors or Hygiene factors are those which cannot be ignored in
the organization because absence of the hygiene factors lead to unsatisfied employees but
presence keep the employees neutral. The other one is Motivational factors or Satisfiers; absence
of these are rarely dissatisfying but presence will make the employees satisfied.
Motivators mostly are job-centered or job content and hygiene factors are related to job context,
which make one Intrinsic motivator and other the Extrinsic motivator. Managers should identify
and design the bundle of motivational and maintenance factors according to the evaluation of
these.
Alderfers E-R-G Model:
Alderfer further developed Maslow's hierarchy of needs by categorizing the hierarchy into his
ERG theory (Existence, Relatedness and Growth). The existence group is concerned with
providing the basic material existence requirements of humans. They include the items that
Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. The second group of needs is those of
relatedness the desire people have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. These
social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align
with Maslow's social need and the external component of Maslow's esteem classification.
Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs: an intrinsic desire for personal development. These
include the intrinsic component from Maslow's esteem category and the characteristics included
under self-actualization.
Alderfer categorized the lower order needs (Physiological and Safety) into the Existence
category. He fit Maslow's interpersonal love and esteem needs into the Relatedness category. The
Growth category contained the self-actualization and self-esteem needs. Alderfer also proposed a
regression theory to go along with the ERG theory. He said that when needs in a higher category
are not met then individuals redouble the efforts invested in a lower category need. For example
if self-actualization or self-esteem is not met then individuals will invest more effort in the
relatedness category in the hopes of achieving the higher need.

Behavior Modification:
To deal with the difficulty of content theories of motivation research had been done to rely
heavily on intended results, careful measurement and systematic application of incentives.
Organizational behavior modification known as OB Mod is the application in organizations of
the principles of behavior modification, which evolved from work. Based on this process
theories of motivation had been proposed. They will be discussed below.
Law of Effect:
Edward Thorndikes Law of effect stated that any behavior that is followed by pleasant
consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is
likely to be stopped.
Managers must be able to identify some powerful consequences and then must be able to control
and administer them in such a way that the employee will see the connection between the
behavior to be affected and the consequences.
Alternative Consequences:
There are great emphasis on the use of rewards in OB Mod, it also described for alternative
consequences to sustain behavior. The figure below shows the matrix of four consequences with
applying or withholding behavior.

Figure: Four alternative

consequences of OB Mod

Schedules of reinforcement:
Schedules of reinforcement are an important component in the motivational process. When and
how often managers should reinforce a behavior can have a dramatic impact on the strength and
rate of the response. A schedule of reinforcement is basically a rule stating which instances of a
behavior will be reinforced. In some case, a behavior might be reinforced every time it occurs.
Sometimes, a behavior might not be reinforced at all.
Either positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement might be used, depending on the
situation. In real-world settings, behaviors are probably not going to be reinforced each and
every time they occur. For situations managers might opt to follow a specific reinforcement
schedule. Certain schedules of reinforcement may be more effective in specific situations. There
are two types of reinforcement schedules:
1. Continuous Reinforcement:
In continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it
occurs. This schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a
strong association between the behavior and the response. Once the response if firmly
attached, reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule.
2. Partial Reinforcement:
Partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time. Learned behaviors
are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to
extinction.

Guidelines for Applying Behavior Model:

Identify the exact behavior to be modified.
Make sure the expected behavior is within the employees capabilities.
Determine not only the rewards that employees value but also the magnitude that would
affect their behavior.
Clarify the connection between desired behavior and rewards.
Use positive reinforcement whenever possible.

Goal Setting Theory:

In 1960s, Edwin Locke put forward the Goal-setting theory of motivation. This theory states that
goal setting is essentially linked to task performance. It states that specific and challenging goals
along with appropriate feedback contribute to higher and better task performance. In simple
words, goals indicate and give direction to an employee about what needs to be done and how
much efforts are required to be put in. The important features of goal-setting theory are as
follows:
The willingness to work towards attainment of goal is main source of job motivation.
Clear, particular and difficult goals are greater motivating factors than easy, general and
vague goals.
Specific and clear goals lead to greater output and better performance. Unambiguous,
measurable and clear goals accompanied by a deadline for completion avoids
misunderstanding.
Goals should be realistic and challenging. This gives an individual a feeling of pride and
triumph when he attains them, and sets him up for attainment of next goal. The more
challenging the goal, the greater is the reward generally and the more is the passion for
achieving it.
Better and appropriate feedback of results directs the employee behavior and contributes
to higher performance than absence of feedback. Feedback is a means of gaining
reputation, making clarifications and regulating goal difficulties. It helps employees to
work with more involvement and leads to greater job satisfaction.
Employees participation in goal is not always desirable.
Participation of setting goal, however, makes goal more acceptable and leads to more
involvement.

Advantages of Goal Setting Theory:

1. Goal setting theory is a technique used to raise incentives for employees to complete
work quickly and effectively.
2. Goal setting leads to better performance by increasing motivation and efforts, but also
through increasing and improving the feedback quality.
Limitations of Goal Setting Theory:

1. At times, the organizational goals are in conflict with the managerial goals. Goal conflict
has a detrimental effect on the performance if it motivates incompatible action drift.
2. Very difficult and complex goals stimulate riskier behavior.
3. If the employee lacks skills and competencies to perform actions essential for goal, then
the goal-setting can fail and lead to undermining of performance.
4. There is no evidence to prove that goal-setting improves job satisfaction.

The Expectancy Model:

Together with Edward Lawler and Lyman Porter, Victor Vroom suggested that the relationship
between people's behavior at work and their goals was not as simple as was first imagined by
other scientists. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individuals factors
such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities.
The theory suggests that although individuals may have different sets of goals, they can be
motivated if they believe that:

There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance,

Favorable performance will result in a desirable reward,
The reward will satisfy an important need,
The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile.
The theory is based upon the following beliefs:

Valence:
Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with respect to outcomes. The depth of
the want of an employee for extrinsic (money, promotion, time-off, benefits) or intrinsic rewards.
Management must discover what employees value.

Expectancy:
Employees have different expectations and levels of confidence about what they are capable of
doing. Management must discover what resources, training, or supervision employees need.
Instrumentality:

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The perception of employees as to whether they will actually get what they desire even if it has
been promised by a manager. Management must ensure that promises of rewards are fulfilled and
that employees are aware of that.
Vroom suggests that an employee's beliefs about Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence
interact psychologically to create a motivational force such that the employee acts in ways that
bring pleasure and avoid pain.

The Equity Model:

John Stacey Adams' equity theory helps explain why pay and conditions alone do not determine
motivation. It also explains why giving one person a promotion or pay-rise can have a
demotivating effect on others.
When people feel fairly or advantageously treated they are more likely to be motivated; when
they feel unfairly treated they are highly prone to feelings of disaffection and demotivation.

Employees seek to maintain equity between the inputs that they bring to a job and the outcomes
that they receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others. The belief in equity
theory is that people value fair treatment which causes them to be motivated to keep the fairness
maintained within the relationships of their co-workers and the organization. Words like efforts
and rewards, or work and pay, are an over-simplification - hence the use of the terms inputs and
outputs. Inputs are logically what we give or put into our work. Outputs are everything we take
out in return.

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References:
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Text Book:
Organization Behavior by John W. Newstrom
12th Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd.

Websites:
http://www.businessballs.com/adamsequitytheory.htm
http://www.ifm.eng.cam.ac.uk/research/dstools/vrooms-expectancy-theory/

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