Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Introduction to Performance

Flight Mechanics is the study of the motions of bodies (aircraft and rockets),
through a fluid.

Stability and Control

the science of designing for steady
and controllable fight characteristics

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Aerodynamic Performance
speed
rate of climb
range
fuel consumption
maneuverability
runway length requirements

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

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Why Study Performance?

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

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The Anatomy of the Airplane

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Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Airplane Configurations

Anhedral

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Source: Shevell, Fundamentals of Flight

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

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Airplane Configurations

Source: Shevell, Fundamentals of Flight

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

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Airplane Configurations

Source: Shevell, Fundamentals of Flight

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

The Standard Atmosphere

Why do we need to know about the atmosphere?

The performance of aircraft, spacecraft, and engines depend on the atmosphere in
which they operate, primarily density and viscosity. Density and viscosity, in
turn, are functions of altitude.
Density, , varies with pressure, p, and temperature, T
Viscosity, , varies only with temperature, T

The standard atmosphere is defined from the equation of state of a perfect gas:

p = RT

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Perfect Gas Law

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

The Standard Atmosphere

p = pressure in lb/ft2 or N/m2

= density in slugs/ft3 or kg/m3
T = absolute temperature in Rankine (R) or Kelvin (K)
R = gas constant = 1718 ft-lb/slugR or 287.05 n-m/kgK
Remember:
R = F + 459.7
K = C + 273.15

For our purposes, the atmosphere can be regarded as a homogenous gas

of uniform composition that satisfies the perfect gas law.

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Effect of Water Vapor on Atmosphere

When there is a significant amount of water vapor in the air, the density is
changed, but by a very small amount.

= 0.002243 slug/ft3

dry air

= 0.002203 slug/ft3

100% humidity

Although the effect of water vapor on air density is very small, water vapor
does have a significant effect on engine performance and supersonic
aerodynamics.

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

International Standard Atmosphere

To allow for comparison of the performance of airplanes, as well as calibration

of altimeters, standard properties of the atmosphere have been established by
the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
The ICAO and the U.S. Standard Atmosphere are identical below 65,617 feet.
This standard atmosphere is representative of mid latitudes of the northern
hemisphere.
Standard sea level properties are:
g0 = 32.17 ft/s2 = 9.806 m/s2
P0 = 29.92 in Hg = 2116.2 lb/ft2 = 1.013 x 105 N/m2
T0 = 59 F = 518.7 R = 15 C = 288.2 K
r0 = 0.002377 slug/ft3 = 1.225 Kg/m3
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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Regions of the Atmosphere

Exosphere-rarefied
Ionosphere
Positive Temperature Gradient

300 ~ 600 mi

50 ~ 70 mi

Stratosphere
Zero Temperature Gradient

Tropopause ( 36,089 ft)

5 ~ 10 mi

Troposphere
Negative Temperature Gradient

In subsonic airplane aerodynamics, only the troposphere and stratosphere

are important.

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Temperature Variation with Altitude

Below 36,089 ft, we assume there is a constant drop of temperature from sea
level to altitude

T = T1 + a ( h - h1)
a = lapse rate = -0.00356616 F/ft in the standard atmosphere
T1 and h1 are reference temperatures. For sea level, T1 = T0 and h1 = 0
Above 36,089 ft in the stratosphere, the standard temperature is assumed
constant and equal to -69.7 F.

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Below 36,089 ft

Pressure/Density Variation with Altitude

(relative to standard sea level values)

T
a
==1+
h = 1 - 6.875 x 10-6 h
T0
T0
p
= = 5.2561
p0

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= = 4.2561

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Pressure/Density Variation with Altitude

Above 36,089 ft

(relative to standard sea level values)

T = constant = -69.7 F

p
p0

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= 0.2234 exp

= 0.2971 exp

h-36,089
20806.7

h-36,089
20806.7

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Pressure/Density Variation with Altitude

So, now you can calculate the temperature, pressure, and density at any point in
the troposphere or stratosphere
OR
You can use the nifty tables in the back of Andersons book (Appendices A, B)

Be careful which units you are using...

