Stereotype

For other uses, see Stereotype (disambiguation).

1 Etymology
Not to be confused with Stereotypy.
In social psychology, a stereotype is a thought that can The term stereotype derives from the Greek words
(stereos), rm, solid[4] and (typos),
impression,[5] hence solid impression.
The term comes from the printing trade and was rst
adopted in 1798 by Firmin Didot to describe a printing
plate that duplicated any typography. The duplicate printing plate, or the stereotype, is used for printing instead of
the original.
Outside of printing, the rst reference to stereotype was
in 1850, as a noun that meant image perpetuated without
change.[6] However, it was not until 1922 that stereotype was rst used in the modern psychological sense by
American journalist Walter Lippmann in his work Public
Opinion.[7]
An 18th-century Dutch engraving of the peoples of the world, depicting the inhabitants of Asia, the Americas and Africa as savages. Shown below are an Englishman, a Dutchman, a German
and a Frenchman.

2 Relationship with other types of

intergroup attitudes
Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination are understood as related but dierent concepts.[8][9][10][11] Stereotypes are regarded as the most cognitive component and
often occurs without conscious awareness, whereas prejudice is the aective component of stereotyping and discrimination is the behavioral component of prejudicial
reactions.[8][9][12] In this tripartite view of intergroup attitudes, stereotypes reect expectations and beliefs about
the characteristics of members of groups perceived as
dierent from ones own, prejudice represents the emotional response, and discrimination refers to actions.[8][9]
Although related, the three concepts can exist independently of each other.[9][13] According to Daniel Katz
and Kenneth Braly, stereotyping leads to racial prejudice
when people emotionally react to the name of a group, ascribe characteristics to members of that group, and then
evaluate those characteristics.[10]

Police ocers buying doughnuts and coee, an example of perceived stereotypical behavior in North America.

be adopted about specic types of individuals or cer[3]

tain ways of doing things.[1] These thoughts or beliefs Possible prejudicial eects of stereotypes are:
may or may not accurately reect reality.[2][3] However,
this is only a fundamental psychological denition of
Justication of ill-founded prejudices or ignorance
a stereotype.[3] Within psychology and spanning across
other disciplines, there are dierent conceptualizations
Unwillingness to rethink ones attitudes and behavand theories of stereotyping that provide their own exior towards stereotyped groups
panded denition. Some of these denitions share com Preventing some people of stereotyped groups from
monalities, though each one may also harbor unique asentering or succeeding in activities or elds[14]
pects that may contradict the others.
1

4 FUNCTIONS

Content

understanding of stereotypes requires considering them

from two complementary perspectives: as shared within
a particular culture/subculture and as formed in the mind
of an individual person.[20]

4.1 Relationship between cognitive and social functions

Stereotyping can serve cognitive functions on an interpersonal level, and social functions on an intergroup
level.[3][13] For stereotyping to function on an intergroup
level (see social identity approaches: social identity theory and self-categorization theory), an individual must
see themselves as part of a group and being part of that
group must also be salient for the individual.[13]
Stereotype content model, adapted from Fiske et al. (2002): Four
types of stereotypes resulting from combinations of perceived
warmth and competence.

Craig McGarty, Russell Spears, and Vincent Y. Yzerbyt

(2002) argued that the cognitive functions of stereotyping
are best understood in relation to its social functions, and
vice versa.[21]

Stereotype content refers to the attributes that people

think characterize a group. Studies of stereotype content examine what people think of others, rather than the 4.2 Cognitive functions
reasons and mechanisms involved in stereotyping.[15]
Stereotypes can help make sense of the world. They are
Early theories of stereotype content proposed by
a form of categorization that helps to simplify and syssocial psychologists such as Gordon Allport astematize information. Thus, information is more easily
sumed that stereotypes of outgroups reected uniform
identied, recalled, predicted, and reacted to.[13] Stereo[16][17]
antipathy.
For instance, Katz and Braly argued
types are categories of objects or people. Between stereoin their classic 1933 study that ethnic stereotypes were
types, objects or people are as dierent from each other
[15]
uniformly negative.
as possible.[1] Within stereotypes, objects or people are
By contrast, a newer model of stereotype content theo- as similar to each other as possible.[1]
rizes that stereotypes are frequently ambivalent and vary
Gordon Allport has suggested possible answers to
along two dimensions: warmth and competence. Warmth
why people nd it easier to understand categorized
and competence are respectively predicted by lack of
information.[22] First, people can consult a category to
competition and status. Groups that do not compete with
identify response patterns. Second, categorized informathe in-group for the same resources (e.g., college space)
tion is more specic than non-categorized information,
are perceived as warm, whereas high-status (e.g., ecoas categorization accentuates properties that are shared
nomically or educationally successful) groups are conby all members of a group. Third, people can readsidered competent. The groups within each of the four
ily describe object in a category because objects in the
combinations of high and low levels of warmth and comsame category have distinct characteristics. Finally, peo[18]
petence elicit distinct emotions.
The model explains
ple can take for granted the characteristics of a particular
the phenomenon that some out-groups are admired but
category because the category itself may be an arbitrary
disliked, whereas others are liked but disrespected. This
grouping.
model was empirically tested on a variety of national and
international samples and was found to reliably predict A complementary perspective theorizes how stereotypes
function as time- and energy-savers that allow people to
stereotype content.[16][19]
act more eciently.[1] Yet another perspective suggests
that stereotypes are peoples biased perceptions of their
social contexts.[1] In this view, people use stereotypes as
4 Functions
shortcuts to make sense of their social contexts, and this
makes a persons task of understanding his or her world
Early studies suggested that stereotypes were only used less cognitively demanding.[1]
by rigid, repressed, and authoritarian people. This idea
has been refuted by contemporary studies that suggest
the ubiquity of stereotypes and it was suggested to regard 4.3 Social functions: social categorization
stereotypes as collective group beliefs, meaning that people who belong to the same social group share the same In the following situations, the overarching purpose of
set of stereotypes.[13] Modern research asserts that full stereotyping is for people to put their collective self (their

4.5

Social functions: social inuence and consensus

ingroup membership) in a positive light:[23]

when stereotypes are used for explaining social
events
when stereotypes are used for justifying activities
of ones own group (ingroup) to another group
(outgroup)
when stereotypes are used for dierentiating the ingroup as positively distinct from outgroups
4.3.1

Explanation purposes

As mentioned previously, stereotypes can be used to explain social events.[13][23] Henri Tajfel[13] described his
observations of how some people found that the antiSemitic contents of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion
only made sense if Jews have certain characteristics.
Therefore, according to Tajfel,[13] Jews were stereotyped
as being evil and yearning for world domination to match
the anti-Semitic facts as presented in The Protocols of
the Elders of Zion.
4.3.2

