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TheEngineer'sCompanion/FastenerDesignManual,PartTwo

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FastenerDesignManual,PartTwo
RichBarrett
Washers
BellevilleWashers
Bellevillewashers(Figure12)areconicalwashersusedmoreformaintainingauniformtension
loadonaboltthanforlocking.Iftheyarenotcompletelyflattenedout,theyserveasaspringin
theboltjoint.However,unlesstheyhaveserratedsurfaces,theyhavenosignificantlocking
capability.Thesesurfaces,ontheotherhand,willdamagethematingsurfacesunderthem.
ThesewasherscanbestackedincombinationsasshowninFigure13toeitherincreasethe
totalspringlength(Figure13(a)and(c))orincreasethespringconstant(Figure13(b)).
Lockwashers
ThetypicalhelicalspringwashershowninFigure14ismadeof
slightlytrapezoidalwireformedintoahelixofonecoilsothatthe
freeheightisapproximatelytwicethethicknessofthewasher
crosssection.Lockwashersareusuallymadeofhardenedcarbon
steel,buttheyarealsoavailableinaluminum,silicon,bronze,
phosphorbronzealloy,stainlesssteel,andKMonel.

Figure12.Typesof
Bellevillewashers.(a)
smooth(b)serrated

Thelockwasherservesasaspringwhiletheboltisbeing
tightened.However,thewasherisnormallyflatwhentheboltis
fullytorqued.Atthistimeitisequivalenttoasolidflatwasher,
anditslockingabilityisnonexistent.Insummary,alockwasherofthistypeisuselessfor
locking.

Figure13.Combinations
ofBellevillewashers.(a)
series(b)parallel(c)
parallelseries

Tooth(orStar)Lockwashers
Toothlockwashers(Figure15)areusedwithscrewsandnutsfor
somespringactionbutmostlyforlockingaction.Theteethare
formedinatwistedconfigurationwithsharpedges.Oneedge
bitesintothebolthead(ornut)whiletheotheredgebitesintothe
matingsurface.

Figure14.Helicalspring
washers.

Althoughthiswasherdoesprovidesomelockingaction,it
damagesthematingsurfaces.Thesescratchescancausecrackformationinhighly
stressedfasteners,inmatingparts,orboth,aswellasdecreasedcorrosionresistance.
SelfAligningWashers

Figure15.Tooth
lockwashers.(a)flat(b)
countersunk

Aselfaligningwasherisusedwithamatingnutthathasconical
facesasshowninFigure16.Becausethereisbothaweight
penaltyandaseverecostpenaltyforusingthisnut,itshouldbe
usedonlyasalastresort.Maintainingparallelmatingsurfaces
withinacceptablelimits(twofeet,perSAEHandbook(ref.4))is
normallythebetteralternative.
Inserts

Figure16.Selfaligning
washer.

Aninsertisaspecialtypeof
devicethatisthreadedoninsidediameterandlockedwith
threadsorprotrusionsonoutsidediameterinadrilled,
molded,ortappedhole.Itisusedtoprovideastrong,
wearresistanttappedholeinasoftmaterial(e.g.plastics,
nonferrousmetals),aswellastorepairstrippedthreadsin
atappedhole.

Figure17.Wirethread
insertinstallation.

Theaerospaceindustryusesinsertsintappedholesin
softmaterialsinordertotakeadvantageofweightsavings
providedbysmallhighstrengthfasteners.Thebigger
externalthreadoftheinsert(nominally1/8in.biggerin
diameterthantheinternalthread)gives,forexample,a10
32boltinanequivalent5/1618nut.

Ingeneral,therearetwotypesofinserts:thosethatarethreadedexternally,andthosethatarelockedbysomemethod
otherthanthreads(knurls,serratedsurfaces,grooves,orinterferencefit).Withinthethreadedinsertstherearethree
types:thewirethread,theselftapping,andthesolidbushing.
ThreadedInserts

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Wirethread.Thewirethreadtypeofinsert(Helicoil10)(a)isaprecisioncoilofdiamond
shapedCRESwirethatformsbothexternalandinternalthreadsasshowninFigure17.Thecoil
ismadeslightlyoversizesothatitwillhaveaninterferencefitinthetappedhole.Inaddition,
thisinsertisavailablewithadeformedcoil(Figure18)foradditionallocking.Thetangisbroken
offatthenotchafterinstallation.
Thewirethreadinsertisthemostpopulartypeforrepairofatappedholewithstrippedthreads,
sinceitrequirestheleastamountofholeenlargement.However,thesolidbushinginsertis
preferredifspacepermits.

Figure19.Selftapping
inserts.(a)Slotted(b)
Nylok

Figure18.Wirethread
Selftapping.Mostoftheselftappinginsertsarethesolidbushing
inserttypes.(a)free
typemadewithataperedexternalthreadsimilartoaselftapping
running(b)locking
screw(Figure19).Thereareseveraldifferentlocking
combinations,suchastheNylokplug(Figure19(b))orthethread
formingSpeedsertdeformedthread(Figure20).Anadditional
advantageofthethreadforminginsertisthatitgeneratesnocuttingchips,sinceitdoes
notcutthethreads.Itcanonlybeused,however,insoftermaterials.[RexnordSpecialty
FastenersDivision,Torrance,California.]

Solidbushing.Solidbushinginsertshaveconventionalthreads
bothinternallyandexternally.ApopulartypeistheKeensert
[Rexnord]showninFigure21.Thelockingkeysaredriveninafter
theinsertisinplace.Anothermanufacturerusesatwoprongringforlocking.Theseinsertsare
alsoavailablewithdistortedexternalthreadorNylokplugsforlocking.
NonthreadedInserts
Plasticexpandable.Themostfamiliarofthenonthreadedinserts
istheplasticexpandabletypeshowninfigure22.Thisinserthas
barbsontheoutsideandlongitudinalslitsthatallowittoexpand
outwardasthethreadedfastenerisinstalled,pushingthebarbs
intothewallofthedrilledhole.(Seeref.5.)

Figure20.Speedsert.
Moldedinplace.Thistypeofinsert(Figure23)isknurledor
seffatedtoresistbothpulloutandrotation.Itiscommonlyused
withceramics,rubber,andplastics,sinceitcandevelophigher
resistancetobothpulloutandrotationinthesematerialsthanselftappingor
conventionallythreadedinserts.(Seeref.5.)
Ultrasonic.Ultrasonicinserts(Figure24)havegroovesinvarious
directionstogivethemlockingstrength.Theyareinstalledina
preparedholebypushingtheminwhiletheyarebeing
ultrasonicallyvibrated.Theultrasonicvibrationmeltsthewallof
theholelocallysothattheinsertgroovesare"welded"inplace.Sincetheareameltedissmall,
theseinsertsdonothavetheholdingpowerofthosethataremoldedinplace.Ultrasonicinserts
arelimitedtouseinthermoplastics.(Seeref.5.)

Figure21.Keensert.

Threads
TypesofThreadsSincecompleteinformationonmostthreads
canbefoundintheANSIstandards(ref.6),theSAEHandbook
(ref.4),andtheNationalInstituteofStandardsandTechnology
Figure22.Plastic
HandbookH28(ref.7)nothreadstandardswillbeincludedhere.
expandableinsert.
Thegoalhereistoexplainthecommonthreadtypes,alongwith
theiradvantagesanddisadvantages.Thecommonthreadtypes
areunifiednationalcoarse(UNC),unifiednationalfine(UNF),
unifiednationalextrafine(UNEF),UNJC,UNJF,UNR,UNK,andconstantpitchthreads.

Figure23.Moldedinplace
insert.

Unifiednationalcoarse.UNCisthemostcommonlyusedthread
ongeneralpurposefasteners.Coarsethreadsaredeeperthan
finethreadsandareeasiertoassemblewithoutcrossthreading.
Themanufacturingtolerancescanbelargerthanforfinerthreads,
allowingforhigherplatingtolerances.UNCthreadsarenormally
easiertoremovewhencorroded,owingtotheirsloppyfit.
However,aUNCfastenercanbeprocuredwithaclass3(tighter)
fitifneeded(classestobecoveredlater).

Figure24.Ultrasonic
inserts.
Unifiednationalfine.UNFthreadhasalargerminordiameterthanUNCthread,whichgivesUNF
fastenersslightlyhigherloadcarryingandbettertorquelockingcapabilitiesthanUNCfasteners
ofthesameidenticalmaterialandoutsidediameter.Thefinethreadshavetightermanufacturing
tolerancesthanUNCthreads,andthesmallerleadangleallowsforfinertensionadjustment.UNFthreadsarethemost
widelyusedthreadsintheaerospaceindustry.
Unifiednationalextrafine.UNEFisastillfinertypeofthreadthanUNFandiscommontotheaerospacefield.This
threadisparticularlyadvantageousfortappedholesinhardmaterialsandforthinthreadedwalls,aswellasfortapped
holesinthinmaterials.
UNJCandUNJFthreads."J"threadsaremadeinbothexternalandinternalforms.Theexternalthreadhasamuch
largerrootradiusthanthecorrespondingUNC,UNR,UNK,orUNFthreads.Thisradiusismandatoryanditsinspection
isrequired,whereasnorootradiusisrequiredonUNC,UNF,orUNEFthreads.Sincethelargerrootradiusincreasesthe
minordiameter,aUNJForUNJCfastenerhasalargernettensileareathanacorrespondingUNForUNCfastener.This
rootradiusalsogivesasmallerstressconcentrationfactorinthethreadedsection.Therefore,highstrength(180ksior
more)boltsusuallyhave"J"threads.

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UNRthreads.TheUNRexternalthreadisarolledUNthreadinallrespectsexceptthattherootradiusmustberounded.
However,therootradiusandtheminordiameterarenotcheckedortoleranced.ThereisnointernalUNRthread.
UNKthreads.TheUNKexternalthreadissimilartoUNR,exceptthattherootradiusandtheminordiameterare
tolerancedandinspected.ThereisnointernalUNKthread.
AccordingtoasurveyofmanufacturersconductedbytheIndustrialFastenersInstitute,nearlyallmanufacturersof
externallythreadedfastenersmakeUNRrolledthreadsratherthanplainUN.Theonlyexceptionisforgroundorcut
threads.
Constantpitchthreads.Thesethreadsofferaselectionofpitchesthatcanbematchedwithvariousdiameterstofita
particulardesign.Thisisacommonpracticeforboltsof1in.diameterandabove,withpitchesof8,12,or16threads
perinchbeingthemostcommon.
AgraphicalandtabularexplanationOfUN,UNR,UNK,andUNJthreadsisgivenonpageM6ofreference8.Acopy
(Figure25)isenclosedhereforreference.AccordingtotheIndustrialFastenersInstitute,"[thefollowing]isnotascrew
threadstandard,shouldnotbeusedasaworkingsheet,andshouldonlyreferthereadertotheproperANSIStandards
documentwhereinthefullthreaddetailsonworkingdataarecontained."

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Figure25.ExplanationofUN,UNR,UNK,andUNJthreads.ReprintedwithpermissionofIndustrialFastenersInstitute.
ClassesofThreads
Threadclassesaredistinguishedfromeachotherbytheamountsoftoleranceandallowance.Thedesignationsrunfrom
IAto3AandIBto3Bforexternalandinternalthreads,respectively.AclassIisalooserfitting,generalpurposethread
aclass3istheaerospacestandardthread,andhasatightertolerance.(Theindividualtolerancesandsizesforthe
variousclassesaregivenintheSAEHandbook(ref4).)
FormingofThreads
Threadsmaybecut,hotrolled,orcoldrolled.Themostcommonmanufacturingmethodistocoldformboththehead
andthethreadsforboltsuptooneinchindiameter.Forboltsoflargerdiameterandhighstrengthsmallerbolts,the
headsarehotforged.Thethreadsarestillcoldrolleduntiltheboltsizeprohibitsthematerialdisplacementnecessaryto
formthethreads(uptoaconstantpitchofeightthreadsperinch).Threadsarecutonlyatassemblywithtapsanddies
orbylathecutting.
Coldrollinghastheadditionaladvantageofincreasingthestrengthoftheboltthreadsthroughthehighcompressive
surfacestresses,similartotheeffectsofshotpeening.Thisprocessmakesthethreadsmoreresistanttofatigue
cracking.
FatigueResistantBolts
Ifaboltiscycledintension,itwillnormallybreakneartheendofthethreadedportionbecausethisistheareaof
maximumstressconcentration.Inordertolessenthestressconcentrationfactor,theboltshankcanbemachineddown
totherootdiameterofthethreads.Thenitwillsurvivetensilecyclicloadingmuchlongerthanastandardboltwiththe
shankdiameterequaltothethreadoutsidediameter.
Fatigue(Cyclic)LoadingofBolts

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Figure26.Fatigueloadingofbolts.(a)boltedflangeswithexternalload(b)freebodywithnoexternalload(c)freebody
withexternalload
TheboltedjointinFigure26(fromref.9)ispreloadedwithaninitialloadFi,whichequalstheclampingloadFCbeforethe
externalloadFEisapplied.Theequation(fromref.11)forthisassemblyis
FB=Fi+FEKB/(KB+KC)
whereFBisthetotalboltload.InthisequationKBisthespringconstantoftheboltandKCisthespringconstantofthe
clampedfaces.Toseetheeffectsoftherelativespringconstants,letR=KC/KB.Then(fromref.10)
FB=Fi+FE/(1+R)
InanormalclampedjointKCismuchlargerthanKB(R=5.0forsteelboltandflanges),sothattheboltloaddoesnot
increasemuchastheinitialexternalloadisapplied.(NotethattheboltloaddoesnotincreasesignificantlyuntilFE
exceedsFi.)
Aseriesoftriangulardiagrams(Figure27,fromref.11)canbeusedtoclarifytheeffectofexternallyappliedloads.
TriangleOABisidenticalinallfourdiagrams.TheslopeofOArepresentstheboltstiffnesstheslopeofABrepresents
thejointstiffness(jointisstifferthanboltbyratioOC/CB.)InFigure27(a)theexternallyappliedloadFE(a)doesnotload
thebolttoitsyieldpoint.InFigure27(b)theboltisloadedbyFE(b)toitsyieldpoint,withthecorrespondingdecreasein
clampingloadtoFCL.InFigure27(c)theexternalload(c)hascausedthebolttotakeapermanentelongationsuchthat
theclampingforcewillbelessthanFiwhenFE(c)isremoved.InFigure27(d)thejointhascompletelyseparatedonits
waytoboltfailure.NotethattheflattertheslopeofOA(orthelargertheratioOC/OBbecomes),thesmallertheeffectFi
hasonboltload.Therefore,usingmoresmalldiameterfastenersratherthanafewlargediameterfastenerswillgivea
morefatigueresistantjoint.ReferringtoFigure27(a),notethatthecyclic(alternating)loadisthatportionaboveFi.This
isthealternatingload(stress)tobeusedonastressversusloadcyclesdiagramoftheboltmaterialtopredictthe
fatiguelifeofthebolts.NotethataninitialpreloadFineartheboltyieldsminimizescyclicloading.

Figure27.Boltexternalloading.
ThermalCyclicLoadingofBolts
Iftheboltandjointareofdifferentmaterials,anoperatingtemperaturehigherorlowerthantheinstallationtemperature
cancauseproblems.Differentialcontractioncancausethejointtounload(orseparate)differentialexpansioncancause
overloadingofthefasteners.Inthesecasesitiscommonpracticetouseconicalwashers(seewashersectionofthis
manual)togiveadditionaladjustmentsinfastenerandjointloading.

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Table4.Coefficientsofstaticandslidingfriction.

Oncoefficientsofstaticandslidingfriction(fromreference12)
a. Oleicacid
1. Campbell,Trans.ASME,1939.

b. Atlanticspindleoil(lightmineral)

2. Clarke,Lincoln,andSterrett,Proc.API,1935.

c. Castoroil

3. BeareandBowden,Phil.Trans.Roy.Soc.,1985.

d. Lardoil

4. Dokos,Trans.ASME,1946.

e. Atlanticspindleoilplus2%oleic

5. BoydandRobertson,Trans.ASME,1945.

acid

6. Sachs,zeitf.angew.Math.AndMech.,1924.

f. Mediummineraloil

7. HondaandYamada,Jour.IofM,1925.

g. Mediummineraloilplus0.5%oleic

8. Tomlinson,Phil.Mag.,1929.
9. Morin,Acad.Roy.desSciences,1838.
10. Claypoole,Trans.ASME,1943.
11. Tabor,Jour.AppliedPhys.,1945.
12. Eyssen,GeneralDiscussiononLubrication,ASME,1937.
13. BrazierandHollandBowyer,GeneralDiscussiononLubrication,
ASME,1937.

acid
h. Stearicacid
i. Grease(zincoxidebase)
j. Graphite
k. Turbineoilplus1%graphite
l. Turbineoilplus1%stearicacid
m. Turbineoil(mediummineral)

14. Burwell,Jour.SAE,1942.

n. Oliveoil

15. Stanton,"Friction",Longmans.

o.

16. ErnstandMerchant,ConferenceonFrictionandSurfaceFinish,MIT,

p. Palmiticacid

1940.

q. Ricinoleicacid

17. Gongwer,ConferenceonFrictionandSurfaceFinish,MIT,1940.

r. Drysoap

18. HardyandBircumshaw,Proc.Roy.Soc.,1925.

s. Lard

19. HardyandHardy,Phil.Mag.,1919.

t. Water

20. BowdenandYoung,Proc.Roy.Soc.,1951.

u. Rapeoil

21. HardyandDoubleday,Proc.Roy.Soc.,1923.

v. 3in1Oil

22. BowdenandTabor,"TheFrictionandLubricationofSolids,"Oxford.

w. Octylalcohol

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23. Shooter,Research,4,1951.

x. Triolein
y. 1%lauricacidinparaffinoil

FastenerTorque
Determiningthepropertorqueforafasteneristhebiggestprobleminfastenerinstallation.Someofthemanyvariables
causingproblemsare
1. Thecoefficientoffrictionbetweenmatingthreads
2. Thecoefficientoffrictionbetweenthebolthead(ornut)anditsmatingsurface
3. Theeffectofboltcoatingsandlubricantsonthefrictioncoefficients
4. Thepercentageofbolttensilestrengthtobeusedforpreload
5. Onceagreementisreachedonitem4,howtoaccuratelydeterminethisvalue
6. Relativespringratesofthestructureandthebolts
7. Interactionformulastobeusedforcombiningsimultaneousshearandtensionloadsonabolt(shouldfrictionloadsdue
toboltclampingactionbeincludedintheinteractioncalculations?)
8. Whether"runningtorque"foralockingdeviceshouldbeaddedtothenormaltorque
Gobacktopartone.

Theconscientious,effectiveengineerisavirtuousengineer.SamuelFlorman,TheCivilizedEngineer
TheEngineer'sCompanionisCopyright1995presentbyRonGrahamLastupdated11/14/200817:38:20
rongraham01@gmail.com

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