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Viscosity

Viscosity varies primarily with temperature

There is a strong relationship between air viscosity and boundary
layer behavior. This will be discussed more when we review
aerodynamics.

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= /

Kinematic Viscosity

R = Vl

Reynolds Number

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Altimeters

Properties of the standard atmosphere can be used to calibrate altimeters.

An altimeter translates barometric pressure into a display of elevation in feet.

known reference
pressure inside
As the airplane climbs and descends, the aneroids expand and contract,
which is reflected by the altimeter reading
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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Altimeters

However, unfortunately, atmospheric pressure changes not only with altitude but
also with fluctuations in the weather. To account for these changes, the
altimeter must be set to the current altimeter setting, which is the current sea
level barometric pressure, in inches of mercury.
The adjustment knob is used to set the altimeter and this adjustment is shown in
the Kollsman window. A change of 1 inch of mercury on the Kollsman window
results in ~ 1000 foot change in altitude on the display needles.
Pilots obtain current altimeter settings from an airplane control tower or a Flight
Service Center. If this information is unavailable, the altimeter can be set to the
field elevation of the airport.

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Three point altimeter

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Altimeters

Drum altimeter

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Errors in Altimeters

Scale error - at lower altitude, errors due to the aneroids not assuming the
exact size corresponding to altitude is on the order of plus/minus 50 feet. At
higher altitudes, these errors can be as much as plus/minus 200 feet.
Friction error - due to friction of the mechanical parts. Usually the vibration of
the airplane overcomes the friction, or the pilot can tap on the glass.
Hysteresis - due to the imperfect elasticity of the wafers. After long flights at
higher altitudes, the wafers can become set. Errors on the order of 100 feet
are not uncommon. A few minutes at the new altitude will reset the altimeter

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Types of Altitude

Pressure Altitude - defined as the reading on an altimeter when the Kollsman

window is set to 29.92 inches of mercury (standard sea level pressure). This
is the altitude used in performance calculations and for flights above 18,000
feet (where pressure altitudes are called flight levels).
True Altitude - is the true height above mean sea level (MSL). Sea level is
assumed fixed, therefore MSL altitudes do NOT change with atmospheric
conditions. Realize that a properly functioning altimeter will indicate true
altitude ONLY if it is operating in a standard atmosphere, which rarely or
never occurs.
Indicated Altitude - is what the altimeter reads at any given time.
Absolute Altitude - is altitude above ground level (AGL).

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Types of Altitude

Pressure = 29.92 inches of mercury

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Weather and the Altimeter

If the pilot does not reset the Kollman window in flight, what happens?
The pilot will be flying at a line of constant pressure. If s/he flies from high
pressure weather to low pressure weather, the true altitude will show a
descending flight path.
To remember this phenomena, use the following rhyme:
from a high to a low, look out below
from a low to a high, youre high in the sky
This also works for temperature fluctuations

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Weather
and the
Altimeter

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Pitot-Static Tube

Ram air, or pitot air, is captured in a hollow tube that projects from the aircraft.
The pitot tube is placed in such a way as to capture impact air with minimal
disturbance from the rest of the airframe.
The static port measures local atmospheric pressure. The static port is usually
placed perpendicular to the airstream so as to negate any pressure caused from
motion.

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

The Airspeed Indicator

The airspeed indicator subtracts the static pressure from the total pressure
supplied by the pitot tube. This difference is called dynamic pressure, and is a
measure of the airplanes forward speed.
Recall Bernoullis Equation:

pt = p + 1/2 V2
total pressure

static pressure
dynamic pressure

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

The Airspeed Indicator

The chamber is flooded with static pressure. The diaphragm expands or

contracts due to pitot (total) pressure. How much the needle deflects is
an indication of the difference between the two pressures (dynamic
pressure).
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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

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The Airspeed Indicator

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Airspeed Indicator Limitations