Justication purposes

People create stereotypes of an outgroup to justify the actions that their ingroup has committed (or plans to commit) towards that outgroup.[13][22][23] For example, according to Tajfel,[13] Europeans stereotyped Turkish, Indian, and Chinese people as being incapable of achieving
nancial advances without European help. This stereotype was used to justify European colonialism in Turkey,
India, and China.
4.3.3

Intergroup dierentiation

3
an intergroup context, and they are less likely to do so
in an intragroup context where the need to emphasise
their group membership is not as great.[23] Stereotypes
can emphasise a persons group membership in two steps:
First, stereotypes emphasise the persons similarities with
ingroup members on relevant dimensions, and also the
persons dierences from outgroup members on relevant
dimensions.[23] Second, the more the stereotypes emphasise within-group similarities and between-group dierences, the more salient the persons social identity will
become, and the more depersonalised that person will
be.[23] A depersonalised person will abandon his/her individual dierences and embrace the stereotypes associated with his/her relevant group membership.[23]

4.5 Social functions: social inuence and

consensus
Stereotypes are an indicator of ingroup consensus.[23]
When there are intragroup disagreements over stereotypes of the ingroup and/or outrgroups, ingroup members
will take collective action to prevent other ingroup members from diverging from each other.[23]
John C. Turner proposed in 1987[23] that if ingroup members disagree on an outgroup stereotype, then one of
three possible collective actions will follow: First, ingroup members may negotiate with each other and conclude that they have dierent outgroup stereotypes because they are stereotyping dierent subgroups of an outgroup (e.g., Russian gymnasts versus Russian boxers).
Second, ingroup members may negotiate with each other,
but conclude that they are disagreeing because of categorical dierences amongst themselves. Accordingly, in this
context, it is better to categorise ingroup members under
dierent categories (e.g., Democrats versus Republican)
than under a shared category (e.g., American). Finally,
ingroup members may inuence each other to arrive at a
common outgroup stereotype.

An assumption is that people want their ingroup to have a

positive image relative to outgroups, and so people want
to dierentiate their ingroup from relevant outgroups in
a desirable way.[13] If an outgroup does not aect the ingroups image, then from an image preservation point of 5 Formation
view, there is no point for the ingroup to be positively
distinct from that outgroup.[13]
Dierent disciplines give dierent accounts of how
People can actively create certain images for relevant out- stereotypes develop: Psychologists may focus on an ingroups by stereotyping. People do so when they see dividuals experience with groups, patterns of communithat their ingroup is no longer as clearly and/or as pos- cation about those groups, and intergroup conict. As
itively dierentiated from relevant outgroups, and they for sociologists, they may focus on the relations among
want to restore the intergroup dierentiation to a state dierent groups in a social structure. They suggest that
stereotypes are the result of conict, poor parenting, and
that favours the ingroup.[13][23]
inadequate mental and emotional development. Once
stereotypes have formed, there are two main factors that
explain their persistence. First, the cognitive eects of
4.4 Social functions: self-categorization
schematic processing (see schema) make it so that when
People will change their stereotype of their ingroups and a member of a group behaves as we expect, the behavior
outgroups to suit the context they are in.[3][23] People are conrms and even strengthens existing stereotypes. Seclikely to self-stereotype their ingroup as homogenous in ond, the aective or emotional aspects of prejudice ren-

5 FORMATION

der logical arguments against stereotypes ineective in on a cognitive mechanism known as illusory correlacountering the power of emotional responses.[24]
tion an erroneous inference about the relationship between two events.[1][28][29] If two events which are statistically infrequent co-occur, observers overestimate the
5.1 Correspondence bias
frequency of co-occurrence of these events. The underlying reason is that rare, infrequent events are distinctive
Main article: Correspondence bias
and salient and, when paired, become even more so. The
heightened salience results in more attention and more
strengthens the belief that the
The correspondence bias refers to the tendency to ascribe eective encoding, which
[30][31][32]
events
are
correlated.
a persons behavior to her or his disposition or personality
and to underestimate the extent to which situational fac- In the intergroup context, illusory correlations lead peotors elicited the behavior. The correspondence bias can ple to misattribute rare behaviors or traits at higher rates
play an important role in stereotype formation.[25]
to minority group members than to majority groups, even
For example, in a study by Roguer and Yzerbyt (1999) when both display the same proportion of the behaviors
participants watched a video showing students who were or traits. Black people, for instance, are a minority group
randomly instructed to nd arguments either for or in the United States and interaction with blacks is a relagainst euthanasia. The students that argued in favor of atively infrequent event for an average white American.
euthanasia came from the same law department or from Similarly, undesirable behavior (e.g. crime) is statistidierent departments. Results showed that participants cally less frequent than desirable behavior. Since both
attributed the students responses to their attitudes al- events blackness and undesirable behavior are disthough it had been made clear in the video that students tinctive in the sense that they are infrequent, the comobservers to overestimate the
had no choice about their position. Participants reported bination of the two leads
[30]
rate
of
co-occurrence.
Similarly,
in workplaces where
that group membership, i.e., the department that the stuwomen
are
underrepresented
and
negative
behaviors such
dents belonged to, had an impact on the students opinas
errors
occur
less
frequently
than
positive
behaviors,
ions about euthanasia. Law students were perceived to
women
become
more
strongly
associated
with
mistakes
be more in favor of euthanasia than students from dif[33]
than
men.
ferent departments despite the fact that a pretest had revealed that subjects had no preexisting expectations about
attitudes toward euthanasia and the department that students belong to. The attribution error created the new
stereotype that law students are more likely to support
euthanasia.[26]

In a landmark study, David Hamilton and Richard Gifford (1976) examined the role of illusory correlation
in stereotype formation. Subjects were instructed to
read descriptions of behaviors performed by members
of groups A and B. Negative behaviors outnumbered
positive actions and group B was smaller than group A,
making negative behaviors and membership in group B
relatively infrequent and distinctive. Participants were
then asked who had performed a set of actions: a person of group A or group B. Results showed that subjects overestimated the frequency with which both distinctive events, membership in group B and negative behavior, co-occurred, and evaluated group B more negatively. This despite the fact the proportion of positive
to negative behaviors was equivalent for both groups and
that there was no actual correlation between group membership and behaviors.[30] Although Hamilton and Gifford found a similar eect for positive behaviors as the infrequent events, a meta-analytic review of studies showed
that illusory correlation eects are stronger when the infrequent, distinctive information is negative.[28]

Nier et al. (2012) found that people who tend to draw dispositional inferences from behavior and ignore situational
constraints are more likely to stereotype low-status groups
as incompetent and high-status groups as competent. Participants listened to descriptions of two ctitious groups
of Pacic Islanders, one of which was described as being
higher in status than the other. In a second study, subjects rated actual groups the poor and wealthy, women
and men in the United States in terms of their competence. Subjects who scored high on the measure of
correspondence bias stereotyped the poor, women, and
the ctitious lower-status Pacic Islanders as incompetent whereas they stereotyped the wealthy, men, and the
high-status Pacic Islanders as competent. The correspondence bias was a signicant predictor of stereotyping
even after controlling for other measures that have been
linked to beliefs about low status groups, the just-world Hamilton and Giords distinctiveness-based explanation
hypothesis and social dominance orientation.[27]
of stereotype formation was subsequently extended.[31] A
1994 study by McConnell, Sherman, and Hamilton found
that people formed stereotypes based on information that
5.2 Illusory correlation
was not distinctive at the time of presentation, but was
considered distinctive at the time of judgement.[34] Once
Main article: Illusory correlation
a person judges non-distinctive information in memory
to be distinctive, that information is re-encoded and reResearch has shown that stereotypes can develop based represented as if it had been distinctive when it was rst

5
processed.[34]

6 Activation

The dual-process model of cognitive processing of stereotypes asserts that automatic activation of stereotypes
is followed by a controlled processing stage, during
One explanation for why stereotypes are shared is that
which an individual may choose to disregard or ignore
they are the result of a common environment that stimuthe stereotyped information that has been brought to
[1]
lates people to react in the same way.
mind.[12]
The problem with the common environment explanation
A number of studies have found that stereotypes are acin general is that it does not explain how shared stereotivated automatically. Patricia Devine (1989), for examtypes can occur without direct stimuli.[1] Research since
ple, suggested that stereotypes are automatically activated
the 1930s suggested that people are highly similar with
in the presence of a member (or some symbolic equiveach other in how they describe dierent racial and naalent) of a stereotyped group and that the unintentional
tional groups, although those people have no personal exactivation of the stereotype is equally strong for high[35]
perience with the groups they are describing.
and low-prejudice persons. Words related to the cultural
stereotype of blacks were presented subliminally. During
an ostensibly unrelated impression-formation task, sub5.4 Socialization and upbringing
jects read a paragraph describing a race-unspecied tarAnother explanation says that people are socialised to get persons behaviors and rated the target person on sevadopt the same stereotypes.[1] Some psychologists be- eral trait scales. Results showed that participants who relieve that although stereotypes can be absorbed at any age, ceived a high proportion of racial words rated the target
stereotypes are usually acquired in early childhood under person in the story as signicantly more hostile than parthe inuence of parents, teachers, peers, and the media. ticipants who were presented with a lower proportion of
words related to the stereotype. This eect held true for
If stereotypes are dened by social values, then stereo- both high- and low-prejudice subjects (as measured by
types will only change as per changes in social values.[1] the Modern Racism Scale). Thus, the racial stereotype
The suggestion that stereotype content depend on social was activated even for low-prejudice individuals who did
values reects Walter Lippman's argument in his 1922 not personally endorse it.[12][38][39] Studies using alternapublication that stereotypes are rigid because they cannot tive priming methods have shown that the activation of
be changed at will.[10]
gender and age stereotypes can also be automatic.[40][41]
Studies emerging since the 1940s refuted the suggestion Subsequent research suggested that the relation between
that stereotype contents cannot be changed at will. Those category activation and stereotype activation was more
studies suggested that one groups stereotype of another complex.[39][42] Lepore and Brown (1997), for instance,
group would become more or less positive depending on noted that the words used in Devines study were both
whether their intergroup relationship had improved or neutral category labels (e.g., Blacks) and stereotypic
degraded.[10][36][37] Intergroup events (e.g., World War attributes (e.g., lazy). They argued that if only the
Two, Persian Gulf conict) often changed intergroup re- neutral category labels were presented, people high and
lationships. For example, after WWII, Black American low in prejudice would respond dierently. In a design
students held a more negative stereotype of people from similar to Devines, Lepore and Brown primed the catecountries that were the USAs WWII enemies.[10] If there gory of African-Americans using labels such as blacks
are no changes to an intergroup relationship, then relevant and West Indians and then assessed the dierential
stereotypes will not change.[11]
activation of the associated stereotype in the subse-

5.3

5.5

Common environment

Intergroup relations

According to a third explanation, shared stereotypes are

neither caused by the coincidence of common stimuli,
nor by socialisation. This explanation posits that stereotypes are shared because group members are motivated
to behave in certain ways, and stereotypes reect those
behaviours.[1] It is important to note from this explanation
that stereotypes are the consequence, not the cause, of intergroup relations. This explanation assumes that when it
is important for people to acknowledge both their ingroup
and outgroup, then those people will aim to emphasise
their dierence from outgroup members, and their similarity to ingroup members.[1]

quent impression-formation task. They found that highprejudice participants increased their ratings of the target person on the negative stereotypic dimensions and
decreased them on the positive dimension whereas lowprejudice subjects tended in the opposite direction. The
results suggest that the level of prejudice and stereotype
endorsement aects peoples judgements when the category and not the stereotype per se is primed.[43]
Research has shown that people can be trained to activate counterstereotypic information and thereby reduce
the automatic activation of negative stereotypes. In a
study by Kawakami et al. (2000), for example, participants were presented with a category label and taught
to respond No to stereotypic traits and Yes to nonstereotypic traits. After this training period, subjects

EFFECTS

showed reduced stereotype activation.[44][45] This eect ing new or unexpected information about each individual,
is based on the learning of new and more positive stereo- thus biasing the impression formation process.[1] Early retypes rather than the negation of already existing ones.[45] searchers believed that stereotypes were inaccurate representations of reality.[35] A series of pioneering studies
which appeared in the 1930s found no empirical support
6.1 Automatic behavioral outcomes
for widely held racial stereotypes.[10] By the mid-1950s,
Gordon Allport wrote that it is possible for a stereotype
Empirical evidence suggests that stereotype activation to grow in deance of all evidence.[22]
can automatically inuence social behavior.[46][47][48][49]
For example, Bargh, Chen, and Burrows (1996) acti- Research on the role of illusory correlations in the formavated the stereotype of the elderly among half of their tion of stereotypes suggests that stereotypes can develop
participants by administering a scrambled-sentence test because of incorrect inferences about the relationship bewhere participants saw words related to age stereotypes. tween two events (e.g., membership in a social group and
means that at least some
Subjects primed with the stereotype walked signicantly bad or good attributes). This
[28][30][32][34]
stereotypes
are
inaccurate.
slower than the control group (although the test did not include any words specically referring to slowness), thus There is empirical social science research which shows
acting in a way that the stereotype suggests that elderly that stereotypes are often accurate.[52] Jussim et al. repeople will act. In another experiment, Bargh, Chen, viewed four studies concerning racial and seven studies
and Burrows also found that because the stereotype about which examined gender stereotypes about demographic
blacks includes the notion of aggression, subliminal expo- characteristics, academic achievement, personality and
sure to black faces increased the likelihood that randomly behavior. Based on that, the authors argued that some asselected white college students reacted with more aggres- pects of ethnic and gender stereotypes are accurate while
sion and hostility than participants who subconsciously stereotypes concerning political aliation and nationalviewed a white face.[50] Similarly, Correll et al. (2002) ity are much less accurate.[53] A study by Terracciano et
showed that activated stereotypes about blacks can inu- al. also found that stereotypic beliefs about nationality
ence peoples behavior. In a series of experiments, black do not reect the actual personality traits of people from
and white participants played a video game, in which a dierent cultures.[54]
black or white person was shown holding a gun or a harmless object (e.g., a mobile phone). Participants had to
decide as quickly as possible whether to shoot the target. When the target person was armed, both black and 8 Eects
white participants were faster in deciding to shoot the target when he was black than when he was white. When
8.1 Attributional ambiguity
the target was unarmed, the participants avoided shooting him more quickly when he was white. Time pressure
Main article: Attributional ambiguity
made the shooter bias even more pronounced.[51]

Accuracy

A magazine feature from Beauty Parade from March 1952

stereotyping women drivers. It features Bettie Page as the model.

Attributional ambiguity refers to the uncertainty that

members of stereotyped groups experience in interpreting the causes of others behavior toward them. Stereotyped individuals who receive negative feedback can
attribute it either to personal shortcomings, such as lack
of ability or poor eort, or the evaluators stereotypes and
prejudice toward their social group. Alternatively, positive feedback can either be attributed to personal merit or
discounted as a form of sympathy or pity.[55][56][57]
Crocker et al. (1991) showed that when black participants were evaluated by a white person who was aware
of their race, black subjects mistrusted the feedback,
attributing negative feedback to the evaluators stereotypes and positive feedback to the evaluators desire to
appear unbiased. When the black participants race was
unknown to the evaluator, they were more accepting of
the feedback.[58]

Attributional ambiguity has been shown to impact a persons self-esteem. When they receive positive evaluaStereotypes can be ecient shortcuts and sense-making tions, stereotyped individuals are uncertain of whether
tools. They can, however, keep people from process- they really deserved their success and, consequently, they

8.3

Self-fullling prophecy

nd it dicult to take credit for their achievements. In the

case of negative feedback, ambiguity has been shown to
have a protective eect on self-esteem as it allows people
to assign blame to external causes. Some studies, however, have found that this eect only holds when stereotyped individuals can be absolutely certain that their negative outcomes are due to the evaluatorss prejudice. If
any room for uncertainty remains, stereotyped individuals tend to blame themselves.[56]

8.3 Self-fullling prophecy

Main article: Self-fullling prophecy

Stereotypes lead people to expect certain actions from

members of social groups. These stereotype-based
expectations may lead to self-fullling prophecies, in
which ones inaccurate expectations about a persons
behavior, through social interaction, prompt that perAttributional ambiguity can also make it dicult to as- son to act in stereotype-consistent ways, thus consess ones skills because performance-related evaluations rming ones erroneous expectations and validating the
are mistrusted or discounted. Moreover, it can lead stereotype.[67][68][69]
to the belief that ones eorts are not directly linked
Word, Zanna, and Cooper (1974) demonstrated the efto the outcomes, thereby depressing ones motivation to
fects of stereotypes in the context of a job interview.
[55]
succeed.
White participants interviewed black and white subjects
who, prior to the experiments, had been trained to act in
a standardized manner. Analysis of the videotaped in8.2 Stereotype threat
terviews showed that black job applicants were treated
dierently: They received shorter amounts of interview
time and less eye contact; interviewers made more speech
errors (e.g., stutters, sentence incompletions, incoherent
sounds) and physically distanced themselves from black
applicants. In a second experiment, trained interviewers were instructed to treat applicants, all of whom were
white, like the whites or blacks had been treated in the
rst experiment. As a result, applicants treated like the
blacks of the rst experiment behaved in a more nervous
manner and received more negative performance ratings
than interviewees receiving the treatment previously afforded to whites.[70]
The eect of stereotype threat (ST) on math test scores for girls
and boys. Data from Osborne (2007).[59]

Main article: Stereotype threat

Stereotype threat occurs when people are aware of a
negative stereotype about their social group and experience anxiety or concern that they might conrm the
stereotype.[60] Stereotype threat has been shown to undermine performance in a variety of domains.[61][62]
Claude M. Steele and Joshua Aronson conducted the rst
experiments showing that stereotype threat can depress
intellectual performance on standardized tests. In one
study, they found that black college students performed
worse than white students on a verbal test when the task
was framed as a measure of intelligence. When it was
not presented in that manner, the performance gap narrowed. Subsequent experiments showed that framing
the test as diagnostic of intellectual ability made black
students more aware of negative stereotypes about their
group, which in turn impaired their performance.[63]

A 1977 study by Snyder, Tanke, and Berscheid found a

similar pattern in social interactions between men and
women. Male undergraduate students were asked to
talk to female undergraduates, whom they believed to be
physically attractive or unattractive, on the phone. The
conversations were taped and analysis showed that men
who thought that they were talking to an attractive woman
communicated in a more positive and friendlier manner
than men who believed that they were talking to unattractive women. This altered the womens behavior: Female
subjects who, unknowingly to them, were perceived to be
physically attractive behaved in a friendly, likeable, and
sociable manner in comparison with subjects who were
regarded as unattractive.[71]

8.4 Discrimination

Because stereotypes simplify and justify social reality,

they have potentially powerful eects on how people perceive and treat one another.[72] As a result, stereotypes
can lead to discrimination in labor markets and other
domains.[73] For example, Tilcsik (2011) has found that
Stereotype threat eects have been demonstrated for an employers who seek job applicants with stereotypically
array of social groups in many dierent arenas, includ- male heterosexual traits are particularly likely to engage
ing not only academics but also sports,[64] chess[65] and in discrimination against gay men, suggesting that disbusiness.[66]
crimination on the basis of sexual orientation is partly

9 ROLE IN ART AND CULTURE

rooted in specic stereotypes and that these stereotypes

loom large in many labor markets.[14] Agerstrm and
Rooth (2011) showed that automatic obesity stereotypes
captured by the Implicit Association Test can predict real
hiring discrimination against the obese.[74] Similarly, experiments suggest that gender stereotypes play an important role in judgments that aect hiring decisions.[75][76]

8.5

Self-stereotyping

Main article: Self-stereotyping

Stereotypes can aect self-evaluations and lead to selfstereotyping.[3][77] For instance, Correll (2001, 2004)
found that specic stereotypes (e.g., the stereotype that
women have lower mathematical ability) aect womens
and mens evaluations of their abilities (e.g., in math
and science), such that men assess their own task ability
higher than women performing at the same level.[78][79]
Similarly, a study by Sinclair et al. (2006) has shown that
Asian American women rated their math ability more favorably when their ethnicity and the relevant stereotype
that Asian Americans excel in math was made salient.
In contrast, they rated their math ability less favorably
when their gender and the corresponding stereotype of
womens inferior math skills was made salient. Sinclair et
al. found, however, that the eect of stereotypes on selfevaluations is mediated by the degree to which close people in someones life endorse these stereotypes. Peoples
self-stereotyping can increase or decrease depending on
whether close others view them in stereotype-consistent
or inconsistent manner.[80]
Stereotyping can also play a central role in depression,
when people have negative self-stereotypes about themselves, according to Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon (2012).[3] This depression that is caused by prejudice
(i.e., deprejudice) can be related to a group membership (e.g., MeGayBad) or not (e.g., MeBad). If someone holds prejudicial beliefs about a stigmatized group
and then becomes a member of that group, they may internalize their prejudice and develop depression. People may also show prejudice internalization through selfstereotyping because of negative childhood experiences
such as verbal and physical abuse.

Role in art and culture

Stereotypes are common in various cultural media, where

they take the form of dramatic stock characters. These
characters are found in the works of playwright Bertold
Brecht, Dario Fo, and Jacques Lecoq, who characterize their actors as stereotypes for theatrical eect. In
commedia dell'arte this is similarly common. The instantly recognizable nature of stereotypes mean that they
are eective in advertising and situation comedy. These

American political cartoon titled The Usual Irish Way of Doing

Things, depicting a drunken Irishman lighting a powder keg and
swinging a bottle. Published in Harpers Weekly, 1871.

stereotypes change, and in modern times only a few of

the stereotyped characters shown in John Bunyan's The
Pilgrims Progress would be recognizable.
Media stereotypes of women rst emerged in the early
20th century. Various stereotypic depictions or types of
women appeared in magazines, including Victorian ideals of femininity, the New Woman, the Gibson Girl, the
Femme fatale, and the Flapper.[81] More recently, artists
such as Anne Taintor and Matthew Weiner (the producer
of Mad Men) have used vintage images or ideas to insert
their own commentary of stereotypes for specic eras.
Weiners character Peggy Olson continually battles gender stereotypes throughout the series, excelling in a workplace dominated by men.
Some contemporary studies indicate that racial, ethnic
and cultural stereotypes are still widespread in Hollywood
blockbuster movies.[82] Portrayals of Latin Americans in
lm and print media are restricted to a narrow set of characters. Latin Americans are largely depicted as sexualized gures such as the Latino macho or the Latina vixen,
gang members, (illegal) immigrants, or entertainers. By
comparison, they are rarely portrayed as working professionals, business leaders or politicians.[83]
In literature and art, stereotypes are clichd or predictable
characters or situations. Throughout history, storytellers
have drawn from stereotypical characters and situations,
in order to connect the audience with new tales immediately. Sometimes such stereotypes can be sophisticated, such as Shakespeare's Shylock in The Merchant
of Venice. Arguably a stereotype that becomes complex
and sophisticated ceases to be a stereotype per se by its
unique characterization. Thus while Shylock remains politically unstable in being a stereotypical Jew, the subject of prejudicial derision in Shakespeares era, his many

9
other detailed features raise him above a simple stereotype and into a unique character, worthy of modern performance. Simply because one feature of a character can
be categorized as being typical does not make the entire
character a stereotype.

[9] Denmark, Florence L. (2010). Prejudice and Discrimination. In Weiner, Irving B.; Craigheaid, W. Edward.
The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology. Volume Three
(4th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley. p. 1277. ISBN
978-0-470-47921-6.

Despite their proximity in etymological roots, clich and

stereotype are not used synonymously in cultural spheres.
For example, a clich is a high criticism in narratology
where genre and categorization automatically associates
a story within its recognizable group. Labeling a situation or character in a story as typical suggests it is tting
for its genre or category. Whereas declaring that a storyteller has relied on clich is to pejoratively observe a
simplicity and lack of originality in the tale. To criticize
Ian Fleming for a stereotypically unlikely escape for James
Bond would be understood by the reader or listener, but
it would be more appropriately criticized as a clich in
that it is overused and reproduced. Narrative genre relies heavily on typical features to remain recognizable and
generate meaning in the reader/viewer.

[10] Katz, Daniel; Braly, Kenneth W. (1935). Racial prejudice and racial stereotypes. The Journal of Abnormal
and Social Psychology (American Psychological Association) 30 (2): 175193. doi:10.1037/h0059800.

10

See also

11

References

[1] McGarty, Craig; Yzerbyt, Vincent Y.; Spears, Russel

(2002). Social, cultural and cognitive factors in stereotype formation (PDF). Stereotypes as explanations: The
formation of meaningful beliefs about social groups. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 115. ISBN
978-0-521-80047-1.
[2] Judd, Charles M.; Park, Bernadette (1993). Definition and assessment of accuracy in social stereotypes.
Psychological Review 100 (1): 109128.
doi:10.1037/0033-295X.100.1.109.
[3] Cox, William T. L.; Abramson, Lyn Y.; Devine, Patricia G.; Hollon, Steven D. (2012). Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Depression: The Integrated Perspective (PDF).
Perspectives on Psychological Science 7 (5): 427449.
doi:10.1177/1745691612455204.
[4] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A GreekEnglish Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
[5] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A GreekEnglish Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
[6] Online Etymology Dictionary
[7] Kleg, Milton (1993). Hate Prejudice and Racism. Albany:
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978-0-585-05491-9.
[8] Fiske, Susan T. (1998). Stereotyping, Prejudice, and
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Lindzey, Gardner. The Handbook of Social Psychology.
Volume Two (4th ed.). Boston, Mass.: McGraw-Hill. p.
357. ISBN 978-0-19-521376-8.

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Stereotyping and social reality. Oxford: Blackwell.
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Their Automatic and Controlled Components (PDF).
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10

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The formation of meaningful beliefs about social groups.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 186199.
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[65] Maass, Anne; D'Ettole, Claudio; Cadinu, Mara (2008).

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12 FURTHER READING

[77] Sinclair, Stacey; Huntsinger, Je (2006). The Interpersonal Basis of Self-Stereotyping. In Levin, Shana; Van
Laar, Colette. Stigma and Group Inequality: Social Psychological Perspectives. Claremont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 239. ISBN 978-0-8058-4415-3.
[78] Correll, Shelley J. (2001). Gender and the career choice
process: The role of biased self-assessments (PDF).
American Journal of Sociology 106 (6): 16911730.
doi:10.1086/321299.
[79] Correll, Shelley J. (2004). Constraints into Preferences: Gender, Status, and Emerging Career Aspirations
(PDF). American Sociological Review 69 (1): 93113.
doi:10.1177/000312240406900106.
[80] Sinclair, Stacey; Hardin, Curtis D.; Lowery, Brian S.
(2006). Self-Stereotyping in the Context of Multiple Social Identities (PDF). Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology (American Psychological Association) 90 (4):
529542. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.4.529.
[81] Kitch, Carolyn L. (2001). The Girl on the Magazine Cover:
The Origins of Visual Stereotypes in American Mass Media.
Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. pp.
116. ISBN 978-0-8078-2653-9.
[82] van Ginneken, Jaap (2007). Screening Dierence: How
Hollywoods Blockbuster Films Imagine Race, Ethnicity,
and Culture. Lanham: Rowman & Littleeld. ISBN
9780742555839.

[71] Snyder, Mark; Tanke, Elizabeth D.; Berscheid, Ellen

(1977). Social perception and interpersonal behavior:
On the self-fullling nature of social stereotypes (PDF).
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35 (9): 656
666. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.9.656.

[83] Romn, Ediberto (2000). Who Exactly Is Living La Vida

Loca: The Legal and Political Consequences of LatinoLatina Ethnic and Racial Stereotypes in Film and Other
Media. Journal of Gender, Race & Justice 4 (1): 3768.

[72] Banaji, Mahzarin R. (2002). The Social Psychology of

Stereotypes. In Smelser, Neil; Baltes, Paul. International
Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. New
York: Pergamon. pp. 1510015104. doi:10.1016/B008-043076-7/01754-X. ISBN 978-0-08-043076-8.

12 Further reading

[73] Fiske, Susan T.; Lee, Tiane L. (2008). Stereotypes

and prejudice create workplace discrimination. In Brief,
Arthur P. Diversity at Work. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1352. ISBN 978-0-521-86030-7.
[74] Agerstrm, Jens; Rooth, Dan-Olof (2011). The role of
automatic obesity stereotypes in real hiring discrimination. Journal of Applied Psychology 96 (4): 790805.
doi:10.1037/a0021594. PMID 21280934.
[75] Davison, Heather K.; Burke, Michael J. (2000). Sex Discrimination in Simulated Employment Contexts: A Metaanalytic Investigation. Journal of Vocational Behavior 56
(2): 225248. doi:10.1006/jvbe.1999.1711.
[76] Rudman, Laurie A.; Glick, Peter (2001). Prescriptive
Gender Stereotypes and Backlash toward Agentic
Women (PDF). Journal of Social Issues 57 (4):
743762. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00239.

Hilton, James L.; von Hippel, William (1996).

Stereotypes. Annual Review of Psychology 47 (1):
237271. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.237.
Stuart Ewen, Elizabeth Ewen, Typecasting: On the
Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality. New York
(Seven Stories Press) 2006
Stereotype & Society A Major Resource: Constantly updated and archived
Regenberg, Nina (2007). Are Blonds Really
Dumb?". In mind (magazine) (3).
Are Stereotypes True?
Stereotype Susceptibility: Identity Salience and
Shifts in Quantitative Performance, Margaret Shih,
Todd L. Pittinsky, Nalini Ambady Research about
the eects of 'positive' and negative stereotypes on
encouraging/discouraging performance.

13
Turner, Chris (2004). Planet Simpson: How a Cartoon Masterpiece Documented an Era and Dened a
Generation. Foreword by Douglas Coupland. (1st
ed.). Toronto: Random House Canada. ISBN
0679313184. OCLC 55682258..
Crawford, M. & Unger, R. (2004). Women and
Gender: A Feminist Psychology. McGraw Hill New
York. New York. 45-49.
Spitzer, B.L., Henderson, K, A., & Zavian, M. T.
(1999). Gender dierences in population versus
media body sizes: A comparison over four decades.
Sex Roles, 40, 545-565.

13

External links

Interview with social psychologists Susan Fiske and

Mike North about the stereotyping of older people
How gender stereotypes inuence emerging career aspirations lecture by Stanford University sociologist
Shelley Correll on 21 October 2010
Social Psychology Network Stereotyping
Stereotypes Media Smarts, Canadas Centre for
Digital and Media Literacy
Age and Health based stereotyping Age and Health
based stereotyping

14

14

14
14.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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159753, Alexf, Formeruser-81, Antandrus, Beland, J3, Loremaster, Piotrus, LERK, The MoUsY spell-checker, Kiteinthewind, Jokestress,
Rlquall, Neutrality, Ensrifra, Jcw69, Ukexpat, Cab88, Lucidish, D6, Pastinakel, A-giau, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Oliver Lineham, YUL89YYZ, Westendgirl, User2004, Kzzl, Bender235, Goplat, The Iconoclast, Violetriga, Aranel, RJHall, Kaszeta, Mr. Billion,
JustPhil, Bobo192, Superking, Revolutionary, Elipongo, Fritz freiheit, Ziggurat, Neg, SpeedyGonsales, Jeodesic, Ben@liddicott.com, Haham hanuka, OGoncho, Maberk, Alansohn, Thand, Gssq, Ashley Pomeroy, Bz2, Flyspeck, Fritzpoll, Benefros, Mailer diablo, Cdc, Wtmitchell, Benson85, ZeiP, QuixoticKate, Henry W. Schmitt, Bsadowski1, Computerjoe, I run like a Welshman, Drbreznjev, Oleg Alexandrov, Crosbiesmith, Ian Moody, Woohookitty, Schroeder74, Swimmerz, StradivariusTV, Robert K S, WadeSimMiser, Miss Madeline,
Mihalis, Macaddct1984, CharlesC, Stefanomione, Sweetfreek, Dysepsion, Govus, Plushpun, WBardwin, BD2412, Jclemens, Dpr, Mendaliv, Rjwilmsi, Nightscream, Koavf, SMC, HappyCamper, Arbor, Leonardo2505, MapsMan, Yamamoto Ichiro, Titoxd, FlaBot, TiagoTiago, Changchih228, Gurch, Brendan Moody, Alphachimp, King of Hearts, DVdm, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, Sceptre,
FlareNUKE, Gene.arboit, RussBot, Hauskalainen, TheDoober, Maris stella, Calicore, Cryptic, Wimt, Jimphilos, NawlinWiki, Msikma,
Robertvan1, Aeusoes1, Grafen, SigPig, ONEder Boy, SAE1962, JDoorjam, THB, R.G., Cholmes75, Moe Epsilon, Semperf, Jmatter1,
N. Harmonik, Wknight94, Light current, Paul Magnussen, 21655, Cspalletta, Th1rt3en, Svetlana Miljkovic~enwiki, Vdegroot, JoanneB,
Vicarious, Diddims, Allens, Katieh5584, NeilN, DVD R W, Jagz, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Krychek, InverseHypercube, KnowledgeOfSelf, Jacek Kendysz, Kilo-Lima, Jagged 85, Jtneill, Verne Equinox, Frymaster, Boris Barowski, Hbackman, Yopie, Iantnm, Ga, Gilliam,
Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Nowheresville, GeorgeBuchanan, Qtoktok, Mirokado, Chris the speller, Master Jay, Memo@sdsu.edu, KaragouniS, EncephalonSeven, MartinPoulter, Oli Filth, Elagatis, SchftyThree, Bazonka, Neo-Jay, DoctorW, Darth Panda, Cogito-ergo-sum,
CJGB, Mihai Capot, Rapturerocks, Kavehmz, Chlewbot, Jorobeq, Sephiroth BCR, Snowmanradio, Xiner, Rrburke, Addshore, Pax85,
Jumping cheese, T-borg, Hoof Hearted, Pwjb, DMacks, Ultraexactzz, JamieJones, Suidafrikaan, Mwelch, Ck lostsword, Lph, Kukini,
Will Beback, Seraphcrono, Z-d, Attys, Zeraeph, Euchiasmus, Loodog, Kiiimiko, Robosh, Herunumen, Tktktk, ReZips, IronGargoyle,
L.to.the.P, FrostyBytes, Slakr, George The Dragon, Irunwithscissors, Kyoko, Waggers, Martian.knight, Whomp, MTSbot~enwiki, Noleander, Etay, Nabeth, Bobbaxter, Jcbutler, PDXblazers, Sifaka, Dl2000, Keitei, Guybrarian, Levineps, Siebrand, Iridescent, Mishatx, Tawkerbot2, WolfgangFaber, SkyWalker, JForget, Wolfdog, LeeJ55, Deon, Wafulz, Neuropsychology, Makeemlighter, BeenAroundAWhile,
User92361, Erik Kennedy, Basawala, Dgw, El aprendelenguas, Thomasmeeks, FlyingToaster, Chartran, Penbat, Nnp, AndrewHowse,
Cydebot, Mike2000~enwiki, Abeg92, Crito2161, Gogo Dodo, Bellerophon5685, R-41, Vlad2000Plus, Dc freethinker, Soetermans, Diuoroethene, B, Clovis Sangrail, Bookgrrl, UnDeRsCoRe, NorthernThunder, Omicronpersei8, Maywoods, RickDC, JohnInDC, Blaise
Joshua, JamesAM, Meol, Epbr123, Bbbrown, Qwyrxian, Nemesis 961, Anshuk, N5iln, Ace ofgabriel, Anthius, Callmarcus, Thebanjohype, Mojo Hand, Marek69, WillMak050389, A3RO, NorwegianBlue, Ajo Mama, Wikidenizen, Escarbot, Monnicat, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, Llykstw, Meph1986, , Emeraldcityserendipity, Suncrafter, DarkAudit, Dylan Lake, Gdo01, Falconleaf,
Abusive Aussie Husband-Battered Southern Wife stereotype, Shedlund, NByz, Gkhan, Dreaded Walrus, Res2216restar, JAnDbot, Elias
Enoc, ThomasO1989, LeedsKing, Miss kat, Planetary, Davemarshall04, Janejellyroll, Realismadder, Ikanreed, Kerotan, Acroterion, Yahel
Guhan, Bencherlite, Sfrostee, Alexandre Vassalotti, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Avjoska, JNW, CTF83!, Inklein, WODUP,
Aka042, Froid, Zanibas, WhatamIdoing, Mahitgar, Zib Blooog, Animum, Rippa76, Boob, Cpl Syx, Thibbs, DerHexer, JaGa, Lijnema,
Hbent, Mrvoid, Welshleprechaun, Cocytus, Gjd001, Hdt83, MartinBot, Dennisthe2, Packages, Jim.henderson, Rettetast, MNAdam, Keith
D, AlexiusHoratius, Cinco555, Djm256, Gw2005, Mancl20, Tgeairn, Manticore, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Sapphire Flame, USN1977, Extransit, Justinphd, Cpiral, Katalaveno, JayFout, Janus Shadowsong, Onexdata, Gurchzilla, Malone23kid, SJP, Cobi, Christopher Kraus,
Tanaats, Pundit, BigHairRef, Prhartcom, Theli34~enwiki, Stuartewen, RB972, Mrmuk, Bonadea, Ja 62, Andy Marchbanks, Beezhive,
BennettL, CardinalDan, Pietru, King Lopez, VolkovBot, ABF, Howth575, Macedonian, Hersfold, JohnBlackburne, Nburden, Soliloquial,
Cliy01, Clegs, Ryan032, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, IPb0mb3r, Maximillion Pegasus, Seb144, Tomsega, Anna Lincoln, Calineed, DennyColt, Slysplace, Jackfork, ^demonBot2, Justinfr, TheLadyRaven, Christopher Connor, Cremepu222, Ben Ward, Vicpro, Alexwany,
Wykypydya, Classicstruggle, Terracciano, Shifter95, Billinghurst, Andrewaskew, Clintville, Lova Falk, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Temporaluser, Magiclite, Insanity Incarnate, Schickel, Zachary8222, Notay001, Der kenner, Wavehunter, Onceonthisisland, Zorro-the-coyote,
MalakronikMausi, SplingyRanger, Ponyo, SieBot, StAnselm, Morenoodles, Milnivri, Arkwatem, Dreamafter, Moonriddengirl, Euryalus,
Lowtech42, WTucker, Pengyanan, Caltas, Yintan, Revent, Zane RH, Bentogoa, Flyer22, Exert, ClydeOnline, Wikibruger, JD554, Oda
Mari, Airpirate545, Lanztrain, Recardojoe, JSpung, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Smaug123, BjrnEF, Hello71, Kruter-Oliven~enwiki,
Greatrobo76, Thisis0, Likeminas, MagicBear, Grim-Gym, Maelgwnbot, Willie44, Rednbluearmy, StaticGull, Capitalismojo, Rebeleleven,
Mygerardromance, Hariva, Mr. Stradivarius, Artdemon01, Escape Orbit, YVNP, Edwalton, Dancingwombatsrule, Twinsday, Ratemonth,
Martarius, Rowmn, ClueBot, C xong, Avenged Eightfold, GorillaWarfare, Fyyer, Tucker001, Crimzon Sun, The Thing That Should Not
Be, All Hallows Wraith, IceUnshattered, ImperfectlyInformed, Mike Klaassen, Konye obaji ori, Vinny Burgoo, SuperHamster, Boing! said
Zebedee, Niceguyedc, PhoenixWing, Auntof6, Rhotard, Vwu, Excirial, Gnome de plume, Robbie098, Andy pyro, Conical Johnson, Brews
ohare, Jimmy da tuna, Cenarium, Ninja-4976, DeltaQuad, Razorame, Sophixer, Cleopatra*Cate, Hunt567, Syst3mfailur3, Light show,
Thingg, Mc95, Vegetator, Lokionly, MissQCgold2005, Ranjithsutari, Wcp07, Versus22, PotentialDanger, Ubardak, SoxBot III, ClanCC,
DumZiBoT, Jayinhar, Hignopulp, XLinkBot, Jovianeye, Avoided, TFOWR, WikHead, NellieBly, PL290, Karpouzi, Jd027, Yuvn86,
Noctibus, Oranjeboom31, Bit Lordy, Navy Blue, Abomasnow, Dnvrfantj, Airplaneman, Keyblade5, MatthewVanitas, The Squicks, Addbot,
Doris Don't, Lordoliver, Stacin61, DOI bot, Otisjimmy1, Kan06e, Hajahmz, Xerodn, Knight of Truth, Fgnievinski, Ronhjones, Fielddaysunday, Jambronination, Rx4evr, Fluernutter, NjardarBot, Cst17, Protonk, Chamal N, Bloodkith, Glane23, Kschutz, Favonian, Bigcitydeserter, Gambiteer, Kurt10, Tassedethe, Joe9320, Cautioned band, Tide rolls, Voivod616, Boaby, Krano, , Lord Lugie, Luckas-bot,
BoogieRock, Yobot, Vague, Pink!Teen, Ptbotgourou, Kjell Knudde, ArchonMagnus, Reenem, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, PonileExpress, Rubinbot, Jim1138, PurpleAlex, Kirzmac, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Aditya, Kingpin13, Hamera123, Aasb, Ulric1313,
ImperatorExercitus, TheTechieGeek63, Citation bot, E2eamon, Southafrican41, Carlsotr, Chickenfeeders, GB fan, ArthurBot, LilHelpa,
Happyapples19, Xqbot, Shnitzled, Blazin213, Addihockey10, Capricorn42, Drilnoth, Ipharvey09, Grim23, Eliteunited, Inferno, Lord of
Penguins, Sentenal01, Gatorgirl7563, Anonymous from the 21st century, GrouchoBot, Abce2, BorderlineWaxwork, Omnipaedista, Shirik,
JhanCRUSH, Amaury, 78.26, Nazgul812, Kirkevan11, Der Falke, Doulos Christos, Mattis, Smallman12q, Shadowjams, PM800, Ca-

14.2

Images

15

jade, Thehelpfulbot, Captain-n00dle, Bows&Arrows, FrescoBot, Haze120190, Lukefulford, Tobby72, Wikipe-tan, Capybara21, Lucas
Duke, Recognizance, Cro fever, Sizzlefoshizzle, Kwiki, Citation bot 1, IceCreamSammich, Toolboks, TigerBasenji, Dneyder, I dream
of horses, Nmatavka, Vicenarian, Endy Leo, LizzieBabes419, Calmer Waters, Rushbugled13, A8UDI, SpaceFlight89, Miss Mama Bear,
Phoenix7777, Meaghan, Lu-igi board, Cramyourspam, FoxBot, Trappist the monk, Vrenator, Vemblut, Carolinamnz, Drib55, Bjsmd,
Suusion of Yellow, Tstormcandy, Lilleskvat, Reach Out to the Truth, Optoi, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Mephistoe, RjwilmsiBot, Alph Bot,
Salvio giuliano, LcawteHuggle, DASHBot, , Oddball31593, EmausBot, John of Reading, Awesomeguy92, Gointemm, Heracles31, Optiguy54, Kathleen.sheedy, GoingBatty, RA0808, L235, Tommy2010, Delbart27, Wikipelli, Bubblegumwrapper, Uvmcdi, ZroBot, John
Cline, F, KnowlegeFirst, rico Jnior Wouters, Fisher.G, Kiwi128, Deitrib, JmanofAus, Highvale, Staszek Lem, TyA, GeorgeBarnick,
IGeMiNix, L Kensington, Deutschgirl, Donner60, Fridek, ChuispastonBot, U3964057, Cat10001a, Sven Manguard, 28bot, Sonicyouth86,
ResearchRave, , ClueBot NG, KlappCK, Fagtard123, Edhabib, Dubious Irony, Iritakamas, Snotbot, Kowkamurka, Cmptrsvyfm,
Pryd3, Johnny 42, Karlbonner1982, Rezabot, Shanny98pretty, Widr, Shannon.jones553, ScholarK93, Crohall, Shovan Luessi, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Kittykat94, Psy463 1029, HMSSolent, Nightenbelle, Titodutta, RobbieTitwank, Polozooza, Eb00kie, DrOliPo, Northamerica1000, Zimmygirl7, Wiki13, Richardspraus, Piguy101, Mark Arsten, Sandwichsauce, Rm1271, Sobarwiki, Iluvdawgs, Vanished user
e99239jf9rf980239ifmlsmlsi4u, Kiyokoakiyama, Writ Keeper, Hamish59, RscprinterBot, Kg3042, NeonNiteLite, Klilidiplomus, Joost26,
StillmakerR, Hagabaga, Mahmud Halimi Wardag, W.D., ChrisGualtieri, Zeboko13, Kevinngo1234, Bfoxius, Khazar2, Sutcher, Pusalieth,
Wakaw, Hmainsbot1, Roodaman1, U4667275, Ughmypussyhurts, Jackninja5, FonsScientiae, Vanquisher.UA, Frosty, Jamesx12345, Juliaguar, Socialpsychra, Ydong2, Juodnreofdniruneo, Epicgenius, Equalityactiv, Pearjones, Imaperson123, Eyesnore, PATATAS6097,
Tentinator, Ihearthero, AnthonyJ Lock, Jenyih, Haminoon, Sam Sailor, Manul, Chrismorey, Rocky12349876, Dalesska, Thewikiguru1,
Skr15081997, Timeline99, Monkbot, Madmad01, Buggiehuggie, Reyrey112, AwesomerAlex, Bag Your Nuts, Dexalkaline, Ingleburnhs,
Showingjumpingeventer, Rainbowdolphin77, WikiCAWcaw, FatCock69, DangerousJXD, Wikimax101, Anna thatchet, Walkamo24, Ray
mery, KasparBot and Anonymous: 1522

14.2

Images

File:18th_century_ethnography.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/18th_century_ethnography.jpg

License: Public domain Contributors: Series of school engravings by J. Ratelband & J. Bouwer rst published in Amsterdam (1767 1779).
Original artist: J. Ratelband & J. Bouwer
File:Bettie_Page_driving.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Bettie_Page_driving.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Beauty Parade, http://vintagescans.blogspot.com/2008/12/bettie-page-remembered.html Original artist: Unknown
File:Cops_in_a_Donut_Shop_2011_Shankbone.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Cops_in_a_
Donut_Shop_2011_Shankbone.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: David Shankbone
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Logo_sociology.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Logo_sociology.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tomeq183
File:Mixed_stereotype_content_model_(Fiske_et_al.).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Mixed_
stereotype_content_model_%28Fiske_et_al.%29.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sonicyouth86
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Psi2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Psi2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:Stereotype_threat_-_osborne_2007.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Stereotype_threat_-_
osborne_2007.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sonicyouth86
File:TheUsualIrishWayofDoingThings.jpg
TheUsualIrishWayofDoingThings.jpg License:
php?id=5046 Original artist: Thomas Nast

Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/
Public domain Contributors:
http://historyproject.ucdavis.edu/ic/image_details.

File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public

domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

14.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0