The airspeed indicator may fail or reflect an incorrect speed primarily due
to pitot tube blockage:
the pilot forgets to remove the protective cover from the pitot
before takeoff
ice accumulation
foreign object blockage such as dirt or insects

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Types of Airspeeds

Indicated Airspeed (IAS) - is the direct reading from the airspeed indicator.
This represents the airplanes speed through the air, NOT necessarily its speed
across the ground.
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) - is the indicated airspeed corrected for instrument
position and instrument error. This is a function of each unique aircraft and the
position of its pitot tube. There is no direct reading of CAS in the cockpit! The
pilot must refer to the Pilots Operating Handbook for a table corresponding to
that particular aircraft.
True Airspeed (TAS) - because an airspeed indicator is calibrated for standard
sea level conditions, when the airplane is flying at altitude, the airspeed is not
correctly reflected. The amount of error is a function of temperature and
altitude. TAS can be approximated by increasing the indicated airspeed by 2%
per thousand feet of altitude.

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Vertical Speed Indicator

The vertical speed indicator, or VSI, registers the rate of change of static
pressure and converts this to an indication in feet per minute.

airtight case

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

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The Pitot Static Instruments

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

The Magnetic Compass

Magnetic Compass - indicates the direction the airplane is heading with respect
to magnetic north. The difference between this and true north is called variation.

magnets fixed to compass card

liquid in the compass stabilizes and damps the motion
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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Gyroscopic Instruments

A gyroscope is a mass spinning rapidly about an axis. A spinning gyroscope

exhibits two fundamental properties:
Rigidity in space - a spinning gyroscope will tend to maintain its
orientation in space an resist any forces that tend to displace it.
Precession - when a gyroscope is displaced by a force, such as friction,
the reaction generated by the gyroscope is called precession. This
reaction acts 90 degrees from the applied force, in the direction of the
rotation of the rotor.
The instruments that depend on gyroscopic motion are powered instruments,
using either electricity, air pressure, or vacuum.

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

The Attitude Indicator

The attitude indicator, also called the artificial horizon or gyro horizon,
provides the pilot with a visual representation of the airplanes flight attitude
with respect to the horizon.

attitude sphere

The gyro is universally mounted on a vertical spin axis. It is attached to an

attitude sphere, which remains rigid when the airplane manuevers. A
miniature airplane is free to rotate with the airplane.
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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

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The Attitude Indicator

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

The Turn Coordinator

The turn coordinator actually contains two instruments. An airplane symbol

indicates the airplanes rate of turn once a constant bank angle is established.
The ball in the tube, called the inclinometer, provides information about the
quality of the turn.
The gyroscope in the turn coordinator is installed with fore and aft axis of the
mounting canted slightly with respect to the airplanes longitudinal axis. The
gyroscope senses motion about the roll and yaw axis. Any pitch related motion
is restricted. The airplane symbol reacts directly with the aircraft.
The inclinometer is a ball in a curved liquid filled tube. The position of the
ball is determined by centrifugal and gravity forces of the turn.

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

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The Turn Coordinator

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

The Heading Indicator

The heading indicator is also called the directional gyro (DG). It displays the
airplanes heading from a gyroscopically rigid platform. It must be set prior to
each flight or during straight and level flight to agree with the magnetic
compass. Precession caused by friction in the bearings can cause the gyro to
drift, so it must be periodically reset in flight (approx. every 15 minutes).

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

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Standard Instrument Panel Layout

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture 1- May 14, 2002

Sources for Lecture 1

Shevell, Richard S., Fundamentals of Flight, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall,

NJ
Lan, Chuan-Tau Edward and Roskam, Jan, Airplane Aerodynamics and
Performance, Roskam Aviation and Engineering Corporation, KS
Glaeser, Dennis et al, An Invitation to Fly- Basics for the Private Pilot, 4th
Edition, Wadsworth Publishing, CA
Kershner, William K., The Student Pilots Flight Manual, 7th Edition,
Iowa State University Press, Iowa

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Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology