Sensory 2008

Course Compendium
Sensory and Related Techniques for Evaluation of

Dairy Foods
23rd Short Course
Organized under the aegis of
Centre of Advanced Studies
in
Dairy Technology
17th June, 2008 to 7th July, 2008

Course Director
Dr. Dharam Pal
Course Coordinator
Dr. Ashish Kumar Singh
Centre of Advanced Studies
Dairy Technology Division
National Dairy research Institute
Karnal 132001 (Haryana), India
2008
Published by
Dr. A. A. Patel
Head, Dairy Technology Division
Director, CAS
Course Director
Dr. Dharam Pal
Course Coordinator
Editing and Compilation

Dr. Dharam Pal
Dr. V.K. Gupta
Dr. R.R.B. Singh
Dr. Mrs. Latha Sabikhi
Dr. A.K. Singh
Dr. Sumit Arora
All Right Reserved

No part of this lecture compendium may be reproduced or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photography, recording or any other information storage
and retrieval system without the written permission from the
Director, NDRI, Karnal
Cover Design and Page Layout

Mr. Avneet Rajoria & Mr. Ramesh Modi
Committees for the Course Organization
ORGANIZING COMMIITTEE
Dr A. A. Patel (Director, CAS)

Dr. S. Singh
Dr. G. K. Goyal
Dr. V. K. Gupta
Dr. S.K. Kanawjia
Dr. D. K. Thompkinson
Dr. Dharam Pal (Course Director)
Dr. Ashish Kumar Singh (Course Coordinator)
TECHNICAL COMIITTEE
RECEPTION COMMITTEE
Dr. G. K. Goyal (Chairman)
Mr. Ram Swaroop
Dr. V. K. Gupta (Chairman)

Dr. R. R. B. Singh
Dr. (Mrs.) Latha Sabikhi
HOSPITALITY COMMITTEE
PURCHASE COMMITTEE
Dr. S. K. Kanawjia
(Chairman)
Dr. (Mrs.) Latha Sabikhi
Mr. Lahiri Singh
Dr. D. K. Thompkinson
(Chairman)
Mr. F. C. Garg
Mr. M. K. Trehan
ii
Short Course
on
Sensory and Related Techniques for Evaluation
of Dairy Foods
17th June - 7 July, 2008
Course Programme
10.:00 AM- 10.15 AM
17.06.2008 (TUESEDAY)
Registration
10.15 AM-10.50 AM
11.00 AM-11.45 AM
11.45 AM-1.00 PM
1.00 PM- 2.00 PM
2.15 PM -3.30 PM
3.30 PM- 3.45 PM
3.45 PM- 4.30 PM
Visit to ATIC
Inauguration of Course
Visit to Experimental Dairy Plant
Lunch
Visit to Model Dairy
Tea
Visit to Library
9:45 AM-10.45 AM
10.45 AM-1.00 PM
1.00 PM 2.00 PM
2.15 PM- 3.15 PM
3.15 PM - 3.30 PM
3.30 PM 4.30 PM
18.06.2008 (WEDNESDAY)
Requirements for Sensory Evaluation of
Foods (Theory)
Determination
of
Taste
threshold
(Practical)
Lunch
Determination
of
Odour
threshold
(Practical)
Tea
Library Consultation
Dr. Ashish Kumar

Singh
Mr. M. K. Trehan
Mr. M. K. Trehan
Mr. M. K. Trehan
Mr. M. K. Trehan
Dr. Dharam Pal
Dr. Dharam Pal

Mr. Ramswaroop
Dr. Dharam Pal
Mr. Ramswaroop
-
19.06.2008 (THURSDAY)
9:45 AM- 10.45 AM
Sensory Methods and their Applications in

Evaluating Quality of Foods (Theory)
10.45 AM- 1.00 PM
Sensory Evaluation of Milk (Theory & Dr. Dharam Pal

Practical)
Mr. Ramswaroop
Lunch
Sensory Evaluation of Dried Milk and
Dr. V. K. Gupta
Milk Products (Theory)
Tea
1.00 PM- 2.00 PM

2.15 PM- 3.15 PM
3.15 PM - 3.30 PM
3.30 PM 4.30 PM
9:45 AM- 1.00 PM
20.06.2008 (FRIDAY)
Determination of Water Activity of Foods
(Theory & Practical)
iii
Dr. Dharam Pal
Dr. R. R. B. Singh
Mr. Avneet
Rajoria
1.00 PM 2.00 PM
2.15 PM- 3.15 PM
3.15 PM-3.30 PM
3.30 PM-4.30 PM
9:45 AM- 10.45 AM
10.45 AM-1.00 PM
1.00 PM 2.00 PM
2.15 PM- 3.15 PM
3.15 PM - 3.30 PM
3.30 PM 4.30 PM
9:45 AM- 1.00 PM

1.00 PM 2.00 PM
2.15 PM- 3.15 PM
3.15 PM -4.30 PM
9:45 AM- 10.45 AM

10.45 AM-1.00 PM
1.00 PM 2.00 PM
2.15 PM- 4.30 PM
9:45 AM- 10.45 AM

10.45 AM-1.00 PM
1.00 PM 2.00 PM11
2.15 PM- 4.30 PM
Lunch
Principles of Good Laboratory Practice
(Theory)
Tea
21.06.2008 (SATURDAY)
Chemistry of Flavour Development in
Cheese (Theory)
Microstructure of Dairy Products (Theory
& Practical)
Lunch
Consumer Acceptance Studies (Theory)
Dr. Rajan Sharma

Dr. Sumit Arora
Dr. S. K. Tomar
Dr. (Mrs.) Latha
Sabikhi
Tea
Colour Measurement of Foods (Practical)
23.06.2008 (MONDAY)
Sensory Attributes of Ice-cream and
Frozen Dessert (Theory & Practical)
Lunch
Viscoelastic Characteristics of Foods
(Theory)
Sensory Evaluation of Milk Chocolate
(Practical)
Dr. Ashish Kumar

Singh
Mr. .Avneet
Rajoria
Mr. F. C. Garg
Mr. Ramswaroop
Dr. G. R. Patil
Dr. Ashish Kumar
Singh
Mr. Modi Ramesh
24.06.2008 (TUESDAY)
Statistical Techniques for Analysis of
Dr. R. Malhotra
Sensory Data (Theory)
Sensory Evaluation of Dried Milks
(Practical)
Lunch
Texture Measurement of Dahi & Yoghurt
Dr. Dharam Pal
(Practical)
Mr. N. Raju
Analytical techniques for Characterization
of Flavoring Compounds in Dairy Products
(Theory)
Descriptive Sensory Analysis of foods
(Practical)
Lunch
Sensory evaluation of Paneer and Unripened Cheeses (Theory & Practical)
iv
Dr. Rajesh Bajaj

Dr. Ashish Kumar
Singh
Dr. S. K.
Kanawjia
9:45 AM- 1.00 PM

1.00 PM 2.00 PM
2.15 PM- 4.30 PM
9:45 AM- 10.45 AM

10.45 AM-11.15 AM
11.15 AM-11.30 AM
11.30 AM-1.00 PM
1.00 PM 2.00 PM
2.15 PM- 4.30 PM
9:45 AM- 1.00 PM

1.00 PM 2.00 PM
2.15 PM-4.30 PM
9:45 AM- 10.45 AM

10.45 AM-1.00 PM
1.00 PM 2.00 PM
2.15 PM- 3.15 PM
3.15 PM-3.30 PM
3.30 PM-4.30 PM
9:45 AM- 1.00 PM
1.00 PM 2.00 PM
2.15 PM- 4.30 PM
26.06.2008 (THURSDAY)
Sensory and Rheological Properties of
Fermented Milks (Theory & Practical)
Lunch
Sensory Evaluation of Khoa & Khoa based
Sweets (Theory & Practical)
27.06.2008 (FRIDAY)
Biosensors in Chemical Quality
Assessment of Dairy and Food Products
(Theory)
Nutritional and Therapeutic Assessment
Techniques for Dairy Products (Theory)
Tea break
Texture Profile Analysis of Dairy Products
(Practical)
Lunch
Sensory Characteristics of Milk Protein
Products (Theory)
Dr. (Mrs.) Latha

Sabikhi
Mr. Ram Swaroop
Mr. F. C. Garg
Mr. Ram Swaroop
Dr. Rajan Sharma
Dr. (Mrs.) Suman
Kapila
Dr. R. R. B. Singh
Mr. Avneet
Rajoria
Dr. V. K. Gupta
28.06.2008 (SATURDAY)
Statistical Software for Analysis of
Dr. R. Malhotra
Sensory Data (Theory & Practical)
Lunch
Sensory Characteristics of Concentrated Dr. R. R. B. Singh
and UHT Milk (Theory & Practical)
30.06.2008 (MONDAY)
Influence of Packaging Materials on
Sensory Quality of Dairy Products
(Theory)
Testing of Packaging Materials for Dairy
Foods (Practical)
Lunch
Chemistry of Quality Attributes in Heat
Processed Dairy products (Theory)
Dr. G. K. Goyal
Dr. G. K. Goyal
Mr. Ram Swaroop
Dr. (Mrs.)
Bimlesh Mann
Tea
1.07.2008 (TUESDAY)
Descriptive Sensory Analysis of Dairy
Foods (Theory & Practical)
Lunch
Role of Starter and Adjunct Cultures on
Quality Characteristics of Fermented Dairy
Products (Theory)
Dr. Ashish Kumar

Singh & Ms.
Rekha Chawla
Dr. Rameshwar
Singh
9:45 AM- 10.45 AM

10.45 AM- 11.00 AM
11.00 AM- 1.00 PM
1.00 PM 2.00 PM
2.15 PM- 4.30 PM
9:45 AM- 1.00 PM

1.00 PM 2.00 PM
2.15 PM- 3.15 PM
Role of Primary Senses in Sensory
Evaluation of Foods (Theory)
Tea
Techniques for Sensory Evaluation of
Beverages (Theory & Practical)
Lunch
Judging Contest for Participants
3.07.2008 (THURSDAY)
Sensory Characteristics of Fat-rich Dairy
Products (Theory & Practical)
Lunch
Emerging Concepts in Sweet Taste
Prof. V. K. Joshi
Prof. V. K. Joshi
Dr. Dharam Pal
Mr. Ramswaroop
Dr. A. A. Patel
Mr. Ramswaroop
Dr. Sumit Arora
(Theory)
3.15 PM-3.30 PM
3.30 PM- 4.30 PM
9:45 AM- 1.00 PM

1.00 PM 2.00 PM
2.15 PM- 4.30 PM
Tea
Rheological & Textural Characteristics of
Solid Foods (Theory)
4.07.2008 (FRIDAY)
Basic Concepts of Rheology and Texture
Measurement of Foods (Theory)
Lunch
Properties of Food Powders (Theory &
Practical)
Dr. A. A. Patel
Dr. D. S. Sogi
Dr. R. R. B. Singh
Mr. Avneet
Rajoria
5.07.2008 (SATURDAY)
9:45 AM- 10.45 AM
10.45 AM- 1.00 PM

1.00 PM 2.00 PM
2.15 PM- 3.15 PM
3.15 PM - 3.30 PM
3.30 PM 4.30 PM
9:45 AM- 10.45 AM
10.45 AM-11.15 AM
11.15 AM-1. 00 PM
1.00 PM 2.00 PM
2.30 PM- 3.30 PM
Concept of Colour Measurement and

Sampling Techniques for Quality
Evaluation of Food (Theory)
Sensory Characteristics of Ripened
Varieties of Cheeses (Theory & Practical)
Lunch
Nondestructive methods for Quality
Evaluation of Dairy and Food Products
(Theory)
Tea & Discussion
7.07.2008 (MONDAY)
Course Evaluation
Interaction with the Course Faculty
Lunch
Valedictory function
vi
Dr. S. N. Jha
Dr. S. Singh
Dr. S. N. Jha
CONTENTS
Foreword
Dr. A.K. Srivastava
Committees for Course the Course

Organization
ii
Course Programme
iii
Requirements for Sensory Evaluation of Dr. Dharam Pal

Foods
Sensory Methods and their Applications Dr. Dharam Pal

in Evaluating Quality of Foods
10
Sensory Evaluation of Milk
Dr. A.K. Singh
18
Sensory Characteristics of Fresh Cheese
Dr. S.K. Kanawjia
25
Sensory Attributes of Ice Cream
Mr. F.C. Garg
33
Sensory Evaluation of Dairy Products V. Pathak & Z.F. Bhat

with Special Emphasis on Flavour
Lexicon
40
Sensory Attributes of Concentrated Milk Dr. R.R.B. Singh

and their Evaluation
48
Sensory Attributes of Fermented Milk Dr. Latha Sabikhi

Products
56
Application of e-tongue in monitoring
65
Dr. S.K. Kanawjia
Sensory quality of foods

10
Role of Packaging Materials In Enhancing Dr. G.K. Goyal

Sensory Quality of Dairy Products
77
11
Consumer Acceptance Studies
83
12
Chemistry of Flavour Development In Dr. Sumit Arora

Cheese
86
13
Analytical
Techniques
for Dr. Rajesh Kumar,
Characterization
of
Flavouring Dr. R. B. Sangwan and
Compounds In Dairy Products
Dr. Bimlesh Mann
97
14
Sensory Attributes
Products
Protein Dr. Vijay Kumar Gupta
104
15
Sensory Evaluation of Dried Milk and Dr. Vijay Kumar Gupta

Milk Products
110
16
Application of Rheology in Quality Dr. Dalbir Singh Sogi

Assurance in Food Processing
116
of
Milk
Dr. Latha Sabikhi
17
Nondestructive Methods for Quality Dr. S. N. Jha

Evaluation of Dairy and Food Products
126
18
Good Laboratory Practices Genesis & Dr. Rajan Sharma

Concept
135
19
Chemistry of Quality Attributes in Heat Dr. (Mrs.) Bimlesh

Processed Dairy Products
Mann
144
20
Determination of Sorption Isotherms and Dr. R. R. B. Singh

Generation of Sorption Data
155
21
Biosensor
in
Chemical
Quality
Assessment of Dairy and Food Products
Dr. Rajan Sharma
165
22
Soft
Computing
Models
Applications to Dairying
with Dr. A. K. Sharma
177
23
Microstructure of
Products: An Update
Dairy Dr. Sudhir Tomar
184
24
Nutritional and Therapeutic Assessment Dr. Suman Kapila

for Functional Dairy Products
196
25
Viscoelastic Behaviour of Foods
Dr. G. R. Patil
208
26
Fundamentals of Rheology
Dr. Dalbir Singh Sogi
214
27
Switching
Approach
28
Concept of Colour Measurement and Dr. S. N. Jha

Sampling Techniques for Quality
Evaluation of Food
227
29
Sensory Evaluation of Ripened Varieties Dr. S. Singh

of Cheese
245
30
Statistical Techniques for Analysis of Dr. Ravinder Malhotra

Sensory Data
254
31
Descriptive Sensory Analysis
267
Cultured
Sweeteners
Sweet Dr. Sumit Arora
Dr. A. K. Singh
221
REQUIREMENTS FOR SENSORY EVALUATION OF FOODS

Dr. Dharam Pal
Principal Scientist
Division of Dairy Technology
National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
A number of quality assurance procedures are used to examine and maintain

quality of a dairy product. The testing starts from reception of raw material, for
example, milk, to close examination of finalized product. These tests are physical,
chemical, microbiological, instrumental and sensory. In our country, the dairy
industry so far considers the chemical and microbiological quality as the sole criteria
of deciding food quality. With the availability of more milk, increased competition
and consumers awareness about quality, the significance of sensory evaluation is
being realized and it is emerging as an important analytical tool in fast growing dairy
industry.
Sensory evaluation may be defined as a scientific discipline used to evoke, measure,
analyze and interpret results of those characteristics of foods and materials as they are
perceived by the senses of sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing.
The sensory evaluation is very important in product evaluation on account of
following advantages:
i)
It is a simple analytical tool,
ii)
It identifies the presence or absence of perceptible differences in terms of

flavour, texture, colour and appearance,
iii)
These important quality attributes are measured in a fast and quantifiable

manner employing sensory techniques. The use of chemical and
instrumental methods for examining sensory characteristics are time
consuming, complicated and expensive,
iv)
It enables identification of a particular problem or defect that cannot be

detected by other analytical techniques,
v)
Sensory evaluation techniques help in ensuring that the consumers get a

non defective and enjoyable product.
In recent years, the competition in food/dairy corporate has tremendously

increased. The food processing companies are making very fast changes in their
existing product in terms of ingredients, value addition, packaging etc. or developing
new products to grab larger global market share. In all these situations, sensory
Sensory and Related Techniques for Evaluation of Dairy Foods
evaluation plays a critical role. The various applications of sensory evaluation are
given as below:
2.0
Inspection of raw materials

New product development
improvement/reformulation of existing product
Cost reduction
Quality assurance
Selection of packaging material
Shelf life studies
Establishing analytical/ instrumental/ sensory relationships
REQUIREMENTS
A successful implementation of sensory evaluation programme requires

following three major components:
Proper laboratory facilities
Sensory panels and their rigorous training programmes
Statistician
2.1
Laboratory Set Up
Many designs of the sensory evaluation laboratory are available. The sensory
laboratory set up normally consists of a reception cum briefing room, panel booths
and preparation room. Sensory evaluation should be conducted in quiet and well lit
rooms free from any odours. The dominant motive of constructional details should be
to have comfort for concentrated prolonged testing and ease of cleaning. Pleasing
neutral shades and maintenance of comfortable temperature and humidity conditions
of the whole area or at least the panel room are desirable. The testing area where
booths are located should be separated from sample preparation room and wash room
and store by a complete partition.
2.1.1 Reception and briefing room
It should be so designed as to ensure maintenance of pleasant attitudes and
minimize traffic to the booths. Panel members shall assemble here, register, receive
the evaluation card and briefed about the test.
2.1.2
Testing booths/area:
This is the area where panel members carry out actual sensory evaluation of dairy
products. Testing area shall be located separately but in the immediate vicinity of the
preparation area. This area is normally divided in small booths (number of booths
between 5 to 10) so that each panel member can independently evaluate the product.
Following conditions have to be maintained in testing area for obtaining best results:
-
The temperature and relative humidity shall be constant, controllable and

comfortable for evaluators. A temperature of about 20oC and 62% relative
humidity are considered to be optimum.
Noise level shall be kept to a minimum during the tests. The movement of persons
shall also be restricted in the area.
The testing area shall keep free from odours. A slight positive pressure may be
created in the testing area to reduce inflow of odorous air from other area.
Lighting is very important in all sensory testing. It is particularly important in

colour examination of dairy products. Lighting particularly in testing booths shall
be uniform, shadow free, controllable and of sufficient intensity to permit
effective evaluation of the colour and appearance of samples. In most cases, lights
having a correlated colour temperature of 6500 K (or 110 candle foot light) are
desirable. In order to mask differences in colour and other appearance
characteristics special lighting devices, such as a dimmer device, colored
lamps/filters or sodium vapour lamps, may be provided.
The size of each testing booth shall be sufficiently large to accommodate the
samples, utensils, sink, rinsing agents and score sheet/card. An area of 0.9 m wide
and 0.6 m deep is considered optimum for this purpose. The height of working
space in the booth should be appropriate to allow comfort to the evaluator.
A counter on the serving/distribution area side shall be provided. Openings,

covered by sliding doors, of convenient size may be provided for supplying
samples into the booths from the serving counter. A system, such as light bulb on
the counter side, is devised for evaluator to signal to the operator when he is ready
for a sample.
2.1. 3 Preparation room

It shall be suitably separated from the testing room and should be equipped for
preparing and serving food samples. The room should have the facility for cooking
range hot and cold storage cabinet. The ventilation should be proper and the cooking
odours should not penetrate the panel booth area. The samples shall be passed to the
test booths through hatch in the partition. The hatch on the service counter should
preferably be constructed in such a manner that there shall be no recognition of
individual or either side of partition.
The laboratory facility should be flexible enough to handle enough to handle
current and future testing activities as well as to provide a workable environment for
the staff. The use of computers has been recommended for sensory evaluation work.
In that case, sensory evaluation laboratory should include space for data processing
equipment.
3.0
SELECTION OF SENSORY PANELISTS
Analysis of sensory properties of food involves the use of human subjects in

the laboratory/processing plant environment. The sensitivity and experience of an
evaluator (panelist) influence the accuracy of results. The evaluator should work like
a calibrated instrument and provide reproducible results. The selection of most stable
and sensitive panel members and their training, is therefore, very essential for
efficient conduct of sensory analysis of dairy products.
3.1
Types of panel
The sensory panels are classified into three categories viz., trained, semi
trained and consumer panel. The panelists are selected and trained by the sensory
leader/coordinator depending on the type of the product.
Trained Panel: They should be carefully selected and trained, and need not be expert
panelists. The trained panel should be used to establish the intensity of a sensory
character or overall quality of a food. A trained panel should comprise of small
number of members varying from 5 to 10 and may be used in all developmental,
processing and storage studies. A small highly trained panel will give more reliable
results than a large untrained panel.
Semi-Trained Panel (D&C Panel): This type of panel should be constituted from
persons normally familiar with quality of milk and different classes of dairy products.
This panel is capable of discriminating differences and communicating their reactions,
though it may not have been formally trained. In a semi-trained panel individual
variations can be balanced out by involving greater number of panelists. The panel,
should normally consist of about 25 to 30 members, and should be used as a
preliminary screening programme to select a few products for large scale consumer
trials.
Consumer Panel: The members of the consumer or untrained panel should be
selected at random and ensure due representation to different age, sex, race and
income groups in the potential consumer population in the market area. More than 80
members are required to constitute a consumer panel.
Two channels can be adopted for screening and selection of sensory panel members.
First, from the quality control/research laboratory and second source is from the
processing unit. Another option is to have a mixed source i.e. some of the members
from quality control laboratory/research laboratory and the remaining from processing
sections. Normally double the numbers of panelists finally required are selected. For
example, if 7 members are needed in the final panel at least 15 should be initially
screened
3.1.2
Qualification for Screening a Panelist
Interest and motivation: Candidates who are interested in sensory analysis and have
investigating curiosity are likely to be more motivated and will do better jobs.
Attitudes to foods: Candidates having strong liking or disliking towards a dairy
product should not be screened.
Knowledge and aptitude: The evaluators should have capacity to concentrate and to
remain unaffected by external influences. He should have knowledge about basic
aspects and principles of milk and its processing into products.
Health: Candidates should be in good general health. They shall not suffer from any
disabilities, which may affect their senses, or from any allergies or illness and shall
not take medication, which might impair their sensory capacities.
Ability to Communicate: The ability of candidates to communicate and describe the
sensations they perceive when judging a food product is particularly important.
Availability: Candidates shall be available to attend both training and subsequent
evaluation. Personnel who travel frequently or have heavy workloads are often
unsuited for sensory work.
Table 1. Examples of materials/substances and their concentration for
identification/ matching test
Taste or odour
Material
Concentration in water (taste

material) or ethanol* (odorous
material) at room temperature
(g/litre)
Taste
Sweet
Sucrose
16
Acid/ sour
Tartaric acid or citric acid
Bitter
Caffeine
0.5
Salty
Sodium chloride
Astringent
Tannic acid or
potassium aluminium
sulfate (alum)
1
0.5
Metallic
Ferrous sulfate**, hydrates,

FeSO4.7H2O
0.01
Lemon, fresh
Citral (C10H15O)
1 x 10-3
Vanilla
Vanillin (C8H8O3)
1 x 10-3
Thyme
Thymol (C10H14O)
5 x 10-4
Odour
Floral, Jasmine
Benzyl acetate (C8H12O2)
1 x 10-3
* Stock solutions are prepared with ethanol, but the final dilution is made with water
and shall not contain more than 2% of alcohol.
** To mask yellow colour, present the solutions in closed opaque containers or under
dim or colouring light.
Test for Detection of Basic Taste: Solutions of four basic taste solutions, namely
sweet, sour, salt and bitter are prepared of the concentration as shown in table 2
below:
Table 2. Concentration of taste solutions used to examine the acuity of

candidates
Taste Quality
Concentration in water at room

temperature
Caffaine
Bitter
0.27 g/ litre
Citric Acid
Sour
0.60 g/ litre
Sodium Chloride
Salt
2 g/ litre
Material
Sucrose
Sweet
3.1.3 Screening and Selection
12 g/ litre
Sensory panelists can be screened and selected by adopting several tests. The
followings are the most commonly used tests:
determine impairment of primary senses (colour, vision, ageusia and anosmia)
matching test for taste and odour substances
ability to detect basic taste and odour acuity
determine ability to characterized texture
performance in comparison with other candidates
Colour Vision: Candidates with abnormal colour vision or colour blindness are
unsuitable for judging of dairy products. Assessment of colour vision can be carried
out by a qualified optician.
Matching Test: Samples of sapid and/ or olfactory materials, depending on the nature
of product for which the panel members are to be trained later, at well above threshold
levels of the expected panelists are prepared. The examples of these materials are
given in table 1. Each sample is allotted a different, random, three digit code number.
Candidates are presented with one sample of each type and are allowed to familiarize
themselves with them. They are then presented with a series of the same materials
labelled with different code numbers. They may be asked to match each of them with
one of the original set and describe the sensation they are experiencing. For the
substances and their concentration given in table 1, candidates who make fewer than
80% correct answers should not be chosen as selected panelists.
These test materials along with blank (water) are presented to the candidates
and asked them to detect the taste quality. Preferably candidates should have 100%
correct responses as the concentrations test materials are at the super threshold level.
Inability to detect differences and identify the taste quality after several repetitions
indicate that the candidates have poor sensitivity and unsuitable to judge the samples
on the basis of taste.
Odour Recognition Test: Candidates are presented many (about 10 in each lot)
odoriferous substances. Some of these materials are familiar (those we use daily such
as tea, coffee, onion, garlic, curd, orange, spices, etc.) and others unfamiliar (table 3).
The odorous food materials may be presented preferably in form of liquid extract or
as such (in a test tube in invisible form). The concentration should be above the
recommended threshold level. Candidates are graded according to correct answers.

Those recognize less than 65% of odorous substances/odour are unsuitable as panelist
for this type of test.
Table 3. Examples of unfamiliar odorous material for odour recognition test
Material
Name most commonly associated with the odour
Benzaldehyde
Bitter almonds, cherry, ..
Octene-3-Ol
Mushroom,
Phenyl-2-ethyl acetate
Floral,
Diallyl sulphide
Garlic,
Camphor
Camphor, medicine,
Menthol
Peppermint,
Butyric acid
Rancid butter,
Acetic acid
Vinegar,
Isoamyl acetate
Fruit, banana,
Thymol
Spices,
Vanillin
Vanilla,
Textural characterization: This type of test is highly beneficial for selecting the
panelists for judging the dairy products where texture is an important attribute like
cheese, paneer, butter, ice cream, khoa etc. In this test, all range of products having
typical texture (table 4) is given to the candidates. They have to arrange these
products according to the nature and level of textural properties, such as hard, elastic
(spongy), adhesive (sticky/pasty), brittle, gummy, cohesive, chewy etc. A satisfactory
level of success in this task can be specified only in relation to the products used.
Candidates who achieve less than 65% of the maximum score are unsuitable.
Table 4. Food products with typical textural attributes
Food product
Carrot (raw)
Butter
Toffee
Meat/ Paneer
Biscuit
Rasogolla
Oranges
Chest nut puree
Semolina
Salt
Textural attribute most commonly associated

Hard, crunchy
Soft
Gummy
Chewy
Brittle
Spongy
Juicy, cellular particles
Pasty
Grainy
Gritty/ coarse
3.1.4
Training
The purpose of training is to increase sensory acuity of panelists and provide them
with rudimentary knowledge of procedures used in sensory evaluation. Training also
develops the ability of panel members to detect, recognize and describe sensory
stimuli related to food products. A general step-wise approach for training in
food/dairy product is summarized as below:
a) Sensory panelists (assessors or evaluators) should be explained the basic
requirements of sensory evaluation i.e. what they should do and what not to do.
b) Assessors shall be acquainted with the:
-
desirable and undesirable attributes of the product

correct terminology
use of score card
scoring technique/ sequence of observations
c) Samples used for training and testing shall be characteristic of their origin, style
and quality, and representative of the range generally found in the market (all
defects may be simulated in the samples under laboratory conditions). A reference
(having most desirable characters) is always provide with test samples.
d) Difficulties of the test are so adjust the that the group as a whole will find
difference between the samples, but some panelists will fail.
e) Start with the large group and reject those who are insensitive or under perform.
f) Finally a trained panel comprising of 5-6 members is retained.
4.0
STATISTICIAN
The role of a statistician is very important in sensory evaluation programme at

each stage starting from designing of experiments till drawing valid conclusions from
the sensory data. A statistician help in planning of experiment coding and presentation
of samples, statistical analysis of data by applying appropriate design and
interpretation of results. Though, now a days several softwares are available for
statistical analysis, the role of statistician in tabulation of data and drawing of
inferences is equally important.
5.0
SAMPLING REQUIREMENTS
i) Sampling should be carried out by a trained and experienced person and it is

essential that the sample should be representative of the lot.
ii) A procedure of sample preparation which is most likely to bring out the difference
in the particular quality attribute under evaluation shall be selected. Care shall be
taken that no loss of flavor occurs and no foreign tastes or odours are imported by
the procedure during preparation, storage, serving, etc. Depending upon the nature
of the material and aim of the test, the need for a medium in testing auxiliary
items should be decided. Foods like hot sauce, spices, vinegar, etc. may require
dilution with some medium because of their intense physiological efforts.
iii) The panelist should be allowed to have sufficient sample necessary to make
judgment. Unless, only one sample is to be tested, full normal serving quantities
shall not be served even though the material is available.
iv) The temperature of serving should be close to that recommended for the food
product. The samples shall be served in utensils of the same type and appropriate
size, shape and colour and they shall not import any taste or odour to the sample.
The test should be carried out at least one hour before or after lunch.
v) Use of materials which are likely to vitiate results such as smoking, chewing, pan
(betel-vine) and taking intoxicants by a panelist should have a time lapse of at
least half-an-hour before the test. Use of strong odoriferous substances such as
cosmetics, flowers, hair oil should be avoided.
vi) The number of samples served in any session shall depend upon the nature of the
test product and upon the evaluation method use. In case the test product exert
mild sensory effects, large number of the products exerting strong prolonged
sensory effects, the number of samples may be reduced to less than 5.
vii) Since coding is necessary to obscure the identity of the sample, a multiple digit
code generated from a table of random numbers should be used. Avoid constant
use of certain codes or a set of codes to expedite tabulation of results.
6.0
EVALUATION CARD
The evaluation card should be clearly printed and the matter should be
arranged in logical sequence for examination which is expected under each test.
Appropriate terminology without ambiguity shall be used. The evaluation card should
be simple, brief, easy to follow and record what is exactly required. Due weightage
should be given to all the sensory attributes.
7.0
REFERENCES
Amerine, M. A., Pangborn, R. M. and Roessler, E. B. (1965). Principles of Sensory

Evaluation of Food Academic Press, New York.
ASTM (1986). Manual on Sensory Testing Methods. STP 434, American Society for
Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
Bodyfelt, F.W., Tobias, J. and Trout, G.M. (1988). The Sensory Evaluation of Dairy
Products, AVI Publ. Co., New York.
Dharam Pal, Sachdeva, S. and Singh, S. (1995). Methods for determination of sensory
quality of foods: A critical appraisal. J. Fd. Sci. Technol. 32 (5):357-367.
Russell, G. M. (1984). Some basic consideration in computerizing the sensory
laboratory. Food Technol. 38(9): 67-70.
Stone, H. and Sidel, J. (1993). Sensory Evaluation Practices, Academic Press, Inc.
London.
SENSORY METHODS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN

EVALUATING QUALITY OF FOODS
Dr. Dharam Pal
Principal Scientist
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Sensory tests are conducted to meet the following purposes:
Select qualified judges and study human perception of food attributes.
Correlate sensory with chemical and physical measurement.
Study processing effects, maintain quality, evaluate raw material
selection, establish storage stability or reduce costs.
Evaluate quality or
Determine consumer reaction.
Each of these purposes requires appropriate tests. There are a substantial

number of test methods and new methods continue to be developed. Stone and Sidel
(1993) have classified these methods into following categories.
S.No.
Category
Test Type
1.
Discriminative Paired comparison, Duo trio, Triangle, Dual standard,

Multiple standard, etc.
2.
Descriptive
Flavor profile, Texture profile and Quantative Descriptive

Analysis (QDA)
3.
Affective
Acceptance/ preference: 9-points Hedonic scale, Consumer

studies
4.
Others
Scoring, Ranking
2.0
DISCRIMINATIVE TESTING
This is one of the most useful analytical tools available to the sensory
professionals. It is on the basis of a perceived difference between two products that
one can justify proceeding to a descriptive test in order to identify the basis for the
difference. Within this general class is variety of specific methods as given in the
table above.
The main objective of all these methods is to answer a simple question. Are
the products perceived as different? Obviously the response to this question can have
major consequences. If the conclusions from a discrimination test are to be accepted
by management as reliable, valid and believable, then it is important that each test be
10
conducted with proper consideration for all aspects of the test design, product
preparation and handling, implementation, data analysis and interpretation.
2.1
Paired Comparison Test

The paired comparison procedure is the earliest example of the application of
discrimination testing to food and beverage evaluation. It has also been used
successfully for determinations of threshold for basic taste solutions. The paired
comparison test is a two product test, and the panelist task is to indicate the one that
has more of a designated characteristic such as sweetness, tenderness or skinniness.
This method is also identified as a directional paired comparison test, the
directional component altering the panelist to a specific type of paired test. The
paired comparison test is relatively easy to organize and to implement. The two coded
products (AA, BB, AB and BA) are served simultaneously and the subject has to
decide whether there is difference or there is no difference. Requiring a
difference response in all cases has been found to give better results.
Another version of the paired test is the A-not-A procedure. The subject is
presented with a single sample for evaluation, which is then replaced by a second
sample. The subject then makes a decision as to whether the products are same (or
different). This particular test procedure has considerable merit in those situations
where non test variables such as a colour difference may influence results.
2.2
Duo-trio and Triangle test
These tests have been discussed earlier. The Duo-trio test is suitable for
products that have relatively intense taste, odour and / or kinaesthetic effects such that
the sensitivity is significantly reduced. It lends itself to use for quality control and for
selection of judges for superior discrimination. The chance probability associated with
the duo-trio test is identical with that of the other two product tests. Whenever
products are being compared with a current franchise (i.e. product now being
manufactured), the duo-trio, constant-reference test method, is most appropriate.
The chance probability associated with the three product (triangle) test is only
1/3, which accounts for its claim of greater sensitivity. The triangle test is more
difficult test because the subject must recall the sensory characteristics of two
products before evaluating a third and then making a decision. In fact, the test can be
viewed as a combination of three paired tests (A-B, A-C and B-C). Products that have
intense flavours and aromas that are spicy and/or are difficult to remove from palate,
or that have physiological effects (distilled beverages) usually preclude the use of the
triangle test.
2.3
Multiple Sample Test

Tests involving more than 3 stimuli are classified as multiple sample tests.
They may have equal (symmetrical) or unequal (asymmetrical) numbers of each
stimulus. When they are applied as true difference tests, the judge is required to
separate the samples into two groups or like samples. When they are applied as
11
directional tests, the judge is asked to identity the groups of higher or lower intensity
or a given criterion. Difference test designs involving more than three stimuli have
had only limited use. The limitation is based on the increase in psychological
complexity and physiological fatigue which accompanies an increase in the number of
stimuli. In addition, large quantities of samples are required and more time is needed
for observer to make a decision, these tests appear to be most applicable to visual
discrimination, where the judge does not rely on memory and fatigue is almost nonexistent.
2.4
Dual Standard Test

The dual standards method was proposed for use in quality control situations.
The subject is served four products; two are identified as references A and B and two
are coded. The subjects must match the reference product with the coded product. The
designation of the two references could reflect quality control limits or current
production and product outside the limit.
2.5
Multiple Standards Test

This test was developed for odour evaluation when a non-uniform standard
was to be compared with an unknown. Any numbers of the questionable standards are
presented simultaneously with the unknown and the subject is asked to designate the
one which is most different. The chance probability of identifying the unknown
correctly is ones over the total number of samples involved.
The literature provides a somewhat conflicting selection of conclusions
regarding the sensitivity of the various test methods; some sensory professionals
suggest that the triangle is more sensitive than the duo-trio and the paired tests, while
others have arrived at contrary conclusions. The various difference tests can be ranked
in terms of increasing sensitivity as: paired, dual standard, duo-trio, triangle and
multiple standard (Amerine et al, 1965). Recently Stone and Sidel (1993) have
concluded that all discrimination tests are equally sensitive.
3.0
DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
Descriptive analysis is a sensory methodology that provides quantitative

descriptions of products based on the perceptions of a group of qualified subjects. It is
a total sensory description taking into account all sensations that are perceived
visual, auditory, olfactory, kinaesthetic and so on- when the product is evaluated.
Descriptive analysis results provide complete sensory descriptions of an array of
products and provide a basis for determining those sensory attributes that are
important to acceptance. The results enable one to relate specific process variables to
specific changes in some of the sensory attributes of a product. From the product
development view point, descriptive information is essential in finding out those
product variables that are different and from which one can establish cause and effect
relationships.
12
A descriptive test involves relatively few subjects who have been screened.
Screening should be product category specific as is the subsequent training effort.
Training is primarily focused on development of descriptive language which is used
as a basis for scoring the product. Apart from this the other important activities that
are part of training include the grouping of attributes by modality (i.e. appearance
attributes, aroma attributes and so on), listening them by occurrence, developing a
definition for each attribute, identifying helpful references for use during training, and
familiarizing the subjects with the scoring procedure. There are numerous
applications for descriptive analysis, including monitoring competition, storage
stability / shelf life, product development, quality control, physical / chemical and
sensory correlation, etc.
Depending up on the test methods used the training can be quite different.
Some of the descriptive methods described in the literature are summarized here.
3.1
Flavour Profile
The flavor profile method is the only formal qualitative descriptive procedure
and is probably the most well known of sensory test methods. This utilizes a panel of
four to six screened subjects who first examine and then discuss the product in an
open session. Once agreement is reached on the description of the product the panel
leader summarizes the results in report form. The method has considerable appeal
because results could be obtained rapidly and would obviate the need for statistics.
3.2
Texture Profile
This method represents advancement in descriptive analysis with respect to

development of the descriptive terminology, the scales for recording intensities and
the word/product anchors for each scale category. In developing the method, the
objective was to eliminate problems of subject variability, allow direct comparison of
results with known materials and provide a relationship with instrument measures.
There is considerable appeal to the direct link between specific instrumental measures
of these rheological properties of a product and the responses of a panel of specific
sensory attributes, for example, texturometer units and hardness sensory ratings.
However, separation of texture from other sensory properties of a product such as
colour, aroma, tests and so forth limits the total perception of the products sensory
properties.
3.3
Quantitative Descriptive Analysis
The quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) method was developed with an

approach that was primarily behavioural in orientation with a consensus approach to
language development, use of replication for assessing subject and attribute
sensitivity, and for identifying specific product differences and defined statistical
analysis. The development of method evolved from a number of considerations to
ensure that it would:
13
Be responsive to all the sensory properties of a product

Rely on a limited number of subjects for each test
Use subjects qualified before participation
Be able to evaluate multiple product in individual booths
Use a language development process free from leader influence
Be quantitative and use a repeated trials design
Have a useful data analysis system
In a QDA test, the subjects evaluate all of the products on an attribute by

attribute basis on more than a single occasion.
4.0
OTHER METHODS
Many more descriptive methods have been described in the literature which is
more or less on the lines of the test methods discussed above. The spectrum
descriptive analysis, for example, involves extensive training activities, reflecting the
basic flavor and texture profile procedures, with particular reliance on training the
subjects with specific standards of specified intensities. Free choice profiling is
another approach in which no subject screening or training are required and the
subject can use any words they want to describe the products being evaluated. The
time advantage may, however, actually not be there since the experimenter requires
spending time explaining the testing procedures to the subjects.
4.1
Scoring
The most frequently used of all sensory testing systems is scoring because of
its diversity, apparent simplicity and ease of statistical analysis. Scoring methods have
most extensively been used by the dairy industry for product development and
improvements, shelf life studies and assessing suitability of packaging materials.
Score cards based on 100 points generally used for judging and grading of dairy
products. Most recently 25 points score cards have been suggested (Bodyfelt, et al,
1988). It is believed that numerical rating tests give more complete information than
either ranking tests or descriptive rating tests, but the judges must be trained. Since
there is no indication of liking to the test product, palatability norms should be
established. The score card must be properly developed giving due weightage to all
the sensory attributes.
4.2
Ranking
Ranking tests require that judges arrange a series of two or more samples in an
ascending or descending order of intensity of a specific attribute. In ranking test for
quality, the usual objective is to select one or two if the best samples rather than to
test all samples thoroughly. Ranking is often used for screening inferior from superior
experimental samples in product development and occasionally in training judges.
Samples may be ranked in order of degree of acceptability or in order of
general quality, or by specific attributes of colour, volume, texture or flavour
intensity. Judges should be thoroughly familiar with all aspects of the sample
14
characterization under consideration. This may not be easily achieved in practice,

because stimuli may vary along several dimensions simultaneously, complicating the
interpretation of the criteria used to differentiate. This problem arises not only in
ranking tests but in most methods.
5.0
AFFECTIVE/ACCPTANCE TESTING
Acceptance testing, a valuable and necessary component of every sensory

programme is performed at consumers levels. It refers to measuring liking or
preference for a product. Preference can be measured directly by comparison of two
or more products with each other, that is, which one of the two or more products is
scored significantly higher than another product in a multiproduct test, or which
product is scored higher than another by significantly more people. The two methods
most frequently used to directly measure preference and acceptance are the paired
comparison test and the nine point hedonic scale. Other methods are either
modifications of these two methods or are types of quality scales: for example,
excellent to poor and palatable to unpalatable.
5.1
Hedonic Scale
The nine point hedonic scale has been used extensively since its development
with a wide variety of products and with considerable success. The scale is easily
understood by nave consumers with minimal instruction and the product differences
are reproducible with different groups of subjects. The results from use of this scale
are most informative since computations will yield means, variance measures and
frequency distributions, all by order of presentation and magnitude of difference
between products by subject and by panel and the data can be converted to ranks as
well, which yields product preferences. As an example of the scale is given below:
Like extremely
Like very much
Like moderately
Like slightly
Neither liked nor disliked
Dislike slightly
Dislike moderately
Dislike very much
Dislike extremely
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
The sensory acceptance test is a very cost-effective resource that has a major
role to play in the development of successful product. Properly used, it can have a
significant impact on the growth and long term development of sensory evaluation.
5.2
Consumer evaluation
With the increase in competition, availability of many brands of same product

in the market and the choice of consumers, it is highly desirable for the food/dairy
industry to study the acceptance/preference and needs of consumers. In some cases it
15
is possible to create markets for certain dairy products when none existed earlier. In
many other situations, such as alterations in existing formulations, change in
packaging materials, use of some additives or adoption of a new technology, the food
processor has to go to consumers with their product to study their
acceptance/preference. While conducting the consumer studies, the sensory
leader/organizer should consider all the factors that are important in achieving the
desired results. Some of these factors are: clear objectives, target population, start and
completion dates, representative test samples, number of products number of
responses per sampling, sample coding procedures, questionnaire, instruction on
serving and pre-screening, data analysis and processing procedure, and proposed
reporting schedule. As far as preference and acceptance of consumers is concerned
the factors are grouped into two categories viz. 1) the attitude of the dairy product and
2) of the consumer.
Attitude of the Dairy Product: This is related to the product itself in respect of
availability; utility; convenience; price; storage stability/ requirements; safety and
nutritional value; and sensory properties, which of course is very important.
Attitude of the Consumer: Religion preference; nationality and race; age and sex;
education, socio-economics; psychological motivation such as symbolism of food,
advertising, etc. and physiological motivation, such as thirst, hunger, deficiencies and
pathological conditions.
While designing consumer studies and interpreting the results, the role of above
factors may be considered.
Questionnaire for Consumer Studies: A well developed questionnaire for obtaining
desired information, including preference, from the consumers is very important. The
important considerations for developing a questionnaire are that it should be:
simple and clear

realistic
use appropriate terms
avoid stereotype answers
One example of such a questionnaire for seeking consumer opinion on Control milk
sample (A) and on experimental milk sample fortified with Vit A. (B) is given below:
1.
Prefer sample A.
Prefer sample B .
2.
Why do you prefer the sample of your choice (Tick mark one or more):
Preferred milk sample has
Richer taste .
Sweeter taste .
16
Smoother body .
Rich consistency .
Other .
3.
If you prefer to buy the preferred sample, how much more (if any) per litre
would you be willing to pay:
25 paise .
50 paise .
Re. 1 .
None .
The above questionnaire shows the relationship between preference for milk
and willingness to pay more for the preferred sample.
6.0
REFERENCES
Amerine, M. A., Pangborn, R. M. and Roessler, E. B. (1965). Principles of Sensory

Evaluation of Food, Academic Press, New York.
ASTM (1986). Manual on Sensory Testing Methods. STP 434, American Society for
Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
Bodyfelt, F. W., Tobias, J. and Trout, G. M. (1988). The Sensory Evaluation of Dairy
Products, AVI Publishing Co. New York.
Dharam Pal, Sachdeva, S. and Singh, S. (1995). Methods for determination of sensory
quality of foods: A critical appraisal. J. Fd. Sci. Technol. 32 (5):357-367.
Stone, H. and Sidel, J. (1993). Sensory Evaluation Practices, Academic Press Inc.
London.
17
SENSORY EVALUATION OF MILK

Senior Scientist
NDRI, Karnal
1. INTRODUCTION
The sensory evaluation of milk is of utmost importance. Packaged and retail
sale of fresh milk comprises a major share of Indian Dairy industry (both in the
organized and unorganized sectors). Since fluid milk is consumed by most everyone
everyday it is being assessed dairy for its quality. If the flavour of milk is not
appealing or appetizing less of it will be consumed.
The sensory characteristics of any dairy product are dependent on the quality
attributes of milk ingredients used. FINISHED MILK PRODUCTS CAN NOT BE
BETTER THAN THE INGREDIENTS FROM WHICH THEY ARE MADE. If the
raw milk supply is properly assessed for its sensory quality all off-flavour defects due
to raw milk could be minimized if not eliminated.
Among dairy product judges the scoring or differentiation of milk into
different quality classes demands keener, more fully developed senses of smell and
taste than in the sensory evaluation of other dairy products. Many of the off-flavours
present in fluid milk are more delicate, less volatile or more elusive than those present
in other milk products.
Milk, may be raw or pasteurized, skim or whole, toned or double toned,
standardized or full fat, cow or buffalo. For the purpose of present discussion, milk
would mean PASTEURIZED, STANDARDIZED (MIXED) MILK unless otherwise
specified. Pasteurization is effected by heating the milk to 72oC for 15 sec or 63oC for
30 min in HTST or LTLT respectively.
Pasteurized milk commonly possesses some degree of a heated or cooked
flavour especially immediately after processing, but the intensity of cooked flavour
diminishes during storage. The flavour of milk is affected by:
a. heating-up and cooling time.
b. temperature difference between the product and heating medium
c. velocity of the product in a continuous system
18
d. occurrence of product burn on and

e. direct Vs indirect heating methods.
The flavour of pasteurized unhomogenized milk undergoes flavour changes
during storage as below:
HEATED--> NORMAL--> FLAT--> METALLIC--> OXIDISED
The extent of flavour deterioration depends on the storage time, session of the
year, type of roughage fed to the cow and buffaloes and relative levels of cupric or
ferric ions.
2. MILK SCORE CARD
The original score card (100 point scale) developed by the ADSA has been
extensively modified and is presented on the next page. Bacterial counts, milk
temperature and sedimentation test are important data to be provided by lab.
Evaluation of the container/closure is also a valid quantity criterion that should be
evaluated when required. Flavour on the new score card is evaluated on a 10-point
scale. 100 point score card can still be used provided the milk has a bacterial content
of 20,000 ml and a maximum temperature of 7.2oC. Familiarity with the score and use
of scorecard guide is important for milk product judging.
SCORE CARD FOR MILK

Product _______________
Date__________
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sample number
FLAVOUR
NO CRITICISM
10
NORMAL RANGE
1-10
UNSALEABLE
10
Criticism
acid
astringent
barmy
bitter
cooked
cowy
feed
fermented/fruity
flat
foreign
garlic/ onion
lacks freshness
malty
oxidized light-induced
oxidized metal induced
rancid
Score
19
salty
unclean
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------SEDIMENT 3
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PACKAGE 5
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------dented/defective
NO CRITICISM
dirty inside/outside
leaky/not full
NORMAL RANGE
heat seal defective
1-5
illegible printing
UNSALEABLE
labeling/code incorrect
0
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------BACTERIA 5
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------TEMPERATURE 2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------TOTAL SCORE
Signature of the judge
Fig. 1 The modified ADSA scorecard for milk
3. JUDGING OF MILK & MILK PRODUCTS

Table 1. Suggested scoring guide for flavour for milk
Intensity of flavour defect
Moderate
Definite
Strong
Slight
Pronounced
Astringent
Barmy
1-0
20
Bitter
1-0
Cooked
5-0
Cowy
2-0
Feed
5-0
Fermented/fruity
Flat
Foreign
Garlic / onion
1-0
High acid
Lacks freshness
Malty
1-0
Metallic
1-0
Light induced
2-0
Metal induced
1-0
Rancid
Salty
4-0
Unclean
Oxidized
3. SOME MILK SCORING TECHNIQUES

3.1 Preparation of samples for evaluation
This depends on the purpose or objectives of evaluation, number of
participants and the quality criteria to be assessed. If several persons are to judge the
milk samples for flavour, container and closure, sediment and other criteria then
several containers of each individual lot of milk must be provided. The sediment
test/bacterial count of each sample should be provided.
3.2 Order of examination and scoring
3.2.1 Sediment test
21
It should be performed first. The kind, amount and size of sediment particles
should be carefully observed and scored against a chart or mental image.
3.2.2 Closure
Closure should be carefully observed. Now a days bottles or cartons (not used
in India) are not the usual packaging material. The milk is being packaged
polyethylene sachets. Hence the evaluator must see that the packaging properly sealed
to prevent leakage/pilferage.
3.2.3 Container
Container as stated above, since plastic bags is now in vogue; these should be
examined for extent of fullness, cleanliness and freedom from cuts/nicks/pinholes
from leakage.
3.2.4 Flavour
The milk should be properly tempered between 13 to 18oC preferably 15.5oC.
Milk samples should be poured into clean, odourless glasses or paper/plastic cups. 10
to 15 ml milk should be poured and a sip taken, rolled around the mouth and flavour
sensation noted and then expectorated. Sometimes, any aftertaste may be enhanced by
drawing a breath of fresh air very slowly through the mouth and then exhaling
through the nose slowly. A full WHITE of air should be taken soon after the sample is
placed in the container for any off-odour that may be present.
3.3 Evaluation temperature
Pasteurized milk should at 7.2oC but lower than 4.4oC is preferred. A 2-point
scale may be used. If the temperature is above 7.2oC the sample may be scored
ZERO. Samples at 4.4oC or below should be scored a perfect or 2 score.
3.4 Evaluation of sediment
Consumers want that the milk should be free from foreign matter. A 3-point
scale may be employed. Presence of any sediment is serious and should receive a
ZERO score. One Possible scoring system could be:
No sediment
< 0.02 mg/disc
0.025mg/disc
>0.025mg/disc
3.5 Evaluation of milk flavour
22
Typically the flavour of milk should be PLEASANTLY SWEET AND POSSESS

NEITHER A FORETASTE NOR AN AFTERTASTE other then that imparted by the
natural richness due to milk fat and milk solids.
When milk clearly exhibits the soc-called TASTE there is usually something
WRONG with the flavour of the milk sample. Thus milk is considered to have a
defect if it has an odour, fore-or after-taste and does not leave the mouth in clean,
sweet, pleasant condition, following tasting. The scoring guide lists more frequently
observed off-flavours. The defects should be described while scoring.
4. UNDESIREABLE FLAVOURS
4.1 Acid
Sour detected by taste and smell-due to microbial conversion of lactose to
lactic acid, which imparts a tingling effect.
4.2 Astringent
Not common in milk.
4.3 Barny
Transmitted off-flavour due to poor ventilation, foul smelling environment.
Perceived by sniffling and tasting. Characteristic aftertaste.
4.4 Bitter
Associated with other defects like astringency, rancidity due to weeds and
microbial growth specially psychrotrophs..
4.5 Cooked
Heat-induced defect appears when milk is heated to 76oC or more. There are 4
types of heat induced flavours: COOKED/SULPHUROUS; HEATED OR RICH;
CARAMELISED and SCORCHED Heated and cooked flavors are easily identified,
reaction time is quick, and sensation remains after expectoration. Cooked flavour may
also be noted through smell.
4.6 Cowy (acetone)
Distinct, persistent unpleasant, medicinal chemical aftertaste with acetone
bodies in milk i.e. ketosis in cows.
4.7 Feed
Imparts aromatic taints to milk when fed -3 hours prior to milking. The offflavour is aromatic sometimes pleasant (e.g. alfa-alfa), detected by smell varies with
feed. To prevent such feeds should not be fed 3 hours prior to milking.
4.8 Fermented/Fruity
Due to microbes, resembles vinegar, pineapple, apple. Found in old
pasteurized milk, due to growth of Pseudomonas sp. (P. fragii).
23
4.9 Flat
Flat taste/mouthfeellack of richness.
4.10 Foreign
Smelled or tasted, due to chemicals/detergents, disinfectants, sanitizers,
exposure to fumes of petrol, diesel, kerosene, insecticides, ointments, medication to
cows etc.
4.11 Garlic/onion (weedy)
Pungent odour and persistent aftertaste.
4.12 Lacks freshness (stale)
Taste reaction indicates loss of fine pleasing taste. Slightly chalky. May be
forerunner of either oxidized or rancid off-flavour or off-flavour caused by
pshychrotrophs.
4.13 Malty
Flavour definite or pronounced, suggestive of malt caused by the growth of S
lactis var. Maltigenes at > 18.2oC for 2-3 hours can be smelled or tasted. Bacterial
population in millions, followed by acid/sour taste.
4.14 Metal-induced oxidized off-flavour
Due to lipid oxidation-metal catalyzed. Metallic, oily, cardboardy, cappy,
stale, tallowy, painty and fishy are used to describe this off-flavour. The off-flavour is
quickly perceived in the mouth and has a relatively short adaptation time.
4.15 Light-induced oxidized off-flavour
Described as burnt, burnt protein, burnt feathers, cabbagy, medicinal or
chemical-like, light-activated or sunlight flavour or sunshine flavour, light catalyzed
lipid oxidation as well as protein degradation both are involved. It requires riboflavin
that is naturally present in milk. Homogenized milk is more susceptible but is resistant
to oxidized off-flavour (due to lipid oxidation) the opposite is true for nonhomogenized milk.
4.16 Rancid
Extremely unpleasant, due to volatile fatty acids formed through enzymatic
hydrolysis of fat. Soapy, bitter and unclean aftertaste. Flavour is nauseating and
revolting.
4.17 Salty
Perceived quickly in the mouth
4.18 Unclean
Due to growth/activity of psychrotrophs at 7.2oC
24
SENSORY CHARACTERISTICS OF FRESH CHEESE
Dr. S. K. Kanawjia, Sanjeev Kumar** and Hitesh Gahane*

Principal Scientist, Division of Dairy Technology
NDRI, Karnal
**Ph.D. Scholar and * M.Tech (DT)
1. Introduction
Cheese, the natures wonder food and the classical product of biotechnology,
is highly nutritious food with good keeping quality, enriched pre-digested protein with
fat, calcium, phosphorus, riboflavin and other vitamins, available in a concentrated
form. It is the most important category of fermented foods, has been reported to have
therapeutic, anticholesterolemic, anticarcinogenic and anticariogenic properties
beyond their basic nutritive value. They, contributing to a variety in our gustative
desire, have been recognized to provide important nutrients and considered superior
over non-fermented dairy products in terms of nutritional attributes as the micro flora
present produce simple compounds like lactic acid, amino acids and free fatty acids
that are easily assimilable. Some of the cheese flora has been reported to inhibit the
growth of certain toxin-producing bacteria in the intestine.
Soft unripened cheeses are commonly known as Fresh Cheese and are made
by coagulating either whole milk, partly skimmed milk, skim milk or cream;
eliminating a large part of the liquid portion (whey) and retaining the coagulated milk
solids. The amount of water retained in the curd greatly influences the relative
softness of unripened cheese made from milk having constant casein-to-fat ratio.
Softness of cheese also depends on the extent of protein hydrolysis salt content and
the amount of milk fat in cheese. Soft unripened cheese derive their flavour mainly
from the culture and the cream dressing. Cottage cheese, Cream cheese, Mozzarella
cheese, Ricotta cheese, paneer etc are some of the common varieties of fresh cheese.
They differ from each other in their method of manufacture with respect to type of
milk, treatment given to milk, type of culture, amount of culture method of
coagulation, cutting of curd, cooking of curd, pressing of curd etc.
Consequently, they differ in sensory as well as chemical attributes. The
desirable sensory attributes of fresh cheeses, defects and their probable causes and
remedies with special reference to cottage cheese are described in this lecture note.
2. Scenario of Cheese Production in India
Scenario of cheese production in India is quite bright because of the facts that
cheese has all the beneficial attributes of an ideal dairy product and the emergence of
25
new global economic reforms based on globalization and liberalization in the

marketing arena that has unfastened the door to the Indian dairy industry to penetrate
the international cheese market. There has been a steady increase in the consumption
of cheese in most countries worldwide, the annual growth rate in cheese consumption
being over 3 per cent with an acceleration being expected due to worldwide trend of
adopting Western consumption habits with a high level of cheese in the diet list. In
India cheese, production has been accelerating quite steadily, being 1000 tonnes in
1980 to 40000 tonnes in 2007, against the world production of 16 million tonnes.
Till about 8-10 years back, the only major regional/national players in the
cheese market were Amul, Verka, and Vijaya all from the cooperative sector. These
plants are continuing to expand their cheese manufacturing capacities slowly in tune
with the demand growth for cheese. Many new players like Dynamix and Dabur, and
entrepreneurs, such as Vadilal, Vintage, Chaudharys Miraj, Kodai, etc have ventured
in cheese production in recent years. At present Amul has targeted opening of 3000
Pizza retail franchise outlets all over the country by the year-end, which would boost
the annual sets of Mozzarella cheese to 5000 tonnes.
3. Cottage Cheese
Cottage cheese is a fresh, soft, unripened cheese made from sweet, pasteurized
skim milk by lactic culture with or without the addition of rennet. The curd is cut and
cooked to facilitate whey expulsion and development of proper curd consistency.
When the curd has attained the desired consistency, whey is drained off, curd is
washed and salted. Subsequently, the curd is dressed with cream in the case of
creamed cottage cheese which contains 4% fat. Cottage cheese contains 80%
moisture.
3.1 Desired sensory attributes
3.1.1 Appearance and colour
The curd particles of cottage cheese should be distinctly separate and uniform
in size and shape. The cheese should possess moderately glossy sheen and creamy
white colour. The cream dressing should be reasonably viscous and foam free, and
bulk of it should adhere to the curd particles. The excess dressing should form only a
uniform and smooth coating on the curd particles. Free cream, free whey, lack of
uniformity and the presence of lumps or curd dust are considered as common
appearance defects in cottage cheese caused mostly by faulty method of manufacture
viz., excessive cooking, insufficient washing, cutting of curd at too high or too low
pH, rapid cooking, uneven cutting or cutting with a faulty knife or aggressive stirring
low TS milk, excessive heat treatment of skim milk, use of excessive coagulator,
severe stirring or orugh handling of curd during cooking etc. Appropriate corrective
measures during manufacture of cottage cheese eliminate these defects.
26
3.1.2 Body and texture of cottage cheese

Ideally, creamed cottage cheese should have a tender body, and smooth and
meat like texture. Curd particles should maintain their shape and individual identity
but should not be too firm, rubbery or too soft. Smooth, meaty and tender curd
particles exhibit good capillary desired for complete absorption of cream dressing
common body & texture defects are listed below:
3.1.2.1 Too firm body:
Firm or rubbery bodied curd particles of cottage cheese resist crushing
between tongue and roof of the mouth. This defect occurs due to over use of rennet or
other milk coagulator; cooking of curd at too high temperature and for too long; or
cutting of curd at a pH more than 4.7
3.1.2.2 Mealy/Grainy/Gritty:
Presence of this defect gives a corn meal like sensation in the mouth when
masticated curd is pressed by the tongue against the roof. Also, a dry rough and
serrated curd mass is observed when the washed curd particles of creamed cottage
cheese are kneaded and smeared between the forefinger and thumb. The defect may
be caused by overdeveloping the acid during curd formation; retention of too low
moisture, non-uniform cutting of coagulum, uneven heating, too rapid cooking,
inadequate stirring, and curd particles coming in contact milk extremely hot surfaces
during cooking.
3.1.2.3 Gelatinous:
Gelatinous cheese has a jelly-like and sticky character. Often this defect is
associated with a bitter flavour and translucent appearance. This defect is caused by
psychotropic bacteria.
3.1.2.4 Weak/soft/mushy:
This defect is characteristic of high moisture, low-solid cottage cheese. It is
caused by faulty manufacturing methods, which favour retention of whey in the curd.
On storage such cheese may become pasty and bitter.
3.1.2.5 Over stabilized dressing:
When this defect occurs the creamed cottage cheese appears dry and some
individual curd particles are surrounded by a thick, pasty, coating. This usually
happens due to the use of excessive amount of non-fat dry milk, stabilizers and/or
emulsifiers.
27
3.1.3 Flavour:
Cottage cheese should have a fresh, clean, pleasant delicate (balanced culture)
flavour that cleans up well immediately after the sample has been eliminated from the
mouth. This flavor is made up of characteristic curd flavour and its acidity, volatile
products by lactic acid organisms. Addition of cream and salt enhance the flavour of
creamed cottage cheese. The probable cottage cheese being high perishable product is
proving to the development of specific flavour defects as discussed below:
3.1.3.1 Acid/high acid/sour:
Acid taste is clean and sharp while sour taste is pronounced and may be
associated with other bacterial defects like fruity, fermented etc. Excessive acid
development and/or insufficient washings of the curd cause this defect. Such product
is sometimes also criticized for flavour defect like whey taint.
3.1.3.2 Bitter:
Bitter flavour is characterized by its relatively slow reaction time; taste at or
near the back of the tongue only; freedom from astringency; and persistence after
expectorating the sample. The defect is most frequently encountered in old cottage
cheese or in the sample stored at a temperature favourable for the growth of
Pseudomonas organisms.
3.1.3.3 Flat:
Absence of characteristic flavour or aroma is termed as flat flavour. A dry,
unsalted and washed rennet curd yields a distinctly flat taste during the intermediary
stages of oxidized flavour development.
3.1.3.4 Lacks freshness:
The flavour of cottage cheese is its best immediately after manufacture.
Cottage cheese progressively deteriorates in flavour during storage. Often this defect
is referred as storage flavour because the aroma of cheese is similar to that of the
refrigerator in which it was stored.
3.1.3.5 Fruity/Fermented:
This defect is characterized by the presence of a pleasant aromatic flavour
suggestive of pine apple, apple, banana or strawberry and distinctive lingering
aftertaste. The cottage cheese stored at elevated or favourable temperatures for the
psychrotrophic bacteria may develop this defect.
28
3.1.3.6 Yeasty:
Yeasty and vinegar like flavours have a peculiar aromatic quality in addition
to high acidity. Yeasts and various other contaminants including psychrotrophic
bacteria are generally responsible for causing this flavour defect.
Other flavour defects in cottage cheese include malty, musty, oxidized, rancid,
salty and unclean flavours.
4. Cream Cheese
Cream cheese is a soft, unripened cheese made by coagulating cream (12-30%
milk fat) either by lactic acid bacteria aided by milk coagulating enzymes or by direct
acidification followed by removal of whey by centrifugation or pressing the curd in
cloth bags. The fat content in the final product varies from 3 to 40%. Neufchatel
cheese is a similar product made from whole milk of high fat contents. It contains
about 20-25% fat.
4.1 Desirable sensory attributes
4.1.1 Flavour:
Cream cheese should have a full rich, clean and milk acidic flavour.
Neufchatel type cheese may have a moderate acid taste. More common flavour
defects in various types of cream cheese may be flat, sour or too high acid, metallic,
yeasty and unclean after taste.
4.1.2 Body and texture:
Soft yet sufficiently firm body to retain its shape is the characteristic of cream
cheese. The texture should be somewhat buttery and silky smooth. It should possess
both spreading as well as slicing characteristics. Cream cheese prepared from cream
containing 16% fat exhibits most desirable body and texture properties. In such
cheeses the moisture and fact content may vary in the ranges of 50-54% and 37-42%,
respectively. Cream containing less fat yields a cream cheese which is criticized as
having grainy texture and crumbly body. Increased fat content of cream (20%) results
in excessive smoothness and stickiness. Other body and texture defects of cream
cheese include coarse, grainy, too firm and too soft.
5. Mozzarella Cheese
It is a soft unripened variety of cheese of Italian origin. It is produced from
whole or partly skimmed milk to which small amounts of starter or organic acids are
added, followed by rennet extract. The curd is cut, allowed to firm up in the warm
whey with occasional stirring and the whey is drained off. When the curd has
developed the desired plasticity and fibrous texture and the whey acidity 0.65-0.70%
LA, it is milded. The curd pieces are immersed in hot water kneaded, stretched and
29
moulded. Salting of cheese is done by dipping the cheese in brine solution for few
days. The cheese can be consumed after the brine treatment is complete.
5.1 Desirable sensory attributes
5.1.1 Colour and appearance:
Mozzarella cheese should have a uniform white to light cream color. Faulty
manufacturing method and microbial contamination may sometimes cause colour
defects in the product. Use of too high salt may cause discoloration. Development of
browning may be caused by using starter culture containing only Thermophilus.
Contamination with Psuedomonas spp. Causes development of superficial reddish
marks.
5.1.2 Body and Texture:
Mozzarella cheese should have a soft, elastic, waxy and moist body with
typical structure of pulled curd cheese. It should have a fibrous texture with no gas
holes. It should possess a good slicing as well as melting properties. Use of too high
salt or growth of Lactobacillus casei may cause poor melting quality. Undesirable
microbial contamination may cause development of defects, like pigmentation, hole
formation and other textural defects. Rapid evaporation of moisture from the surface
leads to the development of granular texture.
5.1.3 Flavour:
Bland, pleasant but mildly acidic with slightly salty taste is the characteristic
of mozzarella cheese. Buffalo milk cheese is a more piquant and aromatic than cow
milk cheese. Microbial contamination, particularly with Pseudomonas species may
lead to the development of flavour defects like putrid smell, bitter flavour etc. Other
flavour defects may be of absorbed or chemical nature as in the case of cottage
cheese.
6. Ricotta Cheese
It is yet another variety of soft unripened cheese of Italian origin. In the
manufacture of ricotta cheese, mixture of whey and skim milk is acidified to a critical
pH with lactic acid, acetic acid or acid whey powder and then heated. The resulting
curd is recovered and over filled in perforated tin containers, cooled and allowed to
drain free whey. Cheese is now ready for consumption. Ricotta cheese made from
whole milk is consumed directly while made from skim milk or whey skim milk
mixture is highly suited for pastry manufacture.
Ricotta cheese from whole milk resembles highly creamed, cottage cheese but
has a softer and more fragile texture. A mixture of skim milk whey yields a firmer and
drier product which lacks its distinctive nutty flavour. In general ricotta cheese is soft,
and creamy with a delicate, pleasant and slight caramel flavour.
30
Ricotta cheese is highly susceptible to spoilage due to microbial contamination

leading to flavour defects like sour, fermented, fruity etc. Excessive gas formation
may also cause blowing of the lid of the container.
7. Paneer
Paneer is an indigenous milk product made by coagulating heated milk
preferably buffalo milk (6% fat) acid solution and/or sour whey. The whey is drained
and the curd filled in hoops and pressed. The pressure is removed after 10-15 and the
paneer is cut into pieces and immersed in chilled water for cooling.
7.1 Desirable sensory characteristics
7.1.1 Colour and appearance:
Paneer should have uniform white colour with greenish tinge if made from
buffalo milk and light yellow it prepared from cow milk. Paneer may develop colour
and appearance defects as listed below:
7.1.1.1 Dull:
This defect is recognized by its dead, unattractive appearance and suggest lack
of cleanliness in manufacture.
7.1.1.2 Dry surface:
Use of milk containing excessive amount of fat gives paneer with dry surface
and unattractive appearance.
7.1.1.3 Surface skin:
Exposure of paneer while hot to the atmosphere causes rapid evaporation of
moisture from the surface resulting into the formation an undesirable yellow skin on
the surface.
7.1.1.4 Visible dirt/ Foreign Matter:
This defect may occur due to improper straining of milk, use of dirty water,
dirty, windy surrounding, poor packaging and careless handling of paneer.
7.1.1.5 Mouldy surface:
Long storage of product in humid atmosphere coupled with higher moisture
content flavours development of moulds on the paneer surface.
7.1.2 Body and texture
The body of paneer should neither be too firm nor too soft. It should remain
retain its shape. The texture of the high grade paneer should be compact, smooth
elastic and velvety.
Paneer develops body and texture defects due to faulty manufacturing methods
and microbial contamination. Excessive retention of moisture due to low coagulation
temperature, delayed straining or incorrect pH of coagulation often gives a paneer
31
with soft body and pasty texture. Low moisture content in paneer caused by higher
coagulation temperature, incorrect pH at coagulation, use of low fat milk, yield hard
and rubbery bodied paneer. Such paneer may also have a mealy texture. Frozen
storage of paneer causes crumbly body and coarse/mealy texture in paneer.
7.1.3 Flavour
Flavour of paneer is a characteristic blend of the flavour of heated milk curt,
and acid. The flavour of the high-grade paneer should be pleasant, mildly acidic,
slight sweet and nutty. Common flavour defects observed in paneer are similar to
those as observed in other fresh cheese and can be eliminated by following proper
manufacturing, method, sanitation, packaging, storage and handling.
8. References
Bodyfelt, F.W.; Tobias, J. and Trout, G.M. 1988. The Sensory Evaluation of Dairy
Products. Van Nostrand Reinhold, NY.
Dharam Pal and Gupta, S.K. 1985. Sensory evaluation of Indian Milk Products.
Indian Dairyman, 37: 465
Kanawjia, S.K. and Singh, S. 1996. Sensory and Textural changes in Paneer during
storage. Buffalo J. (Thailand) 12: 329-32
Khurana, H. and Kanawjia S. K. 2007. Recent trends in fermented milks. Current
Nutrition Food Sci. (USA) 3: 91-108
Makkal, S. and Kanawjia S. K. 2003. Preservation of Cottage Cheese: A review
Indian J. Dairy Sci. 56: 1-12
Nelson, J.N. and Trout, G.M. 1964. Judging of Dairy Products. Olsen Publ. Co.
Milwaukee. Wis., USA.
Tiwari, B.D. 1996. Sensory attributes of fresh cheese. Compendium: Sensory
evaluation and rheology of milk and milk products. CAS, DT Division, NDRI, Karnal:
52-57.
32
SENSORY ATTRIBUTES OF ICE-CREAM
Dr. F.C. Garg

NDRI, Karnal
1. Introduction
Ice cream is a delicious, wholesome nutritious frozen dairy food. It has
evolved over a period spanning about five centuries. The great technological progress
made in the field of dairying in the nineteenth century such as the development of
centrifugal separator, mechanical refrigeration, better understanding of chemistry and
bacteriology provided stimulus to the development of a large ice-cream industry that
we see today. Ice cream has occupied a unique place in the diet of western people and
is gaining steadily in popularity all over the world. For instance, the annual
production of ice cream in USA has reached more than 3770 million litres. Other
countries ranking high in annual production of Ice cream and related products are
Japan: (750 million litres), Canada (476), Australia (331), and UK (218). India is the
third largest producer of ice cream in the world with production of over 513 million
litres annually. It has been estimated that 0.6 per cent of total milk production in our
country is utilized for making ice cream and Kulfi. The ice cream industry in India is
expanding very fast witnessing an estimated growth rate of 25 to 35 per cent per year.
Production of excellent quality Ice cream is essential to the success and progress of
the ice-cream industry. The quality of ice cream is judged by the consumer on the
basis of its sensory attributes i.e. flavour, body and texture, melting behaviour, colour
and the appearance of package or container. Besides, the product should also comply
with legal standards with regard to its chemical composition and bacteriological
quality. Ice cream not possessing desirable sensory properties cause diminished
consumer goodwill, sales and income to the manufacturer.
2. Factors Affecting Sensory Attributes of Ice-cream
The quality of ice cream depends not only on composition of ice-cream, but
also on the quality of raw materials used, methods of manufacture, distribution and
sale of the product these factors are under the control of the ice cream maker. A full
knowledge of the factors by which the quality may be attained or controlled is
therefore, essential for the production of ice cream possessing desirable sensory
attributes.
There are many differing concepts of perfect ice-cream. Individual
preferences can cause large variations in what people consider to be ice cream of
highest quality. Some prefer ice cream with a low fat content, while others will want
high fat. Some will like very smooth textured ice-cream, others may prefer it be not
too smooth. Variations exist in the required sweetness level and so on. Therefore,
33
desirable sensory attributes of ice cream can be best explained by giving details of
defects and faults which may be found in ice cream, and show how these faults occur
and how they may be overcome.
3. Judging of Ice-cream
The available methods of determining the sensory attributes of ice cream rely
mainly on tasting and using a scorecard. Such scorecards give maxima for various
aspects of the ice-cream quality such as flavour, texture, body and colour. The
American Dairy Association has stipulated a scorecard for ice cream, which carries a
maximum score of 10 for flavour, 5 for body and 5 for colour and appearance, 3 for
melting quality and 2 for bacterial content. The recommended scoring guide is given
in Table 1.
Table 1. The ADSA scoring guide for sensory defects of ice cream
Intensity of Defect
____________________________________________________________________
Criticisms
Slight
Definite
Pronounced
Flavour
Acid (sour)
Cooked
Lacks flavoring
Too high
Unnatural
Lacks fine flavour
Lack freshness
Metallic
Old ingredient
Oxidized
Rancid
Salty
Storage
Flavouring:
34
Sweetener:
Lacks
Too high
Syrup Flavour
Whey
Coarse/Icy
Crumbly (brittle, friable)
Fluffy (foamy)
Gummy (pasty, sticky)
Sandy
Soggy (heavy, pudding-like)
Weak (watery)
Body and texture
Table 2. Flavour defects of ice-cream, their causes and remedies

Defects
A
High flavour
Cause
Presence
amount
of
of
Prevention
large Adding right amount of flavoring
flavouring material.
material
B
Low flavour
Presence of insufficient Adding right amount of flavoring

amount
of
flavouring material.
material
C
Acid flavour
Presence of an excessive
amount of lactic acid
(developed)
Bitter flavour
Use of inferior products
Using fresh dairy products

Prompt, efficient cooling
of mix
Avoiding
prolonged
storage of mix at high
storage temperature
Using true flavour extract
Avoiding use of dairy
35
Cooked
flavour
Flat flavour
Overheating the
mix.
Using overheated
concentrated
dairy products
Use
of
insufficient
flavour, sugar or milk
products stored for long

period at low temperature
Using products free from
off flavour
Carefully
controlling
pasteurization process
Using conc. Products free
of cooked flavour
Using right amount of
these ingredients
solids
G
Metallic
Copper contamination
flavour
Bacterial action
Unnatural
Flavour not typical to ice
flavour
cream
Oxidized
flavour
Using oxidized
flavoured dairy
products.
Metallic
contamination.
Avoiding
copper
contamination of mix
during processing.
Avoiding use of products
have metal flavour.
Using
high
quality
flavouring products.
Using high quality dairy
and non-dairy products.
Using
fresh
dairy
products.
Using only stainless steel
equipment.
Using antioxidants.
Pasteurizing the mix at
high temperatures.
When ice cream is being judged organoleptically it is important that the

serving temperature should be correct. If it is too cold the palate will be deadened, and
it will not be possible either to enjoy the ice cream or to judge any of its sensory
characteristics. If it is too warm it will have melted partially judging of body and
texture will be almost impossible. A consumer judges the quality or sensory attributes
of ice cream on the basis of several characteristics these are flavour, body, texture
and appearance of the product and the package.
3.1 Flavour
Ice cream is a mixture of fat, sugar and milk solids-not-fat together with added
flavour and colour. An increase in total solids increases the richness of the ice cream
and normally improves the flavour, texture and body. Some if these ingredients have
marked flavour, others are more nearly neutral or bland. However, the flavour of no
single ingredient should predominate, but each should blend together to form a
36
harmonious whole, creamy sweet sensation with a slight flavour, leaving a pleasant
after taste which must not be excessive. Many possible flavour defects may arise due
to use of faulty ingredients. The more common flavour defects are given in Table 2.
Table 3. Body and texture defects of ice cream
Name
A
Crumbly body
Causes
Soggy body
Shrunken body
(The ice cream

shrinks away
from the sides
and top of the

container)
Weak body
Buttery texture
Coarse or ice
texture
Prevention
Low T.S.
Content
Insufficient
Stabilizer
Excessive
overrun
Improper
homogenization
Low overrun
High sugar
content
Excessive
amount of
stabilizer
Increasing T.S. Content

Increasing Stabilizer
Decreasing overrun
Proper homogenization
Proper overrun
Optimum suggest
content
Right amount of
stabilizer
Fluctuating
temperatures
during storage
Excessive
overrun
Protein
instability
Rough
transportation
Low T.S. content

Insufficient
stabilizer
Improper
homogenization
High fat content
Slow freezing
Low T.S. content
Insufficient
stabilizer
Slow freezing
Slow hardening
Insufficient
ageing
Increasing T.S. content

Increasing stabilizer
Proper homogenization
Optimum fat content
Fast freezing

Increasing stabilizer
Fast freezing
Fast hardening
Sufficient ageing
Avoiding heat shocking
Avoiding prolonged
Avoiding fluctuating
temperature during
storage
Reducing overrun
Avoiding high acidity in
mix
Avoiding rough
transportation.
37
Fluffy texture
Sandy texture
Heat shocking
Prolonged
storage
Excessive
overrun
Low T.S. content
High emulsifier
content
High M.S.N.F.
(Lactose) content
Fluctuating temp.
in retail cabinets
Long storage
Period
storage
Decreasing overrun
Decreasing emulsifier
content
Decreasing M.S.N.F.
(Lactose) content
Avoiding fluctuating
temperatures in retail
cabinets
Reducing storage
periods
3.2 Body and texture

Both the body and texture of ice cream may be determined readily by the
senses of sight and touch. The desired body in ice cream is that which is firm, has
substance, responds readily to dipping and melts down at ordinary temperatures to a
creamy consistency. The desired texture is that which is fine, smooth, velvety and
carries the appearance of creaminess throughout. The possible body and texture
defects which may be encountered in ice cream are presented in Table 3.
3.3 Melting Quality
High quality ice cream should show little resistance toward melting when it is
exposed to room temperature. During melting the mix should drain away as rapidly as
it melts and form a smooth, uniform homogeneous liquid. Any variations from this
behaviour may lead the consumer to be suspicious of its quality. The defects in
melting quality frequently observed in judging ice cream are given in Table 4.
Table 4. Melting quality defects of ice cream
Name
Causes
Prevention
a)
Curdy meltdown
High acidity of mix.
Using fresh dairy products
b)
Slow melting
*Excessive amount of
* Reducing the amount of
stabilizer
stabilizer.
*Improper homogenization.
* Proper homogenization
38
c)
Whey leakage
* Poor quality dairy
* Using fresh dairy products
products
* Balancing the mix
* Improperly balanced mix.
properly.
* Improperly stabilized mix. * Using more effective

stabilizer
d)
Foamy melt
* Excessive overrun.
* Reducing overrun
down
* Excessive amount of
* Reducing amount of
emulsifier.
emulsifier.
3.4 Colour
The colour of the ice cream should be attractive and pleasing. The ideal colour
is characteristic of the flavour, true in shade and neither too pale nor too intense. For
example, vanilla ice cream should have a creamish yellow to white colour. Uniform,
natural colour is desirable in ice cream. Excessive colour is the result of adding too
much artificial colour to the mix. An uneven colour results if the colour is not
properly added and also if care is not exercised when changing flavours. An unnatural
colour is caused by (a) carelessness in adding the colour, (b) improper use of colours,
or (c) use of foreign materials.
4. Conclusion
Therefore, an excellent quality of Ice-cream can be made only from good mix
ingredients properly balanced to produce a desirable composition along with proper
processing, freezing, hardening and distribution, under proper sanitary conditions. All
these factors are important and must be carefully controlled if the ice cream having
desirable sensory attributes is to be produced. It must be remembered that product
inferiority constitutes one of the greatest menaces to the success and progress of the
ice cream industry. The consumer has learnt to depend upon Ice cram as a safe,
enjoyable, energy-giving, nourishing and refreshing food.
References
Arbuckle, W.S. (1986) Ice cream, 4th Edn., Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. NY
Bodyfelt, F.W., Tobias, J. and Trout G.M. (1988) The sensory evaluation of Dairy
products. Van Nostrand Reinhold, NY.
Hyde, K.A. and Rothwell, J. (1973) Ice cream. Churchull Livingstone, Edinburgh,
UK.
39
SENSORYEVALUATIONOFDAIRYPRODUCTSWITHSPECIAL
EMPHASISONFLAVOURLEXICON
V. Pathak and Z. F. Bhat

Associate Proffesor & Head
Division of Livestock Products Technology
F.V.Sc. & A.H., SKUAST-J
Introduction:
Sensory evaluation of a food refers to its scientific evaluation through the

application of human senses. It involves development and use of principles and
methods for measuring human responses to products and ingredients. These principles
and methods have broad application for a variety of products. The common element in
these tasks is the use of humans as evaluators. It is this link, the human evaluator, that
suggests sensory evaluation's proximity to, if not reliance on, the behavioral and
social sciences. Sensory evaluation complies with the principles of science and is
different from organoleptic evaluation as the results are often reproducible and
comparable. This new field is founded principally on the behavioral and social
sciences, rather than chemistry, microbiology, and engineering, the principal scientific
fields in which traditional dairy scientists have been trained. Behavioral research in
perception, learning, cognition, psychophysics, and psychometrics, to mention only a
few, provides the basis for the principles and methods the sensory scientist uses today.
One thing in common to all sensory assessment methods is that they use
humans as the measuring instrument. Even though sophisticated and highly sensitive
measuring instruments such as gas chromatographs, mass spectrometers, nuclear
magnetic resonance spectrometers, IR and UV spectrophotometers, etc., are now
available, the importance of sensory analysis has grown rather than diminished. The
problem with instruments is that one instrument will analyse only single component at
a time which does not fulfill our requirement as we are interested in getting total
sensory impression of a processed food product at the same time.
The dairy industry has come a long way since the early 1900s, when it began
developing techniques for judging dairy products to stimulate interest and education
in dairy science. Since then sensory analysis techniques have developed into powerful
tools for understanding how the appearance, flavor and texture attributes of dairy
products drive consumer preferences. In the traditional methods that emerged, judging
and grading dairy products normally involved one or two trained experts assigning
quality scores on the appearance, flavor and texture of the products based on the
presence or absence of predetermined defects. Modern sensory techniques can help
dairy processors develop new products that are highly appealing to consumers; enable
processors to optimize a products flavor, texture and color to attract specific target
audiences as well as accurately monitor product quality; can help determine variations
in sensory attributes associated with processing variables, geographic region of
production, production season, etc.
40
Anatomical Structures involved:

Tongue: The four basic tastes are: sweet, salty, sour and bitter. The papillae for
sweet are more concentrated on tip of tongue, the saline at tip and edge, the sour at the
edge, and the bitter at the back. The papillae for bitter are especially deep, and so this
sensation takes longer to perceive but tends to linger.
Nose:
We sense odour at the Regio Olfactory (R) which lies at the top of the inside
of the nose. The nose has two openings; the nostrils are anterior nares, the openings at
back of throat are the posterior nares or choana. In ordinary breathing, the inspired air
does not stream through the upper part of the nasal chamber. A definite sniff is
required for air to reach this area and so this technique is called sniffing. The air
whirls in the upper passage creating a multiplication effect.
Skin:
While tasting, we not only perceive the four basic tastes but also warmth, cold,
pain, tactile and pressure sensations. These belong to the cutaneous senses.
In contrast to the cutaneous senses, the kinesthetic sense is a muscle or power
sense. It gives us a sensation of resistance.
Ear:
Sound sensations perceived while tasting, like crackly in the case of crisp
cookies (biscuits) and crunchy in case of chips (crisps).
Eye:
The colour sense-part of the sense of vision such as brightness, colour, shape
and happenings (events).
History:
Exact sensory of food began in about 1940 in Scandinavian countries with the
development of triangle test, a difference test method. At the same time, independent
and analogous studies were being carried out in the United States of America. Not
until 1950 did European countries start to employ sensory analysis. The first book on
sensory analysis was written in 1957 by Tilgner in the polish language and translated
into Eastern languages (Czech, Hungarian and Russian). The first published
descriptive sensory technique is the Flavor Profile Method (FPM) developed in the
1950s by Arthur D. Little Inc. (Pangborn 1989; Lawless and Heymann 1998;
Meilgaard and others 1999). Refinements and variations in FPM occurred in the
1970s with the development of Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) and the
Spectrum method of descriptive analysis. Today, descriptive analysis has gained
41
wide acceptance as one of the most important tools for studying issues related to
flavor, appearance and texture, as well as a way to guide product development efforts.
Classification of sensory tests:
There are several types of procedures, depending on the specific objective of
the evaluation. Also, there are different approaches for classifying the procedures.
Many described procedures are currently accepted procedures for such tasks as
detecting differences between samples, descriptive analysis of flavor characteristics,
quantitative estimates of flavor intensities, rating quality of a product in relation to
pre-established standards, identifying preferences, and measuring consumer
acceptance.
There are four primary types of tests, and these may be classified as Affective,
Discrimination, Descriptive and Quality tests. Classification of sensory tests into one
of these four categories depends on
The test objective

The criteria for respondent selection
The specific task required of each respondent
Affective Tests
These tests measure the subjective attitudes, such as product acceptance and
preference and the task is to indicate preference or acceptance by either selecting,
ranking, or scoring samples. The paired-preference and 9-point hedonic scale are
popular examples of these types of tests and respondents are usually consumers who
are selected on their current or potential use of the product. In laboratory situations,
consumer demographics often are substituted in favor of accessible respondents
whose preference and acceptance behavior satisfactorily correlate with those of the
target consumer population. Laboratory-type acceptance tests can be done with 25 to
50 respondents. In field studies where the target population is used, minimum
numbers are increased by 75 to 200 or more.
Discrimination Tests
Discrimination tests are designed whether samples are detectably different
from one another. The most frequently used discrimination test methods are the
sequential, paired difference, duo-trio, and triangle tests. The discrimination test is a
small panel test, used in a laboratory environment. Using between 12 and 20 qualified
subjects, it is possible to make reliable and valid decisions, with each subject
providing replicate judgments. Alternatively, one could use 24 to 40 subjects and no
replication.
Descriptive Tests
42
The objective of descriptive tests is to describe sensory properties of products

and measure the perceived intensity of those properties. The most popular descriptive
methods include classical and modified flavor profile, texture profile and quantitative
descriptive analysis (QDA). Typically, 6 to 12 subjects may be used to evaluate a
product. Subjects for descriptive tests are screened for their sensory acuity and are
then trained to perform the descriptive task. The QDA requires replicate judgments to
monitor quantitatively subject performance throughout the course of the test. Results
from the descriptive test provide information about product similarities and
differences in quantitative terms, thus facilitating development efforts.
Quality Tests
These provide a score or grade to summarize a product's proximity to a
standard. The standard may be a written specification or an actual product selected to
embody these specifications. The subject's task differs, as does the quality test itself,
depending on the specific industry and product. In most quality tests developed by the
dairy industry, subjects also use a single scale consisting of numbers anchored by
different word descriptors, or use a procedure that includes a checklist of deficiencies
and assignment of a final grade depending on the specific number and kind of
deficiencies in the product. A low score on a quality test is intended to indicate
deficiencies, as they are defined by experts.
Flavor lexicons:
A flavor lexicon is a set of word descriptors that describes the flavor of a
product or commodity, which is then applied or practiced using descriptive sensory
analysis techniques. It provides a source list to describe a category of products, such
as commodities or finished products. The descriptive panel produces its own list to
describe the product array under study but a lexicon provides a source of possible
terms with references and definitions for clarification. For development of a
representative flavor lexicon several steps, including appropriate product frame-ofreference collection, language generation and designation of definitions and
references are essential before a final descriptor list can be determined. Flavor
lexicons, once developed, can be used to record and define product flavor, compare
products and determine storage stability, as well as to study correlations of sensory
data with consumer liking/acceptability and chemical flavor data. Flavor lexicons
should be discriminating and descriptive and the language should be developed from a
broad representative sample set that exhibits all the potential variability within the
product.
Application:
Flavor Lexicons have been used for a variety of purposes as:
They are widely used to describe and discriminate among products within a
category.
43
They are widely used in industry for comparing and monitoring products and
product consistency and for profiling new and competitive products.
Used in quality control, with relationships to instrumental or consumer
responses.
A powerful research tool with numerous applications across many
commodities and commercial products.
Several different flavor lexicons have been used in cheese to document aroma
and flavor development, the effects of fat reduction, and the effects of
different starter or adjunct bacteria (Muir and others 1995a; Piggot and Mowat
1991; Roberts and Vickers 1994)
Several groups have identified and used descriptive sensory analysis to
differentiate fluid milks to determine the effects of fat content, storage, and
other processing conditions on milk flavor and aroma perception (Lawless and
Claassen 1993; Phillips and others 1995; Phillips and Barbano 1997; Watson
and McEwan 1995; Chapman and others 2001; Bom Frost and others 2001).
Flavor lexicon for chocolate ice cream has been used to discern the effects of
milk fat, cocoa butter, and fat replacers on sensory properties of chocolate ice
cream (Prindiville and others 1999, 2000)
Descriptive analysis lexicons have also been used for numerous other products
including fermented milks, spoiled milk aroma, yogurt etc.
Descriptive Analysis Techniques:

Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) and the SpectrumTM method of
descriptive analysis differ markedly from FPM as they are designed to take
measurements from individual panelists and then generate a panel average, rather than
generation of a group consensus profile as with FPM. However, all 3 techniques
involve screening panelists for sensitivity to flavor and aroma and discriminatory
ability which is followed by extensive training to generate a group of individuals who
can function analogously to an instrument to evaluate flavor of products. Usually
fewer panel members are used (minimum 4) in FPM and the panel leader along with
other panel members work together to generate the language and the method for
sample presentation and evaluation.
After the panelists are screened for sensory acuity and trained extensively
(minimum 60 hr), panelists work as a group to generate a consensus profile of the
sensory properties of the product and the intensity of each as well as overall amplitude
of the product, as well as a measure of balance and blend is evaluated. The Attributes
are evaluated in order of appearance and the scale used for character (descriptor) notes
is a 4 point scale (0-not present, 1-slight, 2-moderate, 3-strong) with half point
designations in between, for a total of 7 points of discrimination.
In contrast to FPM, the panel leader in QDA is a sensory professional, rather
than a member of the panel (ideally 8 to 12 prescreened individuals) and does not
44
participate in the discussion to generate the flavor attributes, but facilitates the process
to generate the language to describe the product. The order of appearance of the
attributes and, thus, orders of evaluation for each descriptor and definitions for each
descriptor are generated and additional products, which may further clarify terms,
may also be used. Data is collected on scorecards using line scales anchored on each
end and the marks are converted to numerical scores by measuring the responses on
the scale with a ruler, digitizer, or computerized system. Unlike FPM the data can be
analyzed statistically and is traditionally graphically represented using a web plot.
A universal intensity scale is usually used in the SpectrumTM method whereas
product specific scaling can also be applied. The panel size is similar to QDA and the
panelists are screened for cognitive, descriptive and sensory discrimination ability,
interest, and availability. By this method, panelists score intensities in the same
manner across all attributes. The scales are anchored on either end and can be 15-cm
line scales or, more commonly, 0 to 15 numerical scales with tenth subdivisions
between, yielding 150 points. The panel leader takes an active role in panel training
and along with panel members identifies the sensory language for the product, their
order of appearance, and definitions for each term. The data is readily analyzed by
statistical techniques and results are normally graphically presented using histograms.
Relating Sensory Perception to Consumers
Effective consumer tests are used to provide information on consumer liking
as descriptive sensory analysis is used to identify and quantify information on the
sensory aspects of products. Quantitative consumer liking and/or preference
information is obtained from acceptability and preference tests. For this purpose
screeners and questionnaires are used to gather demographic data, frequency of usage,
and purchase history about a particular product or group of products and these
questionnaires are often included with and are recommended with acceptance testing
to aid in data interpretation. Identifying drivers of liking or disliking within consumer
market segments is also critical for industry to identify which products and product
attributes are preferred and by which consumer market segment. In order to relate
consumer liking and descriptive sensory properties, several statistical methods are
used.
Relating Sensory Perception to Chemical Components
It is difficult to relate sensory language and chemical volatile compounds
because of many reasons:
The relative amount of a compound in a product is not necessarily a measure

of its sensory impact, due to different thresholds and the effects of the food
matrix.
The sensitivity of the extraction technique used must also be taken into
consideration.
45
There are only a small percentage of the volatile components in a food that
are odor-active.
While relating the gas chromatographic data and chemical compounds to

sensory impact, 1st step in the solution is gas-chromatography olfactometry (GC/O).
The individual compounds in the GC effluent are sniffed and described by a trained
panelist and this technique can also be quantitative if the relative intensity of the
odorant may also be recorded. Generally three techniques are applied with GC/O:
1. Aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA)
2. CharmAnalysisTM
3. OSME
AEDA and Charm Analysis operate on dilution of samples until an odor is no
longer detected and the highest dilution at which the odor is detected can be converted
to a flavor dilution value (FD value used with AEDA) or a Charm value. These
techniques are time consuming because of large number of sample dilutions by at
least 2 panelists. Moreover these techniques also assume that the response to a
stimulus as well as response to all compounds is linear. On the other hand, Osme,
does not involve dilutions, but instead requires panelists (3 or more) to evaluate the
time-intensity of aromas and aroma character.
Recently a new olfactometry technique i.e. nasal impact frequency (NIF) has
also been developed which is based on frequency of detection of a compound in the
GC effluent by sensory panelists. This technique can be applied with time intensity to
yield surface of nasal impact frequency (SNIF) data. Both Osme and NIF/SNIF
require fewer GC runs than AEDA and CharmAnalysis, because only undiluted flavor
extract is evaluated by the sensory panelist but a larger number of panelists (3 or
more, compared to 2 for AEDA and CharmAnalysis) is recommended for these
techniques. All of these techniques are useful for determining odor activity of volatile
compounds and the information obtained is based on individual components and does
not include matrix effects or the time release factor involved when a sample is chewed
in the mouth.
Conclusions:
The importance of sensory analysis has grown and requires more scientific
attention. Flavor lexicons are an important tool for accurately documenting the
description of food flavor. More research is expected and needed to demonstrate the
effectiveness of the methodology and its practical application.
References:
Bom Frost M, Dijksterhuis GB, Martens, M. 2001. Sensory perception of fat in milk.
Food Qual Pref 12:327-36.
46
Chapman KW, Lawless HT, Boor KJ. 2001. Quantitative descriptive analysis and
principal component analysis for sensory characterization of ultrapasteurized milk. J
Dairy Sci 84:12-20.
Lawless HT, Claassen MR. 1993. Validity of descriptive and defect-oriented
terminology systems for sensory analysis of fluid milk. J Food Sci 58:108-12,119.
Meilgaard MM, Civille GV, Carr, T. 1999. Sensory Evaluation Techniques. 3rd Ed.
New York, NY: CRC Press. 387 p.
Muir DD, Hunter, EA, Watson M. 1995a. Aroma of cheese. 1. Sensory
characterization. Milch 50:499-503.
Lawless HT, Heymann H. 1998. Qualitative consumer research methods. In: Sensory
Evaluation of Food. New York NY: Chapman and Hall. p 519-47.
Pangborn RM. 1989. The evolution of sensory science and its interaction with IFT.
Food Technol 43:248-56, 307.
Phillips LG, Barbano DM. 1997. The influence of fat substitutes based on protein and
titanium dioxide on the sensory properties of low fat milks. J Dairy Sci 80:2726-31.
Piggot JR, Mowat RG. 1991. Sensory aspects of maturation of Cheddar cheese by
descriptive analysis. J Sens Stud 6:49-62.
Prindiville EA, Marshall RT, Heymann H. 1999. Effect of milk fat on the sensory
properties of chocolate ice cream. J Dairy Sci 82:1425-32.
Prindiville EA, Marshall RT, Heymann H. 2000. Effect of milk fat, cocoa butter, and
whey protein fat replacers on the sensory properties of low fat and nonfat chocolate
ice cream. J Dairy Sci 83:2216-23.
Roberts AK, Vickers ZM. 1994. Cheddar cheese aging: changes in sensory attributes
and consumer acceptance. J Food Sci 59:328-34.
Watson MP, McEwan JA. 1995. Sensory changes in liquid milk during storage and
the effect on consumer acceptance. J Soc Dairy Technol 48:1-8.
47
SESNORYATTRIBUTESOFCONCENTRATEDMILKANDTHEIR
EVALUATION
Dr. R.R.B. Singh

Senior Scientist
NDRI, Karnal
1.
Introduction
Critically quality assessment of all classes of concentrated milk challenges

both the dairy products judge and the manufacturer of these products. A thorough
understanding of the sensory attributes of concentrated milk and their routine
examination is imperative, not only to assure improvement of the product, but also for
ensuring that the product reaches the consumer in good condition.
2.
Evaporated Milk
When judging or grading evaporated milk, the judge must keep in mind the
desirable qualities and standards for the product. It must be noted that, in addition to
meeting the legal chemical requirements for the product high quality evaporated milk
must be white to creamy in colour, have a relatively viscous body, uniformly smooth
in texture and possess a mild, pleasant flavour (Bodyfelt et al., 1988).
A complete examination of evaporated milk includes test and observations on
colour, container, fat separation, fill of container, film formation (protein break),
flavour, gelation, sedimentation, serum separation, viscosity and whipping ability.
Some of the subjective tests, based on organoleptic examination, make use of
the hedonic scale or variations of it. For example, the flavour of evaporated milk may
be given a hedonic rating on a 9-point scale discussesd earlier under Sensory tests.
A narrow band hedonic scale say, a 5-point one , may be used in rating organoleptic
quality factors other than flavour.
2.1
Procedure for examination
A routine in examining cans of evaporated milk facilitates judging of the

samples. The following steps have been found to be of material aid in going over a lot
of samples:
Precaution: Avoid undue agitation when transporting the cans to the laboratory.
a) Examine the cans for appearance, notice the upper end of the can for polish;
observe the neatness of the label.
48
b) Open the can in such a way that both the can and contents can be examined.
c) Notice the colour of the milk which should be uniformly white to cream
colour. Intensity of darkening may be noted for its degree e.g. non, slight,
distinct and pronounced.
d) Study the body and texture. Smooth, relatively viscous evaporated milk pours
like a thin cream without marked splashing. Allow the can to drain well. Look
for any deposit which may be present in the bottom of the can.
Should the milk lack uniformity try to determine whether the chief factor is
fat, protein, salts or foreign material. In case the fat is responsible, the defect
will appear at the top of the can as a cream layer or as buttery particles. Defect
due to protein will appear as various size curds distributed throughout or as
different intensities of gelation.
e) Observe the condition of the container looking for splangling, blackening of
the seam and rusting of the container. Splanging appears as clean, bright, dark,
overlapping blotches on the surface as though the tin were attacked by acid.
f) Determine the colour reaction in coffee. It should be a rich, golden brown
colour. Off flavour may be associated with rust formation in the container.
g) Note the miscibility with coffee. Feathering in hot coffee appears as finely
divided, serrated curds shortly after the evaporated milk has been added
slowly to the hot coffee.
2.2
Defects in evaporated milk
2.2.1
Flavour
The flavour defects, which may occur in evaporated milk are usually unlike those
commonly occurring in fresh beverage milk. Probably the most common flavour
defect in evaporated milk is that which seems to be associated with progressive
age darkening or browning of the product. Terms such as slightly acid, stale
coffee, old, sour and strong suggest the nature of the defect. The caramel flavour
connotes a pleasant, appetizing taste sensation that is definitely lacking in the
defect associated with age-darkening of evaporated milk. This flavour defect is
easily detected.
The off-flavour is accompanied by only a slight odour suggesting staleness.
The underlying taste reaction of the age-darkened evaporated milk is acid.
2.2.2
Body and Texture
Fresh evaporated milk is remarkably free of body and texture defects. However,
when evaporated milk is held for a long period of time or under adverse
conditions, the following body and texture defects may be encountered:
2.2.2.1 Fat separation: This defect appears as a layer (up to 1more thick) of fat the
top of the can. Among the causes of this defect are inadequate from isolation,
49
high storage temperature, long storage period and impetrated handling while
in store.
2.2.2.2 Curdy: Curdy evaporated milk may be noted by the presence of many
coagulated particles inter spread throughout the milk or by a continuous mass
of coagulum. It is chiefly associated with the protein rather than the fat. It is a
serious economic defect. This condition is due mainly to abnormally low heat
coagulation point of the end product and could not withstand the sterilization
process.
2.2.2.3 Feathering: The feathering of evaporated milk in hot coffee cannot be foretold
by macroscopic examination but by actually testing the milk in hot coffee. It
has been postulated that the formation of the curd when evaporated milk is
added to coffee is due entirely to an excess of viscosity.
2.2.2.4 Gassy: Gassy evaporated milk is rather uncommon. The defect is manifest by
bulged cans and sometimes by a hissing sound of escaping air when the can is
punctured.
2.2.2.5 Grainy: A grainy evaporated milk is the one, which lacks smoothness and
uniformity, throughout. Such milk seems coarse. It is often associated with an
excessively heavy, viscous body. The judge must bear in mind that grainy
evaporated milk does not actually contain grains of sediment settled in the
container. Neither does such milk contain curds or lumps of butter.
2.2.2.6 Low viscosity: A low viscosity evaporated milk may be noted by its milk like
consistency. This defect is discriminated against as it connotes inadequate
condensation.
2.2.2.7 Sediment: The sediment resulting from settling of leukocytes, disintegrated
cells, denatured protein and foreign material of more or less of a colloidal
nature is usually darker in colour than the evaporated milk. Since this
sediment is readily miscible it may be seen only when a can, undisturbed for
sometime, is emptied slowly.
The other type of sediment noted in evaporated milk is the result of the
crystallization of some of the calcium and magnesium salts as Ca3 (PO4)2 and
Mg3(PO4)2. This gritty sediment formation accompanies ageing of the evaporated
milk. They are found in the bottom of the container where they may be noted
especially when the contents are emptied.
2.2.3
Colour
In judging evaporated milk two possible colour defects may be

encountered, viz. too light in colour and too dark in colour. Too light colour is not
a serious defect although it is definitely not desired. The brown discoloration in
evaporated milk associated with high sterilization temperature, high storage
temperature and age is a serious defect in evaporated milk.
50
3.
Sweetened Condensed Milk

Since sweetened condensed milk contains a sufficiently high percentage of
sugar for its preservation, the flavour is pronouncedly sweet. Beyond this intense
sweeteness, the flavour should be clean and pleasant with a slight trace of mild
caramel as an aftertaste.
3.1
Procedure for examination

A definite routine examination enables the judge to make the best use of
the available time with the assurance that the examination is complete when
finished (Seehafer, 1967).
a) Appearance of the container should be as bright as new tin as the can has not
been subjected to the high heat treatment of sterilization.
b) The surface of the product should have the same intensity of colour as the
under layer and should be uniform in consistency with no indication of lumps,
free fat or skin formation.
c) Colour of the product should be uniform throughout. Observe if the milk has a
greenish white creamy or a brownish colour.
d) Viscosity desired is one which is obviously not thin but resembling to a
marked degree that of medium heavy molasses. In grading sweetened
condensed milk, the judge must bear in mind that a desirable sweetened
condensed milk pours like molasses and, when poured, seeks its own level
leaving no trace of the folds on the surface.
e) Flavour should be observed both for the textural and taste sensations. Register
the relative smoothness of the product as a whole and fineness of the grain by
pressing the sample against the palate with the tongue.
3.2
Defects of sweetened condensed milk
3.2.1
Flavour
3.2.1.1 Metallic: The metallic flavour in sweetened condensed milk is chemical

rather than bacterial in nature and is usually traceable to copper contamination.
3.2.1.2 Rancid: It occurs rather infrequently and resembles butyric acid. Rancid
flavour increases in intensity with age.
3.2.1.3 Strong: It is a flavour defect, which is suggestive of caramelized sugar and
is usually accompanied by brown tint to the natural colour.
3.2.2
Body and texture
51
Condensed milk, having a high percentage of sugar has a relatively heavy body
somewhat like normal molasses. Also, it usually has a smooth, uniform texture.
However, the product may have certain body and texture defects such as buttons
or lumpiness, fat separation, gassiness, sandiness, sediment, thickening etc (Gupta
and Patel, 1978).
3.2.2.1 Buttons/lumpy: It is a body defect which is characterized by the presence
of round and firm lumps, with stale odour, at the surface of the product. Buttons
result from enzymic action following mould growth.
3.2.2.2 Sandy, rough, grainy, granular: These terms are used to describe
sweetened condensed milk, which contains oversized lactose crystals. The solid
particles are of such size that the product lacks smoothness and grittiness is
noticeable, as the sample is being tasted.
3.2.2.3 Settled: It is used to describe the condensed milk in which a definite
settling of sugar crystals has occurred.
3.2.2.4 Thickened: This defect is manifest by a gel formation, which gives the
product the appearance of a solid rather than a liquid. The defect varies markedly
in its intensity from a slightly jelly to a firm custard consistency.
References
BIS. (1981) Method for Sensory Evaluation of Sweetened Condensed Milk. IS:
10029-1981, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
Bodyfelt, M.S.; Tobias, J. and Trout, G.M. (1988) The Sensory Evaluation of
Dairy Products, Publ. pp. 416-472.
Gupta, S. K. and Patel, A.A. (1978). Some aspects of judging condensed milk.
Indian Dairyman, 30: 713-715.
Seehafer, M.E. (1967) The Development and Manufacture of Sterilized Milk
Concentrate. FAO Agricultural Studies Bulletin. No. 72, pp. 1-52.
52
Table A. Score card for organoleptic evaluation of UHT milk.

Name of Judge_____________
Date ___________________
Attributes
Perfect
Score
Criticism
1
Flavour
45
Score
Asstringent/chalky
Bitter Cabbage
Coconut
Cooked
Flat
Oxidised/cardboardy
Paper like
Phenolic
Rancid
Sour
Stale
Consistency
20
Score
Thin
Heavy/viscous
Gel/ Custard like
Colour &
Appearance
15
Score
Sample Number
3
4
5
Dull
Browning
Fat separation
Sedimentation
15
Score
Package
Score
Distorted/ Bulged
Dented
Leaky
Soiled
Total Score
100
General guide for grading UHT milk or the basis of total score:
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
Bad
95 and above
90-94
85-89
75-84
Below 74
53
Table B. Suggested score for evaluation of different intensities of defects.

Defect
Slight
Definite
Pronounced
Flavour
Astringent/chalky
Bitter
Cabbage
Coconut
Cooked
Flat
Oxidized/ Cardboardy
Paper-like
Phenolic
Rancid
Sour
Stale
37
32
37
32
42
38
32
34
32
32
28
33
32
27
34
27
40
33
27
29
27
27
23
28
27
22
31
22
38
28
22
24
22
22
18
23
Consistency
Gel (Custard like)
Heavy/Viscous
Thin
12
18
18
8
16
16
4
13
15
11
13.5
11
10
13
10
8
12.5
8
Sedimentation
12
10
Package
Dented
Distorted or Bulged
Leaky
Soiled
4
4.4
3.0
3.5
3.6
4.0
2.0
3.1
3.2
3.6
1.0
2.7
Colour and Appearance

Browning
Dull
Fat Separation
Table C. General guide for grading UHT milk on the basis of various sensory
attributes.
Characteristics
Flavour
Grade
Range of Score
Specific description of criticism
Excellent
41-45
Slightly cooked.
Good
36-40
Slightly astringent / chalky, cabbagy,

flat; definite to pronounced cooked.
54
Consistency
Colour and
Appearance
Sedimentation
Package
Fair
31-35
Slightly bitter, coconut, oxidized,

paper like, phenolic, rancid, stale;
definite to pronounced cabbagy flat.
Poor
26-30
Slightly sour; definite bitter, coconut,

oxidized, paper like, phenolic, rancid,
stale; pronounced chalky. Contd..
Bad
Below 25
Excellent
19-20
No criticism.
Good
17-18
Slightly thin, viscous/heavy.
Fair
15-16
Definite to pronounced thin, definite

heavy.
Poor
13-14
Pronounced viscous.
Bad
Below 12
Gel, Custard like.
Excellent
13.6-15.0
No criticism
Good
12.1-13.5
Dull colour.
Fair
10.6-12.0
Slightly brown, slightly fat-separation.
Poor
9.1-10.5
Definite brown, fat separation.
Bad
Below 9
Pronounced brown, fat separation.
Excellent
13.6 15.0
Good
12.1-13.5
No visible sediments but chalky

perception in mouth suggesting
presence of sediments in soluble
particles form.
Excellent
4.6 - 5.0
No criticism.
Good
4.1 4.5
Slightly distorted or bulged.
Fair
3.6 4.0
Dented package; definitely distorted or

bulged.
Poor
3.1 3.5
Soiled package.
Bad
Below 3
Leaky package.
Definite sour; pronounced bitter,

coconut, oxidized, paper like,
phenolic, rancid, stale.
No criticism.
55
SENSORY ATTRIBUTES OF FERMENTED MILK

PRODUCTS
Dr. Latha Sabikhi

Senior Scientist
NDRI, Karnal
1. Introduction
Cultured milk products, which include dahi, yoghurt, lassi, buttermilk,
shrikhand, sour cream and kefir, play an important role in the dairy industry. Their
low pH and extended shelf life make cultured milk products particularly relevant to
commercial production in tropical countries.
While sensory attributes are very important determinants of the acceptability
of cultured milk products, their sensory evaluation has not progressed to the same
extent as the art and science of sensory discrimination for milk and many other
manufactured milk products. Generally, sensory evaluation of commercial fermented
milk and cream products has frequently involved more of a comparison of the
products of current manufacture with those made previously. This procedure, however
may tend to result in a progressively lower quality product.
2. Common Attributes of Cultured Milk Products
2.1 Flavour
Cultured milk products should impart a pleasing bouquet flavour, which
results from the overall blend of a delicate, diacetyl odour and a distinctly clean, acid
taste. Once the aroma and taste characteristics of good-cultured products are fixed in
the mind of the evaluator they are not easily forgotten. Sometime there is possibility
of occurrence of one or more of several off flavours, such as bitter, cheesey, lack of
desired aroma, lack or flavour and high acid.
2.2 Body and Texture
Before being shaken the body of a good, properly cultured product should
appear firm or solid and generally be uniform in appearance. It should only show a
few beads of whey exuded from the surface. The mix sample should appear smooth,
somewhat resembling rich cream, no curd particles or lumps should appear when in is
spread in a thin layer in a glass surface or diluted with water. Some of the more
common body defects of cultured milk products are described in the following
paragraphs.
56
2.2.1 Curdy: A curdy body tends to lack uniformity, smoothness or homogeneity. The
curd particles may be sufficiently large to be readily observed upon pouring or so
small in size that close examination is necessary to see the feathens curds.
2.2.2 Lumpy: A lumpy body is often an aggravated case of curdy consistency; the
particle size is larger in the lumpy defect.
2.2.3 Gassy: A gassy product is denoted by excessive gas bubbles (CO), or by

streaks in the coagulum due to rise of gas bubbles to the surface. If accompanied by
whey separation, a gassy sample will whey off at the bottom or at the centre of the
container.
2.2.4 Ropy: A ropy product tends to stretch or string out when poured. Sometimes
the defect is so pronounced that the product strings out like a thin syrup or mucous
substance.
2.2.5 Wheying-off: This defect is manifest by a shrunken curd or coagulum and the
presence of liberated or free whey in areas around the side and on the surface of the
container.
3. Yoghurt
Yoghurt is a quickly curdled milk based product with little or no alcohol
content. It results from the associative growth of Lactobacillus bulgaricus and
Streptococcus thermophiolus in warm milk (29-45oC). Typical yoghurt is
characterized by a smooth, viscous gel, with a taste of sharp acid and a green or green
apple flavour some yoghurt exhibit a heavy consistency that closely resembles custard
or milk pudding by contrast, other yoghurt are purposely soft bodied and essentially
drinkable. Different type of yoghurt sold in the USA and their characteristics are
given in Table 1.
3.1 Desirable attributes of yoghurt
Yoghurt should be smooth, viscous gel, with a characteristic taste of sharp
acid and a green or green apple flavour. The typical acetaldehyde flavour of plain
yoghurt is achieved through a symbiotic bacterial relationship is flenced by such
factors as (1) temperature of incubation, (2) amount of inoculum (3) period of
incubation, (4) source of culture, (5) heat treatment of yoghurt base and (6) pH of
finished products. The flavour of plain yoghurt is somewhat unique and unlike that
57
encountered in any other type of fermented milk. The flavour components of plain
yoghurt flavour include acetaldehyde acetic acid, diacetyl and several volatile falty
acids.
Table 1 Characteristics of the various styles of flavoured yoghurts in U.S.A.
Characteristics
Yoghurt style (Type)

1
Swiss Style (French
Precultured yogurt base and fruit or berry flavoring
prestirred, or
(15-25%) blended prior to packaging
Preblended
2
Sundae-style
Flavouring (15-25%) added to the container, yogurt
(Fruit-on-bottom)
base added to top of flavouring.
a. Eastern-type
No colouring agent, flavouring, or sweetener added to

yogurt base (milk base is white).
b. Western-type
Colouring agent, flavour extract, or concentrate

and/or sweetener added to yogurt base.
c. Fruit-on-top
Yogurt cups filled in a manner so that flavouring

material is on top portion of container.
Extract flavored
Flavour extracts and or concentrates are sole source
(or concentrates)
of flavour plus sweetener(s) (i.e., coffee, chocolate,

lemon etc.)
Frozen Product Form

a.
b.
c.
d.
Soft serve
Hard frozen
Novelties
Yogurt pies
Served as cones, dish or sundaes.

Pint and quart size
On-a-stick, coated bars, push-ups.
In pie crusts.
Miscellaneous Types
A variant of the sundae-style Western type: A firm,

flavored yogurt with additional flavoring cascading
over its exterior when emptied up-side down.
58
3.2 Defects in yoghurt

3.2.1 Plain yoghurt
Colour and appearance consideration for plain yoghurt are rather simple and
straightforward, compared to the complexities of flavoured yoghurt. Generally, the
appearance of plain yoghurt should convey a smooth, homogenous, moderately firm
gel or custard-like body and texture and a uniform off-white color. The more common
color an appearance defects of plain yoghurt are reviewed here.
3.2.1.1 Free whey: Wheyed-off (Syneresis) This defect is manifest by a shrunken
curd or coagulum and the presence of liberated or free whey in areas around the
side and on the surface of the container.
3.2.1.2 Gel-like: This condition may be considered as both an appearance and a body
and texture defect. The term gel-like is used to describe the appearance of excessive
product firmness, or a severe gelatin (liver like) consistency.
3.2.1.3 Shrunken: Occasionally in yoghurt, the gel or coagulum tends to shrink in
size within the container (or pull away from the carton side wall); this leaves the
impression of reduced or shrunken contents. Quite often, free whey will fill the void
that results from this shrinking of the coagulum.
3.2.1.4 Surface Growth: Probably the most serious defect of yoghurt appearance.
This defect consists of visible colonies of yeast and/or mold growth on the top surface
of the yoghurt.
3.2.2 Body and texture defects
3.2.2.1 Grainy: In the instance of graininess, the product lacks the desired
smoothness and uniformity of appearance. Small particles of a grit or grain size may
actually be visible; graininess is quite often detectable by mouthfeel.
3.2.2.2 Ropy: A ropy product tends to stretch or string-out when poured.
Sometimes the defect is so pronounced that the product strings-out like a thin syrup
or mucous substance.
3.2.2.3 Too Firm: When the body of plain yoghurt is considered too firm, it
conveys the impression of being too rigid or resistant to mastication when placed in
the mouth. Also, a too firm body is often apparent by visually examining a side
profile of a spoonful of product. Firm or rigid edges can be noted, rather than a more
preferred soft rounding impression of a spoonful of product.
3.2.2.4 Weak: A weak body defect is the exact opposite of too firm; the product
consistency conveys the distinct impression that it would probably be easier to
consume the product as a beverage than to spoon it. Viewed from side profile, the
product may appear practically level in the spoon, or it may spill over the lip of the
spoon. For drinkable style yoghurt, a weak body is a prerequisite.
59
3.3 Procedure for yoghurt evaluation

A scorecard for swiss-style flavoured yoghurt (fig.1) developed and adopted
by the Committee on Evaluation of Dairy products of the American Dairy Science
Association carries maximum scores for different attributes (Table 2) and can be used
as per the guidelines given in Table 3. This scorecard was cooperatively designed
through the suggestions and efforts of ingredient suppliers and commercial yoghurt
manufacturers.
Table 2. Maximum scores for the sensory attributes of yoghurt
Attributes
Maximum Score
Normal range
Flavour
10
1-10
Body and texture
1-5
Appearance
1-5
Product acidity
Container and closure
Table 3: Scoring guide for the sensory defects of Swiss-style yoghurt

Intensity of Defect
Criticisms
Slight
Definite
Pronounced
Acetaldehyde (green)
Acid (too high)
Acid (too low)
Bitter
Cooked
Foreign
Lacks fine flavour
Flavour
60
Lacks flavouring
Lack freshness
Lacks sweetness
Old ingredient
Oxidized/metallic
Rancid
Too high flavouring
Too sweet
Unclean
Unnatural flavouring
Gel-like
Grainy/gritty
Ropy
Too firm
Weak/too thin
Atypical colour
Colour leaching
Excess fruit
Lacks fruit
Lumpy
Shrunken
Surface growth
Wheyed-off (syneresis)
Body and texture
Appearance
61
4. Lassi
Lassi, popular Indian soft drink is a product resulting from the growth
of a selected culture usually lactic streptococci in heat treated whole or partially
skimmed milk. At the desired ripeness 0.75-0.85% lactic acid, the coagulum is
broken, admixed with sugar (or sugar syrup), and flavour and packaged in glass
bottles or polyethylene bags. It is stored under refrigerated conditions and invariably
served cold.
4.1 Desirable characteristics of lassi
The color of lassi should be pleasing, attractive and uniform. Normally, it
varies from light yellow to whitish. In general, the good, clean, pleasant diacetyl
flavour of a culture is desired in lassi. The natural flavour may be enhanced or
enriched by the presence of milk fat.
The demands of trade vary as to the body of lassi. Some consumers prefer a
heavy viscous body while others like a rather thin body. Consequently, no uniform
standard can be fixed with regard to the body of lassi. However, a medium-bodied
lassi pouring similar to thin gravy seems to be most appropriate. The texture should
be homogenous showing no signs of wheying off or grains or curd particles.
4.2 Score card for lassi
A scorecard based on 100-point scale is shown in Fig 1 and the guidelines
given in Table 3.
Attribute
Perfect Score
Sample Score
1 2 3 4 5
Flavour
45
Body & texture
30
Acidity
10
Colour & appearance
10
Container & closure
100
Total
62
Table 3. Suggested deductions

sensory attributes of lassi
Sensory
Flavour (45)
from
Defect
maximum
score
for
different
Intensity of defect
Slight
High acid/green cheesy,
Definite Pronounced
11
metallic
10
13
16
Body and Texture
Curdy grainy, thin/thick
(30)
body Ropy,
3
bitter,
wheying off
Acidity (10)
High acidity, Low

acidity
Color &
Uneven/unnatural colour
Appearance (10)
Container and
Dirty/improperly
closure (5)
covered
5. Shrikhand
Shrikhand is an acid coagulated and sweetened milk product, which is a
popular delicacy in states of Gujarat, Maharashtra and partly Karnataka. This
indigenous dairy product is prepared by lactic coagulation of milk and expulsion of
whey from the curd followed by blending of sugar, flavour and spiced. The product
has about 5% fat, 42% sugar and 60% TS. The shelf life of the product is about 40
days at 8+1oC. A 100-point score card similar to the one shown in figure 2 carries a
maximum score of 55, 30, 10 and 5 for flavour, body and texture, appearance and
color respectively. The sensory guide is given in Table 3 and 4.
6. References
Conolly, E.J., White, C.H. Custer, E.W. and veda muthu, E.R. (1984) Cultured Dairy
Food Quantity Improvement Manual, American Cultured Dairy Products Institute
Washington D.C.
63
Duthie, A.H; Nilson, K.M. Atherton, H.V. and Garrett, L.D. (1977) Proposed score
card for yoghurt. Cultured Dairy Product J., 12 (3) 100
Kemp, N. (1984) Kefir, the champagne of cultured dairy products. Cultured Dairy
Product. J. 19(3): 29
Ryan, J. M., White, C.H. Goush, R.H. and Burns, A.C. (1984) Methodology for
evaluation of yoghurt. J.Dairy Sci, 67: 1369
Dharam Pal and Gupta, S. K. (1985) Sensory evaluation of Indian Milk Products.
Indian Dairyman 37: 465
Patel, R.S. (1982) Process Alterations in shrikhand technology, Ph.D. Thesis,
Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra
64
APPLICATION OF E-TONGUE IN MONITORING

SENSORY QUALITY OF FOODS
Dr. S.K. Kanawjia, Sanjeev Kumar*, Hitesh Gahane** and Vikash Gupta
Principal Scientist
Cheese and Fermented Foods Lab, D.T. Division, NDRI, Karnal
* PhD Scholar, ** M.Tech (DT) Scholar, *** Research Associate
E-mail: skkanawjia@rediffmail.com
Introduction
New product development requires the integration of sensory attributes
including product taste, texture, and appearance with consumer attitudes and health
biases. Both sensory and attitudinal variables determine food preferences, product
purchase and food consumption. This paper describes application of the e-tongue to
eliminate panelist bias for taste evaluation of food products. The evaluation of dairy
and food products for their organoleptic properties is one of the essential requirements
for development of newer items as well as its perfection at the stage of production or
marketing. Taste is the most important sensory attribute of any food product, which
determines its acceptability. The senses of taste have always been used in monitoring
and judging the quality of foods. The application of human taster to distinguish
different tastes is as older as the human civilization. Unfortunately, there are several
problems associated with human taster which include sensory fatigue, varied
perception of similar taste to different people, health risk as associated with tasting of
certain chemicals and its dependability on human mood and adaptation. In the era of
sensor technology, evolution of E-Tongue has initiated renaissance in sensory
assessment of foods.
E -Tongue mimics the biological tongue, which is actually a group of sensor
chips capable of remitting real time data to control the quality of a liquid process.
When a liquid flows over this "tongue," its exact chemical makeup can be ascertained
and controlled by computer. This innovation is expected to save several lacks of
rupees in industrial quality control. The tongue can "taste" liquids to detect impurities
or anomalies, offering possibilities for improving water purification, blood and urine
tests, even the fermentation of champagne. Using chemical sensors, University of
Texas at Austin, researchers have designed an E-tongue that can taste like its natural
counterpart. It has the potential someday to distinguish between a dazzling array of
subtle flavour using a combination of the four elements of taste viz. sweet, sour, salt
and bitter. In some ways it has outdone Mother Nature: it has the capacity to analyze
65
the chemical composition of a substance as well. The device, which has the potential
to incorporate hundreds of chemical micro sensors on a silicon wafer, has a multitude
of potential uses. The food and beverage industry wants to develop it for rapid testing
of new food and drink products for comparison with a computer library of tastes
proven popular with consumers. E-Tongue is the most advanced device of its type
worldwide and has no analogues. The know-how of the system is not disclosed in
scientific papers, the patent aspects are under study.
Historical Background
E-Nose only measures volatile components only, which constitutes a samples
odour. Human sensory perception encompasses more than just odour and aroma and
includes taste, colour, texture, mouth-feel, and even sound. As E-Nose is used more
routinely, instrument suppliers have continued to provide improved solutions
The tongue research, reported in the Journal of the American Chemical
Society, began in 1996 when electrical and computer engineering professor Dean
Neikirk and chemists John McDevitt and Eric Anslyn began casual discussion of the
idea. Neikirk and McDevitt designed a nose to sniff out iodine, but soon realized that
many chemicals don't evaporate. The new collaboration incorporated the work of
Anslyn, a chemist and tongue researcher at the University of Texas at Austin, who
used polymer micro beads to synthesize DNA and its proteins. The team attached four
well-known chemical sensors to Anslyn's minute beads and placed the beads in
Neikirk's micro-machined wells on a silicon wafer. Like a human tongue, the wells
mimicked the tongue's many cavities that hold chemical receptors known as taste
buds. Each bead, like a tongue's receptor, had a sensor that responded to a specific
chemical by changing colour. One turned yellow in response to high acidity, purple
under basic conditions. Then the researchers read the sensor's results through an
attached camera-on-a-chip connected to a computer. The sensors responded to
different combinations of the four artificial taste elements with unique combinations
of red, green and blue, enabling the device to analyze for several different chemical
components simultaneously. Alpha M.O.S., Toulouse, France, has now launched an
E-Tongue for the analysis of taste and non-volatile chemicals that are typically found
in liquids.
Development of E-Tongue
One of the overall goals of NASA's Space Life Sciences Division of Advanced
Human Technology Program (AHST) research project is to understand the principles,
concepts, and science which will enable the development of an integrated, rugged,
reliable, low mass/power, electro analytical device which can identify and
quantitatively determine a variety of water quality parameters including, inorganics,
organics, gases along with physical properties like pH, oxidation reduction potential,
and conductivity. The mission of its Advanced Environmental Monitoring and
Control Program (AEMC) is to "provide spacecraft with advanced, microminiaturized
66
networks of integrated sensors" to monitor and control the environment. One of the
main components of the AEMC program is the development of advanced
technologies for monitoring the chemical and physical status of life support systems
i.e. the water supply.
To accomplish these goals a group of scientists in collaboration with the
NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Thermo Orion Research, undertook the
research necessary to lead to an electrochemically-based integrated array of chemical
sensors based on several novel transduction and fabrication concepts. Even though
this type of sensor array might be thought of as an "Electronic Tongue", it is
exceedingly more capable. Working in conjunction with a neural network, it will
provide both qualitative and quantitative information for a much broader range of
components, such as cations, anions, inorganic and organic than a human tongue ever
could. The micro fabrication, integration, and multiplexing of such a large number of
sensors on a single substrate has not been previously attempted and presents a
formidable scientific and technical challenge. Their work has lead to the discovery of
a unique electro-immobilization technique, which imparts special selectivity
properties to each sensor. Unlike previous devices though, this electrochemicallybased sensor will provide both identification and reliable quantitative data. The
technology resulting from this research project has been proposed to be used in a taste
of future: the E-Tongue. E-Nose developed by collaboration between the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory and the California Institute of Technology analyzes gases in a
similar way and was the precursor to E-tongue research at University of Texas. From
the silicon tongue, the team hoped to create a process to make artificial tongues more
cheaply and quickly, placing them on a roll of tape, for example, to be used once and
thrown away.
E-Tongue Capability
The researchers designed E-Tongue to be structurally similar to the human
tongue, which has four different kinds of receptors that respond to distinct tastes. The
human tongue creates a pattern in the brain to store and recall the taste of a particular
food. E-Tongue is an analytical instrument comprising an array of chemical sensors
with partial specificity (cross-sensitivity) to different components in solution, and an
appropriate method of pattern recognition and/or multivariate calibration for data
processing. It is a new generation analytical instrument based on an array of nonselective chemical sensors (electrodes) and pattern recognition methods. Chemical
sensors incorporated into the array exhibit high cross-sensitivity to different
components of analyzed liquids inorganic and organic, ionic and non-ionic.
Utilization of the sensors with high cross-sensitivity in conjunction with modern data
processing methods permits to carry out a multi-component quantitative analysis of
liquids (determination of composition and components), and also recognition
(identification, classification, distinguishing) of complex liquids.
67
The instrument is a multisensor system for liquid media analysis only. It

consists of a multisensor system (sensor unit) incorporating 15 to 40 different sensors,
an electronic interface device for measuring and conversion of the sensor signals and
a PC for data acquisition and processing. Not only is E-Tongue a technological
breakthrough; it is also a myth-buster about the character of academic research in the
era of electronics. E-Tongue may be called a micro machined sensor array that has
been developed for the rapid characterization of multi-component mixtures in aqueous
media. The sensor functions in a manner analogous to that of the mammalian tongue.
Likewise, the sensor creates specific patterns for different mixtures of analytes. These
"taste buds" are deposited into an array of micro machine-etched wells localized on
silicon wafers. The hybrid micro machined structure has been interfaced directly to a
charged-coupled-device (CCD), which is used for the simultaneous acquisition of the
colorimetric data from the individually addressable "taste bud" elements.
With the miniature sensor array, acquisition of data streams composed of red,
green, and blue (RGB) colour patterns distinctive for the analytes in the solution are
rapidly acquired. E-Tongue contains tiny beads analogous to taste buds. Each "bud" is
designed to latch onto specific flavour molecules and change colours when it finds
one, be it sweet, sour, bitter or salty. The buds are housed in pits on the surface of the
tongue itself, which is made of silicone. Each one of these pits looks like a little
pyramid, and it's just the right size that we can take one of these taste buds and nestle
it down inside. A little silicon chip that has micro beads arrayed on it, in a similar
fashion to the taste buds on your tongue has been made at the university of Texas.
Each of the beads responds to different analytes like the tongue responds to sweet,
sour, salty, and bitter. There is a potential to make taste buds for almost any analytes.
To build E-Tongue, the scientists positioned 10 to 100 polymer micro beads on
silicon chip about one centimeter square. The beads are arranged in tiny pits to
represent taste buds and marked each pit with dye to create a red, green, and blue
(RGB) colour bar.
The colours change when the chemicals are introduced to E-Tongue. A camera
on a chip connected to a computer then examines the colourrs and performs a simple
RGB analysis that in turn determines what tastes are present. Yellow, for example,
would be a response to high acidity, or a sour taste. The E-Tongue now uses simple
markers to detect different types of taste: calcium and metal ions for salty, pH levels
for sour, and sugars for sweet.
E-Tongue features an auto-samples and integrated software (Giese, 2001). It
is designed to replicate human taster and consists of an array of chemical sensors,
each with partial specificity to a wide range of non-volatile taste molecules, coupled
with a suitable pattern recognition system. For instance, The Alpha M.O.S. E-Tongue,
called the Astree, is composed of a 16-position auto sampler, an array of liquid
sensors, and an advanced chemo metric software package (Alpha M.O.S, 2001 a, b,
c). The instrument also has an option of sample temperature control to ensure
analytical producibility of measurements.
68
Features of E-Tongue
One of the unique features of the system is the possibility to correlate the
output of E-Tongue with human perception of taste, odor and flavour, e.g. with food
evaluations made by a trained taster. A typical sensitivity limit of most such sensors
for the majority of components is about several micrograms per liter. Of primary
importance are stability of sensor behaviour and enhanced cross-sensitivity, which is
understood as reproducible response of a sensor to as many species as possible. If
properly configured and trained (calibrated), E-Tongue is capable of recognizing the
quantitative and qualitative composition of multi-component solutions of different
natures, e.g. beverages and foodstuffs. E-Tongue is not affected by CO2 concentration
in the product .It responses to a number of organic and inorganic nonvolatile
compounds in the ppm level in liquid environment .The response can be highly
reproducible. In any E-Tongue application, results will be as good as the samples used
in the calibration and teaching the sets.
Principle of E-Tongue
Humans have long been thought to detect four basic taste types viz. sweet,
salty, sour and bitter. Very recently, a fifth candidate basic taste was identified:
umami, the taste of monosodium glutamate (MSG), characteristic of protein-rich
foods. Taste buds are believed to contain receptor molecules that trigger nerve signals
when they encounter flavour-imparting molecules. The details of this system are still
not understood. Each taste sensation may correspond to a fingerprint signal induced
by the differential activation of the various taste receptors. E-Tongue works on this
principle. It works by measuring dissolved compounds and taste substances in liquid
samples (Giese, 2001).
It contains four different chemical sensors. The sensors comprise very thin
films of three polymers and a small molecule containing ruthenium ions. These
materials are deposited onto gold electrodes hooked up to an electrical circuit. In a
solution of flavorsome substances, such as sugar, salt quinine (bitter) and
hydrochloric acid (sour), the thin sensing films absorb the dissolved substances. This
alters the electrical behavior (the capacitance) of the electrodes in a measurable way.
Each sensor responds differently to different tastes. A composite sensor that
incorporates all four therefore produces an electronic fingerprint of the taste. The
researchers combine these responses into a single data point on a graph. The position
on the graph reflects the type of taste: sweet lies towards the top left, for example,
sour towards the top right (Riul et al., 2002). Different beverages have a characteristic
location on the graph. Coffee is low down around the middle, for instance. Some
tastes that might be expected to differ only slightly, such as distilled and mineral
water lie far apart on the graph and so can be clearly distinguished.
E-Tongue The Present
69
Researchers at the University of Texas have developed an E-Tongue that they

hope they will someday be able to taste the differences in a variety of liquids, from
orange juice to blood. But can an E-Tongue mimic the sophisticated palates of wine
tasters? Eventually, its developers say, it may come close. With wine, for example,
the tongue changes colour depending on how sweet or sour the vintage is. They also
plan to go beyond the four tastes of the human tongue and use the device to analyze
such substances as blood or urine, or to test for poisons in water. Someday, says
chemist Eric Anslyn, the tongue might speed up blood analysis by testing everything
from cholesterol to medications in a person's bloodstream, all at the same time. But
the developers have a way to go before achieving their vision. So far, the tongue can
only tell the difference between white wine and white vinegar. Alpha M.O.S.
exhibited the recently introduced Astree E-Tongue at the IFT annual Meeting and
Food Expo in New Orleans, La. The Astree is designed for liquid product analysis
and taste control.
Advantages of E-Tongue
The typical analysis time using the E-Tongue is about 3 min from when the
sensors are introduced into the beaker containing the sample. It takes only 5 minutes
for analysis and sensor cleaning. It has been proved that the instrument is so sensitive
that it can response to as 10-2 molar of sucrose, caffeine, salt (NaCl), sour (HCl) and
Umami (MSG) (Tan et al., 2001).
Application of E-Tongue would be advantageous to analyze the taste of those
toxic substances which human dare to taste due to toxicity. Successful application of
E-Tongue may offer online monitor of taste and documentation, thereby permits
better product process maintains. Therefore, E-Tongue may help the food processor
to reduce wastage from poorly controlled processes and increased productivity. Since,
E-Tongue readily tends itself to automation and computerization, monitoring taste
quality can be incorporated into the manufacturing process. Another advantage is its
versatility. E-Tongue being developed range from small, inexpensive, handhold
devices e.g. those for periodic taste analysis goods for household purposed to
sophisticated devices for contitinuous, on-line monitoring of taste quality. Eventually,
E-Tongue will be inexpensive disposable units, placed on a roll of tape to be used
quickly and easily. Application of E-Tongue permits many sorts of diverse sample to
be examined. Once a protocol has been established, the instrument does not require
highly skilled operators.
Detectors in E-Tongue
The detector consists of an array of seven different liquid cross-sensitive
sensors. These detectors are selected on the basis of application, since sensitivity and
selectivity are important for obtaining instrumental correlation. Upto 25 different
sensors are commercially available. The sensors are made of silicon transistors with
an organic coating that governs sensitivity and selectivity of each individual sensor.
70
The proprietary coating is used to ascertain good repeatability, sensitivity and

selectivity. The response (R) of E-Tongue mathematically represented as follows: R =
f (SL, P), where SL corresponds to the liquid sensor sensitivity and selectivity and P
corresponds to the liquid sample. E-Tongue seeks to measure the attributes, such as
salty, sweet, bitter, sour, and savorless. The measurement consists of a potentiometric
difference between each individual coated sensor and the Ag/AgCl reference
electrode. The main part of E-Tongue is a set of potentiometric chemical sensors,
applicable for liquid analysis Sensor arrays include different types of sensors:
conventional ones, specially designed non-specific sensors with enhanced crosssensitivities or classical electrochemical electrodes are used depending on the task,
sensor stability and/or cross sensitivity.
Data Processing
The second essential part of an E-Tongue is the data processing. Since the
number of sensors in the array of an E-Tongue can reach 40, each of them producing
a complex response in the multicomponent environment, a relevant multidimensional
data processing must be performed. This is done by different pattern recognition
methods such as Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) or multivariate calibration tools.
Each method has its own advantages as well as drawbacks, which must be carefully
considered to get reliable analytical results in food analysis.
Pattern-Recognition System in E-Tongue
The chemo metric package comprises various pattern-recognition analysis
modules for evaluating the data recorded from the array of liquid sensors. The
modules include principal component analysis (PCA), discrimination function
analysis (DFA), Soft Independent Model Clam Analogy (SIMCA), and Partial Least
Square (PLS) (Alpha M.OS, 2001b). The various pattern-recognition modules are
utilized to achieve instrumental correlation to sensory tests that are conducted. On the
basis of the objectives of analysis, different modules are used. For instance, PLS is
utilized for quantitative analysis, where the objectives are to quantify a particular
molecule of attribute. For qualitative analysis, SIMCA can be used for comparison to
ensure good similarity of a new product to a gold standard. The modules of the ETongue are the same and/or very similar to those used for the E-Nose.
Training of E-Tongue
E-Tongue, like a human being, needs to be trained with a correctly selected
sample set to ensure good recognition and reproducibility. E-Tongue, in fact, seems to
be black box; it knows nothing until it is taught Alpha M.O.S. (2000) suggested the
procedure for training, model building, and validation for the instrument.
71
Operation of an E-Tongue
The auto-sampler allows 15 samples to be evaluated automatically, once the
sample has been prepared. Preparation of samples typically involves filling the 100
ml beakers to three-fourths full. No other sample preparation is required. One beaker
position is reversed for cleaning the sensor array following analysis of each individual
sample. The auto-sampler also includes fluidic pumps for cleaning out the beaker for
sensor rising when needed. Cooling to 2 to 4C also ensures that there is limited
sample change during analysis cycle. Analysis of sample is followed by a wash cycle
to ensure that there is no carryover of sample to the next analysis and also to ensure
good reproducibility. Typically, upto five replicate measurements are made for each
sample.
Correlation between E-Tongue Output and Human Perception
A good agreement was observed for coffee, wine and soft drinks. That is why
"artificial tasting" of beverages and foodstuffs based on sensor arrays and multivariate
data processing seems to be a highly interesting emerging field. The performance of
E-Tongue is presented in Table-1.
Table-1
Attributes
Qualitative Analysis
Quantitative Performance
Typical sensor array

size
20 - 40 sensors
10-30 sensors
Typical number of
measuring sessions
4-8
12 - 50
Number of measurements within each

measuring session
3 - 10
Examples
Discrimination of different
types of beverages.
Discrimination of different
coffees by name,
Discrimination of orange
juices by their quality.
Classification of the
different coffees depending
on acidity, Glycerol rate in
wine samples,
Determination of
components in model blood
plasma.
Applications of E-Tongue
72
E-Tongue has a multitude potential application, which includes its uses in

quality control laboratory in space station and in medicine/body functions. A new
hand-held E-Tongue promises to give accurate and reliable taste measurements for
companies currently relying on human tasters for their quality control of wine, tea,
coffee, mineral water and other foods. E-Tongue can sense low levels of impurities in
water. It can discriminate between Cabernet Sauvignons of the same year from two
different wineries, and between those from the same winery but different years. It can
also spot molecules such as sugar and salt at concentrations too low for human
detection. The electronic fingerprint allows the scientists to predict what a particular
solution will taste like. Martin Taylor of the University of Wales at Bangor has
anticipated that the device will probably be able to discriminate the umami taste too,
giving it a refined palate for sushi. The food and beverage industries may want to use
E-Tongue to develop a digital library of tastes proven to be popular with consumers,
or to monitor the flavours of existing products.
The E-Tongue has been designed to replace human tasters. E-tongue can also
"taste" cholesterol levels in blood, cocaine in urine, or toxins in water. An "E-Tongue" for monitoring water quality on spacecraft and planetary habitats.
Researchers hope E-Tongue can be used by industry to ensure that beverages coming
off assembly lines are uniform in flavour. Quality control for beverages is one way
the E-Tongue can be used. This first-generation E-Tongue has the ability to assay
solution content for Ca2+, Ce3+, H+, and fructose using colorimetric indicators that are
covalently linked to polyethylene glycol-polystyrene resin beads.
E-Tongue can be applied for quantitative analysis and recognition
(identification, classification) of a very wide range of liquids on aqueous and waterorganic basis. The most promising are the perspectives of E- Tongue application for
quality control and identification of the conformity to standards for different food
stuffs - juices, coffee, beer, wine, spirits, etc. Also the system can be successfully
utilized in complicated tasks of industrial and environmental analysis, such as
determination of the composition of groundwater in the abandoned uranium mines.
There are several laboratory prototypes of E- Tongue, which have been
constantly used for several years in the Laboratory of Chemical Sensors of
St Petersburg University. Mobile versions of the system for special applications are
being developed. Surprisingly this technology has created interest in vastly different
areas. Besides the food industry, environmental and tourist industries want to
incorporate it into hand-held monitors for feedback about local air and water. And
there are huge markets in biomedical applications. E-Tongue can play a significant
role in product development and quality assurance/quality control. E-Tongue
measurement of taste and non-volatile components of food and beverages can be
carried out easily to complement the headspace aroma/odor analyses, thereby adding a
new dimension to the instrumental correlation of human perception. Like E-Nose, ETongue can be used for several purposes, including sample analysis, quality control,
73
and product matching (Madsen and Grypa, 2000). Regarding food industry and
related processes, E-Tongue has already been successful in the following fields.
In the brewing industry, E-Tongue can be used to monitor batch-to-batch
variation of the beers following the brewing process. E-Tongue allows product
conformity testing, taste default detection, origin identification (Giese, 2001). The
objective of the instrument is to complement the E-Nose and more important, allow
the food and beverage industry to cover a large proportion of the sensory perception
of consumers-in essence, covering both aroma/odour and taste (Tan et al., 2001). For
orange juice and apple juice, E-Tongue will more typically measure the non-volatile
components, including chemical molecules responsible for sweetness, bitterness,
saltiness, and sourness (Tan et al., 2001). This instrument has also been used to detect
off-flavour in beer, as in a pale ale lager containing too high a concentration of
dimethyl sulfide (DMS), formed from a malt-derived precursor during wort
production or by contaminant bacteria during fermentation (Tan et al., 2001). An
extremely important taste attribute of beer is its bitterness. A range of beers has also
been analyzed using E-Tongue. Result shows the good linearity of quantification of
BU (Bitterness Unit) using PLS.
E-Tongue has also been used for the analysis of quality of high-fructose corn
syrup to detect some taint compounds responsible for the off-flavours, such as fish
taste/flavour formed by microbiological oxidation of protein residues and other
taste/odour descriptors including fruity, astringent, SO2, salty, corn-caramel, and
moldy. Bleibaum et al. (2001) tested a series of nine 100 % apple juices, including a
three-apple blend, vitamin-C fortified apple/pear juice, and an apple cider using ETongue.
There are numerous fields in the food industry where E-Tongue may prove
beneficial in food processing, with in principle and practice. Quality management is
of utmost importance in the food industry, especially since the in guess of the good
quality assurance Programme. Application of E-Tongue would allow the taste quality
of a food to be monitored continuously from the raw material stage right through to
final product. In recent years, E-Tongue finds food and beverage industry as the
challenging environment for its routinely application in taste control and analysis.
E-Tongue-The Tomorrow
The technology is projected to save millions of rupees, as it becomes an
integral part of industrial process quality control systems. Once established in the
pharmaceutical industry, Scientists have planned to expand and apply the instrument
to the clinical diagnostic market, developing equipment that will help physicians
diagnose patients at the bedside. By saving time at the point of care, it will save lives.
That's the whole point of commercializing this technology. In the epoch of
miniaturization, scientists lead their concentration to develop E-Tongue of tomorrow
based on a single chip. Scientists are thinking that medical diagnosis and food
74
quality amassment will be the most challenging application field for E-Tongue. It may
be applied to solve some environmental problems such as analyzing hazardous wastes
of factory and tape as well as ground water quality. The application of E-Tongue
would include the inspection of quality of fish, meat and fermented products during
household storage or commercial storage period.
Conclusion
For many years, assessment of sensory quality of food has been based upon
the traditional method i.e. application of human senses. As new food processing lines
are developed, computer control will became an increasingly important part of factory
operation. Sensor technology has offered the food industry a new, rapid type of
monitoring and measuring device for taste analysis of foods i.e., E-Tongue, whose
speed, sensitivity stability and ease of use exceed the efficiency of human taster. The
successful miniaturization of sensors would advance the capability of E-Tongue to
monitor and analyze several taste analytes using single chip instrument. In the food
and beverage industry in the western countries, E-Tongue has evolved with a great
deal of fanfare, which may change the scenario of the present food industry where the
evaluation of the product is till relied upon human senses, such as smell, taste etc.
While the application of E-Tongue will no qualm present a radical revolution
in quality control of foods providing the food industry with a great opportunity to
exploit this novel technology, it will face a dual challenge involved in identifying and
progressing the technology to capitalize on these. Some day is coming when you
wouldnt need to wait at the door of your panel member with a tray containing a cube
of cheese for sensory evaluation, an E-Tongue fitted online would automatically
analyse and document the product quality batch by batch or someday household
refrigerator would automatically alert your brisk housewives that your Quarg cheese
gets soured, which you put since last Deepawali.
References
Alpha MOS. (2001a). Astree electronic tongue user manual. Toulouse, France.
Alpha MOS. ( 2001b). Astree sensor technical note. Toulouse, France.
Alpha MOS. ( 2001c). Special newsletter Basell Interview. Toulouse, France.
Alpha MOS. (2000). FOX2000/3000/4000 Electronic Nose advanced manual.
Toulouse, France.
Bleibaum, R.N., Stone, H., Isz, S, Labreche, S., Saint Martin, E., and Tan, T.T.
(2001). Comparison of sensory and consumer results with Electronic Nose and
Tongue sensors for apple juices. Submitted for publication (http//www.google.com/).
Giese. J. (2001). Electronic Tongues, Noses and much more. Food Technology,
55(5): 74-81
75
Kanawjia, S. K. and Makhal, S. (2007) E-Tongue: a device for sensory evaluation of

foods. CAS Lecture Compendium: Computer applications in food and dairy
processing, DT Div., NDRI, Karnal.
Madsen M. and Grypa, R. (2000). Spices flavour systems and the Electronic Nose.
Food Technology, 54 (3): 44-46.
Riul, A. et al. (2002). Artificial taste sensor: efficient combination of sensors made
from Langmuir-Blodgett films of conducting polymers and a ruthenium complex and
self-assembled films of an azobenzene-containing polymer. Langmuir, 18: 239 245.
Tan, T.; Lucas, Q.; Moy, L; Gardner, J.W. and Bartlett, P.N. (1995). The Electronic
Nose A new instrument for sensing vapours. LC-GC 1NT, 8(4): 218-225.
76
ROLE OF PACKAGING MATERIALS IN ENHANCING
SENSORY QUALITY OF DAIRY PRODUCTS
Dr. G.K. Goyal

Principal Scientist
NDRI, Karnal
1.0. Introduction
In modern times packaging has become an integral part of processing in the
dairy industry. Package is the gateway to know a product. Packaging is also brand
ambassador of a product. Packaging is technology of protecting products from the
adverse effects of the environment. It is a medium for safe delivery of the products
from the centre of production to the point of consumption.. A product is often
identified by the package in which it is served (Goyal and Tanweer Alam, 2004). The
package must ensure the same high quality of the product to the consumer. Packaging
of products materially contributes to trade promotion and conserves valuable
manpower and raw materials. The packaging industry is growing at a much higher
rate in developing countries. Projected growth rate of demand and consumption for
packaging in India is 10% to 12 % (Anon, 2005a).
2.0. Functions of Package
The packages mainly perform three functions viz. to contain, to protect and to
inform / sell the product. It is essential to know the nature and composition of the
product, its desired shelf-life under specified conditions of storage in terms of light,
temperature, humidity, presence of oxygen, the types and causes of deterioration
including mechanical stress, the product may undergo during handling and storage.
The selected packaging materials for dairy products should have following properties:
It should not impart its own odour to the product.

It should be inert to food and must be non- toxic.
It must protect from moisture, oxygen, and light
Convenient
Temper proof
Printable
Machinabe
Point of sale impact
Differentiability
Economic
77
The package not only protects the product but also gives information about the
contents, storage conditions, methods of use, date of manufacture expiry date, price
and nutritional consideratios. There are many more peculiarities, which could be
identified under the following headings for, determining the packaging of dairy
products.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Product range
Market
Consumer needs
(iii)
Operating margins
3.0. Traditional Milk Products:

It is estimated that nearly half of the total milk production in India is utilized
for the manufacture of a range of traditional milk products viz., fat rich (ghee), heat
desiccated (Khoa and Khoa based sweets, Rabri, Basundi, etc.), acid coagulated
(Paneer, Chhana and Chhana based sweets), fermented (Dahi, Mishti dahi,
Shrikhand), cereal based (Kheer, Payasam etc.) and frozen (Kulfi) products. Most of
these products, except 10 15% of total ghee production, are produced by unorganised
sector (Halwais) using labour and energy intensive batch processes, resulting into
large variations in their qualities. The shelf life of traditional dairy products is
generally low and does not commensurate with the principles involved in their
manufacture. One of the reasons for poor shelf life is either no packaging or
inadequate packaging of traditional dairy products mainly post manufacturing, due to
unhygienic conditions in production, packaging and storage areas. A number of
surveys conducted on the market quality of indigenous milk products have revealed
alarmingly high incidence of microbial contamination, besides large variations in
chemical composition, flavour and texture. Most of the indigenous milk products have
high water activity leading to rapid deterioration at ambient temperatures. Further,
food products exposed to different environmental conditions without packaging get
contaminated easily with moulds and bacteria. Improperly packaged foods undergo
many flavour and textural changes during transportation and marketing. Lack of
knowledge about the nature of food products and their compatibility with the
packaging material may forfeit the purpose and lead to escalation of cost (Goyal and
Gupta, 1989; Goyal and Rajorhia, 1991).
3.1. Milk Sweets:
It is common practice to keep the milk-based sweets in open metal trays. On
demand, the items are weighed and placed in ordinary paper bags or kept on dhak
leaves and given to the consumers. At the most, some halwais or shopkeepers wrap
sweets in glassine or grease-proof paper and sell them in duplex board boxes. Also
gulabjamun, which is kept soaked in sugar syrup, has no better packaging for local
consumption, though it is canned for export purposes.
78
3.1.1.0. Khoa based sweets: Some of the khoa based sweets namely peda, Carrot
halwa, Kalakand, Burfi, Gulabjamun, etc. are very common.
Table : Packaging trend of khoa based sweets (Tanweer Alam et al., 2005)
Product
Packaging material
1. Peda
Paperboard carton with paper lining, paper bags, dhak

leaves, plastic box
2. Carrot halwa
Paperboard carton, plastic box
3. Kalakand
Paperboard carton, dhak leaves, plastic box
4. Burfi
Paperboard carton, paper bags, dhak leaves, plastic box
Burfi, Peda and Kalakand:

Amongst the several khoa-based sweets, burfi and peda occupy most
dominating place in terms of popularity and market demand. These are mostly
packaged in paper cartons or duplex board boxes with or without butter paper lining.
The traditional packages do not provide sufficient protection to milk sweets from
atmospheric contamination and unhygienic handling and thus susceptible to become
dry, hard and mouldy and develop off flavours. Also the product packed in these
wrappers / packages are not suitable for distant transportation and outstation retail sale
or sale through super markets because they lack necessary mechanical and protective
properties. Tin containers can be used but their cost is prohibitive. Only recently,
some of the reputed manufacturers of these sweets have started packaging burfi and
peda in HDPE/polypropylene boxes and cartons of 500g and 1 kg size. The modern
flexible polyfilms and laminates offer alternate choice. The chemical composition of
the sweet, the transportation hazards, and the period of storage under specified
conditions of temperature and humidity are the major factors, which should largely
decide the type of packaging materials. The common types of spoilage in burfi, peda
and kalakand can be significantly delayed or altogether prevented by using flexible
packages. (Pal, 2003; Tanweer Alam et al., 2005).
i) Prevention of body and texture defect:
Burfi contains moisture content ranging from 4.3 to 15.1%, while peda
contains 4.2 to 22.3% moisture, and kalakand contains 16 to 28% moisture. At these
moisture levels, the sweets have unique texture and typical chewing properties. For
storage of burfi, an optimum RH of 70% is recommended. High RH and low RH
make the product moist, pasty and hard, respectively. The choice may be from HDPE,
PP, MXXT, polycel or other suitable combinations. This will prevent the ingress of
79
moisture into the product and prevent the products becoming pasty under humid
conditions.
ii) Prevention of rancid and oxidized flavours:
Khoa based sweets are quite rich in milk fat, and hence susceptible to rancidity
and oxidative changes during storage. Proper packaging can play a key role in
preventing the rancidity. Among the factors, which accelerate rancidity, light is most
effective. Hence, this should be prevented by using packaging materials having
reflecting pigments, denser films. Packaging materials which have very good oxygen
barrier properties such as MST cellulose, MXXT, metallized polyester / poly, 5-layer
co- extruded films, laminates having Al foil are recommended for preventing
oxidative deterioration. Vacuum packaging of the products also enhances the shelf life
to a great extent.
(iii) Prevention of discolouration and absorption of foreign odours:
Burfi, peda and kalakand often lose their original colour and appearance
during storage. Light induced oxidation may lead to loss of colour intensity. Maillard
type browning a common storage defect of milk sweets, is also accelerated by
exposure to light and moisture. These fat rich dairy products quickly absorb foreign
odours and rapidly lose their inherent delicate flavour. It is extremely important that
these products are packed in such materials which can stop the two-way traffic of
odours / gases in the products in order to preserve their original colour and flavour.
Packaging material should also be grease resistant in order to minimise seepage of fat.
3.1.2.0. Channa based sweets:
Channa based sweets like sandesh, rasogolla, etc. are extremely popular in the
eastern and north eastern regions of the country. Sandesh is generally packaged in
paperboard cartons with a paper lining, ordinary paper bags and Dhak leaves. The
rosogolla is packaged in tinplate cans, or in paperboards, Dhak leaves,
Kulhads(earthen pots) etc. Canning of rosogolla is expensive and the other methods
of packaging are unhygienic, inconvenient and unsuitable for outstation retail sales
(Goyal and Rajorhia, 1991).
3.1.3.0. Gulabjamun and Rosogolla:
These sweets need to be saved from light, oxygen, ingress or egress of
moisture, yeasts and moulds. Gulabjamun is a khoa based sweet while Rosogolla is
prepared from chhana. The similarity between the two is based on their shape, texture
and method of storage. Both are spherical in shape, spongy, porous and kept in sugar
syrup. Their shape and porosity attributes are very critical and have to be maintained
till the product reaches to the consumer. On an average, they contain about 40%
moisture and 50% sugar. Fat content in Gulabjamun is more than Rosogolla. Yeast
and mould growth is a more common problem associated with yeasty / fruity flavour
80
defects during storage in both the sweets. Since the body and texture of rosogolla is
very delicate and it has to be preserved in sugar syrup, it is invariably packaged in
lacquered tin cans of 500g and 1kg respectively. The proportion of rosogolla and
syrup is kept 40:60 and product stays in good condition for more than 6 months at
ambient conditions, because hot filling (at about 90C) technique is adopted.
Gulabjamun is largely packaged without syrup in paper cartons or plastic boxes like
burfi and peda. Though lacquered tin can is the most suitable packaging material for
rosogolla and gulabjamun, but it is very expensive. Hence, there is a need to pack
these products in composite cans made of plastic and laminated with a PP Al foil
material. (Pal, 2003; Goyal and Gupta, 1989).
3.1.4.0. Paneer:
Paneer is commonly packaged in PE bags. Recently, some organizations have
started its vacuum packaging. In order to increase its shelf life significantly by
employing the modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), the research work has been
done at Dairy Technology Division, NDRI, Karnal.
3.1.5.0. Dahi and Yoghurt:
Dahi and yoghurt are mostly packed in PS cups, but they cause pollution
besides not being health-friendly. Hence, efforts are on to switch the packaging of
these products from PS cups to earthen pots.
3.1.6.0. Ghee:
Majority of the dairies pack ghee in lacquered or unlacquered tin cans of
various capacities ranging from 250gm to 15kg. Tin cans protect the product well
against tampering and during transportation to far off places without significant
wastage. The most common and serious deterioration in ghee is the development of
rancid flavour, caused by the formation of volatile compounds, which give unpleasant
odour even in micro quantities. The modern packaging plays a vital role in delaying
the onset of this defect. The packaging material should also possess good water
vapour barrier properties. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) and polypropylene (PP)
are known to have low water vapour transmission rates (WVTR), and are easily
available and cheap. If such films are laminated to other suitable basic packaging
materials, one can get almost negligible value for WVTR, which would be ideal. The
package to be selected should show sufficient tensile strength, elongation, tear
resistance and burst strength, besides overall good mechanical strength. The
packaging of ghee can also be done in polymer coated cellophane, polyester, nylon
6, or food grade PVC and their laminates.
3.1.7.0. Dried Milk Products:
Gulabjamun mix, kheer mix and kulfi mix:
81
Consumer packages for these products include: sachets and flexibles (having
high barrier properties like metalized polyester etc) kept in cartons.
4.0 Conclusion
Due to appearance of Mall-culture, revolutionary changes are taking place at a
very fast speed in packaging of food products. It is expected that new forms of
packaging material such as roll wraps, pouches, cartons, PP trays covered with
transparent coloured films of MXXT or such other films are likely to appear on the
market place for packaging of dairy products. Further, with a view to enhance the
sensory quality vis--vis shelf life, thermal processing of certain milk products right
in the packages is being successfully attempted.
Although, the country has made significant advances in the field of packaging
material technology, the dairy packaging machineries have not been developed.
Hence, there is alarming need that Dairy Engineers develop such packaging machines,
which could be commercially used by medium sized milk sweet manufactures
throughout the country.
5.0 Reference
Anon (2005a). Indian packaging sector, http//www. ciionline. org/news//htp
Anon (2005b). www.packagingindustry.com
Anon (2006).. Growth of Indian Dairy sector, http//www. ciionline. org/news//htp
Goyal, G.K. and Gupta, S.K. (1989). Packaging of dairy products a review,
Beverage & Food World, 16(1): 42-46
Goyal, G.K. and Rajorhia, G.S. (1991). Role of modern packaging in marketing of
Indigenous dairy products. Indian Food Industry, 10(4): 32-34.
Pal, D. (2003). Packaging of traditional Indian dairy products: Present status and
future prospects, compendium of lectures of 15th CAS course on Advances in
packaging of dairy and food products organized at NDRI, Karnal from 13th Feb. to
5th Mar 2003,pp 95-101.
Tanweer Alam, Goyal, G. K. and Broadway, A.A. (2005). Packaging trends in dairy
Industry. In: Indian Dairy Industry, volume I, Published by Dr. Chawla Dairy
Information Centre (P). Ltd, New Delhi, pp 180-185.
82
CONSUMER ACCEPTANCE STUDIES
Dr. Latha Sabikhi

Senior Scientist
NDRI, Karnal
1.
Introduction
Consumers are the starting and end point of marketing management in any
field. Food being an unavoidable commodity, consumer acceptance of food is a vital
reality in food companies. The core of Consumer Acceptance Studies (CAS) pertains
to the decision-making process of consumers with respect to food choice, as well as to
the factors impacting on this decision-making process. Food companies analyse their
consumers needs and wants, which are consequently translated into product
specifications, product attributes, product development, price, promotion or
communication and a specific retail or distribution format. Consumer acceptance of
new technologies, novel products and the impact of personal characteristics on
product acceptance is a specific field of study in current product management
programmes.
2.
What are Consumer Acceptance Studies?
Well-structured CAS in the food arena deals with the changes in food
consumption in contemporary society and the developments of food practices in
everyday life. Consumers not only make buying decisions but are also citizens living
as a part of the whole food system. As citizen-consumers people interact in various
ways with other persons in the food system, such as food producers, manufacturers,
retailers, authorities and policy-makers. From this perspective, consumers are seen as
part of the food system that takes shape and develops in the context of societal
changes both nationally and internationally.
Eating is a complex activity of diverse developments relating to the social and
individual aspects of eating, environmental and economic pressures, global and local
inequalities in economic and social resources, technological developments in food
production and the increasing concern about the healthiness of modern eating habits.
Thus, modern CAS are generally divided into two areas, a) views on food quality and
b) food production, consumption and food habits. The first of these covers studies
relating to consumer aspects of developing the quality of foods, buying food,
developing the responsibility in the food chain and advancing the consumer
perspective in the use of health claims in food marketing. The second area focuses on
changes in food practices now and in the future, paying particular attention to the
83
environmental, social and cultural sustainability of food production and consumption.

It also deals with the consumers understanding and practices of healthy eating.
3.
CAS-Related Features in Food Science
The consumers perspectives, ideas and expectations concerning foods, food

production and practices of eating must be improved before conducting food
acceptance studies. Periodic training programmes are sometimes necessary to
introduce the stakeholders to the different aspects of food tasting. Sensory properties
such as flavour and texture play a major role in consumer perceptions of food product
quality. The mouth-feel and other textural and sensory properties of food are an
essential component of its perceived quality. The significance of textural properties
has further increased with the trend towards low-fat, low-calorie and low-additive
content products. Food structure is particularly important in baking, dairy and
processed meat products. Traditionally, food structure has been improved by using
ingredients such as emulsifiers or thickeners. However, consumers tend to take a
rather negative view of many of these ingredients.
The goal of consumer studies is to assess the consumers and food industrys
perception towards novel technologies and ingredients. They may be presented with
existing food technologies such as food additives, genetic modification, irradiation,
vacuum packing, pasteurization, microwave ovens and canning, as well as
technologies that are conventionally non-food-related as use of magnetic waves, rays
and computer-aided evaluation programmes. The survey then asks participants to
indicate, in their own words, which technologies concern them and why.
4.
Consumer Attitude
Consumer attitudes are of profound importance when new technologies are

developed and implemented into food production. Consumers are not usually aware of
details of food production. However, they may form attitudes to certain food
production technologies, including use of new ingredients, when they become
confronted with information about it. These attitudes may prevent them from buying
products where these technologies/ ingredients have been used. The way in which
these skeptical attitudes affect the intentions to buy products produced using novel
technologies and ingredients, particularly the possibility of a negative attitude towards
to the production method with additional sensory benefits, is presently not wellunderstood.
There are reports that CAS has proved to be an asset for ingredient
development work. While the attitudes towards the use of several novel ingredients in
food production are fairly neutral, those towards use of genetic engineering in food
production and ingredients produced by use of gene technology are more negative.
Studies also revealed that the acceptance of the technology is closely linked to the
relevance of the functionalities of the products as well as the cost vs. benefit analyses.
Consumers often changed their attitudes towards new technologies/ products/
84
ingredients after actually tasting the product when compared to those who did not
taste the products.
A study conducted at the University of Guelph (Canada) revealed that
perceived risks and benefits is another important factor that influences how
consumers receive new food technologies. Consumers are willing to take a risk if they
receive greater benefits such as improved health, better quality or lower price. If the
benefits outweigh the perceived risks, consumers are more likely to buy into the
product
5.
The Process
To initiate CAS, a group is identified as a sample of the entire group of

potential consumers. The sample must be as close and as representative of the entire
population as possible. A questionnaire or score card is formulated in accordance with
the product/ process/ ingredient on which the CAS is conducted. Each member of the
study group is given the product and the schedule of questions. If any special
instructions are to be given on the manner of testing the product or filling the
schedule, these are also handed out. A reasonable period of time is given to the
consumers to test the product and fill answer the questions on the schedule. The filled
schedules are collected after the stipulated time. This is a very important step, as
uncollected questionnaires result in waste if efforts besides tarnishing the image and
the integrity of the firm. The data collected is tabulated and subjected to appropriate
statistical analysis. The interpretation is a key to the changes/ innovations to be
introduced into the practice.
6.
Conclusion
Consumer acceptance studies are currently the norm and practice in western
countries. In the emerging countries, such studies involving the most vulnerable
consumers on the lowest incomes are still relatively under-reported. Programmes
seeking to introduce new products, and those who are involved in their promotion and
marketing, must acquire knowledge about consumer acceptance and sensory testing in
order to ensure these programmes are more effective.
7.
Some Useful Websites

ftp://ftp.cordis.europa.eu/pub/food/docs/consumer-crossenz.pdf
http://www.kuluttajatutkimuskeskus.fi/index.phtml?l=en&s=150
www.uoguelph.ca/news/2005/08/study_delves_in.html
85
CHEMISTRY OF FLAVOUR DEVELOPMENT IN

CHEESE
Dr. Sumit Arora
Senior Scientist
Dairy Chemistry Division
NDRI, Karnal - 132001
Cheese is the generic name for a group of fermented milk based food products.
More than 500 varieties of cheeses are listed by the International Dairy Federation
(IDF 1982), and numerous minor and/or local varieties also exist (Fox 1987). The
flavor profiles of cheeses are complex and variety- and type-specific. This was
realized back in the 1950s, when Mulder (1952) and Kosikowski and Mocquot (1958)
proposed the component balance theory. According to this theory, cheese flavor is
the result of the correct balance and concentration of a wide variety of volatile flavor
compounds. According to Olson (1990) There is a cheese for every taste-preference
and a taste-preference for every cheese.
Unlike many processed food products for which stability is the key criterion,
cheese is a biochemically dynamic product and undergoes significant changes during
its ripening period. Freshly-made curds of various cheese varieties have bland, and
largely similar, flavours and it is during the ripening period that flavour compounds
are produced which are characteristic of each variety. Originally, it was thought that
cheese flavour resulted from a single compound or class of compounds. While this is
largely true for blue-mould varieties (whose flavour is dominated by alkan-2- ones), it
is now generally accepted that the flavour of most cheeses results from the
combination of a large number of sapid compounds present in the correct ratios and
concentrations (Bosset and Gauch 1993; Mulder 1952; Kosikowski and Mocquot
1958). The volatile flavor compounds in cheese originate from degradation of the
major milk constituents; namely lactose, citrate, milk lipids, and milk proteins
(collectively called caseins) during ripening which, depending on the variety, can be a
few weeks to more than 2 years long.
Biochemical reactions during manufacture and ripening of cheese

Cheese ripening is a slow process, involving a concerted series of
microbiological, biochemical and chemical reactions. The characteristic flavor,
aroma, texture, and appearance of individual cheese varieties develop during ripening.
These changes are predetermined by the manufacturing process: (a) composition,
especially moisture, pH and salt, and (b) microflora, starter, and especially nonstarter
microflora and adjunct starter (that is, microorganisms added to cheese milk for
purposes other than acidification) (Gilles and Lawrence 1973). The ripening of cheese
86
involves 3 primary biochemical processes (Fig 1) processes glycolysis, lipolysis,

and proteolysisthe relative importance of which depends on the variety (Fox et al.
1994).
Fig 1. Biochemical pathways leading to the formation of flavour compounds

(Marilley and Casey 2004)
These primary changes are followed and overlapped by a host of secondary

catabolic changes, including deamination, decarboxylation and desulfurylation of
amino acids, -oxidation of fatty acids and even some synthetic changes; that is,
esterification (Fox 1993). The above-mentioned primary reactions are mainly
responsible for the basic textural changes that occur in cheese curd during ripening,
and are also largely responsible for the basic flavor of cheese. However, the
secondary transformations are mainly responsible for the finer aspects of cheese
flavor and modify cheese texture. The compounds listed in Table 1 are present in
most, if not all, cheese varieties. The concentration and proportions of these
compounds are characteristic of the variety and are responsible for individuality.
These complex biochemical changes occur through the catalytic action of the
following agents:
Coagulant
Indigenous milk enzymes, especially proteinase, lipase, and phosphatases
87
Starter bacteria and their enzymes

Secondary microflora and their enzymes
The biochemistry of the primary events in cheese ripening is now fairly well
characterized, but the secondary events are understood only in general terms.
Table 1: Flavour compounds generated from the 3 principle components during
ripening of cheese
(Singh et al. 2003)

Lactose and citrate
During Cheddar cheese manufacture, mesophilic starter bacteria ferment
lactose to (mainly L+) lactic acid. In the case of Cheddar-type cheeses, most of the
lactic acid is produced in the vat before salting and molding. Even after losing ~98%
of the total milk lactose in the whey as lactose or lactate, the cheese curd still contains
0.8 to 1.5% lactose at the end of manufacture (Huffman and Kristoffersen 1984). The
pH decreases after salting, presumably due to the action of starter, at S/M levels <
5.0%, but at high values of S/M, starter activity decreases abruptly (Fox et al. 1990)
and the pH remains high. The quality grade assigned to the cheese also decreases
sharply at S/M levels > 5.0% (Lawrence and Gilles 1982). Lactose is hydrolysed by
starter cultures which produce glucose and galactose (galactose-6-P for lactococci).
Glucose is then oxidised to pyruvate by the Emden-Meyerhof pathway of glycolysis.
Galactose is converted by galactose-positive starter bacteria and leuconostocs through
the Leloir pathway to glucose- 6-P and by lactococci through the tagatose pathway to
glyceraldehyde-3-P (Cogan and Hill 1993). Pyruvate is a starting material for the
formation of short-chain flavour compounds such as diacetyl, acetoin, acetate,
acetaldehyde and ethanol (Cogan and Hill 1993; Escamilla-Hurtado et al. 1996;
Henriksen and Nilsson 2001; Syu 2001; Melchiorsen et al. 2002).
Bovine milk contains relatively low levels of citrate (~8 mM). Approximately
90% of the citrate in milk is soluble and most is lost in the whey; however, the
concentration of citrate in the aqueous phase of cheese is ~3 times that in whey (Fryer
et al. 1970), presumably reflecting the concentration of colloidal citrate. Cheddar
88
cheese contains 0.2 to 0.5% (w/w) citrate which is not metabolized by Lc. lactis ssp.
lactis or ssp. cremoris, but is metabolized by Lc. lactis biovar diacetylactis and
Leuconostoc spp, with the production of diacetyl and CO2. Due to CO2 production,
citrate metabolism is responsible for the characteristic eyes in Dutch-type cheeses.
Diacetyl and acetate produced from citrate contribute to the flavor of Dutch-type and
Cheddar cheeses (Aston and Dulley 1982; Manning 1979a, 1979b). Citrate is
metabolised to produce acetolactate, diacetyl and acetoin (Cogan and Hill 1993; de
Figueroa et al. 2000, 2001). However, thermophilic starter bacteria are usually citratenegative (Cogan and Hill, 1993). The principal flavor compounds produced from
metabolism of citrate are acetate, diacetyl, acetoin, and 2, 3-butandiol (Cogan 1995).
Diacetyl is usually produced in small amounts, but acetoin is generally produced in
much higher concentration (10 to 50 fold higher than diacetyl concentration). Acetate
is produced from citrate in equimolar concentrations.
Milk fat
Milk fat is an essential prerequisite to flavour development (Foda et al. 1974).
As in all high-fat foods, lipids present in cheese can undergo oxidative or hydrolytic
degradation. Because of the negative oxidation - reduction potential of cheese,
oxidation of cheese lipids is probably limited; but the extent to which it occurs and its
contribution (if any) to cheese flavour development has received little attention (Fox
et al. 1982). Enzymatic hydrolysis of triglycerides to fatty acids and glycerol, monoor diglycerides (lipolysis) is, however, essential to flavour development in many
cheese varieties. Milk fat contains high concentrations of short - and intermediatechain fatty acids which, when liberated by lipolysis, contribute directly to cheese
flavour. The proportions of free C6:0 to C18:3 fatty acids in Cheddar cheese appear to
be similar to those in milk fat, but free butyric acid (C4:0) occurs at a greater relative
concentration in cheese than in milk fat, suggesting that butyrate is either selectively
liberated by lipases present in Cheddar or that it is synthesized by the cheese
microflora (Bills and Day 1964).
The specificity of the lipase also influences the development of cheese flavour,
since short-chain fatty acids (which have the greatest flavour impact) are generally
found at the sn-3 position of triglycerides. Cheese pH also influences the flavour
impact of FFA, since carboxylic acids and their salts are perceived differently.
Lipolysis is particularly extensive in hard Italian varieties, surface bacterially-ripened
(smear) cheeses and blue mould cheeses, and is essential to correct flavour
development in these cheeses. Extensive lipolysis is considered undesirable in many
internal, bacterially-ripened varieties such as Cheddar, Gouda and Swiss cheeses; high
levels of fatty acids in these cheeses lead to rancidity. However, low concentrations of
FFA contribute to the flavour of these cheeses, particularly when they are correctly
balanced with the products of proteolysis or other reactions (Rychlik et al. 1997;
Bosset and Gauch 1993). Lipolysis of milk triglycerides releases high concentrations
89
of short- and intermediate-chain fatty acids (Bills and Day 1964). Short-chain fatty
acids have a considerable flavour impact, but intensive lipolysis is undesirable in most
cheese varieties because of the development of rancidity. Free fatty acids must be
counter-balanced with other flavour compounds to develop an appreciated aroma
(Bosset and Gauch 1993; Fox et al. 1995). Free fatty acids are substrates of enzymatic
reactions yielding flavours. Oxidation and decarboxylation yield methyl ketones and
secondary alcohols, and esterification of hydroxyl fatty acids produce lactones. Fatty
acids react with alcohol groups to form esters, such as ethyl butanoate, ethyl
hexanoate, ethyl acetate, ethyl octanoate, ethyl decanoate, and methyl hexanoate
(McSweeney et al. 1997). Butyric acid concentrations found in cheeses are in part due
to the hydrolytic activities of lipases (Dumont and Adda 1979; Fox et al. 1995).
and - lactones have been identified in cheeses, particularly in Cheddar,
where they have been considered as important for flavor (Wong et al. 1973). Lactones
are cyclic esters resulting from the intramolecular esterification of hydroxy acids
through the loss of water to form a ring structure. They possess a strong aroma which,
although not specifically cheese-like, may be important in the overall cheese flavor
impact. The accepted mechanism of formation of lactones in cheese presumes the
release of hydroxy fatty acids, which are normal constituents of milk fat, followed by
lactonization.
Milk Protein
For the development of an acceptable cheese flavor, a well-balanced
breakdown of the curd protein (that is, casein) into small peptides and amino acids is
necessary (Thomas and Pritchard 1987; Visser 1993). These products of proteolysis
themselves are known to contribute to flavor (Cliffe et al. 1993; Engels and Visser
1994) or act as precursors of flavor components during the actual formation of cheese
flavor. During the manufacture and ripening of Cheddar cheese, a gradual
decomposition of caseins occurs due to the combined action of various proteolytic
enzymes. These generally include enzymes from the coagulant, milk, starter and
nonstarter lactic acid bacteria, and secondary starter. Proteolysis directly contributes
to cheese flavours by releasing peptides and amino acids. The correct pattern of
proteolysis is generally considered to be a prerequisite for the development of the
correct flavor of Cheddar cheese. Products of proteolysis per se (that is, peptides and
free amino acids) probably are significant in cheese taste, at least to background
flavor and some off-flavors, for example, bitterness, but are unlikely to contribute
much to aroma. Compounds arising from the catabolism of free amino acids
contribute directly to cheese taste and aroma. The total amount and composition of the
amino acid mixture in cheese has long been used as an index of cheese ripening (Fox
et al. 1995b). Amino acids are substrates for transamination, dehydrogenation,
decarboxylation and reduction, producing a wide variety of flavour compounds such
as phenylacetic acid, phenethanol, p-cresol, methane thiol, dimethyl disulphide, 3-
90
methyl butyrate, 3-methyl butanal, 3- methyl butanol, 3-methyl-2-butanone, 2-methyl

propionate, 2-methyl-1-propanal, 2-methyl butyrate and 2-methyl butanal.
In lactococci, the 1st step in the degradation of amino acids is transamination
(Gao and others 1997), leading to formation of -keto acids ( -KA). Aromatic
aminotransferase enzymes have been previously characterized from Lactococcus
lactis subsp cremoris (Rijnen et al. 1999a) and Lactococcus lactis subsp lactis (Gao
and Steele 1998). These enzymes initiated the degradation of Val, Leu, Ile, Phe, Tyr,
Trp, and Met, all of which are known precursors of cheese flavor compounds.
Inactivation of aminotransferase enzymes involved in the breakdown of amino acids
by lactococci has been shown to reduce aroma formation during cheese ripening
(Rijnen et al. 1999b).
Ney (1981) reported -keto acids corresponding to almost every amino acid
in Cheddar cheese. -keto-3-methyl butyric acid and -keto-3-methyl valeric acid
(Ney and Wirotma 1978) were shown to have an intense cheese-like odor. The
volatile fraction of cheese has several sulfur-containing compounds such as
methanethiol, methional, dimethyl sulfide, dimethyldisulfide, dimethyltrisulfide,
dimethyltetrasulfide, carbonyl sulfide, and hydrogen sulfide (Urbach 1995; Weimer et
al. 1999), and they contribute to the aroma of cheese (Milo and Reineccius 1997).
Methanethiol has been associated with desirable Cheddar-type sulfur notes in good
quality Cheddar cheese (Manning and More 1979; Price and Manning 1983).
However, alone or in excess, methanethiol does not produce typical Cheddar cheese
flavor (Weimer et al. 1999). The discussion shows that amino acid degradation plays
a vital role in flavor development in Cheddar cheese. The final products of proteolysis
are FAA, the concentrations of which depend on the cheese variety, and which have
been used as indices of ripening (McSweeney and Fox 1997; Puchades 1989). The
concentration of free amino acids (FAA) in cheese at any stage of ripening is the net
result of the liberation of amino acids from casein and their transformation to
catabolic products. The principal amino acids in Cheddar cheese are Glu, Leu, Arg,
Lys, Phe and Ser (Wijesundera et al. 1998). Concentrations of amino acids generally
increase during ripening, with the exception of Arg, the concentration of which is
reported to decrease later in ripening (Puchades et al. 1989). The level of peptides and
FAA soluble in cheese in 5% phosphotungstic acid (PTA) has been considered to be a
reliable indicator of the rate of flavour development (Aston and Douglas 1983) and
the composition of the amino acid fraction and the 309 relative proportions of
individual amino acids are thought to be important for the development of the
characteristic flavour (Broome 1990). However, the relative proportion of individual
amino acids appears to be similar in many varieties, and increasing the concentration
of FAA in cheese does not accelerate ripening or flavour intensity. Medium and small
peptides and FAA contribute to the background flavour of most cheese varieties
(Urbach 1995) and some individual peptides have brothy, bitter, nutty and
sweet tastes. Fox and Wallace (1997) have suggested that flavour and the
concentration of FAA could not be correlated, since different cheeses (e.g., Cheddar,
91
Gouda and Edam) have very different flavours, although the concentration and
relative proportions of FAA are generally similar.
Bitterness and other off-flavours
Bitterness in cheese is due mainly to hydrophobic peptides and is generally
regarded as a defect, although bitter notes may contribute to the desirable flavour of
mature cheese. Certain sequences in the caseins are particularly hydrophobic and,
when excised by proteinases, can lead to bitterness. Low-fat cheeses have been
reported to develop bitterness (Banks et al. 1992), although in full-fat cheese, a certain
proportion of bitter peptides, being hydrophobic, are less likely to be perceived as
being bitter, perhaps due to their partition into the fat phase. In addition to peptides, a
number of other compounds can contribute to bitterness in cheese, including amino
acids, amines, amides, substituted amides, long-chain ketones and some
monoglycerides (Adda et al. 1982). The origin of unclean and related flavours in
Cheddar has been attributed to a number of Strecker-type compounds (Dunn and
Lindsay 1985) including phenylacetaldehyde, phenylethanol, 3-methylbutanol, 2methylpropanol, phenol, and p-cresol. Off-flavours (rancidity) can be due to excessive
or unbalanced lipolysis caused by lipases/esterases from starter or non-starter lactic
acid bacteria, enzymes from psychrotrophs in the cheese milk, or indigenous milk
lipoprotein lipase.
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an overview. J Dairy Sci 76:329-50.
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associated with cheese. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 76:247-61.
Wijesundera, C., Drury, L., Muthuku-marappan, K., Gunasekaran, S. and Everett,
D.W. 1998. Flavour developmenet and distribution of fat globule size and shape in
Cheddartype cheeses made from skim milk homogenised with AMF or its fractions,
Aust. J. Dairy Technol. 53:107.
Wong, N.P., Ellis, R., La Croix, D.E. and Alford, J.A. 1973. Lactones in Cheddar
cheese. J Dairy Sci 56:636.
96
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR CHARACTERIZATION OF

FLAVOURING COMPOUNDS IN DAIRY PRODUCTS
Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Dr. R.B. Sangwan and Dr. Bimlesh Mann
Dairy Chemistry Division
NDRI, Karnal
Introduction:
It is not uncommon for volatile and semi volatile organic molecules in ppb
(parts per billion) or ppt (parts per trillion) concentration to cause off-flavours (OF).
Today, sophisticated and sensitive analytical tests are capable of detecting, identifying
and quantitating the specific chemical agents responsible for off-flavours. Once
specific causes for off-flavours have been identified, dairy scientists can usually
delineate their mechanism of formation (e.g., microbial spoilage, overheating,
oxidation, photodegradation, sanitizer contamination, etc.) and take steps to reduce
off-flavours. Furthermore, new analytical techniques are so powerful that they can
often accomplish this with speed, accuracy and reliability which is not possible using
sensory analysis alone. Combining the benefits of modern analytical testing,
particularly gas chromatography with mass spectrometry detection (GC-MS), with
sensory analysis results in a powerful tool for off- flavours elucidation.
Instrumental analysis
GC is a form of partition chromatography in which the separation takes place
between the stationary phase (a film coated on a solid support) and the mobile phase
(a carrier gas) flowing over the surface of the film in a controlled fashion. Because of
their superior separation efficiency and versatility, GC methods are the most
commonly used analytical techniques in flavor research. GC has tremendous
separating power, sometimes in excess of 200,000 theoretical plates per column. This
attribute is essential for the separation of complex flavour isolates. Using mass
spectrometry as the detector for GC analysis, allows for identification of
chromatographic peaks that elute from the column.
Mass spectrometry (MS) is a form of spectroscopy in which the molecule is
exposed to high-energy electrons and through a sequence of steps is broken down into
unique charged molecular fragments. The uniqueness of this process allows the
method to be used for identification/confirmation of an unknown compound with a
sensitivity of 10-100pg. MS is generally used in the flavour area either to determine
the identity of an unknown or to act as a mass selective GC detector. GC-MS is an
analytical technique used to identify/ confirm the identity of compounds as they elute
from the GC column and has proven to be one of the most useful analytical
techniques for studying volatile and semi volatile odour active chemicals in dairy
products. The volatile and semi volatile compounds, in the headspace, are of interest
97
because they can travel to the nose during eating and stimulate the olfactometry
receptors in the nasal cavity.
Mass spectrophotometers may be classed as low resolution (LR) or high
resolution (HR) instruments. The LR instruments provide mass measurements to the
closest whole mass unit, but do not provide elemental composition. High resolution
instruments provide sufficiently accurate mass measurements to permit determination
of elemental composition.
In addition to MS detectors, flavor chemists sometimes employ extremely
sensitive detectors for specific classes of compounds. One example is the pulsedflame photometric detector (PFPD) for sub-ppb measurement of organic sulfur
compounds, chemicals that often have extremely low odour threshold detection levels.
The determination of the chemical(s) responsible for an off-flavour in a
sample usually involves three steps: preparing the sample for analysis, injecting the
sample (or usually an extract of the sample) into the GC-MS and data processing. In
addition, many analytical systems are now used by flavor chemists to incorporate an
olfactometry detector. With this method, the effluent that elutes from the end of the
analytical GC column is split, with a portion of the flow going to the MS detector and
a portion going to an olfactometry detector (OD), which is often referred to as a sniff
port. While some of the sensitivity of the MS detector is lost, an important advantage
is gained: The analyst can sniff each peak as it elutes from the column and determine
its odour characteristics. By using GC-MS-OD, the flavor chemist is able to determine
the identity, concentration, odour characteristics and odour intensity of each
chromatographic peak.
Sample Preparation: A Key Step in Chemical Analysis of Dairy Foods
It is usually not possible to directly inject a food sample into a GC without
performing some sample preparation. Proteins, fats, complex carbohydrates and other
nonvolatile chemicals will degrade in the heated GC injector, resulting in the
formation of numerous artifact peaks that can degrade column performance and
obscure peaks of interest. Separating volatile compounds from matrix interferences
and concentrating volatiles (which can be present in concentrations as low as 10-8 to
10-14%), so that they can be detected, usually requires sample preparation involving
volatile isolation and concentration steps. Unfortunately, there is no single perfect
sample preparation technique for flavor research. The aroma volatiles in food samples
can be heterogeneous, covering a wide range of polarities, solubilities, functional
groups, vapor pressures, concentrations and volatilities. Other complications include
instability of aroma volatiles to certain conditions (oxygen, light, heat, pH, etc.) and
the possibility that aroma volatiles may interact with chemicals in the food matrix. It
is important that the extraction technique does not introduce or create volatiles that
are not in the dairy product being tested. For example, sample preparation techniques
that involve heating the sample to high temperatures (e.g., steam distillation) can
generate artifact peaks in sample chromatograms, and these odoriferous artifacts may
98
be misinterpreted as the cause of the OF problem in the product. In some cases, more
than one procedure may be required for optimum recovery of flavor compounds.
Dairy chemists now have a wide variety of sample preparation techniques that they
can use for isolating and concentrating odour-active chemicals prior to GC analysis.
Frequently used sample preparation methods for flavor analysis include vacuum
distillation, simultaneous steam distillation/extraction (also referred to as the Liken
and Nickerson extraction procedure), static headspace, dynamic headspace and solidphase microextraction (SPME). Some of the more popular sample preparation
techniques for flavor analysis are discussed below.
(a) Solvent extraction and distillation:
Solvent extraction commonly involves the use of pentane, dichloromethane,
diethyl ether or some other volatile organic solvent. This limits the method to the
isolation of fat-free foods unless an additional procedure is employed to separate the
extracted fat.
W. Engel et al. (1999) developed a new distillation unit, called solvent assisted
flavor evaporation (SAFE), for the extraction of flavor volatiles from complex
aqueous matrices, such as beer, fruit juices, milk and cheese. The distillation vessel
and transfer tubes are thermostated at low temperatures (20-30C) to avoid
condensation of compounds with high boiling points, and the sample is added by
dropping aliquots from the funnel into the vessel to reduce time of extraction. This
new method allows for the use of solvents other than diethyl ether and
dichloromethane, and it could be used for extracts containing large concentrations of
fat. Another advantage of the SAFE technique is that recovery of really authentic
flavori.e., a flavor sample with organoleptic properties as close as possible to the
natural productis possible. Solvent extraction methods have disadvantages. Large
volumes of solvent must be evaporated while retaining the volatile flavor components.
Another problem is that sample preparation is time consuming; only one or two
samples can be extracted per day.
(b) Headspace techniques:
Static headspace:
If a complex material, such as milk, yoghurt or cheese, is placed in a sealed
vessel, some of the more volatile compounds in the sample matrix will leave the
sample and pass into the headspace around it. If the concentration of the volatile
compound reaches about 1 ppm in the headspace, it may be assayed by a simple
injection of an aliquot in the vessel. How much compound enters the headspace
depends on several factors, including its concentration in the original sample, the
volatility of the chemical, the solubility of the chemical in the sample matrix, the
temperature of the vessel and how long the sample has been inside the vessel. In
practice, the food sample is placed into a headspace vial, sealed and warmed to
enhance vaporization of the volatiles and incubated for a period of time to establish
equilibrium at the incubation temperature. Once the volatiles have equilibrated, an
99
aliquot of the headspace gases is withdrawn with a syringe and injected into the GC.
As an alternative, the equilibrated headspace may also be allowed to pass through a
sample loop of known volume, which is subsequently flushed into the injection port.
Static headspace methods eliminate the large solvent peak, which may obscure
important odour-active analytes. Static headspace is a relatively rapid technique that is
easily automated, making it attractive for sample screening applications. The
combination of careful monitoring of temperature and equilibrium time, pressure
control of the sample loop and automatic injection provides increased reproducibility
over manual attempts at headspace analysis and reduces labour costs. Additional
advantages include low cost per analysis, simple sample preparation and the
elimination of reagents. Relatively poor sensitivity compared to other types of sample
preparation techniques is a disadvantage of static headspace method. The maximum
temperature for most food products is less than the boiling point of water. Analysis at
this fairly low temperature limits the usefulness of the technique for analytes with
boiling points over approximately 130C. Many materials that may be extracted with
solvents may elute well at higher GC column temperatures but will be poorly
represented in a static headspace chromatogram. Also, reproducibility depends on
analyzing a sample after it has reached equilibration, and the time required to achieve
this point may, especially for less volatile compounds, be a drawback for some
analyses.
Dynamic headspace:
With dynamic headspace techniques, the food sample, which is normally
heated to 40 - 60C, is purged with helium gas. Instead of allowing the sample
volatiles to come to equilibrium, the atmosphere around the sample material is
constantly swept away by a flow of carrier gas, taking the volatile analytes with it.
The volatiles that are swept away are directed to a trap (commonly Tenax), where
they are collected and stored until the end of the purging cycle is reached and the trap
is ready to be desorbed onto the GC column. By removing the volatiles in a
continuous fashion, more molecules of the volatiles in the sample are collected for
analysis, greatly improving the sensitivity of the test. (Note: In general, the term
purge-and-trap is used to refer to liquid samples analyzed by bubbling the carrier
gas through the liquid, while dynamic headspace is used when the sample material
is a solid.)
Dynamic headspace is significantly more sensitive than static headspace.
Compared to solvent extraction techniques, it offers the advantages of no solvent to
evaporate, no interfering solvent peaks in chromatograms and relatively simple
automated sample preparation. The disadvantages include more complicated
instrumentation. Instrumentation must monitor several steps, valving, heated zones,
etc. Instrumentation is more expensive than static headspace instrumentation. Because
of complex functioning of the instrument, there are many opportunities for
malfunction, including heater damage, valve leaking, contamination and cold spots.
Compared to static headspace, dynamic headspace techniques require a little more
100
time per sample (for purging, trap drying and trap transfer, all of which typically
require approximately 15 min). However, the technique is much faster than most
solvent extraction techniques.
(c) Solid-phase microextraction (SPME):
SPME uses a short, thin, solid rod of fused silica (typically 1 cm in length with
an outer diameter of 0.11 mm) coated with an absorbent/adsorbent polymer. The
coated fused silica (the SPME fiber) is attached to a metal rod, and both are protected
by a metal sheath that covers the fiber when it is not in use. The assembly is placed in
a fiber holder. The system is a modified syringe. Two sampling methods can be used
with SPME depending on the placement of the fiber relative to the sample
immersion or headspace sampling. For dairy products, which contain high levels of
fat, carbohydrate and protein, the headspace technique is preferred. In SPME
headspace analysis, a fiber is placed in the headspace above the sample. For example,
when analyzing volatiles in a milk sample, 3 mL of milk can be placed in a 9 mL
glass GC vial containing a small stirring bar and sealed with a septum closure. The
sample is then heated (e.g., to 50C). The fiber is then exposed to the headspace gases
for 10 - 30 min, depending on the sample matrix and the analytes of interest. After
sample exposure time has elapsed, the fiber is retracted into the needle assembly and
removed. The extracted volatiles are thermally desorbed from the fiber in the heated
GC injector and transferred to the GC column for separation and analysis. Several
types of fibers with varying affinities for specific classes of compounds are available.
SPME is particularly well-suited to the analysis of dairy products. The
technique is capable of extracting a broader range of analytes than is possible with
other headspace techniques. For example, SPME is capable of ppb detection levels for
both low molecular weight, highly volatile compounds like acetaldehyde, dimethyl
sulfide, acetone and 1,3-pentadiene, as well as high molecular weight, high-boilingpoint compounds like vanillin, lactones and dodecyl aldehyde. Furthermore, it can be
used for quantitating free fatty acids (C4 through C14) in dairy products. This
important class of flavor compounds can be particularly challenging and time
consuming to extract by other techniques.
Incorporating the nose in chemical analysis:
The application of new and improved volatile extraction techniques prior to
GC-MS in conjunction with modern, sensitive bench top GC-MS instruments often
results in dairy sample chromatograms with 100 or more peaks. Unfortunately, the
relevance of each peak to a samples flavour or OF is not easy to evaluate. One of the
major problems in aroma research is to select those compounds that significantly
contribute to the aroma of a food. In general, the aroma of a food consists of many
volatile compounds, only a few of which are relevant to odour and flavour. A first
essential step in aroma analysis is the distinction of the more potent odorants from
volatiles having low or no aroma activity. GC in combination with olfactometric
techniques (GC-O) is a valuable method for the selection of aroma-active components
101
from a complex mixture. GC-O is a way for flavor chemists to incorporate the sense
of smell into their chemical analysis.
GC-O is now accepted as one of the most powerful ways to give sensory
meaning to the long lists of volatiles appearing in sample chromatograms. GC-O
consists of experiments based on human subjects sniffing GC effluents. Experience
shows that many key aroma compounds occur at very low concentrations; their
sensory relevance is due to low odor thresholds. Thus, the peak profile obtained by
GC does not necessarily reflect the aroma profile of the foodthat is, sometimes the
largest chromatographic peaks in a food extract have the least amount of aroma
impact on the food, while the smallest peaks may have the most significant impact. In
general, it is very difficult to judge the sensory relevance of volatiles from a single
GC-O run. Several techniques are in use to help with this problem. This is based on
successive dilutions and GC-injection of a flavor extract, until the assessor no longer
detects the odour at the sniffing port. For each GC-elution, the assessor presses a
button during the perception of odours to generate individual olfactograms (or
aromagrams) made of a series of square signals. After data treatment, a computergenerated global olfactogram assigns greater importance to odour peaks that are
smelled in the highest dilution of the extract.
Conclusion:
The advent of new, sensitive and rapid analytical methods in conjunction with
olfactometry techniques and traditional sensory taste paneling approaches have
greatly improved the understanding of flavour-impact chemicals in dairy products. By
working together, sensory scientists and analytical flavour chemists can help the dairy
industry to determine and correct the causes of off-flavours in dairy foods. This will
assist in reducing waste and customer complaints and help processors develop ways to
increase shelf-life of dairy products.
References:
Chaintreau, A. Quantitative Use of Gas Chromatography- Olfactometry: The GCSNIF Method. In Flavor, Fragrance and Odor Analysis, Marsili, R.T. (ed.), New
York: Marcel Dekker. pp. 333-348 (2002).
Engel, W., Bahr, W. and Schieberle, P. Solvent-assisted flavor evaporationa new
and versatile technique for the careful and direct isolation of aroma compounds from
complex food matrices. Eur. Res. Technol. 1999; 209:237-241.
Marsili, R.T. Comparison of solid-phase microextraction and dynamic headspace
methods for GC-MS analysis of light-induced lipid oxidation products in milk, J. of
Chrom. Sci. 1999; 37:17-23.
Marsili, R.T. Flavours and off-flavours in dairy foods. In Encyclopedia of Dairy
Sciences, Roginski, H., Fuquay, J.W. and Fox, P.F. (eds.),London: Academic Press.
pp. 1069-1081 (2003).
102
Werkhoff, P., Brennecke, S., Bretschneider, W. and Bertram, H.J. Modern methods
for isolating and quantifying volatile flavor and fragrance compounds. In Flavor,
Fragrance and Odor Analysis, Marsili, R.T. (ed.), New York: Marcel Dekker. pp.
139-204 (2002).
103
SENSORY ATTRIBUTES OF MILK PROTEINS
Dr. Vijay Kumar Gupta

Principal Scientist
N.D.R.I., Karnal-132 001
1.
INTRODUCTION
Edible casein, caseinates as salts of sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium

etc., whey protein concentrates (30-80% protein), coprecipitates and protein
hydrolysates are the major milk protein products. They are used in bakery products,
meat products, confectionery items, beverages and in a wide variety of formulated
foods and animal feed products. They are also increasingly being used in dietary
preparations and pharmaceutical and medical applications.
Most of the applications of milk protein products require them to be neutral or
bland in taste and smell, colourless and free from extraneous matter. However, a lot
more attention has been given on the flavour aspects of these products in the literature
than on appearance, as flavour is considered the most important sensory quality.
2.
STANDARDS FOR SENSORY ATTRIBUTES OF MILK

PROTEIN PRODUCTS
Among the different protein products, only edible casein has been assigned
national and international standards, particularly with respect to sensory qualities. As
per BIS standards (IS:1167-1965), casein shall be nearly white or pale cream in
colour and shall have no undesirable odour or any foreign matter; it shall be free from
any added colour. The size of the particles shall be such that 100% by weight of
casein shall pass through 500-micron IS sieve.
As per international standards (FIL - IDF 45:1969), flavour and odour of acid
precipitated edible casein must be neutral, free from offensive flavours, taste and
odours such as sour, cheese or metallic off-flavours. Colour of the product should be
white to pale cream. If ground, it should be free from lumps that do not break up
under slight pressure. The maximum sediment (scorched particles) allowed is 22.5
mg in 25 g spray dried and 32.5 mg in 10 g roller dried product. The casein should
not contain any foreign matter such as particles of wood, metal, hairs or fragments of
insects. European Community standards (No. L237/29) are more or less similar to
international standards in respect of sensory attributes.
3.
FLAVOUR OF MILK PROTEIN PRODUCTS
Freedom from flavour defects is very important in many of the applications of

milk proteins as food ingredients. In industrial practice, fresh casein, caseinates,
coprecipitates and whey proteins are usually bland in flavour. On storage, milk
proteins tend to develop unpleasant flavours variously described as gluey, stale,
burnt-feather or musty. Good progress has been made in research into the origins of
104
the flavours. Ramshaw & Dunstone (1969a, b) found a large range of volatile
components in the steam distillate of gluey casein. Their findings suggested that the
flavour resulted from a mixture of compounds with some synergistic effect from oaminoacetophenone, a compound of low volatility possibly arising from breakdown
of tryptophan. The type of compounds which seemed significant in the flavour
spectrum and their experiments on manufacture of casein and coprecipitates indicated
that non-enzymatic browning reactions were involved in the off flavour development.
It appeared that reducing substances produced by this reaction subsequently degraded
to flavour components. Ramshaw & Dunstone (1970) reported trials in which
dispersions of milk proteins were heated to encourage this degradation so that the
volatile flavour components could be removed during spray drying. By using
browning inhibitors (1970b), they also obtained improved flavour stability of lowCalcium-precipitate, where the longer heating time for the milk can initiate browning
reactions.
Industry has sought to obtain the best flavoured product by such techniques as
reducing the lactose content by thorough washing and avoiding excessive heating at
any stage of manufacture so as to minimise browning reactions. The manufacture of
caseinate from fresh wet curd and minimizing its storage time before use also helps in
obtaining the best flavour. However, On the basis of comparing ferricyanide reducing
values with flavour of low lactose casein, Walker (1970) concluded that the browning
reaction did not contribute significantly to development of musty off-flavour.
Sharma & Hansen (1970) linked development of gluey flavour on heating
casein with breaking of ester phosphate bonds. Ramshaw & Leary (1970) found that
UV treatment of casein gave unpleasant odours as well as gluey flavour. The
treatment appeared to accelerate degradation of tryptophan but not the browning
reaction. Table 1 gives the threshold concentration of gluey flavour in treated and
untreated casein.
Table 1. Threshold concentration of gluey flavour in treated and untreated
casein
___________________________________________________________________
Materials and/or treatment
Threshold
Remarks
(%)
concentration
___________________________________________________________________
Gluey casein
0.3
Control
Gluey sodium caseinate
0.3
Control
Fresh freeze-dried casein or sodium caseinate
>3.0
Control
Vacuum-treated casein or caseinate
0.3
Flavour not removed
Steam-distilled sodium caseinate
>1.0
Distillate gluey
Freeze-dried sodium caseinate (1, 5, 10%)
0.3
Flavour not removed
Reprecipitated casein removed
1.0
Flavour partially
Filtrate from reprecipitation
1.0
Filtrate gluey
Washed casein r emoved
>1.0
Flavour partially
Wash water
1.0
Wash water gluey
Activated carbon-treated casein
>3.0
Flavour removed
Sephadex G 25-treated casein
>3.0
Flavour removed
_______________________________________________________________________________
*Concentration at which gluey flavour was first detectable
105
The flavour of coprecipitates tends to follow a similar pattern to that of the caseins,
high calcium coprecipitates being more stable than low calcium (acid) coprecipitates
and fresh-curd soluble coprecipitates being better than those reconstituted from dry,
granular, insoluble coprecipitates (Southward and Goldman, 1978) The
coprecipitates, as a class, may also tend to exhibit 'cooked flavour' overtones as a
result of the high heat treatment given to the milk during their manufacture
(Southward, 1985). Particle size of granular caseins and coprecipitates also appears to
affect their flavour; finely ground product tend to exhibit stronger off-flavours than
coarser fractions.
Whey protein concentrates develop a typically stale off-flavour during storage
due to a set of complex, inter-related chemical reactions which include lipid oxidation
and Maillard browning. There is no information in the literature on the volatile
organic compounds responsible for off-flavour in whey protein concentrates (Morr
and Ha, 1991). Important possible off-flavours in milk protein products are listed in
Fig. 1.
4.
METHODOLOGY FOR THE EVALUATION OF THE FLAVOUR OF

MILK PROTEIN PRODUCTS
A method was developed at New Zealand Dairy Research Institute that has
been widely used to assess the flavour characteristics of protein products. Sodium or
calcium caseinate is dissolved in water at 60C, using mechanical stirring, to produce
10% (w/v) caseinate solutions. Acid casein is treated similarly except that sodium
hydroxide solution is carefully added to dissolve the casein to produce solutions of
sodium caseinate at pH 6.7. Rennet casein is dissolved with sodium tripolyphosphate
(5% w/w of casein) to produce solutions of pH 7-8. Because the viscosity of a rennet
casein solution is greater than that of a sodium caseinate solution, the concentration of
the rennet casein is usually reduced to 8% (2/v) but, for calcium caseinate, which is
less viscous than sodium caseinate, the concentration is not increased
correspondingly.
The coded samples to be tasted (all of one type, such as acid casein, or sodium
caseinates, etc.) are presented in random order to each taster at a temperature of about
40C. Marked and coded 'good' and 'bad' control samples are included. Water and
dry bread are used between each sample to remove dry lingering impression from the
mouth.
A typical flavour evaluation score sheet, as used for all casein products, is
shown in Fig. 1. To assist the taster in describing off-flavours, the score sheet
includes a list of suggested serius and non-serius off flavour descriptions. The taster is
asked to give an overall score (scale 0-8, where 8 = excellent, 6 = good, 3 = poor, 0 =
extremely objectionable) to each sample based on the type and intensity of offflavour.
A guide for relating the type and intensity of off-flavour to the overall score is
also given ; serious off-flavours absent, 8; threshold, 7; slight, 5 etc. Mean values and
106
FLAVOUR EVALUATION OF MILK PROTEIN PRODUCTS

Evaluator_______________
Product__________________
Date_________________
Desirable Flavour : Bland Flavour

Suggested off-flavours :
Serious
Non-serious
Astringent
Bitter
Puckery
Burnt (cooked)
Card board
Fishy
Metallic
Mouldy
Gluey
(Ast)
(Bit)
(Puc)
(But)
(Cbd)
(Fsh)
(Met)
(Mol)
(Glu)
Acidic
Caramel
Cereal
Milky
Nutty
Sweet
Putrid
(Put)
Rancid
Salty
Soapy
Stale
Storage
Whey
(Ran)
(Sal)
(Spy)
(St)
(Sto)
(Wh.)
(Ac)
(Car)
(Cer)
(Mlk)
(Nut)
(Swt)
Guide for overall Score (8-0)
Off Flavour
Serious offintensity
flavour
Absent (Abs)
8
Threshold (Thr)
7
Slight (Sl)
5
Moderate (Mod)
3
Strong (Str)
1
Non-serious offflavour
8
7
6
5
3
Note:- Type of off flavour may be described by using abbreviated terms

Sample
No.
1
2
3
4
5
Serious off-flavour
Off Flavour
Intensity
Non-serious off-flavour
Over all Score
Off Flavour
Time of Evaluation_____________AM/PM
Evaluator
Intensity
Signature of the
Fig. 1. Score-card for flavour evaluation of milk protein products
107
standard deviations for overall score and intensity of off-flavour are computed in the
usual way. For the purpose of summarizing the information, off flavour intensity is
converted into a score: 1 = absent, 2 = threshold, 3 = slight, 4 = moderate, 5 = strong.
The use of a large panel of trained tasters and the inclusion of reference points
for both ends of the scoring range (control samples) provide a reasonably reliable
estimation of the flavour quality of any casein sample. Mean panel scores at the
bottom (0-3) and top (6-8) of the range are normally more reliable than those in the
middle (4-5) where standard deviations of greater that 1 are not uncommon. In
general, however, the method has been a valuable tool for placing casein products
into various flavour categories prior to selecting them for use in foods.
5. APPEARANCE OF MILK-PROTEIN PRODUCTS
Granular casein should be of uniform particle size prescribed in standards, or
of commercially desired mesh sizes like 30, 60 and 90. Desirable colour of casein is
white to pale cream; however, buffalo milk casein has natural greenish tinge.
Browning and other discolourations are the colour defects.
Caseinates, whey protein concentrates and coprecipitate powders should
possess almost similar colour as the casein. Whey protein concentrates, coprecipitates
and sodium, potassium and ammonium caseinates make translucent, viscous, strawcoloured solutions, while calcium caseinate forms micelles in water, producing an
intensely white, opaque, 'milky' solution of relatively low viscosity.
6. PROTEIN HYDROLYSATES
The production of protein hydrolysates provides an opportunity for the dietary
management of persons suffering from digestive disorders as a result of pancreatic
malfunction, pre-and post operative abdominal surgical patients, patient on geriatric
and convalescent feeding, and others who for various reasons are not able to ingest a
normal diet. However, enzymatic hydrolysis of protein has frequently been shown to
give bitter taste to digests due to liberation of bitter tasting peptides or amino acids. In
aqueous solution, hydrophilic or polar groups of casein are on the outer surface and
hydrophobic groups are packed inside the molecule. Enzymatic digestion exposes the
peptide moieties which contain large amount of hydrophobic amino acids which on
contact with the taste buds give a sensation of bitterness.
Khanna (1991) used a 9-point Hedonic scale for comparison of sensory
quality of casein hydrolysates adjusted to 10% T.S. concentration. For sensory
evaluation of bitterness of casein hydrolysates, Khanna (1991) used 4- point scale,
where 1 = extremely bitter, 2 = distinctly bitter, 3 = slightly bitter, and 4 = not bitter.
Saline water (2%) was provided to the judges for rinsing their mouth before tasting
each sample. The judges noticed the following sensory characteristics in different
samples of casein hydrolysates:
i) Flavour : Stale, foul, acidic, salty, sour and fruity.
108
ii) Colour : Dull white, yellowish, sparkling clear, yellowish brown and red.
iii) Sediment : No sediment.
REFERENCES
Kelly, P.M. (1986) Dried milk protein products. J. Soc. Dairy Technol., 39 (3): 81-85.
Khanna, R.H. (1991) Process optimization for enzymatic production of casein
hydrolysate. M.Sc. Thesis, NDRI deemed University, Karnal.
Muller, L.L. (1971) Manufacture and uses of casein and coprecipitates, Dairy Sci.
Abstr., 33: 659.
Morr, C.V. and Ha, E.Y.W. (1991) Off flavours of whey protein concentrates : A
Literature Review. Int. Dairy J., 1: 1-11.
Ramshaw, E.H. and Dunstone, E.A. (1969a) The flavour of milk protein. J. Dairy
Res., 36, 203-213.
Ramshaw, E.H. And Dunstone, E.A. (1969b) Volatile compounds associated with the
off-flavour in stored casein. J. Dairy Res., 36: 215-223.
Ramshaw, E.H. and Dunstone, E.A. (1970a) Ferricyanide reducing substances and the
flavour of milk protein heated in solution. XVIII Int. Dairy Cong., IE: 424.
Ramshaw, E.H. and Dunstone, E.A. (1970b) Inhibition of browning during milk
protein manufacture and storage. XVIII Int. Dairy Cong., IE: 425.
Ramshaw, E.H. and Leary, J. (1970) Volatile components in casein after exposure to
UV light. XVIII Int. Dairy Congr., IE: 64.
Sharma, K.K. and Hansen, P.M.T. (1970) Heat-induced dephosphorization of
dehydrated caseins. XVIII Int. Dairy Cong., IE: 58.
Roeper, J., Southward, C.R. and Humphries (1978) A method for the evaluation of the
flavour of casein products. N.Z. J. Dairy Sci. Technol., 13: 124-126.
Southward, C.R. (1985) Manufacture and applications of edible casein products. 1.
Manufacture and properties. N.Z. J. Dairy Sci. Technol., 20: 70-101.
Southward, C.R. and Goldman, A. (1978) Coprecipitates and their application in food
products. II. Some properties and applications. N.Z. J. Dairy Sci. Technol., 13: 97105.
Walker, N.J. and Manning D.J. (1976) Components of the Musty off-flavour of stored
dried lactic casein. N.Z.J. Dairy Sci. Technol. 11, 1.
Walker, N.J. (1970) Chemical changes involved in the development of off-flavour in
stored casein. XVIII Int. Dairy Cong., IE: 426.
Walker N.J. (1973) Flavour defects in edible casein and skim milk powder, II The
role of aliphatic monocarbonyl compounds. J. Dairy
109
SENSORY EVALUATION OF DRIED MILK AND MILK

PRODUCTS
Dr. Vijay Kumar Gupta

Principal Scientist
N.D.R.I., Karnal - 132 001
1.
INTRODUCTION
Milk powders possess various organoleptic, physico-chemical and

reconstitutional properties, which are important to both industrial and consumer use.
These properties are the basic elements of quality specifications for milk powders.
During drying process, care is taken to conserve as much as possible the natural
properties of the original raw milk. Quality of dried products should be such that
when reconstituted with water, give little or no evidence of detrimental change
compared to the original liquid products. Evaluation of milk powder, whole or
skimmed, on the basis of its sensory characteristics plays an important role towards its
consumer acceptance.
2.
DRY WHOLE MILK
In judging whole milk powder (WMP) for flavour one first classifies the
product for flavour as good, fair or poor.
2.1
Off Flavour
Milk powders are expected to demonstrate a slightly sweet, clean and pleasant
flavour, though other dried milk products may be expected to confirm to certain other
specific requirements. Often, dry milk gradually loses its sweet, fine, appetizing
flavour upon aging, thus becoming more or less off flavoured. The more frequently
occuring flavour defects of dry whole milk are discussed below:
2.1.1 Oxidized/tallowy: Dry whole milk and other dry high-fat milk products undergo
oxidative deterioration (also called tallowy). Whole milk powder with low to medium
preheat treatments (equivalent to a WPNI of about 3-5) has a greater tendency to
undergo lipid oxidation, with distinctive tallowy and musty flavours, than powders
made with higher heat treatments. Chemical changes result with the addition of
oxygen to the double bonds of unsaturated glycerides, giving at first peroxides and
later aldehydes, ketones etc., which impart the unpleasant flavour. Copper and iron act
as catalysts. Higher storage temperature, higher acidity, sunlight and ultra violet
irradiation promote faster development of oxidative deterioration.
2.1.2 Rancid: Rancidity is due to hydrolysis of fat through lipase enzyme leading to
110
production of free fatty acids, like butyric acid. Rancid dry whole milk has a bitter,
soapy, unclean taste which is persistent after the sample has been expectorated.
TABLE- I
Evaluation Card for Milk Powder
Name...........................................................
Code No...................
Dated........................
Time.........................
A. Score the sample for different characteristics. Indicate the degree of defects, if any,
encircling the applicable one and deduct accordingly from the attribute score.
Characteristic
Max Score
(1)
(2)
Minimum for
each attribute
(3)
Sample
Score
(4)
i) Package Appearance
ii) Appearance of Dry Product
15
iii) Appearance of reconstituted milk
15
iv) Body and texture of reconstituted milk
20
17
v) Flavour of reconstituted milk
45
27
Note : If the sample score is less than the minimum for any characteristic, it is to be
rejected.
B. Degree of Defects
CHARACTERISTICS
(1)
i) Appearance of
package
ii) Appearance of dry
product
iii) Appearance of
reconstituted milk
DEFECT
DEGREE OF DEFECT
Suspicion
Definite
(3)
(4)
(5)
Soiled surface unsealed
Caked/ brown particles
10
Lumpy brown
(2)
Pronounced
111
iv) Flavour
Oxidized/stale/ rancid
10
Chalky/acid/neutralizer/
salty
Metalic/cooked/scorched
10
Weedy/bitter/ foreign
10
15
Source: Method for Sensory Evaluation of Milk Powder. Indian Standard. IS : 100301981
2.1.3 Stale, storage, old: Stale flavours, due to carbonyl compounds, can be detected
in milk powders almost as soon as they are made. The mechanism of formation of
these compounds may be through the Maillard reaction, but many compounds
contribute to a stale, cardboard flavour, including oxidation by products. The defect is
accelerated by high moisture content and high temperature of storage. When the
defect is intense it may be accompanied by a darkening of the product.
2.1.4
Cooked flavour
Milk powders often have cooked flavour, which results from components formed
during preheating and possibly during evaporation. During drying, conditions are
mostly not such that off-flavours are induced. On the contrary, a considerable part of
the volatile sulphydryl compounds (especially H2S) is removed. A cooked flavour in
milk powder mainly results from methyl ketones and lactones formed by heating of
the fat (they thus are almost absent in skim milk powder) and form Maillard products.
.
2.2
Physical characteristics of WMP
Two defects pertaining to the body and texture of dry whole milk are lumpy
and caked.
2.2.1 Lumpy: A lumpy powder definitely lacks homogeneity. Hard lumps ranging in
size from a grain of wheat upwards may be interspersed throughout. This defect is
found more frequently in the spray process product. Lumps result from insufficient
drying, drippage from spray nozzles or exposure to moisture laden air.
2.2.2 Caked: Usually this defect is not encountered in dry whole milk. When it does
occur, the product loses its powdery consistency and becomes a rock like solid. When
the solid mass is broken up, it remains in chunks, thus failing to return to the original
powder state. This defect is serious since such milk solids have lost their sales value
for human consumption.
112
2.3
Discolouration
Milk powder should be uniform in colour, free from foreign specks and burnt
particles. It should exhibit greenish white or creamish white colour, respectively in
buffalo and cow milk powders. Milk powder tends to darken during storage, turning
to brown due to maillard reaction, which refers to the reaction between free amino
group of protein and lactose. This is associated with old or stale off-flavour. High
moisture content and high storage temperature enhance browning discolouration.
Spray dried milk powder is more susceptible to age darkening and to greater intensity
than roller process powders.
2.3.1 Browned or darkened: The defect is usually associated with an old, stale
flavour. The normal creamy colour is replaced by a distinct brown.
2.3.2 Scorched: Discolouration due to burning of the milk solids is usually associated
with the roller process. The powder may vary from light to dark brown.
2.3.3 Lack of uniformity: This defect may be due to either partial discolouration
(browning) after packaging or to partial scorching during the manufacturing process.
3.
SKIM MILK POWDER (SMP)
3.1
Flavour
Due to its low fat content, SMP does not possess the rich flavour of high fat
milk powder. The flavour of high quality non fat dry milk should be clean, sweet and
pleasant, when reconstituted, similar to that of fresh skim milk. The flavour may have
a slightly cooked or heated note. The chief flavour defects of non fat dry milk are as
follows:
3.1.1 Stale, storage, old: This flavour defect is the chief one of non fat dry milk. In
this product the off-flavour is even more "quick" and distinct than in dry whole milk.
Usually the flavour defect is accompanied by a darkening of the powder. The old,
stale flavour develops usually more intensely in spray process than in roller process
powder.
3.1.2 Cooked: As in dry whole milk, this flavour is produced in products which have
been subjected to abnormally high heat during processing.
3.1.3 Oxidized, tallowy: Non fat dry milk contains a small percentage of fat which
oxidizes under some conditions yielding the oxidized or tallowy flavour. A tallowy
113
product has a pronounced odour, whereas stale powder does not have a very intense
odour.
3.2
Physical characteristics
Non fat dry milk prepared by spray process is very fine in particle size and
uniform throughout. Instead of being flour like in texture, instant SMP is more or less
granular. The product pours readily somewhat like that of corn meal. The highly
hygroscopic, light, almost air-borne dust of normal spray process is lacking in SMP.
3.3
Discolouration
Non fat dry milk should be uniform in colour throughout showing the absence
of foreign specks and burnt solids. The product should have a creamy white or light
yellow colour which varies slightly in intensity with the season of the year. Upon
ageing under certain conditions SMP tends to darken. When this defect occurs the
light yellow colour has given way to a definite brown. Spray process powder appear
to be more susceptible to age darkening and to a greater intensity than roller-process
powder.
4.
METHOD OF RECONSTITUTING DRY MILK FOR FLAVOUR

EXAMINATION
Generally for examining dry milk for odour and taste, the product is
reconstituted on the basis of the original concentration. The American Dry Milk
Institute (ADMI) recommends examination of dry milk odour immediately after the
containers are opened and again for flavour approximately one hour after the sample
has been reconstituted. Judges must be mindful of the fact that freshly prepared fluid
milk made from water and dry whole milk often possesses a slightly chalky, watery or
slightly cooked taste. Hence permitting a short storage period for blending of flavours
after reconstituting the product should aid the judge in determining more accurately
the true flavour.
5.
MALTED MILK
5.1
Flavour
Malted milk, being composed in large part of maltose and dextrose, has a
definitely sweet taste. It should have a distinct flavour of malt. The product should be
judged for its lack of malt flavour and for oxidized flavour defect.
5.2
Body and texture
114
Malted milk has a coarse and grainy texture unlike the fine texture of spray
dried milk. While judging, product must be examined for possible stickiness and
formation of cakes because of its affinity for water.
6.
REFERENCES
Bodyfelt, M.S., Tobias, J. and Trout, G.M. (1988). The Sensory Evaluation of Dairy
Products. AVI Publishing Co., NY, pp. 384 - 415.
Indian Standard. Method for Sensory Evaluation of Milk Powder. IS: 10030 - 1981.
Prentice, J.H. (1972). Rheology and Texture of Dairy Products. J. of Texture Studies.
3, 415 - 458.
115
APPLICATIONOFRHEOLOGYINQUALITYASSURANCEINFOOD
PROCESSING
Dr. Dalbir Singh Sogi

Reader & Head, Dept. of Food Science & Technology
Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar
Quality assurance generally deals with the defining of quality standards of food
products quantitatively and then controlling the entire manufacturing process so that
finished product conforms to the established standards. Sensory characterustics of a
food product are the most important for the consumer acceptability. Sensory
parameters refer to appearance (including colour), flavour (taste, odour and Feel) and
texture (Solids)/consistency (Liquids).
Senses used for evaluation of food qualiry are as follows
Smell : Olfactory mucous memberane of the nose; olfactory; epithelium

Taste : Gustatory-mucous membranne of toungue, palate and throat
Sight : Visual - eyes
Hearing : Auditory; Aural-ears
Touch : Haptic-tactile nerve in general
Cut/crush : Teeth
In this presentation only consistency has been discussed. It is a very important

quality attribute in liquid or semisolid foods. Apart from colour and flavour, the
consistency of food dictates overall acceptability of the products. The consistency has
been defiend in number of terms in sensory evaluation for varous food products. The
mouth can be considered as an intricate mechanical system and chemical reactor that
can crush, wet, enzymetically degrade, pressurize, heat or cool, pump and sense force
and temperature. In addition this eating machine has a sophisticated feed back
control system. The mouthfeel terms of beverages have been classified in Table 1.
Category
Typical
words
Beverages that have this

property
Beverages that do not have

this property
Viscosityrelated terms
Thin
Water, Iced tea, hot tea
Thick
Milk shake, eggnog, tomato

juice
Milk, liqueur, hot chocolate
Apricot nectar, milk shake,

buttermilk
Club soda, champagne, drink
made from dry mix
-
Feel on soft
Smooth
116
tissue surfaces
Pulpy
Creamy
Body-related
terms
Heavy
Watery
Light
Coating of oral
cavity
Mouth
Coating
Clinging
Resistance to
tongue
movement
Afterfeelmouth
Slimy
Syrupy
Orange juice, lemonade,

pineapple juice
Hot chocolate, eggnog, icecream soda
Milk shake, eggnog, liqueur
Bouillon, iced tea, hot tea, drink
made from dry mix
Water, iced tea, canned fruit
drink
Milk, eggnog, hot chocolate
Milk, milk shake, ice cream
soda, liqueur
Prune juice, milk, light cream
Clean
Liqueur, apricot nectar, root

beer
Water, iced tea, wine
Drying
Hot chocolate, cranberry juice
Lingering
Hot chocolate, light cream,

milk
Water, hot tea
Cleansing
Water, milk, champagne

Water, lemonade, cranberry
juice
Water, lemonade, ginger ale
Milk, apricot nectar
Buttermilk, hot chocolate, juice
Water, apple cider, whiskey
Water, ginger ale, bouillon
Water, ginger ale, champagne
Water, milk, club soda
Buttermilk, beer, canned
fruit drink
Water
Water, iced tea, club soda
Milk, pineapple juice, juice
Source: Szczesniak (1979) in Food Texture and Viscosity by Malcolm C.Bourne
Perception of food and definition of the rheological terms

Food
Firmness (compression)
Hardness (Bite)
Cohesive Chewy,
Fracturable (crispy/crunchy),
Viscosity
Sticky (tooth/palate),
Tooth pack
Dense/heavy,
Airy/puffy/light
Springy/rubbery
Terms
Hardness
Force to attain a given deformation
Cohesiveness
Degree to which sample deforms (rather than rupture)
Adhesiveness
Force required to remove sample from the surface
Denseness
Compactness of cross-section
Springiness
Rate of return to original shape after deformation
117
It is evident from the above table that the sensory response of liquid food for
consistency can be measured in term of rheological parameters. Various equipments
have been designed to measure the consistency or viscosity or visco-elastic behaviour.
In the early time the equipments were relatively simple and produce limited
information but modern equipment are complex, accurate and more informative.
CAPILLARY VISCOMETERS
These are also known as glass capillary viscometers or Ostwald viscometers.
Apparatus consists of an U shaped glass tube and a controlled temperature bath. One
arm of viscometer consits a precise narrow bore or capillary inbetween two bulbs. The
liquid is drawn into the upper bulb by suction, then allowed to flow down through the
capillary into the lower bulb. The time taken for the liquid to pass the capillary is
proportional to the kinematic viscosity. The voscometers are calibtrated using
standard solutions of known viscosity and a conversion factor is calculated. The time
taken by the test liquid to flow through a capillary of a known diameter is multiplied
with the conversion factor of the viscometer to get the kinematic viscosity.
Temperature is maintained be keeping the viscometers in a water bath. The capillary
viscometer has been further classified depending of the specific end uses:
Zeitfuchs Cross-Arm Viscometers

Newtonian liquids - 0.3 to 1,00,000 centistokes range.
Suitability - Transparent or Opaque liquids
Minimum sample volume - 15 mL
Liquid bath depth - 292 mm
Cannon-Fenske Routine Viscometers
Newtonian liquids
118

Cannon-Fenske Opaque Viscometers
Newtonian liquids - 30 to 6000 centistokes range.
Suitability very dark coloured liquids
Ubbelohde Viscometers
Newtonian liquids - 0.5 to 100,000 centistokes range.
Cannon-Ubbelohde Semi-Micro Viscometers
Minimum sample volume 1.0 mL
Liquid bath depth 240 mm
Cannon-Ubbelohde Dilution Viscometersg Information
Minimum sample volume - 8.0 mL
FALLING SPHERE VISCOMETERS

The falling sphere viscometer is based on the Stokes' law, in which the fluid is
stationary in a vertical glass tube while a sphere of known size and density is allowed
to fall through the liquid. If correctly selected, it reaches terminal velocity, which can
119
be measured by the time it takes to pass two marks on the tube. Electronic sensing can
be used for opaque fluids. Knowing the terminal velocity, the size and density of the
sphere, and the density of the liquid, Stokes' law can be used to calculate the viscosity
of the fluid. A series of steel ball bearings of different diameter is normally used in
the classic experiment to improve the accuracy of the calculation.
Falling ball viscometer
BOSTWICK CONSISTOMETER
It consists of a rectangular channel with spring-operated gate on one side that
allows a constant flow of the sample. There are two levelling screws for the fine
adjustment of incination. There are 48 engraved graduations of 5 mm devisions of
the floor of channel. The gate is closed and sample is loaded. The gate is opened
and fluid is allowed to flow throgh the channel for one minutes. The distance
travelled by the fluid is indicative of consistency.
Suitability - Liquid or paste-like materials

Minimum sample volume - 75ml
Dimensions - 76 x 140 x 356 mm
120
ROTATIONAL VISCOMETERS
Rotational viscometers use the idea that the torque required to turn an object in
a fluid, can indicate the viscosity of that fluid.
The
common
viscometer
determines the required torque for rotating a disk or bob in a fluid at known speed.
'Cup and bob' viscometers work by defining the exact volume of sample which
is to be sheared within a test cell and the torque required to achieve a certain
rotational speed is measured. There are two classical geometries in "cup and bob"
viscometers, known as either the "Couette" or "Searle" systems - distinguished by
whether the cup or bob rotates. The rotating cup is preferred in some cases.
'Cone and Plate' viscometers use a cone of very shallow angle in bare contact
with a flat plate. With this system the shear rate beneath the plate is constant to a
modest degree of precision and deconvolution of a flow curve; a graph of shear stress
(torque) against shear rate (angular velocity) yields the viscosity in a straightforward
manner.
STABINGER VISCOMETER
It is a modified Couette rotational viscometer where an accuracy comparable
to that of kinematic viscosity determination is achieved. The internal cylinder in the
Stabinger Viscometer is hollow and specifically lighter than the sample, thus floats
freely in the sample, centered by centrifugal forces. The formerly inevitable bearing
friction is thus fully avoided.
Stabinger viscometer
The speed and torque measurement is implemented without direct contact, by a
rotating magnetic field and an eddy current brake. This allows for a previously
unprecedented torque resolution of 50 pNm and an exceedingly large measuring
range from 0.2 to 20,000 mPas with a single measuring system.
121
STORMER VISCOMETER
The Stormer viscometer is a rotation instrument used to determine the
viscosity of paints, commonly used in paint industries. It consists of a paddle-type
rotor that is spun by an internal motor, submerged into a cylinder of viscous
substance. The rotor speed can be adjusted by changing the amount of load supplied
onto the rotor. For example, in one brand of viscometers, pushing the level upwards
decreases the load and speed, downwards increases the load and speed. The viscosity
can be found by adjusting the load until the rotation velocity is 200 rotations per
minute. By examining the load applied and comparing tables found on ASTM D 562,
one can find the viscosity in Krebs units (KU), unique only to the Stormer type
viscometer. This method is intended for paints applied by brush or roller.
DYNAMIC RHEOMETER
The two common approaches used in rotational rheometers are controlled rate
and controlled stress. In the controlled rate approach, the material being studied is
placed between two plates. One of the plates is rotated at a fixed speed and the
torsional force produced at the other plate is measured. Hence, speed (strain rate) is
the independent variable and torque (stress) is the dependent variable. In the
controlled stress approach, the situation is reversed. A torque (stress) is applied to one
plate and the displacement or rotational speed (strain rate) of that same plate is
measured.
Controlled rate rheometer with Searle operation mode.
122
Controlled stress rheometer with Searle operation mode
VIBRATIONAL VISCOMETER
Vibrational viscometer operates by measuring the damping of an oscillating
electromechanical resonator immersed in a fluid whose viscosity is to be determined.
The resonator generally oscillates in torsion or transversely. The damping imposed on
the resonator is directly realted to viscosity.
The resonator's damping may be measured by one of several methods:
Measuring the power input necessary to keep the oscillator vibrating at a
constant amplitude. The higher the viscosity, the more power is needed to
maintain the amplitude of oscillation.
Measuring the decay time of the oscillation once the excitation is switched
off. The higher the viscosity, the faster the signal decays.
Measuring the frequency of the resonator as a function of phase angle
between excitation and response waveforms. The higher the viscosity, the
larger the frequency changes for a given phase change.
Vibrating viscometers are rugged industrial systems used to measure viscosity
in the process condition. The active part of the sensor is a vibrating rod. The vibration
amplitude varies according to the viscosity of the fluid in which the rod is immersed.
123
These viscosity meters are suitable for measuring clogging fluid and high-viscosity
fluids even with fibers even under extreme pH conditions.
SENSORY EVALUATION AND INSTRUMENTAL MEASUREMENT
The relationship between the sensory evaluation and instrumental
measurement attributes has been studied by many workers like Hayakawa et al. 1995
(model emulsions), Hill et al. 1995 (lemon pie filling), Mela et al. 1994 (fat
emulsions), Munoz & Sherman, 1990 (commercial salad dressings) and Peressini et
al, 1998, Stern et al, 2001 (traditional and light mayonnaises). The relationship among
rheological and sensory provided a good prediction of peak shear stress and peak time
but gave only a crude prediction of stress decay. The study was found useful in
modelling the human perception of fluid mechanics in the mouth.
CONCLUSIONS
Rheological properties and mouth feel are determined by measuring
force and deformation as a function of time. The rheological methods are useful if
they correlate with the sensory properties of interest. The selection of tests depends on
the type of food, the application, and the availability of suitable instrumentation, for
testing the particular attributes of food material. However, the sensory response can
not be completely duplicated by an instrumental procedure but it can provide a good
prediction and modelling of fluid mechanics in the human masticatory system.
References
Campanella, O.H. and Peleg, M. (1987). Analysis of the transient flow of mayonnaise
in a coaxial viscometer. J. Rheol., 31, 439-452.
Dickie, A.M. and Kokini, J.L. (1983). An improved model for food thickness from
non-Newtonian fluid mechanics in the mouth. J. Food Sci., 48, 57-65.
Figoni, P.I. and Shomaker, C.F. (1983). Characterization of time dependent flow
properties of mayonnaise under steady shear. J. Texture Studies, 14, 431-442.
Hayakawa, F., Tanisawa Y., Hatae, K. and Shimada, A. (1995). Relationship between
the sensory evaluation for oiliness and physical properties in model emulsions. J.
Home Econ. Jpn., 46, 765-774.
124
Hill, M.A., Mitchell, J.R. and Sherman, P.A. (1995). The relationship between the
rheological and sensory properties of a lemon pie filling. J. Texture Studies, 26, 457470.
Kiosseoglou, V.D. and Sherman, P. (1983). Influence of egg yolk lipoproteins on the
rheology and stability of O/W emulsions and mayonnaise. J. Texture Studies, 14, 397417.
M.B. Sousa, W. Canet, M.D. Alvarez, C. Fernndez (2007) Effect of processing on
the texture and sensory attributes of raspberry (cv. Heritage) and blackberry (cv.
Thornfree) Journal Food Engineering, 78, 9-21.
Mela, J.D., Langley, K.R. and Martin, A. (1994). Sensory assessment of fat content :
effect of emulsion and subject characteristics. Appetite, 22, 67-81.
Munoz, J. and Sherman, P. (1990). Dynamic viscoelastic properties of some
commercial salad dressings. J. Texture Studies, 21, 411-426.
N. Lassoued, J. Delarue, B. Launay, C. Michon (2008) Baked product texture:
Correlations between instrumental and sensory characterization using Flash Profile
Journal of Cereal Science, 48,133-143.
Peressini, D. Sensidoni, A. and de Cindio, B. (1998). Rheological characterization of
traditional and light mayonnaises. J. Food Eng., 35, 409-417.
Richardson, R.K., Morris, E.R., Ross-Murphy, S.B., Taylor, L.J. and Dea, I.C.M.
(1989). Characterization of the perceived texture of thickened systems by dynamic
viscosity measurements. Food Hydrocoll., 3, 175-191.
S. Di Marzo, R. Di Monaco, S. Cavella, R. Romano, I. Borriello, P. Masi (2006)
Correlation between sensory and instrumental properties of Canestrato Pugliese slices
packed in biodegradable films.
Trends in Food Science & Technology, 17, 4, 69-176.
Stern, P., Valentova, H. and Pokorny, J. (2001). Rheological properties and sensory
texture of mayonnaise. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol., 103, 23-28.
Wendin, K., Aaby, K., Edris, A., Ellekjaer, M.R., Albin, R., Bergenstahl, B.,
Johansson, L., Willers, E.P. and Solheim, R. (1997). Low-fat mayonnaise : influences
of fat content, aroma compounds and thickness. Food Hydrocoll., 11, 87-99.
125
NONDESTRUCTIVE METHODS FOR QUALITY

EVALUATION OF DAIRY AND FOOD PRODUCTS
S. N. Jha
Senior Scientist,
Central Institute of Postharvest Engineering and Technology (CIPHET),
Ludhiana 141 004
Quality conscious consumers nowadays want to get assured about various
quality attributes of food items before they purchase. Fruits, vegetables and milk are
increasing in popularity in the daily diets in both developed and developing countries.
Products quality and its measurement techniques are thus naturally extremely
important. The decisions concerning the constituents, level of freshness, ripeness, and
many other quality parameters are based mostly on subjective and visual inspection of
the foods external appearance. Several nondestructive techniques for quality
evaluation have been developed based on the detection of various physical properties
that correlate well with certain factors of a product. The quality of foods including
milk and milk products is mostly based on constituents, purity; i.e., levels of
adulterants; color, gloss, flavor, firmness, texture, taste and freedom from external as
well as internal defects. Numerous techniques for evaluating these parameters are now
available commercially, but most of them are destructive in nature. Internal quality
factors of fruits such as maturity, sugar content, acidity, oil content, and internal
defects, however, are difficult to evaluate. Methods are needed to better predict the
internal quality of fruits, vegetables, constituents of foods and level of adulterants, if
any, without destroying the sample. Recently, there has been as increasing interest in
nondestructive methods of quality evaluation, and a considerable amount of effort has
been made in that direction. But the real problem is how these methods are to be
exploited practically and what the difficulties are in implementing them. The
objective of the present paper is thus to give exposure of recent nondestructive
methods such as nuclear magnetic resonance, x-ray computed tomography, nearinfrared spectroscopy and some other important methods to the stakeholders of food
industry in India and to evaluate their pros and cons for suitability in commercial
application.
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques
The nuclear magnetic resonance technique, often referred as magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), involves resonant magnetic energy absorption by nuclei
placed in an alternating magnetic field. The amount of energy absorbed by the nuclei
is directly proportional to the number of a particular nucleus in the sample such as the
protons in water oil. The theory of NMR is presented in detail elsewhere (Farrar &
Becker, 1971). The basic concepts, types of pulsed experiments and the type of
information that can be extracted from these experiments are described. Information
126
on experimentation, assembling hardware, conducting laboratory tests and

interpreting the results is also available from Fukushima and Roeder (1981). These
authors also provided detailed theory for better understanding of what a scientist
should seek and what he might expect to find out by using NMR.
There are many applications of NMR in agriculture (Rollwitz, 1984). The
simplest among them is the determination of moisture and oil content (Mousseri et al.,
1974, Leung et al., 1976; Miller et al., 1980; Brosio et al., 1978; Rollwitz and Persyn,
1971). But the NMR response many times is not clear and poses problems especially
when constituents other than water are present in the material (Steinberg &
Richardson, 1996). Besides the established relationship between the moisture and
output of NMR experiments, various other facts helpful in determining the quality of
food materials without destroying them are available in the literature: Selections of
chocolate confectionary products can be made non-invasively by three-dimensional
magnetic resonance imaging (Miquel et al., 1998); using a spin echo pulse sequence,
128x64x64 data sets were acquired with either a 5-or 20-ms echo time, 500-ms
repetition time and signal averages, in total 2-h scan time. Such images localize and
distinguish between the constituents, and visualize both the internal and external
structure of matter.
Most perishable food products are now marketed in packaged form. To
increase the marketability longer shelf life is needed and this is achieved by freezing
and secondary processing of the food. During freezing it is natural that ice will form
within the food that may change its characteristics. Ice formation during food freezing
can be examined using the NMRI method as the formation of ice has been seen to
reduce the spatially located NMR signal. The characteristics of a food can be better
controlled as MRI can serve to assess freezing times and the food structure during the
freezing process (Kerr et al., 1998). The secondary processing changes almost all
characteristics of a food, such as physical and aerodynamic (Jha & Kachru, 1998),
thermal and hygroscopic properties (Jha & Prasad, 1993; Jha 1999), which in turn,
change its key acceptability factors, i.e. sensory texture and taste. The sensory texture
of cooked food such as potatoes has been predicted using the NMRI technique (Thybu
et al., 2000). In addition, NMR image intensity, the ratio of the oil and water
resonance peaks of the one-dimensional NMR spectrum, and both the spin-lattice
relaxation time and spin-spin relaxation time of water in the fruit are correlated with
maturity of a fruit like avocado before harvesting (Chen et al., 1993). This important
finding has desirable features for high speed sorting using a surface-coil NMR probe
that determine the oil/water resonance peak ratio of the signal from one region in an
intact fruit.
An on-line nuclear magnetic resonance quality evaluation sensor has recently
been designed, constructed and tested (Kim et al., 1999). The device consists of a
super-conducting magnet with a 20mm diameter surface coil and a 150 mm diameter
imaging coil coupled to a conveyor system. These spectra were used to measure the
oil/water ration in avocados and this ratio correlated to percent dry weight. One
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dimensional magnetic resonance images of cherries were later used to detect the
presence of pits inside.
X-ray and computerized tomography (CT)
X-ray imaging is an established technique to detect strongly attenuating
materials and has been applied to a number of inspection applications within the
agricultural and food industries. In particular, there are many applications within the
biological sciences where we wish to detect weakly attenuating materials against
similar background material.
X-ray computed tomography (CT) has been used to image interior regions of
apples with varying moisture and, to a limited extent, density states (Tollner et al.,
1992). The images were actually maps of x-ray absorption of fruit cross sections. Xray absorption properties were evaluated using normal apples alternatively canned and
sequentially freeze-dried, fruit affected by water core disorder, and normal apples
freeze-dried to varying levels. The results suggested that internal differences in x-ray
absorption within scans of fruit cross-sections are largely associated with differences
in volumetric water content. Similarly, the physiological constituents have been
monitored in peaches by CT methods in which x-ray absorbed by the peaches is
expressed in CT number and used as an index for measuring the changes in internal
quality of the fruit (Barcelon et al., 1999). Relationships between the CT number and
the physiological contents were determined and it was concluded that x-ray CT
imaging could be an effective tool in the evaluation of peach internal quality. In
another study, the potential for Compton scattered x-rays in food inspection was
evaluated by imaging the density variation across a food material by measuring the
Compton scatter profile across a food material by measuring the Compton scatter
profile across polystyenespheres with internal voids (MacFarlane et al., 2000). In this
study particular attention was paid to simulate the obscuring influence of multiple
scatter. The simulated result was found to be in close agreement with the experimental
observation. Some experimental test sample of a Perspex block with various
embedded soft materials showed that care should be taken to ensure that the
transmission image is taken with x-ray within an appropriate energy range
(Zwiggelaar et al., 1997). For low Z materials the contrasts between the materials
became more pronounced at lower x-ray energies. If more than one soft material has
to be distinguished from the surrounding area it may be advantageous to image over a
range of x-ray energies.
Visual spectroscopy and colour measurements
Colour measurement is now little bit old technique to check the quality of any
items in terms of appearance. It has also been tested for assessing the ripeness of fruits
and measurement of aesthetic appearances of dairy products. Recently many works
have been reported to correlate the internal quality such as total soluble solids
contents, maturity of fruits in tree and sweetness of intact fruits using Hunter colour
values and reflectance spectra in visual range of wavelengths (Jha et al, 2005 and
128
2006). This in fact is possible through rigorous analysis of data and modeling for a
huge number of samples of varied nature.
Near-infrared spectroscopy
The use of near-infrared spectroscopy as rapid and often nondestructive
technique for measuring the composition of biological materials has been
demonstrated for many commodities. This method is no longer new; as it started in
early 1970 in Japan (Kawano, 1998), Just after some reports from America. Even an
official method to determine the protein content of wheat is available (AACC, 1983).
The National Food Research Institute (NFRI), Tsukuba has since become a leading
institute in NIR research in Japan and has played a pivotal role in expanding nearinfrared spectroscopy technology all over the country (Iwamoto et al., 1995). In
Japan, NIR as a nondestructive method for quality evaluation was started for the
determination of sugar content in intact peaches, Satsuma orange and similar other
soluble solids (Kawano, 1994).
To determine the solid content of cantaloupe Dull et al. (1989) used NIR light
at 884 nm and 913 nm. Initially the correlation of their findings was poor mainly due
to light losses. Later, Dull and Birth (1989) modified the earlier method and applied it
to honey-dew melons; the improved methods showed better correlation. Similarly, a
nondestructive optical method for determining the internal quality of intact peaches
and nectarines was investigated (Slaughter, 1995). Based upon visible and nearinfrared spectrophotometer techniques, the method was capable of simultaneously
predicting the soluble solid content, sucrose content, sorbitol content, etc. of intact
peaches and nectarines was investigated (Slaughter, 1995). Based upon visible and
near-infrared spectrophotometer techniques, the method was capable of
simultaneously predicting the soluble solid content, sucrose content, sorbitol content,
etc. of intact peaches and nectarines, and required no sample preparation.
Now various NIR spectrometers are available and are being used
commercially. Some modifications in these available spectrometers, especially for
holding the intact samples, are reported (Kawano et al., 1992; 1993). In the same
sample holding a test tube for holding liquid food such as milk was also used to
determine fat content (Chen et al., 1999). Recently a low cost NIR spectrometer has
been used to estimate the soluble solids and dry matter content of kiwifrui (Osborne &
Kunnemeyer, 1999). Errors are within the permissible limit and the time requires for
obtaining data has been reduced. The influence of sample temperature on the NIR
calibration equation was also evaluated and a compensation curve for the sample
temperature was developed (Kawano et al., 1995) to rectify the result.
Now detection of almost all adulterants in milk in single stroke (Jha and
matsuoka, 2004) and composition of milk and effect of somatic cell count on
determination of milk constituents are very accurately determined ( Tsenkova et al
129
2001). Similarly taste of tomato juice in terms of acid-brix ratio can be determined
with high accuracy (Jha and Matsuoka 2004). NIR spectroscopy in fact is the most
suited technique for nondestructive analysis of dairy products.
Miscellaneous techniques
Quality attributes such as invisible surface bruises, color, gloss, firmness,
density, volume expansion of processed food etc are also important (Jha & Prasad,
1996). Often consumers select food materials, particularly fruits and vegetables by
judging these parameters visually. Multiple efforts have been made to determine these
parameters visually. A fluorescence technique was used to detect invisible surface
bruises on Satsuma mandarins (Uozumi et al., 1987). The authors have also tested this
method successfully to know the freshness of cucumbers and eggs and found it very
useful for detecting the freshness of agricultural produce.
Matsuoka et al., (1995) measured the gloss of eggplant by a spectral
radiometer system and found or to be a viable parameter for determining freshness.
They observed remarkable change in relative spectral reflectance values after 48 h.
Later, they compares their evaluation by eye in a sorting house with the integrated
results of relative spectral reflectance in the visible range and found that the gloss on
the surface differs with light and is caused by round and adhesives substances on the
epidermal cells (Matsuoka et al., 1996). A unique gloss meter for measuring the gloss
of curved surfaces was used in parallel with a conventional, flat surface gloss meter to
measure peel gloss of ripening banana (Ward & Nussinovitch, 1996). Usually banana
ripeness is judged by the color of the peel. The new gloss meter is able to measure the
peel correctly which helps in predicting the correct time and level of ripening. This is
also able to measure the gloss of other fruits and vegetables such as green bell pepper,
orange, tomato, eggplant and onion (Nussinovitch et al., 1996).
Glossiness and color, in fact, are the only visual attributes for measuring the
quality of fruits and vegetables. Another property that helps a consumer in deciding
the quality is firmness. Takao (1998) developed a fruit hardness tester that can
measure the firmness of kiwifruit nondestructively. The tester is called a HIT
counter after the three words, hardness, immaturity and texture. By just setting the
sample in the tester, the amount of change in shape is measured and a digital reading
within a few seconds indicates about the freshness. Based on the same principal
another on-line prototype HIT counter, fruit hardness sorting machine has also been
developed (Takao & Omori, 1991). The relationship between density and internal
quality of watermelon can also be determined. An optimum range of density was first
determined and then a new automatic density sorting system was develops and then a
new automatic density sorting system was developed to measure the hollowness of a
watermelons with cavities or deteriorated porous flesh to be removed and permits
estimation of the soluble solid content of this fruits. Using gloss and other physical
parameters such as stiffness and density, Jha and Matsuoka, 2002 have also
determined the freshness of eggplants and have correlated it very easily with the day
to day price in vegetable mandis.
130
Neural networks have lately gained in popularity as an alternative to

regression models to regression models to characterize the biological process. Their
decision-making capabilities can best to used in image analysis of biological products
where the shape and size classification is not governed by any mathematical function.
Many neural network classifiers have been used and evaluated for classifying
agricultural products, but multi-layer neural network classifiers perform such tasks
best (Jayas et al., 2000). Recently one scientist used a gamma- absorption techniques
combined with a scanning device for continuous non-destructive crop mass and
growth measurement in the field (Gutezeit, 200). Most important in this study was the
accuracy of the measurement, which was found to be in agreement with the direct
weighting system. This method has made it possible to assess the reaction of plants
and their dependence on environmental factors by growth analysis.
Conclusions
Determination of quality of any food material including milk and milk
products is actually a complex problem that requires a variety of specific sensor, more
than an accumulation of simple sensor. Various techniques are being tried. IMR, x-ray
CT and NIR techniques may be useful for a large volume of work in agriculture,
especially for evaluation of qualities such as maturity, internal quality of fruit and
conditions of food materials after processing, level of adulterants and useful
constituents. These techniques, although give a correct picture and precise
measurement of parameters, are not convenient for small business except NIR and
visual spectroscopy. Their high cost restricts application to large entrepreneurs and
developed countries only.
Two examples of the use of x-ray imaging relevant to the agricultural and food
industries have been given, notably in the inspection of vegetables and food materials
using low energy x-ray imaging and in the inspection and control of dynamic
processes. The x-ray imaging results have been compared with the full threedimensional information obtained by computer tomogrphy. The CT results show more
detail in the test sample than the single transmission image and detail in the inspection
of materials of variable shape usually encountered in the agricultural and food
industry. The imaging techniques MRI and x-ray CT are able to show only the
internal structure of the material, not the compositional of nutritional details, whereas
NIR and visual spectroscopy techniques are very successfully being used to determine
the compositional quality of a food and can be used even at farm. However, it is not
yet possible to produce an image of the internal physical quality of fruits and
vegetables. All techniques are costly because most of the expertise is imported.
Central Institute of Post-harvest Engineering and Technology (CIPHET), Ludhiana
has taken the lead by initiating R & D works in the country about four years ago.
Dairy and food processing industries and other research organizations should also
work together to develop such type of instrumentation indigenously.
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134
GOODLABORATORYPRACTICES GENESIS&CONCEPT
Dr. Rajan Sharma

Senior Scientist, Dairy Chemistry Division,
(E-mail. rajansharma21@gmail.com)
The economic and social implications of new technologies are closely linked
with newer chemicals. Chemicals, be they industrial chemicals, pharmaceuticals,
veterinary drugs, pesticides, cosmetic products, food products, feed additives, etc., are
required to be evaluated to determine their potential hazards. A number of countries
require manufacturers of these chemicals to establish through data that use of these
products do not pose any hazards to human health and the environment. Nonhazardous nature of these substances needs to be established through studies and data,
which will be examined by the regulatory authorities of the concerned countries.
Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) is a system, which has been evolved by
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) used for
achieving the above goals. GLP generally refers to a system of management controls
for laboratories and research organizations to ensure the consistency and reliability of
results as outlined in the OECD Principles of GLP and national regulations. GLP
applies to non-clinical studies conducted for the assessment of the safety of chemicals
to man, animals and the environment. The internationally accepted definition is as
follows:
GLP is a quality system and the manner in which non-clinical safety studies
are: planned, performed, monitored, recorded, reported and archived. These studies
are undertaken to generate data by which the hazards and risks to users, consumers
and third parties, including the environment, can be assessed for pharmaceuticals,
agrochemicals, cosmetics, food and feed additives and contaminants, novel foods and
biocides. GLP helps assure regulatory authorities that the data submitted are a true
reflection of the results obtained during the study and can therefore be relied upon
when making risk/safety assessments.
History of GLP
The formal concept of GLP first evolved in the USA in the 1970s because of
concerns about the validity of preclinical safety data submitted to the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) in the context of new drug applications. The inspection of
studies and test facilities had yielded indications for, and instances of, inadequate
planning and incompetent execution of studies, insufficient documentation of methods
and results, and even fraud. For example, replacing animals which died during a study
by new ones (which had not been treated appropriately with the test compound)
135
without documenting this fact; taking haematology data for control animals from
control groups not connected with the study; deleting necropsy observations because
the histopathologist received no specimens of lesions; or re-correcting discrepancies
in raw data and final report tables by juggling around the raw data in order to fit the
results tables to the final report. These deficiencies were made public in the so-called
Kennedy Hearings of the US Congress, and the outcome of these subsequently led to
the publication, by the FDA, of Proposed Regulations on GLP in 1976, with the
respective Final Rule coming into effect in June 1979.These regulations were
intended to provide the regulatory basis for assurance that reports on studies
submitted to the FDA would reflect faithfully and completely the experimental work
carried out. In the chemical and pesticide field, the US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) had encountered similar problems with study quality and issued its
own draft GLP regulations in 1979 and 1980, publishing the Final Rules in two
separate volumes in 1983.
OECD and GLP
On the international level, the OECD, in order to avoid non-tariff barriers to
trade in chemicals, to promote mutual acceptance of non-clinical safety test data, and
to eliminate unnecessary duplication of experiments, followed suit by assembling an
expert group who formulated the first OECD Principles of GLP. Their proposals were
subsequently adopted by the OECD Council in 1981 through its Decision
Concerning the Mutual Acceptance of Data in the Assessment of Chemicals
[C(81)30(Final)], in which they were included as Annex II. In this document, the
Council decided that data generated in the testing of chemicals in an OECD member
country in accordance with the applicable OECD Test Guidelines and with the OECD
Principles of GLP shall be accepted in other member countries for purposes of
assessment and other uses relating to the protection of man and the environment. It
was soon recognized that these Principles needed explanation and interpretation, as
well as further development, and a number of consensus workshops dealt with various
issues in subsequent years. The outcome of these workshops was then published by
OECD in the form of consensus documents. After some 15 years of successful
application, the OECD Principles were revised by an international group of experts
and were adopted by the OECD Council on 26th November 1997 [C(97)186/Final] by
a formal amendment of Annex II of the 1981 Council Decision. A number of OECD
member countries have adopted these Principles in their national legislation, notably
the amendment of the European Union in Commission Directive 1999/11/EC of 8
March, 1999 to the Council Directive 87/18/EEC of 18 December, 1986, where GLP
had first been introduced formally into the European legislation. Internationally, the
observance of GLP has thus been defined as a prerequisite for the mutual acceptance
of data, which means that different countries or regulatory authorities accept
laboratory studies from other countries as long as they follow the internationally
accepted GLP Principles. This mutual acceptance of safety test data will also prevent
the unnecessary repetition of studies carried out in order to comply with any single
136
countrys regulations. In order to facilitate further the mutual acceptance of data and
to extend this possibility to outside countries, the OECD Council adopted, on 26
November 1997, the Council Decision concerning the Adherence of Non-member
Countries to the Council Acts related to the Mutual Acceptance of Data in the
Assessment of Chemicals [C(81)30(Final) and C(89)87(Final)] [C(97)114/Final],
wherein interested non-member countries are given the possibility of voluntarily
adhering to the standards set by the different OECD Council Acts and thus, after
satisfactory implementation, to join the corresponding part of the OECD Chemicals
Programme. Mutual acceptance of conformity of test facilities and studies with
respect to their adherence to GLP, on the other hand, necessitated the establishment of
national procedures for monitoring compliance. According to the OECD Council
Decision-Recommendation on Compliance with Principles of GLP of 2 October
1989 [C(89)87(Final)], these procedures should be based on nationally performed
laboratory inspections and study audits. The respective national compliance
monitoring authorities should exchange not only information on the compliance of
test facilities inspected, but should also provide relevant information concerning the
countries procedures for monitoring compliance. Although devoid of such officially
recognized national compliance monitoring authorities, some developing countries do
have an important pharmaceutical industry, where preclinical safety data are already
developed under GLP. In these cases, individual studies are whenever necessary
audited by foreign GLP inspectors (e.g. of FDA, the Netherlands or Germany).
Principles of Good Laboratory Practice
The purpose of these Principles of GLP is to promote the development of
quality test data. Comparable quality of test data forms the basis for the mutual
acceptance of data among countries. If individual countries can confidently rely on
test data developed in other countries, duplicative testing can be avoided, thereby
saving time and resources. The Principles of GLP have been developed to promote the
quality and validity of test data used for determining the safety of chemicals and
chemical products. It is a managerial concept covering the organizational process and
the conditions under which laboratory studies are planned, performed, monitored,
recorded and reported. Its principles are required to be followed by test facilities
carrying out studies to be submitted to national authorities for the purposes of
assessment of chemicals and other uses relating to the protection of man and the
environment. The application of these Principles will help to avoid the creation of
technical barriers to trade, and further improve the protection of human health and the
environment. There are ten principles of GLP that have been framed by OECD and
complete text regarding these principles can be accessed from
http://www.oecd.org/document/63/0,2340,en_2649_
34381_23461751_1_1_1,00.html. These principles in brief are as follows:
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1. Test Facility Organization and Personnel

Each test facility management should ensure that these Principles of GLP are
complied with in its test facility. It should ensure that a statement exists which
identifies the individual(s) within a test facility who fulfill the responsibilities of
management as defined by these Principles of GLP; ensure that a sufficient number of
qualified personnel, appropriate facilities, equipment, and materials are available for
the timely and proper conduct of the study; ensure the maintenance of a record of the
qualifications, training, experience and job description for each professional and
technical individual. For each study, a study director should be appointed. The Study
Director is the single point of study control and has the responsibility for the overall
conduct of the study and for its final report.
2. Quality Assurance Programme
The test facility should have a documented Quality Assurance Programme to
assure that studies performed are in compliance with these Principles of GLP. The
Quality Assurance Programme should be carried out by an individual or by
individuals designated by and directly responsible to management and who are
familiar with the test procedures. This individual(s) should not be involved in the
conduct of the study being assured.
3. Facilities
The test facility should be of suitable size, construction and location to meet
the requirements of the study and to minimize disturbance that would interfere with
the validity of the study. The design of the test facility should provide an adequate
degree of separation of the different activities to assure the proper conduct of each
study. The test facility should have facilities for handling test and reference item,
archive facilities, waste disposal etc.
4. Apparatus, Material, and Reagents
Apparatus, including validated computerized systems, used for the generation,
storage and retrieval of data, and for controlling environmental factors relevant to the
study should be suitably located and of appropriate design and adequate capacity.
Apparatus used in a study should be periodically inspected, cleaned, maintained, and
calibrated according to Standard Operating Procedures. Records of these activities
should be maintained. Calibration should, where appropriate, be traceable to national
or international standards of measurement. Apparatus and materials used in a study
should not interfere adversely with the test systems. Chemicals, reagents, and
solutions should be labeled to indicate identity (with concentration if appropriate),
expiry date and specific storage instructions. Information concerning source,
preparation date and stability should be available. The expiry date may be extended
on the basis of documented evaluation or analysis.
5. Test Systems
138
Apparatus used for the generation of physical/chemical data should be suitably

located and of appropriate design and adequate capacity. The integrity of the
physical/chemical test systems should be ensured. Proper conditions should be
established and maintained for the storage, housing, handling and care of biological
test systems, in order to ensure the quality of the data.
6. Test and Reference Items
Records including test item and reference item characterization, date of
receipt, expiry date, quantities received and used in studies should be maintained.
Handling, sampling, and storage procedures should be identified in order that the
homogeneity and stability are assured to the degree possible and contamination or
mix-up are precluded. Storage container(s) should carry identification information,
expiry date, and specific storage instructions. Each test and reference item should be
appropriately identified (e.g., code, Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number
[CAS number], name, biological parameters).
7. Standard Operating Procedures
A test facility should have written Standard Operating Procedures approved by
test facility management that are intended to ensure the quality and integrity of the
data generated by that test facility. Revisions to Standard Operating Procedures
should be approved by test facility management. Each separate test facility unit or
area should have immediately available current Standard Operating Procedures
relevant to the activities being performed therein. Published text books, analytical
methods, articles and manuals may be used as supplements to these Standard
Operating Procedures. Deviations from Standard Operating Procedures related to the
study should be documented and should be acknowledged by the Study Director and
the Principal Investigator(s), as applicable.
8. Performance of the Study
For each study, a written plan should exist prior to the initiation of the study.
The study plan should be approved by dated signature of the Study Director and
verified for GLP compliance by Quality Assurance personnel. The study plan should
also be approved by the test facility management and the sponsor, if required by
national regulation or legislation in the country where the study is being performed.
9. Reporting of Study Results
A final report should be prepared for each study. In the case of short term
studies, a standardized final report accompanied by a study specific extension may be
prepared. Reports of Principal Investigators or scientists involved in the study should
be signed and dated by them. The final report should be signed and dated by the Study
Director to indicate acceptance of responsibility for the validity of the data. The extent
of compliance with these Principles of GLP should be indicated.
139
10. Storage and Retention of Records and Materials

The following should be retained in the archives for the period specified by
the appropriate authorities: a) the study plan, raw data, samples of test and reference
items, specimens, and the final report of each study; b) Records of all inspections
performed by the Quality Assurance Programme, as well as master schedules; c)
records of qualifications, training, experience and job descriptions of personnel; d)
records and reports of the maintenance and calibration of apparatus; e) validation
documentation for computerized systems; f) the historical file of all Standard
Operating Procedures; g) environmental monitoring records.
Material retained in the archives should be indexed so as to facilitate orderly
storage and retrieval. Only personnel authorized by management should have access
to the archives. Movement of material in and out of the archives should be properly
recorded. If a test facility or an archive contracting facility goes out of business and
has no legal successor, the archive should be transferred to the archives of the
sponsor(s) of the study(s).
GLP in India
The Indian test facilities, involved in safety studies have been appraising
concerned Government Departments(s) for the need of having a system of GLP
certification whereby they can demonstrate their capabilities, to a third-party as per
the international norms. Few of the Indian laboratories have even obtained GLPcompliance certification based on OECD Principles of GLP from OECD member
countries to meet their pressing needs. However, it partly served their purpose as such
as a GLP certification is not acceptable in remaining OECD member countries
because it lacks the Indian commitment for mutual acceptance.
National GLP Compliance Monitoring Authority was established by the
Department of Science & Technology, Government of India, with the approval of the
Union Cabinet on April 24, 2002. Presently, India enjoys the status of a provisional
member of the OECD for GLP. India is an Observer to the OECDs Working Group
on GLP and also a member of the OECD Test Guidelines Programme. The aim is be
to get the status of full membership in the near future so that the Indian industries do
not have to get their test facility (products) certified from safety angle by other GLP
monitoring authorities and do not lose on the trade front.
The National GLP Programme functions through an Apex Body, which has
Secretaries of concerned Ministries/Departments, Director-General, CSIR and the
Drugs Controller General of India as its members with Secretary-DST as its
Chairman. This Apex Body is responsible to ensure that the National GLP
Programme functions as per OECD norms and principles. The Apex Body is
supported by Technical Committee on GLP, National Coordination Committee for
OECD Test Guidelines Programme and Legislation Committee to enact a national
140
legislation on GLP. The Authority has trained 33 experts in the country as GLP
inspectors.
GLP-compliance certification is voluntary in nature. Industries/test/
facilities/laboratories dealing with chemicals and looking for approval from
regulatory authorities before marketing them, may apply to the National GLP
Compliance Monitoring Authority for obtaining GLP Certification for one or more of
the following areas of expertise:
physical-chemical testing
toxicity studies
mutagenicity studies
environmental toxicity studies on aquatic and terrestrial organisms
studies on behaviour in water, soil and air
bio-accumulation, residue studies
studies on effects on mesocosms and natural ecosystems
analytical and clinical chemistry testing
Others
The test facilities/laboratories have to apply in the prescribed application form.

After the application for GLP certification is received, a pre-inspection of the
laboratory is carried out by the GLP inspectors, followed by a final inspection. The
report, prepared by the inspection team, is put to the Technical Committee for
recommendation to Chairman, National GLP-Compliance Monitoring Authority.
GLP-compliance Certification is valid for a period of three years and the GLP
Secretariat organizes annual surveillance and a re-assessment during third year for
maintaining the certification.
Application of GLP concept in food and dairy laboratories
The essential quality elements in the food industry are stability, safety,
wholesomeness and purity of the products. The requirements generally applied to
food/dairy production originate from legislative governmental standards in different
countries, specifications in international markets, and consumers and customers
needs. The food laboratories are generally involved in two distinct types of
operations, each with defined responsibilities.
The responsibility of the laboratory situated in a factory is to control the
quality of the production and the products. The functions of the laboratory are an
essential part of the manufacturing process, and also an important sector of good
manufacturing practices. The success in good manufacturing practices and critical
control point surveillance depends on the reliability, adequate and accuracy of the
analytical work of the laboratory. Prerequisite for high quality manufacture is the
certainty that the laboratory has the capacity and is able to use proper and appropriate
141
analysing techniques, to ensure that the results are correct and fulfill the requirement
of accuracy, reproducibility and repeatability. This can be achieved by following the
guidelines of ISO 17025 followed by the accreditation of the laboratory which
provides formal recognition to competent laboratories.
However, for a research and development (R & D) laboratory, working under
GLP environment by following the principles of GLP is a good proposition. R & D
laboratory are generally entrusted with the job of product development, identification
of health benefits of a particular food, isolation of some health promoting
factors/constituents from the food, identification of new technological parameters for
alternative processing of raw material etc. GLP studies must be fully documented
(methods, procedures, deviations), which means that they can be accurately repeated
at any time in the future. The full documentation of the studies, from planning
activities right through to the production of reports, means that all the activities of the
study are traceable and therefore the study may be audited by third parties. Since GLP
is an internationally accepted standard for the organization of studies, performing
such experiments with compliance to GLP promotes their acceptance world-wide. In
case of any dispute, the GLP documentation may be of great help for the validation of
any claim made by R & D laboratory.
Conclusion
The purpose of these Principles of GLP is to promote the development of
quality test data and to provide a managerial tool to ensure a sound approach to the
management, including conduct, reporting and archiving, of laboratory studies. The
Principles may be considered as a set of criteria to be satisfied as a basis for ensuring
the quality, reliability and integrity of studies, the reporting of verifiable conclusions,
and the traceability of data. Consequently the Principles require institutions to allocate
roles and responsibilities in order to improve the operational management of each
study, and to focus on those aspects of study execution (planning, monitoring,
recording, reporting, archiving) which are of special importance for the
reconstructability of the whole study. Since all these aspects are of equal importance
for compliance with the Principles of GLP, there cannot be any possibility of using
only a choice of requirements and still claiming GLP compliance. No test facility may
thus rightfully claim GLP compliance if it has not implemented, and if it does not
comply with, the full array of GLP rules.
Reference
Handbook of Good laboratory practices. Quality practices for regulated non-clinical
research and development. UNDP/World Bank/ WHO Special program for research
and training in tropical disease, Geneva, Switzerland.
142
Requirement for test facilities. OECD principals of good laboratory practice for GLP
certification. National GLP compliance monitoring authority. Department of Science
Technology, India.
Green, M.J. (1996). A practical guide to analytical method validation. Analytical
Chemistry, 68: 305A-309A.
Sivela, S (1988). Good laboratory practices in the dairy industry. Bulletin of the
International Dairy Federation; 229: 24-26.
Wood R, Nilsson A and Walin, H (1998). Quality in the food analysis laboratory.
RSC Food Analysis Monograph. The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge.
143
CHEMISTRY OF QUALITY ATTRIBUTES IN HEAT

PROCESSED DAIRY PRODUCTS
Dr. (Mrs.) Bimlesh Mann

Dairy Chemistry Division NDRI, Karnal-132001
The main milk processing treatments involve separation, homogenization, heating,

membrane processing and fermentation. The manufacture of virtually all milk and
dairy products involves heat treatment. Such treatment is mainly aimed at:
1. Warranting the safety of consumer.
2. Increase the keeping quality.
3. Establishing specific product properties
Milk is a heterogeneous system and each component has its own role in heat
processing treatment. The main variable is, of course, heating intensity (i.e.,
temperature and duration of heating). Many combination of time and temperature may
thus be of the same intensity (i.e., cause the same extent of reaction), but the
combinations are usually different for different reaction. A proper understanding of
these factors and a balance between them is essential for producing products with
desirable properties
Influence of heat treatment on the constituents of milk:
Changes in milk caused by increase in temperature may be reversible or irreversible.
Reversible changes include the mutarotation equilibrium of lactose and ionic
equilibria, including pH. Numerous irreversible changes caused by heat treatment are
as follows:
Gases, including CO2, are removed (if they escape from the heating
equipment). Loss of O2 is important for the rate of oxidation reaction during
heating and for the growth rate of some bacteria afterward. The loss of gases is
reversible, but uptake of air may take a long time.
The cream plug phenomenon is evident at 74C. Various theories have been
discussed, but it appears that liberated free fat cements the fat globules when
they collide. Homogenisation is recommended to avoid cream plug formation.
Fink and Kessler (1985) have shown that free fat leaks out of the globules in
cream with 30% fat, unhomogenised as well as homogenised, when it is
heated to temperatures between 105 and 135C. This is believed to be caused
by destabilisation of the globule membranes resulting in increased
144
permeability, as a result of which the extractable free fat acts as cement

between colliding fat globules and produces stable clusters. Above 135C the
proteins deposited on the fat globule membrane form a network which makes
the membrane denser and less permeable. Homogenisation downstream of the
steriliser is therefore recommended in UHT treatment of products with a high
fat content. The composition of the surface layers of the fat globules formed
during homogenization or recombination is affected by the intensity of heating
before homogenization, mainly because of denaturation serum proteins. This
affects some properties of the products. For example, the tendency to form
homogenization clusters. Glycerides are hydrolysed and interesterified.
Lactones and methyl ketones are formed from the fat.
Fig 1: During denaturation -casein attach to -lacto globulin
The major protein, casein, is not considered denaturable by heat within normal
ranges of pH, salt and protein content. Whey proteins, on the other hand,
particularly -lactoglobulin which makes up about 50% of the whey proteins,
are fairly heat sensitive. Denaturation begins at 65C and is almost completed
when whey proteins are heated to 90C for 5 minutes. Whey protein heat
denaturation is an irreversible reaction. The randomly coiled proteins "open
up", and -lactoglobulin in particular is bound to the -casein fraction by
sulphur bridges. The strongly generalised transformation is shown in figure 1.
Blockage of a large proportion of the -casein interferes with the renneting
ability of the milk, because the rennet used in cheese making assists in
splitting the casein micelles at the -casein locations. The higher the
pasteurisation temperature at constant holding time, the softer the coagulum;
this is an undesirable phenomenon in production of semi-hard and hard types
of cheese. Milk intended for cheese making should therefore not be
pasteurised, or at any rate not at higher temperatures than 72C for 15 20
seconds. In milk intended for cultured milk products (yoghurt, etc.), the whey
protein denaturation and interaction with casein obtained at 90 95C for 3
5 minutes will contribute to improve quality in the form of reduced syneresis
145
and improved viscosity. Milk heated at 75C for 20 60 seconds will start to
smell and taste cooked. This is due to release of sulphurous compounds
from -lacto globulin and other sulphur-containing proteins. Most of the
serum proteins are denatured and thereby are rendered insoluble.
Enzymes can be inactivated by heating. The temperature of inactivation varies
according to the type of enzyme. There are some bacteria, Pseudomonas spp,
(spp = species) nowadays very often cited among the spoilage flora of both
raw cold-stored milk and heat treated milk products, that have extremely heatresistant proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes. Only a fraction of their activity is
inhibited by pasteurisation or UHT treatment of the milk.
Lactose undergoes changes more readily in milk than in the dry state. At
temperatures above 100 C a reaction takes place between lactose and protein,
resulting in a brownish colour. The series of reactions, occurring between
amino groups of amino acid residues and aldehyde groups from milk
carbohydrates, is called the Maillard reaction or browning reaction. It results
in a browning of the product and a change of flavour as well as loss in
nutritional value, particularly loss of lysine, one of the essential amino acids.
It appears that pasteurised; UHT and sterilised milks can be differentiated by
their lactulose content. Lactulose is an epimer of lactose formed in heated
milks (Adachi, 1958). Martinez Castro & Olano, 1982, and Geier &
Klostermeyer, 1983, showed that pasteurised, UHT and sterilised milks
contain different levels of lactulose. The lactulose content thus increases with
increased intensity of the heat treatment. Lactose isomerizes and partly
degrades to yield, for instance, lactulose and organic acids.
Vitamin C is the vitamin most sensitive to heat, especially in the presence of
air and certain metals. Pasteurisation in a plate heat exchanger can however,
be accomplished with virtually no loss of vitamin C. The other vitamins in
milk suffer little or no harm from moderate heating.
Of the minerals in milk only the important calcium hydroxyphosphate in the
casein micelles is affected by heating. When heated above 75C the substance
loses water and forms insoluble calcium orthophosphate, which impairs the
cheese making properties of the milk. The degree of heat treatment must be
carefully chosen. The amount of colloidal phosphate increases and the Ca2+
decreases. These changes are reversible, though slowly. Phosphoric acid
esters, those of casein in particular are hydrolysed. Phospholipids and some
dissolved esters are also split. Consequently the amount of inorganic
phosphate increases.
Heating milk at first makes it a little whiter, maybe via the amount of colloidal
phosphate increases and the Ca2+ decreases. At increasing heating intensity the
color becomes brown, due to reactions between lactose and protein occur,
Maillard reactions in particular.
Viscosity may increase slightly because most of the serum proteins are
denatured and there by are rendered insoluble, and much more due to Casein
146
micelles become aggregated. Aggregation may eventually lead to coagulation.

The latter change especially occurs when concentrated milk is sterilized.
Tendency for age thickening and for heat coagulation of concentrated milk
may be decreased.
Several bacteria can grow faster in heat treated milk because bacterial
inhibitors like lactoperoxidase-H2O2-CNS and immunoglobulin are
inactivated. Furthermore, heat treatment may lead to formation of stimulants
for some bacteria or inhibitors for still other bacteria. All these changes greatly
depend in heating intensity.
The proneness to auto oxidation is affected in several ways mainly due to
formation of free sulfhydryl groups which causes, for instance a drop of the
redox potential (Eh), inactivation of enzymes and several changes occur in the
fat globule membrane, e.g., in its Cu content. Heating of milk above 70C
causes a noticeable decrease in the Eh due to liberation of SH groups from
whey protein and loss of O2. Compounds formed by the Maillard reaction
between lactose and proteins can also influence the Eh of heated milk,
particularly dried milk products.
Pasteurization causes some changes in pH due to the loss of CO2 and
precipitation of calcium phosphate. Higher heat treatment (above 100 C)
results in a decrease in pH due to the degradation of lactose to various Organic
acids.
Pasteurization of milk has little effect on its surface tension although heating
milk to sterilization temperatures causes a slight increase in surface tension,
resulting from denaturation and coagulation of protein which are then less
effective as surfactants. Heat treatment of buffalo milk causes reduction of
curd tension.
Heat processed Dairy products and chemical quality attributes:

The deteriorative processes that occur in foods after harvesting and during storage and
distribution are unavoidable. If food is untreated, microbial deterioration becomes the
dominant process affecting safety and quality. Even if the foods are treated to reduce
or eliminate microbial contamination, chemical and physical deterioration become the
dominant processes in determining storage life time and in altering product quality.
Accordingly, if technological strategies are to be devised to retard such deterioration
and to minimize the consequent loss of quality, it is crucial to understand the nature of
physico-chemical changes (instabilities) in the constituents and the factors that control
component degradation. Physico-chemical changes takes place in milk during
processing directly related to the colour, flavour and texture of the final dairy
products. Ultimately delivering quality dairy foods desired by consumers depends on
being able either to modify the instability of major constituents or choose processing
and storage conditions that minimize the chemical or physical deterioration. Some of
such major changes which act as quality indices are being mentioned below.
147
Nonenzymatic browning
One of the most common reactions in milk products is the non enzymatic
browning reaction, the Maillard reaction. It can involve reducing sugars and amino
groups on the protein, consequent changes in colour and texture of the proteins can
occur under abusive storage conditions, because its Q-10 (the increase in the rate
constant as temperature is raised by 10C) in 3-4.
The thermal processing involved in condensing and drying initiates a Maillard
reaction between the reducing sugar and the amino containing molecules of foods.
The Maillard reaction, other reactions following from it, continue during storage and
eventually result in the development of brown colour, changes in solubility of
powdered foods, loss of nutritional value (chiefly lysine availability) and stale
flavours. These reactions may limit the shelf life of sterile concentrates and powders.
Much of 5 hydroxy- methyl furfural produced by these reactions in sterileconcentrated skim milk occur during thermal processing but that the brown pigment is
produced during storage and is protein bound. Commercial non fat powder and infant
formulae stored at 30C to 40C for one month at aw 0.8 become dark brown and lost
29 and 45% of their available lysine respectively. At aw 0.2 or less the loss was
greatly reduced. Available lysine was reduced by 12, 23 and 49% for non-fat dry
milk stored at 4, 20 and 37C at aw 0.75. At water activity 0.44 the loss of available
lysine and browning increases. The greater deterioration at aw 0.44 was attributed to
the crystallization of lactose and release of moisture that occurred at this aw (La
Grange and Hammond, 1995). Sterilization of paneer cubes leads to browning
accompanied with cooked flavour affected the organoleptic quality of paneer. Paneer
cubes fried prior to sterilization spoiled earlier due to the development of oxidised
flavour.
Many of the sulphur-containing flavours that are produced during heating
capable of further reaction, particularly with carbonyls, and this can cause abatement
of the heated flavour during storage and some time the generation of new flavours.
Sulphur compounds dominate the flavour produced by milk heat treatment. Reps et
al., (1987) showed that autoclaving milk gave rise to glyoxal and methyl glyoxal,
presumably through carboxyl amine reaction. These dicarbonyl have shown to react
with methionine and cysteine to produce many of the sulphur compounds identified in
milk. Reaction of these dicarbonyls with phenylalanine account for many of the
aromatic compounds identified in heated milk. Methyl glyoxal can dimerise to 2, 5
dimethyl-4hydroxy3 (2H) furanone which may partly account for the caramelised
flavours that are observed. Lactones and methyl ketones released from milk fat by
heat treatment also may play a role in heated flavour (Scanlan et al., 1968).
The stale flavour resulted primarily from reaction of free amino acids with
carbonyl generated in the browning quality of protein foods due to Maillard reaction
can occur during storage with minimal change in the nutritive value, it can be avoided
148
by a proper selection of ingredients, time and temperature during thermal processing

and storage conditions like aw and temperature. Conversely the nutritional value of
the proteins should not be a significant problem as long as the foods are acceptable to
the consumer from sensory point of view.
Proteolysis
Proteolysis means proteolytic changes occurring in foods that have low but
discernible enzymatic activity for example protein changes associated with storage in
some dairy products (Barnett and Kim, 1998). Cheese manufacture begins with the
use of proteolytic enzymes such as rennet to cause milk to coagulate to produce
cheese curd. During aging, continued proteolysis contributes to flavour and texture
development. For some cheese types residual protease activity can have an adverse
effect on quality. For example, the tensile strength of Mozzarella cheese decreases
logarithmically with storage time due to protease activity.
Paneer is highly susceptible to chemical changes. Proteolysis and lipolysis are
two major changes which affect the quality of paneer during storage. UHT processed
milk eventually gel upon storage and develop off flavours even through there is no
microbial growth. One of the proteases responsible for is plasmin, which probably
enters the milk from blood in the forms of its precursor, plasminogen (Walstra and
Jenness, 1984). In fresh milk, most of the enzyme is present as the precursor.
Increased plasmin activity is observed after UHT treatment and plasminogens
decrease with plasmin activity increases upon storage (Manji, 1987).
Lipolysis
The majority of natural lipids consist of fatty acids attached to glycerol
through carboxylic ester bonds. Hydrolysis of the ester bonds catalyzed by acid,
alkali, heat, moisture or lipolytic enzymes result in the liberation of per fatty acid.
Enzyme may be present naturally in food or in constituents mixed with food; some
could be associated with microbial contamination. Temperature, moisture and pH are
among the factors control lipase activity.
Off favours resulting from hydrolytic rancidity are more likely to occur in fat
containing relatively short chain fatty acid i.e. C 4-10). The potential for lipolysis in
milk however is minimized due to the structure of the milk emulsion, which limits
physical contact between triacyl glycerol substance residing in fat glycerols and the
lipase enzyme in the skim milk. Agitation during processing the native milk structure
and promote enzyme substrate interaction. Although heat inactivates the lipolytic
micro organisms, the lipases produced by them can survive normal pasteurization
temperatures. Many typical flavours are produced where short chain fatty acids are
hydrolysed by natural milk or microbial lipolytic enzymes (Nawar, 1998).
Khoa has a low keeping quality at room temperature and develops rancid flavour due
to hydrolysis of fat by lipase action. Due to the vigorous agitation of milk at high
temperature, the fat globules are appreciably sub-divided. Considerable free fat is also
149
produced due to the rupturing of the fat globule membrane by the vigorous scraping
action of the stirrer. The vigorous agitation of hot milk has an appreciable
homogenising action so that when the stage of coagulation is reached all the fat
globules are entrained in the coagulum. Almost half of the globular fat is released as
free fat. The extent of which depend upon fat contents of milk and manufacturing
process.
Oxidation
Lipid oxidation is of paramount important to food quality. It may lead to the
development of rancid off flavours, cause change in colour texture, reduce shelf
life and/or impair nutritional quality. However a limited degree of lipid oxidation
is sometimes desirable, as in the formulation of typical flavours and aromas that
are associated with cheese and fried food.
Lipid oxidation proceeds via a typical self propagating free radical mechanism where
oxygen attaches occurs mainly at positions adjacent to the double bounds. The
breakdown of hydro peroxides leading to the formation of volatile and non volatile
product may also be catalysed by enzyme (i.e. hydroperoxidase). Obviously due to
the greater specificity in enzyme-catalysed formation and decomposition of fatty acid;
hydro peroxide and other specific oxidation and products are encountered. The
various factors which influence the lipid oxidation are free fatty acids, the fatty acids
positions in triacylglycerols, oxygen concentration, temperature, water content,
physical conditions, prooxidants and antioxidants.
Although milk fat contains relatively low concentrations of poly unsaturated
fatty acid (about 3%). These play the primary role in the development of oxidized
flavours-vinyl ketones such as 1-octen-3 one or octa-1 cis 5 diene- 3 one play a
dominant role in the flavour of oxidized milk. The vinyl ketones themselves give
milk a metallic flavour but when blended with an aldehyde give a typical oxidized
flavour. Oxidation in dairy products also can be initiated by exposure to light
(Korycka and Richardson, 1978; 1979 and 1980). But the irradiated flavours
produced in this way are significantly different from those produced by metalcatalyzed oxidation. Riboflavin is the primary pigment involved in irradiated flavour.
Light activated riboflavin is reduced by molecules such as methionine, producing
sulphur compounds typical of irradiated flavour. The reduced riboflavin can react
with oxygen can be quite rapid and lead to noticeable flavour in a few minutes to a
few hours of exposure, depending on the intensity and wave length of the light.
Typically ghee possesses a pleasant buttery, light caramelized sweet acidic
aroma. Flavour development and its profile in ghee is quite complex.According to
Bindal and Jain (1973), the flavour of ghee developed through the possible interaction
during heating process among a protein (probably casein degradation product), a
reducing sugar (lactose) and minerals. At the temperature of clarification employed
during the process of manufacture, the carbonyl content increases. On prolong storage
of ghee the off flavour has been found in ghee samples with three fold increase in
150
total carbonyls. The level of lactones increased with increase in clarifying

temperature. The deterioration due to oxidative rancidity of ghee depends on degree
of unsaturation in fat, availability of oxygen, heat, light, moisture content, free fatty
acids, oxidation catalyst and antioxidants. Heating milk and cream to 75c - 85c
develops a cooked flavour due to release of SH group which delays oxidation
significantly. Addition of heat dried skim milk act as an antioxidant in butter or
cream.
Butter, cream, whole milk powder and even milk may develop a fishy flavour due to
certain amines that possesses fishy flavour and odours. Lecithin is the only source of
organic nitrogen in the amine form because of the presence of choline. Choline is
decomposed to trimethylamine. Production of fishy flavour is related to conditions
favourable for hydrolysis and oxidation of lecithin.
Irradiated flavour often is the most common defect in market milk because of
the wide spread sale of milk is translucent polyethylene in well lightened place. In
powdered milk especially powdered whole milk, flavour deterioration can occur
through fat oxidation. This can be affected by the amount of free fat on the particle
surface, the water content of the powder, the sort of packaging used, storage
temperature, exposure to light and the addition of antioxidants. The oxidation of
cholesterol in spray dried powders may be a health concern (Hall and Linguert, 1984;
and Clevelard and Harris, 1987).
A number precautionary measures based mainly on the various aspects
considered above can be recommended for prolonged shelf-life that is limited by
oxidation and for minimizing undesirable changes in the quality of edible oil and fat
containing foods:
Select high quality raw material (e.g. seeds with minimum damage,
oils with low FFA content and high resistance to oxidation.
Use high quality food ingredient (e.g. milk, nuts, spices)
Use techniques that reduce substrate catalyst interaction (i.e. avoid cell
disruption, contact with enzyme).
Minimize contact with oxygen, light and/or trace metals.
Minimize exposure to elevated temperature.
Use packaging that provides a reasonable gas barrier during storage
and distribution.
Minimize surface area in contact with air.
Design and maintain proper storage tanks and pipe line (e.g. stainless
steel, if possible; glass lining, free of copper and copper alloys,
frequent cleaning, minimal head space, lowest practical temperatures,
protection for contamination with micro organisms and regular
inspection)
151
Use appropriate antioxidants.

Beside non-enzymatic browning and lipid oxidation there are other physicochemical changes take places during storage of food products which affect the texture,
colour, flavour and overall acceptability of foods.
Viscosity, gelation and sedimentation
The factors limiting the shelf life and acceptability of liquid products are
change in viscosity, precipitation and gelation. These reactions are seen typically in
concentrated, sterile products. The traditional process for in-can sterilization of milks,
supplemented with, judicious addition of phosphates, citrates and gums, typically
produces products that are reasonably stable for over a year. However holding the
concentrated product in refrigerated storage before canning, results in more rapid
gelation (Halwalkar et al., 1983). When ultrahigh temperature processing and aseptic
packaging is used, precipitation and gelation are a more common problem. The cause
of those changes is not definitely established but may cause by incomplete destruction
of the milk protease plasmin which in fairly heat stable. In any event the storage of
UHT-sterilized milk is often accompanied by proteolysis (Harwalker and Vreeman,
1978); Mckenna and Singh 1991), but leads to the joining of casein micelles by thin,
hair like linkages and gelation (Zadow and Hardham, 1981; Koning et al., 1994).
Gelation often in proceeded by precipitation and an increase in viscosity (Newstead et
al., 1978; Snoren et al., 1984). These changes are affected by extent of concentration,
season and lactation of milk production, extent of heat treatment, temperature of
storage, pH and addition of polyphosphate and other ions.
Sedimentation of protein in UHT milk occurred if the pH was less than 6.55
(Zadow and Hardham, 1981).
Sequestering calcium reduced sedimentation.
Harwalker and Vreeman 1978 found that the viscosity of UHT treated skim milk was
much increased in 9 weeks, while samples with added phosphate lasted 12 weeks.
Both of these samples gelled by 18 weeks. Samples with added polyphosphate
showed no increase in viscosity on gelation at 18 weeks. Mckenna and Singh (1991)
reported that UHT processed reconstituted concentrated milk containing 0.075%
Hexametaphosphate did not gel or become viscous for 6 months at 22C. To achieve
this shelf life at 30C 0.075 to 0.15% Hexametaphosphate was needed.
Crystallization of lactose
The major detriment to the shelf life of dry milk products in moisture, to much
moisture in processed dry milk and or moisture from the atmosphere getting into
the product during storage. The dry lactose in milk powder is very hydroscopic
and readily picks up moisture from the atmosphere. Amorphous lactose is formed
when a solution (e.g. milk) is dried rapidly as in a spray drier or frozen. If the
water content of amorphous lactose is low, say 3% crystallization may be
postponed almost indefinitely; nucleation rate is negligible because of the
152
extremely high viscosity of the solution. The product is however very

hydroscopic, and when moisture content arises to about 8%, lactose hydrate starts
to crystallize. But when crystallization of lactose caused by moisture uptake
occurs in milk or whey powder, the result in caking, powder particles and
concentrated together by crystalline lactose, forming large and strong lumps.
(Walstra and Jenness, 1984). Controlling the moisture of milk/powder between
3.5 and 3.9% and maintaining this moisture level within package will assume a
shelf life of at least one year from the date of processing and packaging (Laarange
and Haurmond 1993).
Lactose crystals rupture fat globule membrane and thus free fat amount is
considerably increased and it leads to an oily layer formation, greasiness etc. after
reconstitution and faster oxidation. Thus crystallisation of lactose affects the
dispersibility, baking and sensory quality of the products. In roller dried powder
about 90% of fat exists as free fat whereas in spray dried milk powder, most of the
fat exists as globule with membrane intact. In spray dried milk powder, the action
is similar to homogenization, fat globules subdivide, otherwise remain distributed
throughout the particles in globular form. During spray, air is incorporated so fat
tends to surround the air particles. The free fat is milk powders leads to oxidation.
High moisture, excessive absorption of moisture by lactose resulting in lactose
crystallisation leads to lumping/ caking of powder. High moisture powder is more
prone to insolubility due to denaturation of protein. More moisture also favours
browning reaction, auto oxidant and hydrolytic rancidity.
During storage and distribution, dairy foods are exposed to a wide range of
environmental conditions. Environmental factors such as temperature humidity,
oxygen and light can trigger several reaction mechanisms that may lead to food
degradation. As a consequence, food may be altered to such an extent that they are
either rejected by consumer, or they may become harmful to the person consuming
them. It is, therefore, imperative that a good understanding of different physicochemical reactions that cause deterioration is gained prior to developing specific
methods for the evaluation, monitoring and predicting the quality of these dairy
products.
References:
Barnett R.E. and Kim. H.J. (1998) Protein instability. In Food storage stability, CRC
Press, chapter 3, pp 75-87.
Bindal,MP and Jain,MK(1973) Indian J.Ani. Sci.43(10),918-24
Cleveland H.Z. and Harris, N.D. (1987) J. Food Protection 50: 867-871.
Fink A. and H.G. Kessler (1985) Milchwissenschaft 40, 6-7.
Hall G. and Lingnert H. (1984) J. Food Quality 7:131-151.
153
Harwalkar, V.R.; Backett. D.C. ; McKeller, R.C.. Emmons, D.B. and Doyle G.E.
(1983) Age thickening and gelation of sterilized evaporated milk. J. Dairy Sci., 66 :
735-742.
Harwalkar, V.R. and Vreeman H.D. (1978) Neth Milk Dairy J. 32 204-216.
Harwalkar, V.R. and Vreeman, H.D. (1978) Neth. Milk Dairy J. 32: 204-216.
Korycka, Dahl. M. and Richardson, J. (1978) J.Dairy Sci., 61: 400-407.
Korycka, Dahl. M. and Richardson, J. (1979J. D. Sci. 62 : 182-183.
Korycka Dahl M and Richsrdson, J. (1980J. Dairy Sci., 63 : 1181-1198.
La Grange, W.S. and Hammond, E.G. (1995) The Shelf life of Dairy Products. In
Shelf life Studies of Foods and Beverages, Elsevier Science publishers Chapter 1, pp
1-20.
Mauji, B.S. (1987) Ph.D Dissertation University for Guelph Ont, cited from Food
Storage Stability, Taub and Paul Singh, Eds. CRC Press, Chapter 3, pp 75-87.
Mckenna, A.B. and Singh H. (1991) Int. J. Food Sci. and Technol., 26: 27-28.
Newstead, D.F., Baldwin, A.j. and Hughes, I.R. (1978) New Zealand Dairy Sci. and
Technol., 13: 65-70.
Nawar, W.W. (1998) Biochemical Processes: Lipid instability, In Food storage
stability, Taub and Paul Singh Ed, CRC Press, Chapter 4, pp 89-103.
Repg, A., Hammond, E.G., Glatz, B.A. (1987)
J. Dairy Sci. 70: 559-562.
Scaulan, R.A., Lindsay, R.C., Libbey, L.M. and Day E.A. (1968) J. Dairy Sci., 51:
1001-1005.
Szczesniak, A.S. (1998) Effect of storage on texture. In Food storage stability, Taub
and Paul Singh Eds., CRC Press, Chapter 4, pp 89-103.
Walstra, P. and Jennes, R. (1984) Enzymes. In Dairy Chemistry and Physics, Wiley,
New York, Chapter 7, pp-133.
Zadow, J.G. and Hardham, J.F. (1981) Aust. J. Dairy Techol., 36: 30-33.
154
DETERMINATION OF SORPTION ISOTHERMS AND

GENERATION OF SORPTION DATA
R. R. B. Singh
National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal
Introduction
Water is an integral part of all food systems. It determines behavior of food
products during many processing operations and significantly affects the quality of
food. An understanding of the state of water in foods that is characterized by water
activity aw is therefore essential to control and optimize various physical, chemical
and microbial changes in food systems. Determination of sorption isotherms thus, has
several applications in food science.
In mixing operations and development of a new product formulation, sorption
isotherm data of each component will help to predict transfer of moisture from one
product to another, which is essential for controlling the deterioration of the final
product. Determination of enthalpy of sorption and desorption of water at two
different temperatures gives an indication of binding strength of water molecules to
the solid and has definite bearing on the energy balance during drying and freezing
operations. Sorption isotherm is also important in packaging operations as the
knowledge of initial and maximum allowable moisture content and aw along with the
surface and permeability of the packaging material will help in determining shelf life
of the packaged foods under varying conditions of storage.
Methods for determination of sorption isotherms
Methods that have been developed for determining sorption isotherms can be
broadly classified under two heads: A. Gravimetric methods; B. Manometric and
Hygrometric methods. Although several innovations have been tried in both the
group of methods of measurement to improve the rapidity and accuracy of
measurement, the following gravimetric method has been recommended by the cost
projects 90 and 90-bis on physical properties of foodstuffs. (COST = Co-operation in
the field of Scientific and Technical Research in Europe) and remains by far the most
widely used and reliable method of determining sorption isotherms.
Principle of measurement
The principle underlying the method of measurement is that food product is
exposed to a controlled environment of relative humidity at defined temperature
155
condition. The weight of the sample is monitored at definite intervals till a time
there is no change in weight as the food attains equilibrium with the environment.
Such determinations at several relative humidity (RH) conditions will yield a
sorption isotherm.
2.2
Design of the sorption apparatus

The equipment which has been recommended consists of a simple
arrangement comprising of glass jars as sorbostat with vapour tight lids. Sorbed
source in sufficient quantity is placed in the jar to maintain large sorbate to sample
ratio. The substance is placed in small weighing bottles standing on trivets directly
above the sorbate source. The jars are then placed in thermostatically controlled
incubators or water baths maintained at predetermined temperatures.
Fig. 1. Sorption apparatus

1. Sorption container;
3. Petridish on trivets;
2. Weighing bottle with ground in stopper;

4. Saturated salt solution
2.3
Sorbate sources for creating constant ERH
2.3.1
Sulphuric acid solutions of varying concentrations: Depending on the

concentration, sulphuric acid solutions will have varying water vapour
pressure and the ERH in the headspace will accordingly change. The major
limitations of using H2SO4, however, remains change in the concentration due
to loss or gain of moisture thereby altering the ERH conditions. The following
Table gives aw of sulfuric acid solutions at different temperature.
156
Table 1.
Water activity of sulfuric acid solutions at different concentrations

and temperatures
H2SO4 Density
at 25oC
(%) (g/cm3)
Temperature (oC)
5
10
20
25
30
40
50
1.0300
0.9803
0.9804
0.9806
0.9807
0.9808
0.9811
0.9814
10
1.0640
0.9554
0.9555
0.9558
0.9560
0.9562
0.9565
0.9570
15
1.0994
0.9227
0.9230
0.9237
0.9241
0.9245
0.9253
0.9261
20
1.1365
0.8771
0.8779
0.8796
0.8805
0.8814
0.8831
0.8848
25
1.1750
0.8165
0.8183
0.8218
0.8235
0.8252
0.8285
0.8317
30
1.2150
0.7396
0.7429
0.7491
0.7521
0.7549
0.7604
0.7655
35
1.2563
0.6464
0.6514
0.6607
0.6651
0.6693
0.6773
0.6846
40
1.2991
0.5417
0.5480
0.5599
0.5656
0.5711
0.5816
0.5914
45
1.3437
0.4319
0.4389
0.4524
0.4589
0.4653
0.4775
0.4891
50
1.3911
0.3238
0.3307
0.3442
0.3509
0.3574
0.3702
0.3827
55
1.4412
0.2255
0.2317
0.2440
0.2502
0.2563
0.2685
0.2807
60
1.4940
0.1420
0.1471
0.1573
0.1625
0.1677
0.1781
0.1887
65
1.5490
0.0785
0.0821
0.0895
0.0933
0.0972
0.1052
0.1135
70
1.6059
0.0355
0.0377
0.0422
0.0445
0.0470
0.0521
0.0575
75
1.6644
0.0131
0.0142
0.0165
0.0177
0.0190
0.0218
0.0249
80
1.7221 0.0035 0.0039
Source: Rao and Rizvi, 1986
0.0048
0.0053
0.0059
0.0071
0.0085
2.3.2 Glycerol solutions: Glycerol solutions of varying concentrations (adjusted

with water) can also be used for creating constant ERH conditions. The difficulty in
using glycerol solutions, however, arises from the fact that glycerol can volatilise and
absorb into the foods thereby causing error. Un like H2SO4, it is non-corrosive but
gets diluted or concentrated during sorption due to loss or gain of moisture from the
sample. Table 2 below gives aw of glycerol solutions.
157
Table 2. Water activity of glycerol solutions at 20oC

Concentration
Refractive index
Water activity
(kg/L)
1.3463
0.98
1.3560
0.96
0.2315
1.3602
0.95
0.3789
1.3773
0.90
0.4973
1.3905
0.85
0.5923
1.4015
0.80
0.6751
1.4109
0.75
0.7474
1.4191
0.70
0.8139
1.4264
0.65
0.8739
1.4329
0.60
0.9285
1.4387
0.55
0.9760
1.4440
0.50
1.4529
0.40
2.3.3 Salt slurries: Saturated slurries of various inorganic and organic salts produce
constant ERH in the headspace of sorption container. The ERH decreases with
increasing temperature due to increased solubility of salts with increasing
temperatures. The Table 3 below gives aw of different salt slurries at varying
temperatures.
Table 3. Water activities of different salt slurries at various temperatures
Salt
5
Lithium chloride
0.113
Potassium acetate
Magnesium chloride 0.336
Potassium carbonate 0.431
Magnesium nitrate 0.589
Potassium iodide
0.733
Sodium chloride
0.757
Ammonium sulfate 0.824
Potassium chloride 0.877
Potassium nitrate
0.963
Potassium sulfate
0.985
10
0.113
0.234
0.335
0.431
0.574
0.721
0.757
0.821
0.868
0.960
0.982
Temperatures (oC)
20
25
30
0.113 0.113 0.113
0.231 0.225 0.216
0.331 0.328 0.324
0.432 0.432 0.432
0.544 0.529 0.514
0.699 0.689 0.679
0.755 0.753 0.751
0.813 0.810 0.806
0.851 0.843 0.836
0.946 0.936 0.923
0.976 0.970 0.970
40
0.112
0.316
0.484
0.661
0.747
0.799
0.823
0.891
0.964
50
0.111
0.305
0.454
0.645
0.744
0.792
0.812
0.848
0.958
158
Preparation of salt slurries: The Table 4 gives the proportion of different salts to
water for preparing saturated slurries.
Table 4. Preparation of recommended saturated salt Solutions at 25oC
Salt
RH (%)
Salt (g)
Water (ml)
LiCl
11.15
150
85
CH3COOK
22.60
200
65
MgCl2
32.73
200
25
K2CO3
43.80
200
90
Mg(NO3)2
52.86
200
30
NaBr
57.70
200
80
SrCl2
70.83
200
50
NaCl
75.32
200
60
KCl
84.32
200
80
BaCl2
90.26
250
Source: Spiess and Wolf, 1987
70
The following equations (Table) can be used for predicting aw of known salt
slurries at any temperature.
Table 5. Regression equations of water activity of selected salt solutions at
different temperatures
Salt
Equation
R2
LiCl
Ln aw=(500.95/T)-3.85
0.976
KC2H3O2
Ln aw=(861.39/T)-4.33
0.965
MgCl2
Ln aw=(303.35/T)-2.13
0.995
K2CO3
Ln aw=(145.0/T)-1.3
0.967
MgNO3
Ln aw=(356.6/T)-1.82
0.987
NaNO2
Ln aw=(435.96/T)-1.88
0.974
NaCl
Ln aw=(228.92/T)-1.04
0.961
KCl
Ln aw=(367.58/T)-1.39
0.967
Temperature T in Kelvin
159
While preparing salt slurries, the following care must be taken to improve precision of
measurement:
Only AR grade salts should be used.

Salt crystals in excess should be present at the bottom.
Before the samples are placed, the containers with slurries should be
maintained at required temperatures for 3-4 days for allowing equilibration.
The ratio of slurry surface to sample surface should preferably be >10:1.
The ratio of air volume to sample volume should be 20:1
The salt slurries should be occasionally stirred to prevent change in
concentrations of top liquid layer due to loss or gain of moisture from the sample.
Precautions:
Some salts are caustic: potassium dichromate, potassium chloride
Some salts are highly toxic: lithium chloride, sodium nitrite
Alkaline solutions such as K2CO3 absorb large amounts of CO2 with time
thereby decreasing aw significantly
Standardization of sorption apparatus with reference materials
The recommended material for this purpose is microcrystalline cellulose (MCC). This
material is very stable against changes in the sorption behaviour and can be used even
after 2 to 3 repeated adsorption and desoption cycles. It does not exhibit hysteresis
between adsorption and desorption and require very short periods for reaching
equilibrium.
Preparation of samples:
The test substrate should be prepared in a way that ensures homogeneity so that
sample drawn for sorption studies is representative of the bulk. Sample size should
normally be 1 gm and at least three replications should be used for minimizing error
in the study. For adsorption isotherms, samples should be vacuum dried preferably at
30C for 30-40 hrs. followed by freeze drying and desiccant drying to reduce the
moisture level to a level lower than the corresponding lowest water activity of the
saturated salt being used. Once the samples have been weighed accurately and placed
in the sorption jar, weighing should follow at regular intervals till the sample reaches
equilibrium and the change in weight in three subsequent weighing does not change
by more than 2 mg per gm of sample.
Types of moisture sorption curves
The sorption isotherms are obtained by drawing a plot of moisture (g/100 g of sample,
db) vs water activity. The isotherms thus obtained could be classified according to the
following five general types.
160
Moisture
TypeII
TypeI(Langmuir)
(sigmoid)
TypeIV
TypeIII
TypeV
Fig. 2. The five types of van der Walls adsorption isotherms

Isotherm models
Over the years, a large number of isotherm models have been prepared and tested for
food materials. These can be categorized as two, three or four parameter models.
Some of the most commonly used models are presented hereunder:
Two parameter models
1. Oswin
aw
W = a
(1 a w )
2. Caurie
ln
3. Halsey
4.BET Equation
1
1
2C 1 a w
= ln
+
ln
W
C.W0 W0
aw
aw = e
a
b
W
W=
W0 B.aw
(1 aw)[1 + ( B 1)aw]
161
Three parameter models
1. GAB
W = W0
2. Modified Mizrahi
W=
Gka w
(1 k a w )[1 ka w + Gka w ]
a + a w (c.a w + b)
aw 1
Where,
W = Equilibrium moisture content, g/100 g solids
W0 = Moisture content equivalent to the monolayer
aw = water activity
a, b = Constants
B = Constant
C = Density of sorbed water
G = Guggenheim constant
k = Correction factor for properties of multiplayer molecules
with respect to the bulk liquid
Of these, GAB model has been found to be most appropriate for describing
sorption behaviour of food systems over a wide range of water activity. Both BET
(application range aw=0.05-0.45) and GAB equations can be used for obtaining
monolayer moisture that is critical for quality and shelf life of foods
Effect of temperature on water activity
Knowledge of the temperature dependence of sorption phenomena provides

valuable information about the changes related to the energetic of the system. The
shift in water activity as a function of change in temperature at constant moisture
constant is due to the change in water binding, dissociation of water or increase in
solubility of solute in water. At constant water activity, most of the foods hold less
water at higher temperature. The constant in moisture sorption isotherm equations,
which represents either temperature or a function of temperature, is used to
calculate the temperature dependence of water activity. The clausius-clapeyron
equation is often used to predict aw at any temperature if the isosteric heat and aw
values at one temperature are known. The equation for water vapour in terms of
isosteric heat (Qst) is given by:
a w1 Q st 1
1
=

a w2
R T1 T2
Where Qst is net isosteric heat of sorption or excess binding energy for the
removal of water also called excess heat of sorption.
In
162
4600
4100
3600
3100
2600
2100
1600
1100
600
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
M oi st ur e c ont e nt ( % db)
Figure 3. Typical diagram showing net isosteric heat of sorption

Hysteresis in adsorptiondesorption isotherms
When adsorption and desorption isotherms for the same food material are plotted on
the same graph, usually the desorption isotherm lies above the adsorption isotherm
and sorption hysteresis loop is formed. Moisture sorption hysteresis has both
theoretical and practical implications. The theoretical implications include
considerations of the irreversibility of the sorption process and also the question of
validity of thermodynamic functions derived therefrom. The practical implications
refer to the response of the effects of hysteresis on chemical and microbiological
deterioration in processed foods intended for prolonged storage. The hysteresis
property of foods is generally affected by the composition, temperature, storage time,
drying temperature, and number of successive adsorption and desorption cycles.
Several theories have been proposed to explain hysteresis phenomenon in foods. A
typical diagram showing hysteresis in sorption isotherm is given below:
Moistur
Desorption
Adsorption
Wateractivity
Figure 4. Typical diagram showing hysteresis phenomenon

References:
Kapsalis, J.G. (1981) Moisture sorption hysteresis. In : water activity: influences

on food quality (eds. L. B. Rockland and G. F. Stewart), Academic Press. Inc.,
New York, USA, pp. 143.
163
Rizvi, S.S. H. (1986) Thermodynamic properties of foods in dehydration. In :

Engineering properties of foods (eds. M. A. Rao and S. S. H. Rizvi), Marcel
Dekker, Inc., New York, USA, pp. 133
Spiess, W.E.L. and Wolf, W. (1978). Critical evaluation of methods to determine
moisture sorption isotherms . In: Water activity: Theory and applications to foods
(eds. L.B. Rockland and
L.R. Beuchat.), Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, USA, pp. 215.
Wolf, W., Spiess, W.E.L. and Jung, G. (1985) Standardization of isotherm
measurement (COST- Project 90 and 90-bis). In: Properties of water in foods
(eds. D. Simatos and J. L. Multon), Martin Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, The
Netherlands, pp. 661.
164
BIOSENSORINCHEMICALQUALITYASSESSMENTOFDAIRYANDFOOD
PRODUCTS
Rajan Sharma
Sr. Scientist, Dairy Chemistry Division,

NDRI, Karnal
A biosensor is a device incorporating a biologically derived sensing element
(e.g. enzyme, antibodies, microorganisms or deoxyribose nucleic acid DNA) either
integrated with or in intimate contact with a physicochemical transducer (e.g.
electrochemical, optical, thermoelectric or piezoelectric). The usual aim is to produce
a continuous or semi-continuous digital electronic signal which is proportional to a
specific chemical or group of chemicals. Devices may be configured as fixed or
portable instruments giving qualitative or quantitative information. The modern
concept of a biosensor owes much to the ideas of Clark and Lyons (1962). They
proposed that enzyme could be immobilized at electrochemical detectors to form
enzyme electrode which would expand the analyte range of the base sensor. The
first biosensor described in literature (Clark and Lyons, 1962; Updike and Hicks,
1967) was based on the combination of glucose oxidase with electrochemical
determination of O2 and H2O2. Since then, this principal has been extended to the
development of sensors for other analytes using the electroactivity of not only H2O2
and O2 but also NADH and other compounds, so called mediators, for electron
transfer from enzyme to the electrode.
The key part of a biosensor is the transducer which makes use of a physical
change accompanying the reaction. This may be
1. the heat output (or absorbed) by the reaction (calorimetric biosensors),
2. changes in the distribution of charges causing an electrical potential to be
produced (potentiometric biosensors),
3. movement of electrons produced in a redox reaction (amperometric
biosensors),
4. light output during the reaction or a light absorbance difference between the
reactants and products (optical biosensors), or
5. effects due to the mass of the reactants or products (piezo-electric biosensors).
A comprehensive list of types of transducers, their characterization and
applications is given in Table 1.
There are three so-called 'generations' of biosensors; First generation biosensors
where the normal product of the reaction diffuses to the transducer and causes the
165
electrical response, second generation biosensors which involve specific 'mediators'

between the reaction and the transducer in order to generate improved response, and
third generation biosensors where the reaction itself causes the response and no
product or mediator diffusion is directly involved.
The electrical signal from the transducer is often low and superimposed upon a
relatively high and noisy (i.e. containing a high frequency signal component of an
apparently random nature, due to electrical interference or generated within the
electronic components of the transducer) baseline. The signal processing normally
involves subtracting a 'reference' baseline signal, derived from a similar transducer
without any biocatalytic membrane, from the sample signal, amplifying the resultant
signal difference and electronically filtering (smoothing) out the unwanted signal
noise. The relatively slow nature of the biosensor response considerably eases the
problem of electrical noise filtration. The analogue signal produced at this stage may
be output directly but is usually converted to a digital signal and passed to a
microprocessor stage where the data is processed, converted to concentration units
and output to a display device or data store.
Table 1. Types of transducers, their characteristics and application
Transducer
Advantages
Disadvantages
Application
Ion-selective
electrode(ISE)
Simple, reliable, easy to

transport.
Sluggish response, requires

a stable reference electrode,
susceptible to electronic
noise.
Amino acids, carbohydrates,

alcohols and inorganic ions
Amperometric
Simple, extensive variety

of redox reaction for
construction
of
the
biosensors, facility for
miniaturization
Low sensitivity, multiple

membranes or enzyme can
be necessary for selectivity
and adequate sensitivity.
Glucose, galactose, lactate,

sucrose, aspartame, acetic
acid , glycerides, biological
oxygen demand, cadaverine,
histamine, etc
FET
Low cost, mass production,

stable output, requires very
small amount of biological
material, monitors several
analytes simultaneously.
Temperature
sensitive,
fabrication of different layer
on the gate has not been
perfected.
Carbohydrates, carboxylic
acids,
alcohols
and
herbicide.
Optical
Remote sensing, low cost,

miniaturizable,
multiple
modes:
absorbance,
reflectance, fluorescence,
extensive electromagnetic
range can be used
Interference from ambient

light, requires high-energy
sources, only applicable to a
narrow concentration range,
miniaturization can affect
the magnitude of the signal.
Carbohydrates,
alcohols,
pesticide,
monitoring
process, bacteria and other
166
Thermal
Versatility,
free
from
optical interference such as
color and turbidity.
No selectivity with the

exception of when used in
arrangement.
Carbohydrates,
sucrose,
alcohols, lipids, amines.
Piezoelectric
Fast response, simple,

stable output, low cost of
readout device, no special
sample handling, good for
gas analysis, possible to
arrays sensors.
Low sensitivity in liquid,

interference due to non
specific binding.
Carbohydrates,
vitamins,
pathogenic microorganisms
(e.g. E. coli, Salmonella,
Listeria,
Enterobacter),
contaminants
(e.g
antibiotics,
fungicides,
pesticides),
toxic
recognition as bacterial
toxins.
Biosensor technology and food analysis
The control of food quality and freshness is of growing interest for both consumer
and food industry. In the food industry, the quality of a product is evaluated through
periodic chemical and microbiological analysis. These procedures conventionally use
techniques such as chromatography, spectrophotometry, elctrophoresis, titration and
others. These methods do not allow an easily continuous monitoring, because they are
expensive, slow, need well trained operators and in some cases require steps of
extraction or sample pre-treatment thus increasing the time of analysis. The food and
drink industries need rapid and affordable methods to determine compounds that have
not previously been monitored and to replace existing ones. An alternative to ease the
analysis in routine industrial products is the biosensor development. These devices
represent a promising tool for food analysis due to the possibility to fulfill some
demand that the classic methods of analysis do not attain. Original characteristic turns
the biosensor technology into a possible methodology to be applied in real samples.
Some advantages as high selectivity and specificity, relative low cost of construction
and storage, potential for miniaturization, facility of automation. simple and portable
equipment construction for a fast analysis and monitoring in platforms of raw material
reception, quality control laboratories or some stage during the food processing.
The development of biosensors is described in several fields; the majority
restricted to other areas of application, as clinical, environmental, agriculture and
biotechnology. Developments involving the use of this type of sensor could be
employed in foods, especially applied to the determination of the composition, degree
of contamination of raw materials and processed foods, and for the on line control of
the fermentation process. The food industry has a very set of constrains compared
with, for example, the pharmaceutical industry or medical diagnostics. It is important
to consider both the limitations and benefits when selecting the target analyte and
medium
167
Some of the drawbacks include

-
The range of potential applications is enormous. Each product has its own
analytical requirements. However, the market for an individual sensor is
small compared to, for example, a glucose sensor for use by diabetics.
Most biosensor research has been aimed at the medical diagnostics field,
where the extreme specificity of a biosensor targeting one selected analyte
is extremely advantageous. This is not always applicable to food industry
requirement where, for example, a particular taste or smell may be a
control parameter.
Multisensors would be preferable in many instances due to the complexity
of food process control requirement.
Most existing processes have been fine-tuned over many years. Often,
little process control is required due to the experience of operating the
process over such a long period. The biosensor must provide an increase in
productivity or quality of the product to be viable. This is not always
possible.
The technology available must be low cost, simple to use and above all,
reliable. Long term stability, drift and calibration are problems which often
prevent the introduction of biosensors to industrial processes.
There are also some factors which make the introduction of biosensors in the food
industry more feasible:
-
Experiment miniaturization is not usually required. This has implications

on the fabrication process and on the size of the signal.
Destructive or by-pass sampling techniques are usually tolerable. This may
facilitate the use of techniques such as flow-injection analysis with
biosensor detection.
A great deal of work has been carried out in the medical diagnostics
industry. Some of the lessons learned in this field may be transferable to
food industry requirements.
It may not be necessary to provide an instant or continuous measurement.
An improvement from days to hours or minutes may be considered
sufficiently beneficial.
The influence of consumers and regulatory bodies may encourage the use
of advanced technolologies such as biosensors.
Table 2 presents some of the important food biosensors, described during last 10
years in the literature. Most of the biosensors described in the literature for food
analysis are electrochemical type based on amperometry. The table starts with glucose
and other carbohydrates and end with complex parameters such as contaminants and
additives compounds. As most works cited are prototypes, they are not fully
optimized for a defined application in real samples. Some applications are synthetic
168
samples and can be applied in food samples. Some biosensors listed in the table are
used to determine more than one analyte. These are either suitable for determining
more than one substrate or are used in combination for simultaneous measurements.
Table 2. Applications of biosensors in food analysis
Analyte
Application
Biocomponent
Transducer
Detection
range
Reference
Glucose
Soft
drinks, Glucose
juices
and oxidase
milk
Amperometric
50-500 mM
8, 36
Glucose
Juices
Honey
Amperometric
0.5-10 mM
11
4.44 g/10 g
(lactose)
18
250-4000
mg/L
19
0.03-15 mm
(glucose)
22
Glucose and Milk

lactose
Glucose and Yoghurt

galactose
milk
Glucose,
Wine
fructose,
ethanol, Llactate, Lmalate and
sulfite
(simultaneou
s)
& Glucose
oxidase
Glucose
Amperometric
oxidase,
galactosidase &
mutarotase
and Glucose
oxidase,
galactose
oxidase
peroxidase
Amperometric
&
Glucose
Amperometric
oxidase,
Dfructose
dehydrogenase,
alcohol
dehydrogenase,
L-lactate
dehydrogenase,
L-malate
dehydrogenase,
sulfite oxidase
& diaphorase
0.01-10 mM
(fructose)
0.014-4 mM
(ethanol)
0.011-1.5 mM
(L-lactate)
0.015-1.5 mM
(L-malate)
0.01-0.1 mM
(sulfite)
Glucose
Beverages
Glucose
oxidase
Glucose
Fruit juice and Glucose

cola drinks
oxidase
Optical
0.06-30
mmol/L
38
Thermal
0.2-30 mM
27
169
Analyte
Application
Biocomponent
Transducer
Detection
range
Reference
Fructose
Honey
D-Fructose
dehydrogenase
Amperometric
<1.0 mM
Lactose
Milk
-Galactosidase Amperometric
& D-fructose
dehydrogenase
1-30 m
31
Glucose
lactose
& Milk
-Galactosidase Manometric
&
glucose
oxidase
0-5 mM
16
Starch
Wheat flour
-Amylase,
Amperometric
amyloglucosida
se & glucose
oxidase
5x10-6-5x10-4
mol/L
20
Ethanol
Beer
Alcohol
oxidase
Amperometric
0.12-2.0 mM
Ethanol
Alcoholic
beverages
Alcoholic
Amperometric
dehydroge-nase
&
NADH
oxidase
3x10-7-2x10-4
M
17
4Acetaldehy
de
Alcoholic
beverages
Alcoholic
dehydrogenase,
Amperometric
0.5-330 M
26
Polyphenols
Olive oils
Tyrosinase
Amperometric
1-37
M
(hexane)
10-350 M
(Chloroform)
Ascorbic
acid
Biotin
folate
Juices
Ascorbate
oxidase
Amperometric
and Infant formula Anti-biotin

Surface
& milk
antibody
and plasmon
anti-folic acid resonance
antibody
Urea
Milk
Urease
Amperometric
Urea
Milk
Urease
Manometric
L-Lactate
Milk
Lactate mono- Amperometric

oxygenase
5x10-5-1.2x103
M
2-70 ng/ml
13
35
2-7 mM
15
50-800
mg/100 ml
33
170
Analyte
Application
Biocomponent
Transducer
Detection
Reference
range
L-lactate
Milk
Lactate mono- Amperometric

oxygenase
> 8.6 m
L-amino
acids
Milk and fruit D-amino

juices
oxidase
0.47-2.5 mM
29
L-glutamate
Soy sauce
L-Gultamate
oxidase
Amperometric
<1.6mM
14
Amines
Fish
Diamine
oxidase
Amperometric
<6 mM
Nitrate
Synthetic
samples
Nitrate
reductase
Amperometric
< 100 M
24
oxalate
Spinach
Oxalate oxidase
Amperometric
0.12
M
100
23
Sulfite
Wine
Sulfite oxidase
Amperometric
0.002-0.3 mM
32
Aspartame
Foods
Alcohol
Amperometric
oxidase,
chymotrysin &
catalase
Antibiotics
Milk
Antibodies
Surface
plasmon
resonance
Antibiotics
Foods
Antibodies
Surface
plasmon
resonance
20-35 ng/ml
12
Pesticide
Synthetic
samples
Acetylcholinest
erase
Fiber optic
5x10-8-5x10-7
M(carbofuran
)
acid Amperometric
5x10-7-5x10-6
M(Paroxon)
Organophos
phates
Model system
Organophospha
te hydrolase
Amperometric
0.002-0.4 mM
25
Paraoxon
Model system
Choline oxidase
Amperometric
0.5 ppm
28
171
The table shows the detection range of the biosensors and most researchers define
detection range as the linear part of the calibration curve of the particular equipment
that was used during the experiments. Normally the response of the biosensor extends
beyond both the upper and lower ends of the linear range.
Commercial food biosensors
In spite of the great number of publications on biosensors applied in food analysis,

only a few systems are commercially available. Drawbacks that have to be overcome
are the limited lifetime of the biological components, mass production as well as
practicability in handling. However, this problem will be managed in the near future,
since biosensors offer unique solutions to food analysis in terms of specificity and
time savings.
Very few biosensors are presently used in the food industry for on-line
analysis (Mello, and Kubota, 2002) although in principle they can be combined with
flow-injection analysis for on-line monitoring of raw materials, product quality and
possibly the manufacturing process. Commercial biosensors are available in several
forms, such as autoanalysers, manual laboratory instruments and portable (hand held)
devices. Commercially devices for the food industry are listed in table 3. They are
based on similar technology, either an oxygen electrode or a hydrogen-peroxide
electrode in connection to an immobilized oxidase as Apec Glucose Analyser, ESAT
Glucose Detector, ISI Analysers and Oriental Freshness Meter.
Table 3. Commercial biosensors for food industry
Companies(country)
Biosensors
Target compounds
Danvers(USA)
Apec glucose analyser
Glucose
Biometra Biomedizinische
Analytik GmbH (Germany)
Biometra Biosensors for

HPLC
Glucose, ethanol and methanol
Eppendorf(Germany)
ESAT 6660 Glucose

Analyzer
Glucose
Solea-Tacussel(France)
Glucoprocesseur
Glucose and lactate
Universal Sensors(USA)
Amperometric Biosensor
Detector
Glucose,galactose,L-amino
acids,ascorbate and ethanol
Yellow Springs
Instruments(USA)
ISI Analysers
Glucose,lactose,L-lactate,
ethanol,methanol,glutamate and
choline
Toyo Jozo
Models:PM-1000 DC(on
Glucose, lactate, L-amino acids,
172
Biosensors(Japan)
line),M-100,AS-200 and
PM-1000 DC
cholesterol, tryglicerides, glycerin,

ascorbic acid, alcohol
Oriental Electric(Japan)
Oriental Freshness Meter
Fish freshness
Swedish BIACORE
AB(Sweden)
BIACORE
Bacteria
Malthus Instruments(UK)
Malthus 2000
Bacteria
Biosensor SpA(Italy)
Midas Pro
Bacteria
Biotrace(UK)
Unilite
Bacteria
Conclusion
Despite the enormous diversity of research involving biosensors for the food
industry, its application in this area, for any analyte is still restricted. On the other
hand, tests of prototype in real samples have critical stages such as immobilization of
the bio-component during the construction of the device and sample preparation for
analysis. The biosensors need mild conditions of temperature and pH to maintain
active the biological element, therefore, in some cases, a pretreatment of the sample is
recommended to remove interfering species such as ascorbic acid, tyrosine and others.
It is important to emphasize that, to be successful, a biosensor needs to offer either an
improvement to an existing technology, an existing measurement in a novel
environment or an entirely new measurement. Generally, the choice of whether or not
to turn to the biosensor approach is governed by financial constraints. Many
biosensors have not progressed beyond laboratory demonstration due to the cost of
developing a product which is suitable for use in the desired environment.
Nevertheless, there is a strong motivation to reduce the time lag between production
and quality assurance, at least for certain parameters. Potential candidates for
examination are found in all stages of production cycle: from farming (pesticide
residues, fertilizers and ripeness), raw material (food adulteration, freshness), process
control (organoleptic considerations, microbiological safety) and distribution. The
enormous breadth of products, test sites and the wide variety of matrices, within
which an analysis needs to be performed, make the development of biosensors for use
in the food industry particularly challenging.
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176
SOFT COMPUTING MODELS WITH APPLICATIONS

TO DAIRYING
A. K. Sharma
National Dairy Research Institute, (Deemed University),
Karnal 132 001 (Haryana) India.
Introduction
The study of human intelligence has a vast history spread over three
millenniums. In the 20th century, the advent of electronic computers paved the way for
building and studying systems that exhibit features or behaviour traditionally
attributed to intelligence, but these machines are not natural in the sense that they are
man made. This emerging discipline of Computing Science is usually known as
Artificial Intelligence (AI). Typically, AI is strongly oriented towards symbolic
representations and manipulation (or reasoning) in a top-down manner, i.e., the
structure of a given problem is analysed beforehand and the construction of an
intelligent system is based upon this structure. Of late, it has been emphasised that
there are several alternative approaches possible to realise such intelligent features or
behaviour in computing machines. Although these approaches differ from each other,
they possess a common property of being non-symbolic; and operating in a bottom-up
fashion, where structure transpires from an unordered beginning, rather than being
imposed from above. Computational intelligence (CI) is a successor of AI. The new
name Computational Intelligence is chosen so as to indicate the link to and the
difference with AI.
Computational Intelligence is an emerging field of Computer Science that
involves fundamental and applied research exploiting a number of advanced
information processing technologies. Defining computational intelligence is not an
easy task. In a nutshell, which becomes quite apparent in light of the current research
pursuits, the area is heterogeneous with a combination of such technologies as neural
networks, fuzzy systems, rough set, evolutionary computation, swarm intelligence,
probabilistic reasoning, multi-agent systems, etc. The recent trend is to integrate
different components to take advantage of complementary features and to develop a
synergistic system. The areas covered by the term computational intelligence are also
known under the name Soft Computing (SC). According to scientific folklore, this
name was chosen to distinguish SC from Operations Research (OR), which is also
known as hard computing. The two areas are connected by the problem domains they
are applied in, but while OR algorithms usually come with crisp and strict conditions
on the scope of applicability and proven guarantees for a solution (or even an optimal
Information Officer, BTIS Project & Senior Scientist (Computer Applications), Dairy Economics, Statistics and
Management Division. Phone: +91 184 2259015 (Office), +91 9896391267 (Mobile). E-mail: aksharma@ndri.res.in.
177
solution), SC puts no conditions on the problem but also provides no guarantees for
success, a deficiency which is compensated by the robustness of the methods.
While some techniques within CI are often counted as AI techniques (i.e.,
Genetic Algorithms, Neural Networks, Swarm Intelligence, Fuzzy Systems, Machine
Learning, Adaptive Intelligent Systems, Intelligent Software Agents, etc.), there is a
clear difference between these techniques and traditional, logic based AI techniques.
CI combines elements of learning, adaptation, evolution and fuzzy logic (or rough
sets) to create programs that are, in some sense, intelligent. Computational
intelligence research does not reject statistical methods, but often gives a
complementary view. Unlike traditional computing, CI is tolerant of imprecise
information, partial truth and uncertainty. Neural and fuzzy computing systems are
key elements of CI and their use has been found to be promising in Bioinformatics
applications.
Neural networks
The field of neural networks (also known as connectionism, parallel

distributed processing, natural intelligent systems, machine learning algorithms,
neurocomputing, artificial neural networks, neural systems and computational neural
networks) is a branch of cognitive science and has originated from diverse sources,
ranging from the fascination of mankind with understanding and emulating the human
brain, to broader issues of copying human abilities such as speech and the use of
language, to the practical commercial, scientific, and engineering disciplines of
pattern recognition, modelling, and prediction.
Artificial neural networks
Artificial neural networks (called neural networks now onwards) consist of the
following three principal elements:
Topology the way a neural network is organised into layers and the manner in
which these layers are interconnected;
ii) Learning the technique by which information is stored in the network; and
iii) Recall how the stored information is retrieved from the network.
The basic structure of a neural network consists of artificial neurons (Fig.1).
The neurons are also sometimes referred to as processing elements (PEs), nodes,
neurodes, units, etc., and are analogous to biological neurons in the human brain,
which are grouped into layers (also called slabs). The most common neural network
structure consists of an input layer, one or more hidden layers and an output layer.
The neural networks considered for empirical investigation in this study are also one
hidden layer networks with a single output.
i)
178
Fig.1: Schematic representation of general neuron model.

Let the input dimension be n (n Z + ) and let the number of hidden neurons
be m (m Z + ) . The training pairs are represented by D = x ( p ) , t ( p )
},
where
p = 1, 2 ,..., P ; P Z + , is the number of training exemplars; and the index p is

always assumed to be present implicitly. The matrix w denotes the input to the hidden
neurons connection strength, wij is the (i, j)th element of the matrix w representing the
connection strength between the jth input and the ith hidden layer neuron. With this
nomenclature, the net input to the ith hidden layer neuron is given by
n
neti = wij x j + i(1) = w i x + i(1)
...
(1)
j =1
where i(1) is the bias of the ith hidden layer neuron. The output from the ith hidden
layer neuron is given by
hi (x ) = f
(1)
(net i )
...
(2 )
where f (1) () is a nonlinear activation function.

The activation function determines the output from a summation of the
weighted inputs of a neuron. The activation functions for neurons in the hidden layer
are often nonlinear and they provide the nonlinearities for the network. The choice of
transfer functions may strongly influence complexity and performance of neural
networks. Although sigmoidal transfer functions are most commonly used, there is no
a priori reason why models based on such functions should always provide optimal
decision borders. A number of alternative transfer functions have been surveyed by
some researchers. The use of new activation functions in neural networks is an open
research activity that can produce interesting results in various applications.
The net input to the output neuron may be defined similarly as Eq. (1) as
follows
m
net = vi hi + (2 ) = v h + (2 )
...
(3)
i =1
Z+
is the set of positive integers.
( p)
and
t ( p)
denote input and corresponding target patterns.
179
where vi represents the connection strength between the ith hidden layer neuron and
the output neuron, while (2 ) is the bias of the output neuron.
Adding a bias neuron x0 with input value as +1, Eq. (1) can be rewritten as
n
net i = wij x j = Wi x
...
(4)
j =0
where wi 0 = Wi 0 i(1) and Wi is the weight vector w i (associated with the ith hidden
neuron) augmented by the 0th column corresponding to the bias. Similarly,
introducing an auxiliary hidden neuron (i = 0) such that h0 = +1 , allows us to redefine
Eq. (3) as
m
net = vi hi = V h
...
(5)
...
(6)
i =0
where v0 (2 ) .
The equation for the network output neuron is given by
net o = f (2 ) (net ) = net

as we have considered f (2 ) () as a linear function in this study.
The notations are diagrammatically exemplified in Fig.2. This figure

represents an n-input, m-hidden neuron and one-output feedforward neural network.
Such a neural network is trained to fit a dataset D by minimising an error function (or
performance function) as
F = E D (W ) =
1 P 2 1 P
= net o( p ) t ( p )
P p =1
P p =1
...
(7 )
This function is minimised using standard optimisation method.
Fig.2: Schematic of feed forward neural network models.
180
Fuzzy logic
Fuzzy logic (FL) is a departure from classical Boolean logic as it implements

soft linguistic variables on a continuous range of truth values, which allows
intermediate values to be defined between conventional binary. It can often be
considered a superset of Boolean or crisp logic in the way fuzzy set theory is a
superset of conventional set theory. Since FL can handle approximate information in a
systematic way, it is ideal for controlling nonlinear systems and for modelling
complex systems (such as biological processes) where an inexact model exists or
systems where ambiguity or vagueness is common. Due to the growing complexity of
current and future problems, the ability to find relatively simple and less expensive
solutions has fuelled the research into fuzzy technology.
It was designed to mathematically represent vagueness and develop tools for
dealing with imprecision inherent in several problems. Normally, in digital computers
one uses the binary or Boolean logic where the digital signal has two discrete levels,
viz., Low (i.e., binary 0) or High (i.e., binary 1); nothing in-between. This
phenomenon can be expressed mathematically with the help of classical set theory.
Consider that U denotes a given universe of disclosure (i.e., the universe of all the
possible elements from which set can be formed) and u be an element, i.e., u U .
Then a crisp (discrete) set A can be described by the characteristic function A as
follows:
0, if and only if u A
1, if and only if u A
A (u ) =
...
(8)
Fuzzy systems use soft linguistic variables (e.g., hot, tall, slow, light, heavy,
dry, small, positive, etc.) and a range of their weightage (or truth) values, called
membership functions, in the interval [0, 1], enabling the new computers to make
human-like decisions. This phenomenon can be expressed mathematically using fuzzy
set theory. A fuzzy set A in the universe of disclosure U (i.e., the range of all
possible values for an input to a fuzzy system) can be defined as a set of ordered
pairs:
A = {(u , A (u )) u A}
where A : U [0, 1]
...
...
(9)
(10)
Thus, FL is basically a multi-valued logic that allows intermediate values to be

defined between conventional evaluations like yes/no, true/false, black/white, etc.
Notions like rather warm or pretty cold can be formulated mathematically and
processed by computers. In this way an attempt is made to apply a more human-like
way of thinking in the programming of computers.
181
In essence, FL deals with events and situations with subjectively defined

attributes:
A proposition in FL does not have either True or False

An event (or situation) can be, for example, a bit true, fairly true, almost
true, very true, or not true depending on the event (or situation) attributes.
Fuzzy logic application to problem solving involves three steps: converting
crisp (numerical) values to a set of fuzzy values, an inference system (based on fuzzy
if-then rules) and defuzzification (Fig.3). In the first step, live inputs such as
temperature, pressure, etc.; generate a real action in the form of a pulse width
measurement driving a motor, or a voltage driving a motor or a relay. This is realized
with the help of special functions, viz., membership functions, which are the
equivalents of adverbs and adjectives in speech such as very, slightly, extremely,
somewhat and so on. Next, the membership functions are put in the form of if-then
statements and a set of rules is defined for the problem under investigation. These
rules are of the form:
IF temperature is cold AND humidity is high THEN fan_speed is high
where temperature, humidity are inputs variables (i.e., known data) and fan_speed is
an output variable (i.e., data value to be computed). The adjectives low in relation to
temperature, high in relation to humidity and high in relation to fan_speed are
the membership functions in the present case.
Knowledge
Fuzzification
Interface
FuzzyInference
Unit
Defuzzification
Interface
Process
Fig.3: The structure of a fuzzy logic control system
182
The IF is an antecedent; usually a sensor reading while THEN is a consequent, a

command, in control applications. Unlike binary logic, each antecedent can lead to
several premises and several consequences. Hence, in fuzzy logic more than one rule
may operate at the same time but with varied degrees. This set of rules (with different
weigthages) leads to a crisp control action through the process of defuzzification.
Applications
Today, neural and fuzzy computing techniques are employed in a variety of

Dairy applications including prediction of total milk, fat and protein production for
individual cows; diagnosing clinical mastitis in dairy cattle; dairy sire prediction
capability; lameness detection in dairy cows; oestrus detection in dairy cattle;
prediction of health of dairy cattle from breath samples; online feedback treatment
strategy for parturient paresis of cows; dairy food safety and quality analyses,
modelling and predictive control of milk pasteurisation plant; prediction of milk
ultrafiltration performance; predicting milk shelf-life; prediction of bulls slaughter
value from growth data; prediction of acidification step in cheese production; embryo
culture media-formulations; etc.
183
MICROSTRUCTURE OF CULTURED DAIRY
PRODUCTS: AN UPDATE
Dr. Sudhir Tomar

Sr. Scientist & In-Charge
Electron Microscopy Centre, Dairy Microbiology Division, NDRI, Karnal.
1.0 Introduction
Dairy products constitute a large group of foods either consisting mainly of

proteins (dried milk, yoghurt, cheese) or of fat (cream, ice cream, dairy spreads,
butter). The electron microscopy was first time used by Nitschmann (1949) who
studied casein micelles in skim milk. Since then, the microstructure of dairy products
has been extensively studied by a number of research workers prompted by the
recognition of correlation of physical properties with microstructure of the product.
Besides, these food systems though being apparently homogenous along with
insoluble milk components and various additives display specific fine structures on
the microscopic and submicroscopic scale. Further, when milk is subjected to an array
of technological/processing treatments (high heat, pH, presence of enzymes etc.) or
certain additives of both dairy and non dairy origin are incorporated, its
microparticulate moieties/constituents i.e. fat globules, the colloidal casein micelles
and molecular dispersion of whey proteins undergo physical alterations as a result of
mutual interactions. These modifications manifest into characteristic macroscopic
structure and physical attributes (viscosity, firmness, elasticity, vulnerability to
syneresis) of the product. Therefore, electron microscopy of dairy products is
extremely useful in elucidating the relationship between macroscopic properties of the
product and its submicroscopic structure. The last three decades has witnessed great
development in the area of study of microstructure of dairy products, and different
techniques have been developed to discern the structural attributes of these products.
The information so gathered is being scientifically used in quality appraisal, in food
product development and in trouble-shooting during manufacturing.
184
There exists a continuum of scientific information about low fat dairy products
ranging
from the microstructural level and product composition, through human
sensing of taste, aroma and texture, to consumers perception and appreciation.

Studies with different types of low fat dairy products have ehibited that the
relationship is system-dependent. In diluted (acidified milk drinks) and highly
concentrated (cream cheese) systems a close and straightforward relationship between
texture properties (viscosity, hardness, melt down) and creaminess was demonstrated.
In weak gels (plain yoghurt), the relationship between structure and creaminess was
more complex and also encompassed taste and flavour properties.
2.0 Electron Microscopic Techniques
2.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy

Understanding the food microstructure is of great importance for process and
product development having great effects on the sensory characteristics. The
specimens examined by SEM are either conventional (dry) or frozen (cold-stage
SEM). Investigation of water-containing dairy products by SEM requires adequate
reinforcement of fragile structures and also careful selection of drying procedures.
Structural stabilization can be achieved by fixation with glutaraldehyde and
dehydration is performed mainly by critical-point drying. The SEM exhibits only the
details of surfaces, internal structure may be studied by fracturing the sample and
examining the surface thus formed. The conventional method of sample preparation
for SEM includes chemical fixation (Glutaraldehyde, Osmic Acid), dehydration with
a graded series of ethanol or acetone and subsequently drying by air drying, freezedrying or critical point drying. The specimen is mounted on an aluminum stub and
coated with heavy metal to make it electrically conductive. It has been demonstrated
that simple air-drying of the specimen yields collapsed micelles even after proper
fixation due to the strong interfacial forces created as a result of passage of receding
water surfaces over the particles. Better results have been obtained with freeze-drying
and critical point drying.
Since biological and food materials contain high amounts of water, they can
not be observed using a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) without removing the
water. However, cryo-SEM can be used to study the microstructure of hydrated
samples. The goal of the low temperature cryo-SEM is to vitrify the liquid phase with
185
all the constituents, i.e. macromolecules, thus preserving them in their natural and
original state. Conventional SEM is used to study chemically fixed and subsequently
dried samples at ambient temperature. Samples fixed by rapid freezing are examined
in the frozen-hydrated state at temperature below 100 C using Cryo-SEM.
2.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy
The TEM is patterned essentially after Optical microscopy and yields information
on the size, shape and arrangement of particles which make up the specimen as well
as their relationship to each other on the scale of atomic diameters. The
electromagnetic lenses (first & second) determine the spot size of the electron beam
generated by electron gun and also alters the spot to a pinpoint beam. Further,
condenser lens restricts the beam by knocking out high angles electrons and beam
strikes the specimen and parts of it are transmitted. The transmitted portion is focused
by the objective lens into an image which is passed down the column through the
intermediate and projector lenses, being enlarged all the way.
Transmission electron microscopy can be performed using various techniques
such as ultrathin sectioning, negative staining, metal shadowing and Freezefracturing and freeze-etching.
3.0 Microstructure
There has been a significant development in study of microstructure of dairy

products using both conventional and cryo electron microscopy in last couple of
decades. An attempt is being made here to discuss the advances made in study of
microstructure of cultured dairy products in the following sections:
3.1 Cheese
Cheese microstructure is the spatial arrangement of the casein particles that
join together into clusters and chains to form a protein matrix throughout which are
dispersed water, fat globules and minerals. Microstructure is one of the major
controlling factors of texture and functional properties of cheese. Cheese
microstructure analysis plays an important role in the quality control of the dairy
products. SEM imagery allows to study cheese microstructure by qualitative visual
186
evaluation as well as quantitative analysis. Image analysis and quantification of

relevant features is the basis of modern food microscopy.
3.1.1 Cheddar Cheese
During curd formation the proteases break down kappa casein present on the
surfaces of casein micelles in milk. Deprived of its protective action, casein micelles
coagulate and form a gel. When examined by electron microscopy, the coagulum
consists of casein micelle clusters and short chains. They encapsulate fat globules the natural large corpuscular particles present in milk. Void spaces in the casein
matrix are filled with the liquid milk serum called whey which is a solution of lactose,
minerals, and vitamins, and a suspension of whey proteins. Further, cutting of
coagulum exposes fat globules and causes them to be washed away from the surface
formed by cutting. During cooking, whey gets expelled from the porous protein
matrix causing its compaction. Matting of curd granules leads to junction formation
in the region where low fat surface layers fuse together. On the basis of junction
patterns, distinction can be made from the curd that had been cut with a set of wire
knives from the curd cut by stirrer. In cheddar cheese, milling and pressing of
cheddared curd leads to the development of another set of junction patterns called
milled curd junctions.
Shredded Cheese
There is great consumer interest worldwide in shredded cheese. Many natural
cheeses can be grated but storage costs before a given variety reaches shredability are
significant. These costs include refrigerated storage space and inventory keeping
which require a large capital investment. The study of microstructure has been
successfully employed to evaluate the effect of moderately high hydrostatic pressure
processing to reduce production costs of shredded cheese (Serrano et al., 2005). Short
and moderate hydrostatic pressure (MHP) treatments were found to accelerate the
shredability of Cheddar cheese. The findings led to the conclusion that MHP would
allow processors to shred milled curd Cheddar cheese immediately after block cooling
with expected refrigerated storage savings of more than US $30 /1000 kg cheese and
could simplify the handling of cheese for shredding.
187
3.1.2
White Fresh Cheese

Iranian White cheese is a close textured brined cheese made from cows milk,
sheeps milk or mixtures of them. The main flavor characteristics are acidity and
saltiness. Madadlou et al., (2006) studied the effect of starter concentration on
compositon, microstructure, opacity and fracture stress of Iranian White cheese. Three
treatments of cheese were made using 1-fold (IWC1S), 2-fold (IWC2S), and 4-fold
(IWC4S) concentrations of a direct-to-vat mesophilic mixed culture containing
Lactococcus lactis ssp. cremoris and Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis as starter. As
ripening progressed, moisture and protein contents of the treatments continuously
decreased, whereas their total ash, salt, and salt in moisture contents increased. Fat
content and pH of cheeses remained stable during ripening. As the concentration of
starter inoculated to milk increased, the value of fracture stress at a given ripening
time significantly decreased, leading to a less resistant body against applied stress. A
similar trend was also observed for fracture strain during cheese ripening. The
micrographs taken by SEM provided a meaningful explanation for decrease in the
value of fracture stress.
Rahimi et al., (2007) studied the texture of Low-Fat Iranian White Cheese as
influenced by gum Tragacanth as a fat replacer. The effect of different concentrations
of gum tragacanth on the textural characteristics of low-fat Iranian White cheese was
studied during ripening. Cheese samples were analyzed with respect to chemical,
color, and sensory characteristics, rheological parameters ( , and microstructure.
Reducing the fat content had an adverse effect on cheese yield, sensory
characteristics, and the texture of Iranian White cheese, and it increased the
instrumental hardness parameters (i.e., fracture stress, elastic modulus, storage
modulus, and complex modulus). However, increasing the gum tragacanth
concentration reduced the values of instrumental hardness parameters and increased
the whiteness of cheese.
3.1.3 Domiati Cheese
The addition of
-galactosidase to cheese milk before renneting (El-
Zayat,2006) has been found to enhance the fusion of protein and the formation of
more homogenous structure of sub micelles compared to control, as well as produced
a good quality cheese of 1.5-2.5 fold free amino acids and free fatty acids as much as
188
those of control. The differences were particularly great in respect of serine,

phenylalanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, myristic acid, palmatic acid and oleic
acid.
3.1.4 Brine salted Cheese(Ragusano cheese)
The study of microstructure of brine salted cheese can offer insight into
relation of porosity of within the casein matrix of the cheese with rate of salt
diffusion. The goal of this study (Melilli et al.,2005) was to characterize the changes
in chemical composition, porosity, and structure that occur at the surface of a block of
brine-salted cheese and their relationship to the rate at which salt is taken up from the
brine. To create a difference in composition, salt uptake, and barrier layer properties,
identical blocks of Ragusano cheese were placed in saturated and 18% salt brine at
18C for 12 d. The overall moisture content and porosity decreased, whereas salt and
salt in moisture content increased near the surface of blocks of brine-salted Ragusano
cheese for all treatments. The general appearance of the microstructure of the surface
of the blocks of brine-salted cheese was much more compact than the microstructure 1
mm inside the block at both brine concentrations. However, no large differences in
the size of the macro channels in the cheese structure due to the difference in brine
concentration were observed by scanning electron microscopy.
3.2 Yoghurt
Yogurt has traditionally been made from milk that had been partially
condensed by evaporation while it had been heated almost to boiling. Coagulation of
the milk proteins is induced by thermophilic bacteria, such as Lactobacillus
delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus , i.e., bacteria which

propagate well at an elevated temperature of 40 to 45C. The milk is coagulated by a
slowly increasing concentration of lactic acid as the bacteria metabolize lactose. The
proteins do not precipitate (as would happen following an addition of a large amount
of lactic acid) but form a gel. Its ability to retain all the water present in the milk is the
result of a peculiar microstructure of the protein network. It consists of short branched
chains of casein micelles and resembles a sponge with very small pores.
Here recent findings on effect of various processing parameters on microstructure of
yoghurt are discussed.
189
3.2.1 Fortification
Inulin
Guven et al., (2005) studied the influence of different levels of inulin on the
quality of fat-free yogurt production was investigated. The addition of inulin at more
than 1% increased whey separation and consistency while acetaldehyde, pH and
titratable acidity remained unaffected. Tyrosine and volatile fatty acidity levels were
negatively affected by inulin addition. With respect to the organoleptic quality of
yogurt, inulin addition caused a decrease in organoleptic scores: the control yogurt
had the highest score, and the lowest score was obtained in yogurt samples containing
3% of inulin. Overall, the yogurt containing 1% of inulin was similar in quality
characteristics to control yogurt made with whole milk.
Sweetener
Addition of sweeteners can affect the microstructure of fermented milks.
Studies show that type of sweetener impacts state of association of casein micelles
and thus effects microstructure. Haque and Kayanush (2002) determined the effect of
a peptide sweetener, Aspartame, compared to a carbohydrate sweetener, sucrose, on
the microstructure of yogurt. Microstructure was determined by transmission and
scanning electron microscopy. Without the sweeteners, casein micelles that make up
the yogurt matrix were observed in single longitudinal polymers. When Aspartame
was used, casein micelles formed double longitudinal polymers. In comparison sugar
caused casein micelles to form clusters.
Stabilizer
The effect of trisodium citrate (TSC) on the rheological and physical
properties and microstructure of yogurt was investigated by Ozcan-Yilsay et al.,
(2007).
Addition of TSC was found to reduce casein-bound Ca and increased the
solubilization of CCP. At low TSC levels, the removal of CCP crosslinks may have
facilitated greater rearrangement and molecular mobility of the micelle structure,
which may have helped to increase G' and LT values of gels by increasing the
formation of crosslinks between strands. At high TSC concentrations the micelles
were completely disrupted and CCP crosslinks were dissolved, both of which resulted
in very weak yogurt gels with large pores obvious in confocal micrographs.
Whey Protein
190
The investigation carried out by Bhullary et al., (2004) studied the effects of
incorporating whey powder, whey protein concentrate and skim milk powder on
textural characteristics and microstructure of yoghurt. Yoghurt supplemented with 2%
whey protein concentrate was firmest while the control yoghurt was least firm. An
average increase in viscosity of 1.2 to 5 times was observed on addition of whey
powder, skim milk powder and whey protein concentrate.The microstructure analysis
showed that yoghurts containing whey protein concentrate had a more regular and
dense protein network as compared to those containing whey powder and skim milk
powder. Yoghurts made with whey powder and skim milk powder had more voids
and interstitial spaces as compared to those containing whey protein concentrate.
3.2.2 Addition of Cultures
Probiotic culture
Sodini et al., (2005) studied the physical properties and the microstructure of
yoghurts containing probiotic bacteria, and supplemented with milk protein
hydrolysates. Microstructural observations showed a more open and less branched
structure in yoghurts when milk protein hydrolysates were incorporated. The
difference in fermentation time between milks with different levels of added
hydrolysates could partially explain the differences in microstructure and physical
properties of the final yoghurts.
EPS Cultures
Microbial exopolysaccharides (EPSs) synthesized by lactic acid bacteria play
a major role in the manufacturing of fermented dairy products. EPS production is
characterized by a large variety in terms of quantity, chemical composition, molecular
size, charge, type of side chains and rigidity of the molecules. Monosaccharide unit's
composition, linkages, charge and size determine the EPS' intrinsic properties and
their interactions with other milk constituents. The EPSs contribute to texture,
mouthfeel, taste perception and stability of the final product. Furthermore, it was
reported that EPS from food grade organisms, particularly LAB, have potential as
food additives and as functional food ingredients with both health and economic
benefits. A better understanding of structure-function relationships of EPS in a dairy
191
food matrix and of EPS biosynthesis remain two major challenges for further
applications of EPS and the engineering of functional polysaccharides.
Hasan et al., (2003) studied the microstructure and rheology of yogurt made
with cultures differing only in their ability to produce exopolysaccharide. Yogurt was
made using an exopolysaccharide-producing strain of Streptococcus thermophilus and
its genetic variant that only differed from the mother strain in its inability to produce
exopolysaccharide. Yogurt made with the exopolysaccharide-producing culture
exhibited increased consistency coefficients, but lower flow behavior index, yield
stress, viscoelastic moduli and phase angle values than did yogurt made with the
culture unable to produce exopolysaccharide. The exopolysaccharides, when present,
were found in pores in the gel network separate from the aggregated protein. These
effects could be explained by the incompatibility of the exopolysaccharides with the
protein aggregates in the milk. Stirring affected the yogurt made with
exopolysaccharide differently from yogurt without exopolysaccharide, as it did not
exhibit immediate syneresis, although the structural breakdown was increased. The
shear-induced microstructure in a yogurt made with exopolysaccharide-producing
culture was shown to consist of compartmentalized protein aggregates between
channels containing exopolysaccharide, hindering syneresis as well as the buildup of
structure after stirring.
3.2.3 Post Incubation Treatment
Stirring
Yogurt is unique from both the structural as well as compositional viewpoints,
because it is solid and has the highest water content of all solid milk products. Yogurt
that has been stored for a long period of time may show some syneresis as the
separation of a liquid phase from a gel is called. This is only a minor cosmetic defect
and the liquid soaks back into the body of the yogurt as soon as the yogurt is stirred.
Skriver (1995) studied the characterization of stirred yogurt by rheology, microscopy
and sensory analysis. The ability of three different electron microscopy techniques to
visualize the microstructure of stirred yoghurt was examined. The protein network, fat
globules and bacteria were detectable with all three methods. The SEM of critical
192
point dried specimens as well as TEM of freeze-etched preparations resulted in

differentiation between yoghurt fermented with and without ropy strains. Though
TEM of thin-sectioned yoghurt specimens did not result in visualization of these EPSs
yet it was the most suitable for image analysis. The optimum heat treatment of the
yoghurt milk compared to the high heated milk resulted in yoghurt with a higher
surface content, smaller values of star volume (a less coarse structure of the casein
network) and a covariance function with a faster decay.
HHP Technology
High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) processing technology has recently received
considerable attention among food researchers. High pressure technology (1001000
MPa) is of increasing interest for use in biological and food systems, primarily
because it permits microbial inactivation at low or moderate temperature. Penna et al.,
(2007) studied the effect of milk processing on the microstructure of probiotic low-fat
yogurt. The microstructure of heat-treated milk yogurt had fewer interconnected
chains of irregularly shaped casein micelles, forming a network that enclosed the void
spaces. On the other hand, microstructure of HHP yogurt had more interconnected
clusters of densely aggregated protein of reduced particle size, with an appearance
more spherical in shape, exhibiting a smoother more regular surface and presenting
more uniform size distribution. The combined HHP and heat milk treatments led to
compact yogurt gels with increasingly larger casein micelle clusters interspaced by
void spaces, and exhibited a high degree of cross-linking. The rounded micelles
tended to fuse and form small irregular aggregates in association with clumps of
dense amorphous material, which resulted in improved gel texture and viscosity.
4.0 Conclusion
Further improvements on the quality of existing foods and the creation of new
products to satisfy expanding consumers demands during this century will be based
largely on interventions at the microscopic level. This is so because the majority of
elements that critically participate in transport properties, physical and rheological
behavior, textural and sensorial traits of foods are below the 100 m range. Another
reason that favors the change in scale of intervention is that we now have the tools
and basic knowledge of materials science, biology, genomics and computer science.
Introduction of nanotechnology in food research means scaling up from one
193
nanometer to the micron range, such as those found in self-assembly colloidal

structures and interfaces. Textural perception occurs mostly in the mouth which is a
very biased sensor. For instance, the presence of particles (or graininess) may be
desirable in the case of a bean paste or undesirable in most foods including sweetened
condensed milk, ice cream and chocolate where the threshold of size detection is
between 10 and 50 m but decreases with increasing degree of circularity. Under
certain formulations small particles may contribute to the perception of creaminess in
several food systems. Besides, in view of the recent trend of incorporating milk
constituents generally after physical, enzymatic or chemical modification into other
food, electron microscopy is poised to play increasingly a significant role in
elucidation of the properties of such new products. In this respect newly developed
cryotechniques should prove to be quite fruitful.
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on textural characteristics and microstructure of yoghurt Milchwissenschaft, 57:329332.
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cheese treated with -galactosidase. Food / Nahrung, 31: 27 37.
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fat replacer on the quality of set-type low-fat yogurt manufacture Internat. J of Dairy
Technol., 58:180-184.
Haque, Z.Z., and Kayanush, J. A.2002. Effect of Sweeteners on the Microstructure of
Yogurt, FSTR, 8, 21-23.
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Serrano, J.; Velazquez, G; Lopetcharat, K.; Ramirez, J. A.;Torres J. A.2005.
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NUTRITIONAL AND THERAPEUTIC ASSESSMENT FOR

FUNCTIONAL DAIRY PRODUCTS
Dr. Suman Kapila

Senior Scientist
Animal Biochemistry Division, NDRI, Karnal-132001
Functional foods are foods, and in fact they are foods, that go beyond simple nutrition
and have specific targeted actions. Various strategies have been adopted to develop
functional foods. Some of the multiple ways to approach the development of
functional
foods follow.
1. First approach is to use probiotics, which are specific live microorganisms that
have a beneficial effect on the host. Specific probiotics are used for specific
functions.
2. The second approach is based on prebiotics. Prebiotics are ingredients or
compounds that have a beneficial effect on the microflora in the host itself.
3. A third possibility is a mixture of probiotics and prebiotics, called synbiotics.
4. The last approach to developing functional foods is based on the addition of
ingredients that are very specific and have a much targeted action. Examples
are conjugated linoleic acids or polyunsaturated fatty acids, and many others.
Based on this strategy, the domain of action of functional foods could be divided into
two parts.
First, there are functional foods that are used to enhance a certain physiological
function, and second, there are functional foods that are used to reduce the risk of
disease. These two strategies have been applied in the development of functional
foods.
Nutrition is a relatively new science. For most of the last 100 years, nutritionists
were concerned primarily with preventing deficiencies. In the past 20 years the
emphasis moved to preventing excess. As nutrition moves into the new millennium,
the emphasis changes to enhancing the quality of life. There has been a tremendous
improvement in the knowledge of diet and genetics. However, consumers frequently
receive conflicting messages; and it is often difficult for them to separate good
science from exaggerated claims. There are 52 nutrient RDIs (Recommended Daily
Intakes), which are set, not at an optimal level, but at a level that will prevent
deficiency. There are nutrient nutraceuticals, for example the antioxidants, vitamin C,
vitamin E, and also beta-carotene that play roles in reducing the risk of cancer and
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cardiovascular diseases. There are also thousands of other chemicals coming from
various food entities for which no formal nutritional requirement has been established.
However, these nutraceutical or functional ingredients show benefits for risk
reduction and enhancement of structure or function of the body. One example is
lycopene, a strong antioxidant, which shows benefits for prostate cancer.
The first step in the development of a functional food is the identification, as well
as some understanding, of the interaction mechanism between the food component
and a body function. On such a basis, a functional effect can then be defined and
demonstrated in relevant models including human nutrition studies, which are
different from clinical studies. These studies should be hypothesis-driven, and should
look for changes invalidated and relevant biological markers. The demonstration of
these effects must also include safety assessment. Following human nutrition studies,
claims can be defined. Claims are any representation relating to nutritional properties.
They may be a marker of a target biologic response, and have no relationship to
disease. For example, an improvement in calcium absorption is a modification of the
function without any relation to disease. There may also be an effect on an
intermediate marker, such as a reduction in blood pressure, which would lead to the
reduction of the risk of the cardiovascular disease. The ultimate goal of the scientific
community and food industry should be to develop functional foods that improve the
quality of life. To do this, they must also educate consumers to make some changes in
their eating habits and their lifestyles. Academia must also strongly urge the food
industry to stay on the scientific side. The food industry needs to be reminded to keep
the quest for functional foods a scientific challenge, and not just a marketing
challenge.
Functional dairy foods and the risk for various diseases
Hypertension
An inverse relationship between intake of dairy products and blood pressure

levels was first suggested by several epidemiological surveys in the early 1980s.
Subsequent laboratory and clinical investigations provided further evidence of the
association between calcium and blood pressure, but the results of these studies were
often inconsistent due to variations in study design and methods, study participants,
and calcium sources. In the management of high blood pressure, lifestyle is important.
Overweight is the biggest predictor of hypertension; exercise improves blood
pressure, and moderate consumption of alcohol is acceptable. The overall adequacy of
the diet is very important. Unfortunately, many of the currently recommended
solutions to hypertension do not rely on science.T he recently published results of the
large and carefully executed Diet and Blood Pressure in America study,
demonstrated a dramatic blood-pressure lowering effect of diets rich in dairy
products, fruits, and vegetables. The study revealed that individuals with low calcium
intake ate less cheese, yogurt and ice cream. Results of the NHANES (National
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Health and Nutrition Examination Study) study showed that to prevent high blood
pressure, the most important food group that needs to be added to the diet is dairy
products. Recent reviews of a very large database, comparing all randomized trials,
suggested that for African Americans, the elderly, and those who are salt sensitive,
increasing mineral intake, specifically calcium, will be important for the regulation of
blood pressure. Those with low calcium intake responded positively to calcium
supplements. This effect is present in both normal and hypertensive subjects, and is
more pronounced for high risk individuals. In another study, the DASH diet (Dietary
Approaches to Stop Hypertension), subjects ate 3 servings per day of low-fat dairy
products, and 8-10 servings per day of fresh fruits and vegetables. High, normal and
mild hypertensives were studied. The study was published in the New England
Journal of Medicine in 1997. The normal group had a 3 mm drop in systolic pressure
on the fruit and vegetable diet, and a 6 mm drop on the combination diet (dairy plus
fruit/vegetable). This compares to a 0.6 mm drop achieved by lowering salt intake in
another study.
Also in the DASH diet, individuals with mild hypertension achieved an 11.6
mm reduction in blood pressure. The test was heavily weighted to African Americans.
No individual stopped the trial because of lactose intolerance, probably due to the fact
that yogurt was emphasized. The authors concluded that blood pressure reduction was
rapid; and I twas independent of sodium and weight change. Public health
implications of this diet as a preventive measure against hypertension could lead to a
27% reduction in stroke and a15% reduction in coronary heart disease. The Vanguard
studies, a multi-center dietary intervention study carried out at various universities,
compared a comprehensive diet containing 100 to 115% of the US recommendation
for all macro- and micronutrients, to the Step 1 and Step 2 American Heart
Association diets. This test included four trials involving 1300 subjects. In a high-risk
group for diabetes, dislipidemia, hypertension and obesity, results showed that a
comprehensive diet intervention has a significant effect on blood pressure, weight,
lipid profiles, homocysteine, hemoglobin A1c, and insulin. The overall conclusion
was that when nutritional adequacy improved, the quality of life improved. The
DASH II diet findings were recently reported at the American Society of
Hypertension. In this 12-week study, 3 meals per day were provided. The control diet,
which was low in fruits, vegetables, and dairy products, was compared to the DASH
diet, at three sodium levels. This was a randomized cross-over test, with 30-day
intervention. Subjects were 57% black, 57% women, and 41% hypertensive. The
average BMI approached 30, and the group was heavily weighted for sodium
sensitivity. Subjects on the DASH diet showed a greater reduction of systolic blood
pressure than the control group. DASH II implications are summarized below:
Low-fat dairy foods plus fruits and vegetables are far more effective than sodium
restriction in changing blood pressure.
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Low-fat dairy foods plus fruits and vegetables virtually eliminate sodiums effects
on blood pressure.
All population segments benefit from the improved diet.
A national nutrition policy to prevent and manage hypertension must focus on the
DASH diet, not on salt.
One lesson from these studies is that single-nutrient interventions do not exist.
Foods are the issue, not individual nutrients. Dairy products are critical in achieving
results. In addition, especially in the US, lowering weight and getting adequate
exercise are both paramount. It is important to prevent any evidence of deficiency, but
sodium restriction is a mute point. The greatest cardiovascular benefits are achieved
by weight loss. Dietary patterns characterized by fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lowfat dairy products, and lean meats, are associated with a lower risk of mortality.
Cardiovascular diseases
In the 1970s and 1980s the simple lipid hypothesis dominated the scientific
community. Emphasis was on the total fat and saturated fatty acids of the diet, and the
ratios of LDL (low density lipoproteins) to HDL (high density lipoproteins)
cholesterol. This focus led to an increased consumption of skimmed milk, and
reduced consumption of cheeses, creams and other higher fat dairy products. This
resulted in a lower total fat and saturated fatty acids (SFA) intake and a higher intake
of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) from margarines and spreads. Little emphasis
was placed on the beneficial effects of other fatty acids in the diet, particularly the
monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), the omega-3fatty acids, and conjugated linoleic
acids. Current advances in cardiovascular nutrition indicate that high MUFA diets are
more cardioprotective than low-fat diets. This is particularly true for those subjects
who show a decline in HDL in response to a low-fat diet. The challenge then is to find
effective simple strategies to substitute MUFA in the diet.
After feeding a diet rich in SFA versus a diet high in MUFA, scientists were
able to show a significant reduction in expression of adhesion molecules on
leukocytes with subjects on the MUFA diet. This reduction is also beneficial in
reducing tendency to inflammation. Studies also show that when you give fat acutely
to individuals, it leads to activation of factor 7, a predictor of increased clot formation.
Individuals on a high MUFA diet show less activation of factor 7 than individuals on
a high SFA diet. Thus cholesterol reduction is important, but is not the only factor in
determining cardiovascular risk. High MUFA diets are shown to reduce inflammatory
and coagulation tendencies. Currently 87% of dietary PUFA intake is n-6 or omega-6
class, and consumption of omega-3 PUFA is down. The population eats only 1.4
grams of alpha-linolenic acid andless then 0.2 g per day of docosahexaenoic acid
(DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which are very powerful long chain PUFA
helpful in preventing cardiovascular disease.Omega-3 PUFA are able to reduce
triglyceride blood levels, inhibit platelet aggregation, reduce blood clotting, are anti-
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arrhythmic, reduce blood pressure, and are antiinflammatory. Purportedly, about 1

gram per day of DHA and EPA can reduce heart disease risk. In subjects who ate 2-3
servings of oily fish per week, there was a significant improvement in survival versus
a control diet group which ate a healthy diet.
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is an important public health problem. In the US, 28 million

people suffer from osteoporosis; and the majority of these are women. The annual
cost of osteoporosis is estimated to be USD 14 billion per year. The disease is a global
issue, and it is estimated that in 2020, half of all osteoporosis in the world will be in
China. The role of dairy products in the prevention of this disease is clear to all. In the
US, dairy foods are the major contributor of calcium in the diet. Estimates are that
75% of dietary calcium in the US is supplied by dairy foods. Still, the population does
not consume enough calcium. For males, median intake is 800 mg per day,
significantly less than the RDA of 1000 mg; for females, median intakes are around
600 mg per day. Significant marketing and nutrition education are needed to
encourage use of dairy products and other foods to increase the level of calcium in the
diet.
There are three main organ systems involved in the metabolism of calcium and
phosphorus: the skeleton, the kidney and the intestine. Besides the level of dietary
calcium, other body processes that can be manipulated through functional foods are
urinary loss of calcium, efficiency of calcium absorption, and bone formation or bone
resorption. These could promote optimal bone mineral density, optimal bone
structure, and reduce the risk of bone fracture. Two specific approaches to fortify
dairy products with functional foods have been suggested. First, dietary
phytoestrogens could be used to reduce bone loss; and second, dietary
oligosaccharides could be used to enhance calcium absorption. There are many
sources of dietary estrogens in the diet, as well as various synthetic compounds that
have shown estrogenic effects in vivo.
There are also many naturally occurring phytoestrogens, coming from plant
foods, animal foods and fungi. Current emphasis on phytoestrogens centers on
isoflavonoids, particularly isoflavones, and lignins. Two of these isoflavones, daizein
and genistein, are found in soy products. However, the type of soy can determine the
level of these compounds. For example, tofu and soybeans are not equivalent as
vehicles for delivering bioactive compounds. The three main isoflavones found in
soybeans, daizein, genistein, and glycitein, have similar structures. These compounds
have the potential to interact with the estrogen receptor. Evidence from studies over
the course of the last 20 years with synthetic isoflavones, such as ipriflavone,
indicates that isoflavones may be beneficial in the area of osteoporosis.
Current research has explored the role of ipriflavone in preventing bone loss.
One test utilized ovariectomized (OVX) rats. Ovarectomy creates an estrogen
deficiency state over the course of the experiment, which is one month. Studies have
compared a soy protein diet to casein, and measured bone mineral density. Actual
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study results revealed that protective effects on bone come with the isoflavones, and
not with the soy protein. There is very little data from human studies. In one study, on
three groups of women, as isoflavone dosage increased, a positive effect on bone
mineral density was shown in older women. In summary, evidence suggests that
synthetic and dietary isoflavones can influence bone metabolism in rats and humans.
Additional studies are needed on humans in particular, to define the optimal and safe
dose, to identify the form that would have the most positive effect on bone, and to
demonstrate the long-term efficacy on bone mineral density and fracture incidence.
Cancer
The search for cancer prevention involves lofty goals that are not easy to
achieve. Science is looking for a way to slow the onset of carcinogenesis, and to
prevent tumors from progressing. Some food substances such as garlic are beginning
to show promise in this area, and there is hope that simple dietary substances may be
very relevant in cancer prevention. In human nutrition, interactions between nutrients
are important. Very high or low intakes of certain nutrients may create imbalances
with other nutrients. A good example of this is the relationship between zinc and
vitamin E. In an animal model, a decrease in dietary zinc will inhibit the attainment of
maximum levels of vitamin E. This has also been confirmed in human studies. Recent
studies to compare risks for breast cancer have compared the Western diet to a control
diet. Results showed that subjects on the Western diet, which is high in fat, high in
phosphate, low in calcium and low in vitamin D, showed a higher rate of proliferation
in the small ducts where breast cancer occurs as compared to the control diet.
Researchers concluded not only that the western diet has an adverse effect on risk
factors for cancer, but also that the combination of nutrients is important. Both
overnutrition and undernutrition may be causative factors in cancer. Overweight
relates to a higher incidence of cancers of the breast, colon, prostate, and probably the
uterus; while underweight increases the risk of cancers of the stomach, esophagus,
and liver. Consumption of fruits, vegetables and grains is protective. Currently
researchers are seeking to identify the specific micronutrients involved in risk
reduction. There has been a great deal of interest in selenium, omega-3 fatty acids,
folic acid, and antioxidant vitamins.
Role of dairy foods
There has been some concern about dairy products and increased risk of
prostate cancer, but dairy foods may be protective against breast and colon cancer.
Current focus is on finding the mechanisms that account for changes. One possibility
is that vitamin D in its active form, 1,25 D, serves to slow down cancer development.
Increased calcium may suppress the concentration of 1,25 D. Therefore, it is
important to have adequate amounts of vitamin D in the dairy products, or to take
additional vitamin D. Purportedly, calcium in milk may have anti-proliferative effects,
and inhibit tumor promotion. It is thought that fermentation and production of
probiotics may reduce the progression of preneoplastic lesions. There are many
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mechanisms through which dairy products might work. Probiotics may have a role in
cancer prevention by influencing microbial flora. This may be due not only to the
presence of the probiotic bacteria, but also to the removal of other bacteria by
competition in the gut. Probiotics may also improve nutrient bioavailability. In
addition, they may have immunologic effects, may stimulate IgA response, and may
effect production of cytokines.
Immunity and cancer
The GI tract is the bodys first barrier, and the immune system plays a critical
role in cancer prevention. Primary immune deficiencies are associated with increased
risk for gastric cancer. Immune factors are critical in determining cancer
development, and immunodeficiency may be one of the ways in which cancer
develops. Again, there is a risk for both overnutrition and undernutrition. Individuals
with bone marrow transplants are at an increased risk of cancer. Weight loss has a
severe prognosis.How might probiotic bacteria be helpful specifically in colon cancer
prevention? They may enhance post-immune response. They may crowd out
organisms that are involved in producing carcinogens, and they may neutralize
carcinogens. They may alter the metabolism of intestinal flora, and may produce
antitumor factors. In the human colon, there have been studies on several lactic acid
bacteria, especially Bifidobacterium longum, that show that this organism may reduce
tumor ornithine decarboxylase activity, ras p21 expression, and have strong antitumor
activity. The biomarkers reflect this. Some safety issues such as the possibility of
uncontrolled growth and proinflammatory immune response may warrant further
study. To summarize, nutrition is enormously linked to cancer prevention. This is true
for nutrition in general, as well as for specific nutrients and secondary plant products.
Further study is needed into the mechanisms of action and validation of these agents.
Probiotics may be a vital key to cancer prevention. Two specific fatty acids outlined
below show promise in the reduction of cancer risk. One is of dairy origin, and the
other of marine origin, but might be a candidate for inclusion in dairy foods.
Conjugated linoleic acid
Conjugated linoleic acid, CLA, occurs naturally in red meat and dairy
products, as a by-product of ruminal hydrogenation. CLA has potent anti-carcinogenic
effect, reduces fat deposition, and has anti-atherogenic properties. To date, most of the
studies using CLA have been done in small experimental animals, and have been
using high-dose levels. A recent paper showed that levels of CLA in human adipose
tissue strongly correlated with intake of milk fat. Milk fat is an important dietary
source of CLA. The data for CLA and human health benefits is weak, and in animal
studies the data is still equivocal. Two studies have shown reductions in cholesterol,
but did not show a dose response. Anti-carcinogenic effects were shown in animals at
levels that would be the equivalent of ingesting 3 grams per day of CLA. Antiatherogenic effects have been found at very high levels, equivalent to human
consumption of 400 grams per day, which would not be feasible.
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Docosahexaenoic acid
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), is a major polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)

most often derived from marine sources. DHA can be synthesized from alpha linoleic
acid, but this biosynthesis is not very efficient, and a deficiency may lead to
impairment of functions such as visual acuity and learning ability. DHA is highly
concentrated in the brain, retina and spermatozoa. Despite some knowledge of the
biological functions of DHA, relatively little is known about its metabolic fate. In a
recent study, elderly people were given a daily intake of 150 mg DHA, plus 30 mg
EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid), for six weeks. Using 13C-labeled DHA, researchers
were able to show that DHA esterified in lysophosphatidylcholine is the main
provider of DHA to erythrocytes and the brain. A daily intake of only 100 mg DHA in
triglycerides by elderly people, a population in which an oxidative stress may be
evidenced, appears to be able to reverse this oxidative stress. It is concluded that a
low intake of DHA might be useful, both for adequate supply to target tissues,
especially the brain, and to prevent lipid peroxidation. DHA thus finds a role as an
anticarcinogen, and may also have beneficial effects against atherogenesis and
arrhythmia.
Dairy foods are rich sources of protein, calcium and a variety of vitamins,
minerals and bioactive compounds. They provide an ideal food medium for delivering
probiotics and other functional ingredients. The message was strongly relayed by
many of the experts in various fields, that functional foods should be foods and not
pills. Elderly populations often experience PEM (protein energy malnutrition). For
these individuals who may be lacking protein, calcium and vitamin D, yogurt provides
an excellent source of these and other nutrients. It provides an added advantage for all
populations who may have lactase deficiency, because the probiotic bacteria in yogurt
produce lactase, which is the enzyme which breaks down lactose. It has been
demonstrated innumerous tests that yogurt is well tolerated by individuals with
decreased lactase levels. Probiotics can be delivered through yogurt, fermented milks,
cottage cheese and similar dairy products, and also through fortified juice, and infant
formulas. Two other vehicles for delivery are pills and nutritional supplements. There
is no guarantee that pills will contain the advertised bacteria, or that the probiotics
will be viable when they reach the body.
Fermented milk products may have a short shelf-life. One challenge is to
incorporate prebiotics into a wider range of food. A novel application was a biscuit
formulation. In a recent double-blind, randomized, placebo controlled test with 31
volunteers, a prebiotic was served in a biscuit formulation for a 21-day treatment
period. Using fluorescent in situ hybridization, researchers confirmed that there was a
significant increase in Bifidobacterium levels in the active group, thereby confirming
that the prebiotic nature of the FOS did hold up in this real food product.
Development of prebiotics should look at enhanced application in food system. These
food ingredients should exhibit good storage, varying sweetness for different
applications, as well as pathogen binding ability.
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Specific methods to enhance functionality of functional dairy products

specifically probiotics ans prebiotics may include the following.
Targeted activities for the distal colon: as most large gut disorders are of left-sided
origin, the persistence of prebiotics and probiotics towards this area is desirable. Most
release occurs in proximal regions, where carbohydrates enter through the ileocecal
valve. As food moves through the large intestine towards the distal area, there is more
proteolysis, resulting in more phenolic compounds and carcinogens. More sacrolytic
balanceis needed to alleviate ulcerative colitis and bowel cancer.
Encapsulation: to more fully protect probiotics in the gastrointestinal tract,
lyophilized cultures have been encapsulated. This has often included materials such as
gelatin, shellac and amylose. However, encapsulation with a prebiotic may offer both
a protective capacity, as well as increased levels of growth substrate.
Synbiotics: the combination of probiotics and prebiotics, called synbiotics, may
offer the dual advantages of each as well as provide a selective substrate for the
livemicroorganisms in the gut. A good example would be a mixture of bifidobacteria
and FOS.Moreover, the use of reverse enzyme technology may allow the probiotics to
generate theirown substrate. Current research focuses on a mixture of prebiotics that
are of varying molecular weights.
Anti-adhesive properties: receptor sites for a variety of gut pathogens involve
oligosaccharide sequences. If these could be incorporated into existing prebiotics they
mayact as decoy molecules. That is, the pathogen would bind to the prebiotic at an
appropriatesite, instead of the gut wall. Thus, the first line of pathogenesis would be
compromised.
Attenuative properties: the oligomer cellobiose is able to repress virulence in

Listeria monocytogenes. When exposed to rotting vegetation, in a natural
environment, Listeria is not a pathogen. In foods, where there is no cellobiose, the
virulence is allowed to be expressed. This down regulatory process may be a further
facet to consider in prebiotic research.
Species-level changes: most existing prebiotics tend to act at the genus level.
However, finer control of microflora modulation may be directed towards distinct
species. For example, Bifidobacterium infantis is a more powerful inhibitor of gut
pathogens, such as E. coli H0157, than other bifidobacteria. Certain
galactooligosaccharides can confer species level changes in bifidobacteria.
Activity at low dosage and with no side-effects: the minimum active dosage varies
according to prebiotic type and excessive dosages may result in excessive gas
production. As this arises from non-specific metabolism, prebiotics targeted more
closely at bifidobacteria and lactobacilli would be highly desirable. In human trials,
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doses of up to 40 grams of FOS per day, has been reported with little or no adverse
side effects. Minimal operative dose of lactulose is about 10 grams per day, for FOS it
is 8 grams per day, and in vitro data indicate it may be as low as 4 grams per day. For
probiotics, there seems to be no upper dosage limit. Whenever human trials are done
on probiotics, the starting level of bifidobacteria may determine the impact of the
prebiotic on probiotic growth. At lower initial microbial levels, the increase in growth
may be more significant.
Altering dairy foods
Much of the research on functional foods is focused on probiotics and

prebiotics. However, other approaches to developing functional dairy foods might
include adding garlic, bovine colostrum, isoflavones, or a variety of other functional
ingredients. Another approach is to manipulate the fatty acid content of dairy foods to
produce a more favorable fatty acid profile. Altering the composition of feed to dairy
cattle has shown success. Animals fed canola seed oil, show increased MUFA
content, increased PUFA content, and reduced LDL and total cholesterol content.
In terms of public health, a modest increase in PUFA is warranted in the
population as a whole. There is still debate about optimal levels. One problem is that
people do not like the flavor of fish oils. Another problem is that these fats are
unstable when added to foods during processing. However, increasing the amounts in
animal feed could increase omega-3 PUFA in the food chain. Unfortunately, these
foods may be hydrogenated in the rumen and then become ineffective. Studies in the
UK suggest that using fish oils in dairy cattle feed could increase the content of PUFA
in milk. However, the content in enriched milk is extremely low.
There are questions about the efficacy of this measure as a potent means of
increasing supplies of these fatty acids in food. There is also the issue of sustainability
of sufficient fish oil production. There are alternative strategies for increasing omega3 PUFA. One strategy is to synthesize DHA and EPA from alpha-linolenic acid.
Another option is to feed canola oil to dairy cattle, and protect them from
hydrogenation in the rumen. This has been tested and produces milk and a cheese that
is pleasant and higher in alpha-linolenic acid content.
Designing human trials
Earlier functional foods were defined from a government and food industry
perspective. However, from a consumer perspective; they might be defined as
products that contain extra ingredients that manufacturers claim to give an extra
benefit. Claims are a vital part of functional foods, and human intervention studies or
clinical trials are considered as the ultimate scientific proof for health claims. Welldesigned studies will produce outcomes or biomarkers relevant for substantiating the
claim. They should not be misleading, and they should not be medical. The emphasis
should be on human volunteer studies, and not clinical trials. Studies should:
be based on scientific evidence;
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include studies on humans;

deal with products not ingredients;
contain reproducible data;
be relevant for target group; and
be consistent with nutrition guidelines.
In clinical trials, the gold standard is the double-blind, placebo-controlled,
parallel-designed trial. For human volunteer studies, the standard will have to be
modified in several ways. Everyone agrees that the tests should be randomized, as
to which group receives the active treatment and which group receives the placebo.
They should also be placebo-controlled, but with nutrition research, it is often hard
to determine an appropriate control. Also, with nutrition studies it is often difficult to
make a double-blind study; for example if an individual consumes 400 grams per
day of brussel sprouts, it is difficult to be blinded to this fact. A parallel design will
usually be the standard. In nutrition research, tests may be either a parallel design or a
cross-over design. In a parallel design, one group receives the A treatment, and the
other group receives the B treatment. In contrast, in a cross-over design, one group
receives the A treatment first, followed by a wash-out period, then the B treatment.
The other group receives the B treatment first, then a wash-out, and finally the A
treatment. A parallel design gives the opportunity for shorter-term experiments. The
advantage of cross-over tests is that they can compare more treatments; but the
disadvantage is that they take longer, which often limits the test to fewer treatments.
In designing human volunteer studies, it is important to look at safety, and
strict diet control. Confirmation of mechanisms must also be considered. A smaller
study often allows for stricter control. Researchers should assess voluntary intake
before the start of the trial. Compliance is often difficult with a recall diet. Efficacy is
often established in larger studies with mixed foods, in larger doses than would
normally be consumed. The research must then correlate this to normal dosages and
normal use. To keep up compliance in trials, researchers should check on what
volunteers eat, keep up motivation, include markers for compliance, and maintain a
good atmosphere. Each study requires careful consideration of the size and
characteristics of the study group. For example in a cholesterol test, it is best to
choose a slightly hyper-cholesteremic group. In a bone density test, good subject
choices would be post-menopausal women or adolescents.
In a test of probiotics, a healthy group might not show improved immune
function; while a group with lowered immunity might show a greater test effect. The
inclusion criteria for a sample population would be an individual with apparently
good health, stable, eating the standard diet, and with no history of drug use. Another
necessity in volunteer studies is to have good clinical practice. This includes
complying with ethical standards, designing tests that are scientifically sound and well
described, and having independent audits, and traceable data and results. Such tests
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would be a standard for regulatory authority, but there is a lot of work to comply with
these criteria.
In tests, functional foods will have an important role in maintaining
homeostasis. This may not be reflected in mean levels, repeated measurements may
be more informative, and alternative statistics may be required. In conclusion, when
testing functional foods, human trials are crucial. Careful consideration of trial design
and markers, and study population, will determine success. Some alternatives to
double-blind, placebo-controlled trials should be considered.
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VISCOELASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF FOODS
G. R. Patil
Joint Director (Academic)

National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal
Introduction
Most semi-solid and solid foods including cheese, paneer, sweetened

condensed milk, ice cream and indigenous dairy products are viscoelastic in nature.
The time dependency of stress-strain relationship results in a behaviour called
viscoelastic, which combines liquid-like and solid like characteristics i.e. these bodies
combine the properties of both viscous and elastic materials. The ratio of elastic to
viscous properties depends on the time scale of the deformation. At short time scales
its behaviour is mainly elastic: a test piece (almost) regains its original shape after the
stress applied to it is removed. At long time scales the behaviour is mainly viscous:
(most of) the deformation remains after the stress is removed.
Mechanical Models
Several models have been developed to describe the viscoelastic behaviour of

materials. There are two basic viscoelastic models viz. Kelvin and Maxwell. Other
complex viscoelastic behaviours are described by using combinations of these basic
models.
Kelvin model
The Kelvin model employs the spring (elastic component) and dashpot
(viscous component) in parallel. In this stress is the sum of two components of which
one is proportional to the strain and the other is proportional to the rate of shear.
Since the elements are in parallel they are forced to move together at constant rate.
When a constant load is applied to Kelvin model, initially a retarded deformation is
obtained followed by a final steady state deformation. When the load is removed the
Kelvin model recovers completely but not instantaneously. The model is expressed
mathematically as:
t
/ E (1 - e -t/Tret)
Where, t is strain at time t

retardation time.
is applied stress, E is elastic modulus and Tret is
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Maxwell model
The maxwell model employs a spring and dashpot in series. In this model the
deformation is composed of two parts, one purely viscous and the other purely elastic.
When a constant load is applied to Maxwell body, instantaneous elastic deformation
will take place followed by continuing viscous flow, which will continue indefinitely
as it is not limited by the spring component. When load is removed, the Maxwell
body recover instantly but not completely. The Maxwell body shows stress relaxation
but Kelvin body does not. The stress-strain-time relationship in Maxwell model can
be given as:
= o [ d e -t/ rel + e]
where, t is stress at time t, o is fixed strain,
rel is relaxation time and
e is equilibrium modulus.
t
is elastic decay modulus and
Burger model
This 4-element model is one of the best known rheological models which have
been used to predict the creep behaviour in a number of materials. The model is
composed of a spring and dashpot in series with another spring and dashpot in
parallel. When a burger's body is subjected to constant load, there is instantaneous
deformation ( o) is followed by retarded flow. When the load is removed there is
instantaneous recovery followed by incomplete and slow recovery. The stress-strain
time relationship can be given as:
t
/ Eo +
/ Er (1 - e -t/T ret) +
t/v
In terms of compliance function Jt which is reciprocal of Young's modulus (E) the

above equation can be given as:
Jt = Jo + Jr (1 - e -t/T ret) + t/v
Where, Jo is (1/Eo) initial compliance, Jr is is (1/Er) retarded compliance and
t/v is Newtonian compliance.
Generalised Maxwell model
A generalised Maxwell model is composed of n Maxwell elements with a

spring in parallel with nth element. The elastic modulus Ee of last spring corresponds
to the equilibrium modulus in the stress relaxation test. The stress-strain time
relationship is given by:
209
(Ed1 + e -t/
+ Ed2 e -t/
+................. Edn e -t/
+ Ee)
Where, T1, T2..............Tn are relaxation times.

Generalised Kelvin model
Experimental data on many viscoelastic materials including biological

materials have shown more than one relaxation time or retardation time. For these
materials, complete behaviour cannot be represented by a single Maxwell or single
Kelvin model or even 4 elements model. Each or these models have only one time
constant. To represent the viscoelastic behaviour more realistically a chain of Kelvin
models, each with its own time of retardation is assumed and the model is called a
generalized Kelvin model. It consists of "n" Kelvin elements connected in series with
an initial spring and final viscous element. The equation for generalised Kelvin model
is:
t
[1/E0 + 1/Er1 (1 - e -t/T1) + 1/Er2 (1 - e -t/T2) + 1/Ern (1 - e -t/Tn) + t/v]
Where, T1, T2..............Tn are relaxation times.

Plasto-viscoelastic or Bingham model
A more common type of body is the plasto-viscoelastic or Bingham body.

When the stress is applied which is below the yield stress the Bingham body reacts as
an elastic body. At stress values beyond the yield stress there are two components.
One is constant and is represented by the friction element and the other is
proportional to the shear rate and represents the viscous flow element. In a creep
experiment with stress not exceeding yield value, the creep curve would be similar to
the one for an elastic body. When the shear stress is greater than the yield stress, the
strain increases with time similar to the behaviour of a Maxwell body. Upon removal
of stress at time the strain decreases instantaneously and remains constant thereafter.
The decrease represents the elastic components and the plastic deformation is
permanent.
Viscoelastic Characterisation Of Materials
There are a number of tests that may be used to study viscoelastic materials
and determine the relation among stress-strain-time for a given type of deformation
and a given type of loading pattern. The most important tests include stress
relaxation, creep and dynamic tests.
Stress relaxation
In stress relaxation test the specimen is suddenly brought to a given
210
deformation (strain), and the stress required to hold the deformation constant is
measured as a function of time. The results are expressed in terms of time dependent
modulus Et in tension or compression, Gt in shear or Kt in bulk compression. The
rheological models representing stress relaxation are Maxwell model and generalised
Maxwell model. One of the most important viscoelastic parameters which can be
obtained from stress relaxation test is the relaxation time. It is the time at which the
stress in the body resembling a maxwell model decays to 1/e of initial stress. It is the
measure of the rate at which a material dissipates stress after receiving a sudden
force. There are a number of methods for treating experimental data on stress
relaxation and finding the relaxation time.
The method of successive residuals involves as the first step in analysis of
stress relaxation data plotting the logarithm of stress vs. time. If the plot were linear,
the behaviour of the material is Maxwellian and the time of relaxation can be
determined from the slope of the straight line. In most cases the plot of logarithm of
stress vs. time is non-linear; indicating that the rheological behaviour cannot be
represented by a single Maxwell element but an array of Maxwell elements connected
in parallel is required. This is the most commonly used method of calculating
relaxation times.
Creep measurement
In this test the stress is suddenly applied and held constant, and strain is
measured as a function of time. The results are expressed in terms of time-dependant
parameter, Et ( t/ o) or its compliance (1/Et) in tension or compression creep, in
terms of Gt or Jt in shear creep or in terms of Kt or Bt in bulk creep. For a viscoelastic
material the slope (d / dt = ) gives an apparent viscoelasticy. The deformation o is
a measure of the elastic part. The rheological model to represent the creep behaviour
is the Kelvin model and 4 elements Burger's model. Creep measurements are very
useful for studying stand up properties of foods.
Dynamic Measurements
Despite the simplicity of creep and stress relaxation experiments, there are
two disadvantage in these tests. The first disadvantage is that in order to obtain
complete information about viscoelastic behaviour of the material, it is necessary to
make measurements over many decades of time scales. This in addition to prolonging
the experiment may cause chemical and physiological changes in the specimen which
will affect the physical behaviour of the material. The second disadvantage is the
impossibility of having a truly instantaneous application of load or deformation at the
beginning of the experiment.
These disadvantages can be overcome by dynamic tests in which the specimen
in deformed by stress which varies sinusoidally with time. The time scale of the
211
measurement can be varied by changing the frequency ( ) of the oscillation.

Dynamic measurements are a powerful method for research on viscoelastic systems.
One can determine both the elastic and viscous components in the reaction of a
material on an applied stress or strain over a wide range of time scales.
In a dynamic experiment in which the shear strain is varying sinusoidally,
the latter is given by
(t) = o sin ( t)
where, o is the maximum shear strain. The strain is associated with a sinusoidally
varying shear stress () as follows:
(t) =
sin (
t+
where o is the maximum stress and is the phase angle between the deformation and
stress. This phase differnece originates from the viscous properties of the material.
For ideally elastic solid, is in phase with . For ideally viscous fluid is /2 radians
out of phase, then
equals /2. For a viscoelastic material like a milk gel has a
value between and /2.
Within the linear region o is by definition proportional to o. The elastic part
of the stress, which is the part of the stress in phase with strain, corresponds to the
storage modulus G, which is defined as:
G (
) ( o/ o) cos
It is the measure of the energy stored and subsequently related per cycle of
deformation. The viscous part of the stress which is part of the stress out of phase
with the strain, corresponds to the loss modulus G", which is defined as:
G" (
) ( o/ o) sin
It is the measure of the energy dissipated as heat per cycle of deformation.

The ratio of G" to G' is tan :
tan ( )= G" ( ) / G' (
A higher tan means that the material behaves in a relatively more viscous
and less elastic manner.
Conclusion
Viscoelasticity is a combined solid-like, liquid like behaviour of materials.

Most semi-solid and solid foods are viscoelastic in nature. Several rheological models
212
and test methods are now available to characterize the viscoelasticity of foods.
Viscoelastic characteristic of foods are of great importance to the manufacturers, the
trade and the consumers as these properties affect 'eating quality' usage properties
such as ease of cutting, spreading and melting characteristic and handling and
packaging characteristics.
References
De Man, J.M., Voisey, P.W., Rasper, V.F. and Stanley, D.W. (1976) Rheology and
Texture in Food Quality. The AVI Pub. Com., Westport, USA.
Mohsenin, N.N. (1970) Physical properties of Plant and Animal Material. Vo. I
Gordon and Breach Sci. Publ. N. Y.
Walstra, P. (1991) Rheological and fracture properties of cheese IDF Bull. N. 268.
213
FUNDAMENTALS OF RHEOLOGY
Dr. Dalbir Singh Sogi,

Reader & Head,
Dept. of Food Science & Technology,
Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar.
RHEOLOGY
Rheology refers to study of the way any matter responds to applied forces. It is
the science of flow and deformation. Eugene Bingham coined the term rheology in
1920 from Heraclitus's famous expression panta rei which mean everything flows".
It is important in food science due to its utility in food processing operations
and sensory characteristics. It gives information about the microstructure of a food.
Rheological properties are manifestation of the rate and nature of the deformation that
occurs when a material is stressed. These parameters can be used to predict how the
fluid will behave in a process and in determining the energy requirements for
transporting the fluid from one point to another in processing plant. Rheological
parameters are also useful in defining the quality attribute of food products.
SIGNIFICANCE OF RHEOLOGY
Rheology is very important in the following processes:

Mixing Two or more material are blended manually or mechanically.
Flow Control Flowablity of material varies from very thin to highly viscous.
Dispensing - Material comes out easily or with difficulty.
Settling / Floating Material with different specific gravity either settle or float
depending on viscosity of the material.
Pumping Liquids or semi-solids are forced through the pipe.
Coating Spresding of one matrial as thin layer over other.
Cleaning Soil removal from the surface of the equipments and pipeline.
BASIC CONCEPT
Viscosity is a measure of resistance to flow of a fluid arising from internal
friction. Viscosity is a principal parameter when any flow measurements of fluids,
214
such as liquids, semi-solids, gases and even solids are made. The internal friction
becomes apparent when a layer of fluid is made to move in relation to another layer.
The greater the friction, the greater the amount of force required to cause this
movement, which is called shear. Shearing occurs whenever the fluid is physically
moved or distributed, as in pouring, spreading, spraying, mixing, etc. Highly viscous
fluids, therefore, require more force to move than less viscous materials.
Viscosity Profile
Isaac Newton defined viscosity by considering two parallel planes of fluid of

equal area A are separated by a distance dx and are moving in the same direction at
different velocities V1 and V2. Newton assumed that the force required to maintain
this difference in speed was proportional to the difference in speed through the liquid,
or the velocity gradient. The velocity gradient, -dv/dx , is a measure of the change in
speed at which the intermediate layers move with respect to each other. It describes
the shearing the liquid experiences and is thus called shear rate. This will be
symbolized as S in subsequent discussions. Its unit of measure is called the reciprocal
second (sec-1). The term F/A indicates the force per unit arearequired to produce the
shearing action. It is referred to as shear stress and will be symbolized by T. Its unit
of measurement is dynes per square centimeter (dynes/cm2). Using these simplified
terms, viscosity may be defined mathematically by this formula
T = (-dV/dx)
(Eq 1)
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
The fundamental unit of viscosity measurement is the poise. A material requiring

a shear stress of one dyne per square centimeter to produce a shear rate of one
reciprocal second has a viscosity of one poise. Conversion into other unis is as follows
1 poise = 100 centipoise = 0.1 Pascal-second
1 centipoise = 1 milli-Pascal-second = 0.1 g / cm.s = 3.60 kg/m.h = 6.72*E-4 lb /
ft.s
TYPES OF FLUIDS
The fluids can be classified into following categories depending on the

response to the aplied shear force.
215
Newtonian Fluids
Fluid which exihibit a linear increase in the shear stress with the rate of shear
(Eq 1) are called Newtonian fluids. Newtonian fluids are those which exihibit a linear
relationship between the shear stress and the rate of shear. The slope is constant
therefore, the viscosity of a Newtonian fluid is independent of the rate of shear. The
term viscosity is appropriate for use only with Newtonian fluids.
Non-Newtonian Fluids
A non-Newtonian fluid is broadly defined as one for which the relationship

between shear stress and shear rate is not a constant. When the shear rate is varied, the
shear stress doesn't vary in the same proportion. These fluids exhibit either shear
thinning or shear thickening behaviour and some exhibit a yield stress. The two most
commonly used equations for characterizing non-Newtonian fluids are the power law
model (Eq 2) and the Herschel-Bulkley model for fluids (Eq 3):
T = K ()n
.. ..(Eq 2)
T = To + K ()n
(Eq 3)
where T: shear stress; K: consistency index; : shear rate; n: flow behaviour
index; To : yield stress
Power Law model can fit the shear stress-shear rate relationships of a wide
variety of foods. Thus, the experimental parameters of Viscometer model, spindle and
speed all have an effect on the measured viscosity of a non-Newtonian fluid. This
measured viscosity is called the apparent viscosity of the fluid and is accurate only
when explicit experimental parameters are furnished and adhered to. The apparent
viscosity app has the same units as viscosity, but the value varies with the rate of
shear.
app = K ()n
.(Eq 4)
There are several types of non-Newtonian flow behavior, characterized by the

way a fluid's viscosity changes in response to variations in shear rate. The most
common types of non-Newtonian fluids are:
216
Psuedoplastic
This type of fluid will display a decreasing viscosity with an increasing shear
rate. Probably the most common of the non-Newtonian fluids, pseudo-plastics include
emulsions and dispersions of many types. This type of flow behavior is sometimes
called shear-thinning.
Dilatant
Increasing viscosity with an increase in shear rate characterizes the dilatant fluid.
Although rarer than pseudoplasticity, dilatancy is frequently observed in fluids containing
high levels of deflocculated solids, such as candy compounds, corn starch in water etc.
Dilatancy is also referred to as shear-thickening flow behavior.
Plastic
This type of fluid will behave as a solid under static conditions. A certain
amount of force must be applied to the fluid before any flow is induced; this force is
called the yield value. Tomato ketchup is a good example of this type fluid, its yield
value will often make it refuse to pour from the bottle until the bottle is shaken or
struck, allowing the catsup to gush freely. Once the yield value is exceeded and flow
begins, plastic fluids may display Newtonian, pseudoplastic, or dilatant flow
characteristics.
217
Thixotropy and Rheopexy
Some fluids will display a change in viscosity with time under conditions of
constant shear rate. There are two categories to consider:
Thixotropy
A thixotropic fluid undergoes a decrease in viscosity with time, while it

is subjected to constant shearing.
Rheopexy
This is essentially the opposite of thixotropic behavior, in that the fluid's

viscosity increases with time as it is sheared at a constant rate. Both thixotropy and
rheopexy may occur in combination with any of the previously discussed flow
behaviors, or only at certain shear rates. The time element is extremely variable under
conditions of constant shear, some fluids will reach their final viscosity value in a few
seconds, while others may take up to several days. Rheopectic fluids are rarely
encountered.
218
Thixotropy, however, is frequently observed in materials such as greases, heavy

printing inks, and paints. When subjected to varying rates of shear, a thixotropic fluid
will react. A plot of shear stress versus shear rate was made as the shear rate was
increased to a certain value, then immediately decreased to the starting point. Note that
the up and down curves do not coincide. This hysteresis loop is caused by the decrease
in the fluid's viscosity with increasing time of shearing. Such effects may or may not be
reversible; some thixotropic fluids, if allowed to stand undisturbed for a while, will
regain their initial viscosity, while others never will.
Dynamic Rheology [Oscillatory test]
The behaviour of fluids mentioned so far is based on static force, however in

dynamic rheology force is applied on the material in oscillatory fashion. Dynamic
rheological tests are used to evaluate properties of gel systems.
219
The storage modulus, G, and the loss modulus G, and tan = (G/G), the loss
factor, can be obtained. G value is a measure of the deformation energy stored in the
sample during the shear process, representing the elastic behavior of a sample. In
contrary, G value is a measure of the deformation energy used up in the sample
during the shear and lost to the sample afterwards, representing the viscous behavior
of a sample. If G is much greater than G, the material will behave more like a solid;
that is, the deformations will be essentially elastic o recoverable. However, if G is
much greater than G, the energy used to deform the material is dissipated viscously
and the materials behavior is liquid-like. On the other hand, the lost factor (or
damping factor) reveals the ratio of the viscous to the elastic portion of the
deformation behavior. A phase angle = 0 or tan = 0 corresponds to an elastic
response and = 90_or tan = 1 is a viscous response. If the phase angle is within the
limits of 0 < < 90, the material is called viscoelastic. Three types of dynamic tests
can be conducted to obtain useful properties of gels, gelation, and melting: (1)
frequency sweep studies in which G and G are determined as a function of
frequency (x) at fixed temperatures, (2) temperature sweep in which G and G are
determined as a function of temperature at fixed x, and (3) time sweep in which G
and G are determined as a function of time at fixed x and temperature
Stress Relaxation Test
In the stress relaxation test, an instantaneous deformation is applied to a body.

This can be done while in compression, extension, or shear. A level of strain is picked
to maximize sensitivity and minimize sample damage. Deformation or strain is
maintained
constant throughout the test while the stress is monitored as a function of time. For
viscoelastic materials, this stress will decay to an asymptotic value.
220
SWITCHING SWEETENERS A SWEET APPROACH
Sumit Arora
Senior Scientist
Dairy Chemistry Division, N.D.R.I., Karnal
Sugar is an important ingredient in the preparation of enumerable dairy

products. It is consumed not only for its sweetness but it has many functional
properties in foods that make it useful as a bulking agent, texture modifier and
preservative. Sugars used in Indian sweets have many functions including bulking
agent, preservative, texturizer, humectant, dispersing agent, stabilizer, fermentation
substrate, flavor carrier, browning agent and decorative agent. However, the high
content of sugar at times makes it an undesirable item of consumption from the health
point of view, especially for diabetic and obese individuals. With increased consumer
interest in reducing sugar intake, food products made with sweeteners rather than
sugar have become more popular. The quality of these products depends on their body
and texture, because the amount of solids is rather low. Thus, the use of stabilizers to
improve texture and reduce whey separation is a common practice. When sugar is
removed from food, it has to be replaced by alternative substances which maintain the
sweet taste of the product and which may, among other functions, act as a bulking
agent, such as polyols.
Name of artificial
sweetener
Article of food
Maximum limit of
artificial sweetener
(ppm)
Saccharin Sodium Sweets (carbohydrates based and milk
500 ppm
Aspartame (methyl products based):-Halwa, Mysore Pak,

ester)
Boondi ladoo, Jalebi, Khoya burfi,
200 ppm
Acesulfame
potassium
Sucralose
Peda, Gulab Jamun, Rasogolla and

similar product based sweets sold by
any name.
500 ppm
750 ppm
Table 1: PFA limits of artificial sweeteners in dairy based sweets
221
Comparative properties of approved intense sweeteners
Property
Aspartame
Acesulfame-K
Saccharin
Sucralose
Chemical
nature/Structure
Methyl ester of
a dipeptide
Derivative of
oxathiazin
Derivative of
isothiazol
Chlorinated
dissacharide
Composition
Acesulfame
potassium The
amino acids
aspartic 1,2benzisothiazolTriclorogalactosucrose
(6-methyl-1,2,3acid and
phenylalanine
3(2H)-one-1,1dioxide (1,6dichloro-1,6dideoxyoxathiazin
-
4-one- (N-L-_aspartyl-L- _-Dfructosuranosyl-
2,2-dioxide)
phenylalanine
1-methyl ester)
4-chloro-4deoxy-_-
Relative sweetness
(w.r.t. sucrose)
200 -300
200
400 - 500
600 - 800
After taste
No
Little bitter
Bitter, metal
like
No
Calorific value
4 kcal/g
Calorie free
Calorie free
Calorie free
Stability
Stable to low
acidic conditions
(pH 3-6), heat
unstable
Stable to heat,
acid and alkali
Stable to heat,
acid and alkali
Stable to heat,
acid, alkali and
light
Sparingly
soluble in water
and slightly
soluble in
ethanol (10 gm/l
at 20C)
Freely soluble in
water, very
slightly soluble in
ethanol
(270 gm/l at
20C)
Slightly soluble
in water,
sparingly
soluble in
alcohol
(2 gm/l acid
saccharin, 100
gm/l Na
saccharin)
Freely soluble
in water,
methanol and
alcohol, slightly
soluble in ethyl
acetate
(283 g/l)
4.5 6.0
6.5 7.5
7.0 8.5
5.0 6.0
246
200
(decomposes
before reaching
this temp.)
228.8 229.7
(acid saccharin),
> 300
(Na saccharin)
50
15
Solubility
pH for max.
stability
Melting point (C)
125
Acceptable Daily
Intake (ADI)
(mg/kg body
wt/day)
222
Metabolism/
Excretion
Not metabolized
excreted by the
kidneys
unchanged;
Upon digestion,
breaks down to
aspartic acid,
phenylalanine and
small amount of
methanol all of
which are
metabolized
normally
Not
metabolized;
excreted by the
kidneys
unchanged
Not
metabolized
excreted in the
feces and urine
High-intensity low-calorie sweeteners provide consumers with many benefits,

both psychological and physiological. Health professionals and consumers believe
that low-calorie sweeteners are effective in weight maintenance, weight reduction,
management of diabetes, reduction of dental cavities and reduction in the risks
associated with obesity. According to a notification issued by the Ministry of Health
and Family Welfare, Government of India (PFA 2004), the use of low-calorie
sweeteners saccharin, acesulfame-K, aspartame and sucralose has been allowed in
sweets like halwa, khoya burfi, rasgolla, gulabjamun.
Low-calorie sweeteners offer a means to enjoy good-tasting foods and

beverages without as many calories. The ideal low-calorie sweetener also should be
colorless, odorless, and have no aftertaste and sweetness should be experienced
immediately and should taste as sweet as sugar but have fewer calories. These
sweeteners should not cause cancer and should be inexpensive to produce.
Availability of a variety of low-calorie sweeteners for use in foods expands the
capability to develop reduced-calorie products that better meet consumer needs and
desires. Blends of some low-calorie sweeteners in foods and beverages may also act
synergistically to produce the desired level of sweetness with smaller amounts of each
sweetener. The resulting taste often better meets consumer expectations of a
sweetness profile close to that of sugar. The products may also have longer sweetness
shelf lives.
The change in the food law opens up a vast untapped market of sugar-free
food products including dairy products. With several sweeteners available, food
manufacturers can use sweeteners in the applications for which they are best suited,
and limitations of individual sweeteners can be overcome by using them in blends.
Most sweeteners, including the polyols, are synergistic, so the sweetness of sweetener
blends is greater than that produced by individual sweeteners. In the field of sugar
replacement, the use of high potency artificial sweeteners to develop low calorie
foods has been a success. However, extensive evaluation would still be essential to
ensure the safety of these sweeteners when consumed in formulated dairy products.
223
Applications of sweeteners:
Acesulfame potassium
Acesulfame K is marketed under the brand name Sunett, etc in food

products and Sweet One or Swiss Sweet and as a tabletop sweetener. Acesulfame K is
currently used in thousands of foods, beverages, oral hygiene and pharmaceutical
products. Among these are tabletop sweeteners, chewing gums, baked goods, sauces,
alcoholic beverages, canned foods, and candies. It also is used in dry beverage mixes,
instant coffees, teas, gelatin, puddings, and nondairy creamer. Application has been
made for its use in carbonated and noncarbonated beverages, baked goods, and soft
candy, hard candy (including breath mints, cough drops and lozenges) and alcoholic
beverages. Acesulfame K finds wide applications in dairy products namely ice
creams, cheese, chocolate preparations, frozen desserts, flavoured milk, indigenous
dairy products e.g. burfi, kalakand etc.
Aspartame
Aspartame is marketed under the brand names Nutrasweet, Equal,

Spoonful, and Equal-Measure. It is used in food products and also as a tabletop
sweetener. In addition to being used as a tabletop sweetener, aspartame is used in cold
cereals, chewing gum, dry beverage mixes, carbonated and tea beverages, frozen stick
novelties, dry beverage mixes, breakfast cereals, chewing gum, gelatins, puddings and
fillings, dry mixes for dessert toppings, carbonated and noncarbonated beverages,
carbonated beverage syrups, juices, refrigerated and non-refrigerated ready-to-drink
beverages, frozen stick-type confections and novelties, breath mints, yogurt-type
products, frozen desserts, confections, fruit spreads, toppings and syrups, frozen
nondairy frostings and toppings, fruit wine beverages, hard and soft candies, cough
drops, malt beverages, some pharmaceuticals such as chewable multi-vitamins and
sugar-free cough drops, jams, jellies, and breakfast cereals. It also is used in selected
prescription drugs and as a flavor enhancer, especially with fruits. Aspartame has
been successfully used in a variety of dairy products namely diabetic and dietetic ice
cream, desserts, yoghurt, ready to eat cheesecakes, frozen dairy frostings and
toppings, flavoured and chocolate milk, skim milk, whey beverages and indigenous
sweets e.g. burfi, kalakand, rasogolla and kulfi.
Saccharin
Saccharin is marketed under the brand name Syncal SDS etc. Saccharin has
been available for more than 100 years and is the foundation for many low-calorie and
sugar-free products around the world. It is stable under the normal range of conditions
employed in food formulations. Most commonly used as a tabletop sweetener and in
beverages. Saccharin is also used in cosmetics, vitamins, and drugs. It is used in
tabletop sweeteners, carbonated and noncarbonated beverages, juice, chewing gum,
224
confections, desserts, puddings, jams and jellies. It also finds application in dairy
products viz. fermented milks, unripened cheese, desserts, yoghurts, flavoured milk,
burfi and kalakand.
Sucralose
Sucralose is marketed under the brand names Splenda by Tate and Lyle who
holds exclusive patent rights for this sweetener. The greatest advantage of sucralose
for food and beverage manufacturers and consumers is its exceptional stability. It
retains its sweetness over a wide range of temperature and storage conditions and in
solutions over time. Because of its stability, food manufacturers can use sucralose to
create a number of great-tasting new foods and beverages in categories such as
tabletop sweeteners, baked goods, carbonated beverages, processed fruit products
such as juices, jams, pie fillings, chewing gum, canned fruit, low-calorie fruit drinks,
baked goods, sauces and syrups. Sucralose also can be used as a sweetener in
nutritional supplements, medical foods, and vitamin/mineral supplements. This
general purpose sweetener also finds application in dairy products and dairy foods
such as flavoured milk, plain and fruit yoghurt and desserts etc. Sucralose has also
been successfully used in the preparation of indigenous sweets namely burfi and
kalakand.
Sweetener blends:
The synergistic combination of sweeteners, known as multiple sweetener

approach, has been found to increase low-calorie product choices for the consumer,
performance of certain low-calorie sweeteners in certain products than in others,
reduce costs and improve product taste and stability. The special features of sweetener
blends are: (i) improves the quality of sweet taste, (ii) masks the shortcoming of the
individual sweetener, (iii) taste profile similar to sugar, (iv) adds versatility to
products, (v) lengthens sweetness shelf-life and (vi) cost effective. Blends commonly
being used are acesulfame-K/sucralose, aspartame/acesulfame-K, aspartame/saccharin
and acesulfame-K/ aspartame/ saccharin. Major manufacturers are using a variety of
sweetener blends in many market-leading products. Several product categories in the
world have also been successfully using sweeteners blends in dry mixes, desserts,
carbonated and non-carbonated beverages, chewing gums, confectionaries and table
top sweeteners.
Sweetener blends also find wide applications in dairy products. Blends of
aspartame, acesulfame-K and saccharin have been used in ice cream. Low fat sugar
free ice cream using artificial sweeteners (aspartame, acesulfame-K, saccharin and
sucralose) singly and in combination has been developed. Blend of aspartame with
acesulfame-K finds wide applications in the sweetening of whey based fruit beverages
and indigenous dairy products namely lassi.
225
Role of Low-Calorie Sweeteners in a Healthful Diet
The growing availability of affordable and palatable dairy products in

combination with an increasingly sedentary lifestyle underscores the important role
that low-calorie sweeteners can play in achieving a healthful diet. Because they do not
affect insulin levels, intense sweeteners also play an important role in the diets of
people with diabetes. The use of low-calorie sweeteners results in a wide range of
dairy products that can aid individuals in managing their caloric and carbohydrate
intakes. Intense sweeteners can play a useful role in helping people achieve or
maintain a healthy weight by providing good-tasting alternatives to foods and
beverages including dairy products that are typically higher in calories. Low-calorie
sweeteners offer the best method to date of reducing calories while maintaining the
palatability of the diet. However, because they provide the pleasure of sweetness
without adding calories or carbohydrates, low-calorie sweeteners can facilitate
compliance with restricted eating plans. Hence, the sweet choices for Indian dairy
industry are great.
226

CONCEPT
OF COLOUR MEASUREMENT AND SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES FOR QUALITY EVALUATION OF FOOD
S. N. Jha
Senior Scientist (AS & PE)
AS & EC Division, CIPHET, Ludhiana
The analysis of colour is frequently an important consideration when

determining the efficacy of variety of postharvest treatments. Consumers can easily be
influenced by preconceived ideas of how a particular fruit or vegetable should appear,
and marketers often attempt to improve upon what nature has painted. Recently
colour measurements have also been used as quality parameters and indicator of some
inner constituents of the material. In spite of the significance of colour in food
industries, many researchers continue to analyze it inappropriately. This lecture thus
tries to remove unnecessary confusions and through lights on various aspects of
colour measurements, its basic units and spectra acquisition for extracting various
hidden information through analysis.
Light and Color
Among the properties widely used for analytical evaluation of materials, color
is unique in several aspects. While every material can be said to possess a specific
property such as mass, no material is actually colored as such. Color is primarily an
appearance property attributed to the spectral distribution of light and, in a way, is
related to some source of radiant energy (the illuminant), to the object to which the
color is ascribed, and to the eye of the observer. Without light or the illuminant, color
does not exist. Therefore, several factors that influence the radiation subsequently
affect the exact color that an individual perceives:
Spectral energy distribution of light
Conditions under which the color is viewed
Spectral characteristics of the object with respect to absorption, reflection, and

transmission
Sensitivity of the eye
Thus, in reality, color is in the eye of the observer, rather than in the colored"
object. The property of an object that gives it a characteristic color is its lightabsorptive capacity.
227
Color Specification
There are three characteristics of light by which a color may be specified: hue,
saturation, and brightness. Hue is an attribute associated with the dominant wavelength in a mixture of light waves, i.e., it represents the dominant color as perceived
by an observer. Saturation refers to relative purity or the amount of white light mixed
with a hue. Brightness is a subjective term, which embodies the chromatic notion of
intensity. Hue and saturation taken together are called chromaticity. Therefore, a color
may be characterized by brightness and chromaticity.
CIE system
The Commission de Internationale de lEc1airage (CIE) defined a system of

describing the color of an object based on three primary stimuli: red (700 nm), green
(546.1 nm), and blue (435.8 nm). Because of the structure of the human eye, all colors
appear as different combinations of these. The amounts of red, green, and blue needed
to form any given color are called the' 'tristimulus" values, X, Y, and Z, respectively.
Using the X, Y, and Z values, a color is represented by a set of chromaticity
coordinates or trichromatic coefficients, x, y, and z, as defined below:
x=
X
X+Y+Z
y=
Y
X+Y+Z
z=
Z
X+Y+Z
It is obvious from the equations above that x + y + z = 1. The tristimulus values

for any wavelength can be obtained from either standard tables or figures. A plot that
represents all colors in x (red)-y (green) coordinates is known as a chromaticity
diagram. For a given set of x and y, z is calculated from the above equations.
Therefore, colors are generally specified in terms of Y, x, and y.
There are a number of color metrics based on the CIE system. They include CIE
Lightness, CIELUV, CIELAB, etc. In the food industry, the CIELAB system has been
popular. For example, objective measurements of color using the CIELAB color
parameters such as L* (lightness), a* (redness), and hue angle have been used to
evaluate pork quality on-line in an industrial context (5,6).
Other color models, such as the RGB, CMY, and HSI, etc., are very similar to
the CIE system, and numerical representation of a color in one system can be
converted into another.
Munsell system and atlas
The Munsell color-order system is a way of precisely specifying colors and

228
showing the relationships among colors. Every color has three qualities or attributes:
hue, value, and chroma. A set of numerical scales with visually uniform steps for each
of these attributes has been established. The Munsell Book of Color displays a
collection of colored chips arranged according to these scales. Each chip is identified
numerically using these scales. The color of any surface can be identified by
comparing it to the chips under proper illumination and viewing conditions. The color
is then identified by its hue, value, and chroma. These attributes are given the symbols
H, V, and C and are written in a form H V/C, which is called the Munsell notations.
Using Munsell notations, each color has a logical relationship to all other colors. This
opens up endless creative possibilities in color choices, as well as the ability to
communicate those color choices precisely. The Munsell system is the color order
system most widely quoted in food industry literature. Food products for which the
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) recommends matching Munsell discs to be
used include dairy products such as milk and cheese, egg yolks, beef, several fruits,
vegetables, and fruit juices.
Fig.1.Chromaticitydiagramshowingtheripeness
locusofoilpalmandalsothelocationof
whiteinilluminantc
Other color atlases and charts are available for use in the food industry, such
as the Natural Color System and Atlas, Royal Horticultural Society Charts, etc. These
atlases and charts are used for visual comparison of a product color with that of a
standard color diagram, which is still commonly practiced in the food industry. The
evaluation of potato chip color is a very good example.
229
Machine Reading of Color
A digital color is usually represented by red, green and blue (RGB) tristimullus
values. This approximation is a consequence of the fact that human perception of
color is mediated by the response of three different types of photoreceptors in the
retina called cones (Wright 1964). A color standard like the CIE (Commission
Internationale de1 Eclairage) 1931 standard as mentioned above defines color based
on its psycho-physical properties (Wyszecki and Stiles 1967). A useful feature of this
system is that it enables the tristimullus values be transformed into lower dimension
quantities. In this case they are the chromaticity coefficients expressed in terms of x
and y values. An object's color can be assessed by simply plotting x and y in
rectangular coordinates, producing a chromaticity diagram (Fig. 1).
To facilitate discussion, the locus is superimposed, with the reference

horseshoe curve obtained from a standard monochromatic light. It can be seen from
this figure that the chromaticity of unripe fruits falls near the center of the CIE
diagram. The position marked "C" in this diagram represents color which is
biochromatically achromatic or hueless., Oil palm actually appears reddish black
when unripe and this agrees well with colorimeter since this equipment treats both
pure white and black as hueless. As the fruit starts to ripen; the locus moves from the
hueless zone to the reddish red zone and ends at a point bordering the reddish orange
zone. It can be seen from this diagram that the difference in chromaticity between
unripe and underripe is relatively small compared to the difference in chromaticity
between optimally ripe and overripe, indicating that there is a small degree of change
in color at the early stage of ripening. The distance between unripe and overripe is
0.202 compared to slightly over 0.03 between unripe and underripe. Hence,
distinguishing unripe from underripe samples or vice versa may be difficult
chromatically.
Even though the chromaticity diagrams are useful in specifying color, they do not
accurately represent color closest to that of human perception. For proper
quantification of tristimulus and efficient colour processing, this variable is usually
230
Yellow
90o
50
Bluish
green
Redpurple
2
180o
0o 360o
50
Blue
270o
Fig.2Representationofpeelhueaffectedbyheattreatmentsof
grapefruits.CIELABa*andb*valuesareplottedonhorizontaland
verticalaxesrespectively
represented on cylindrical coordinates of L* a* and b* or simply the CIELab, a

uniform colour space, values. These values later can be transformed to through simple
trigonometric functions (Hunter, 1942) comprising psychometric lightness (L*), hue
(ho) and chroma (C*) (Eqns 1 3). A colour wheel subtends 360o, with red-purple
traditionally placed at the far right (or at an angle of 0o), yellow, bluish-green, and
blue follow counterclockwise at 90o, 180o, 270o, respectively (Fig. 2).
L* = L *
( a)
h 0 = tan 1 b
C* =
(a *
+ b *2
Arctangent, however, assumes positive values in the first and third and negative
values in the second and fourth quadrants. For a useful interpretation, ho should
remain positive between 0o to 360o of the colour shed.
231
Fig.3.Colorimetricplotofoilpalmshowingthechangein
hue and chroma during ripening
Figure 3 shows the variation of CIELab values calculated from the oil palm
image. It can be seen that both hue and chroma increase in curvilinear fashion with
ripeness. The small hue and chroma values for unripe class (approximately 7.6 and
2.62, respectively) pushed the psychromatic point nearer to the origin or the
achromatic zone of color. These values increased to approximately 48 in hue and
72.1 in chroma for overripe case. This location is equivalent to reddish orange color
on CIELab space. Hence, the hue-moves further away from the origin and in the
upward direction as the oil palm ripens. These observations are consistent with human
vision and match strongly with the trend of the ripeness locus shown in Fig. 1. Thus
hue provides a much better discrimination compared to either RGB or CIExy values
when specifying colors of food materials. Because of this reason usually hue is chosen
for colour inspection by machine.
Unlike colorimeter, the calculation of hue using machine vision system is
mathematically involved since it requires color conversion from RGB to HSl (Hue,
Saturation and Intensity) space. One way of achieving this is by firstly I establishing a
new coordinate system, YIQ. The relationship between the two coordinate systems is:
Y 0.30 0.59 0.11 R

I = 0.60 - 0.28 - 0.32 G

Q 0.21 - 00.52 0.31 B
- (4)
232
Secondly, h is the rotational angle around the Q, I plane and therefore can be written
as:
I
ho = tan1
Q
(5)
Equations (4) and (5) are theoretically valid and they can be found in almost any
textbook on color and image processing. For practical reasons, h was calculated
according to the Munsell's color system, which is given by:
0.5[(R G ) + (R B)] 255

h o = 360 o cos 1
2
360
(R G) + (R B)(G B)
if B G
(6)
or
0.5[(R G ) + (R B)] 255

h o = cos 1
2
360
(R G) + (R B)(G B)
if B < G
(7)
The above equation transforms RGB information from three-dimensional space to

one-dimensional h space. In order to speed-up analysis only h values may be
processed. The hue values shown in this figure are normalized to 255 for the 8-bit
machine vision system. A different approach is needed to solve this type of problem.
The method investigated for this application was to treat hue distributions as features
and apply multivariate discriminant technique to establish classification.
Example of transformation of CIE/Hunter L a b values to chroma (c) and hue
(ho)
Assume a practical data given in Table 1 for analysis of grapefruit colour after three
heat treatments for quarantine control
Treatment
Colour characteristics
L
ho
76.6
-2.0
56.0
56.0
92.0
74.4
2.0
56.0
56.0
88.0
63.0
1.2
34.0
34.0
88
233
Following subprogram was used to compute the ho and C for above data
Data colour
READ (*,*) L, a, b
C=SQRT((a*b)+(b*b))
THETA=(ATAN(b/a)/6.2832)*360
IF a>0 AND b>=0 THEN h = THETA
IF a<0 AND b>= THEN h=180+THETA
IF a<0 AND b<0 THEN h=180+THETA
IF a>0 AND b<0 THEN h=360+THETA
WRITE (*,*) a, b, THETA, h
STOP
END
After converting L, a, and b values to hue and chroma as shown in Table 1 can
be correlated to any desirable attributes of food. But sometimes these values may give
poor correlation with internal attributes such as total soluble solids, dry matter content
etc. In order to search for better correlation one should investigate whole range of
spectral data of available wavelengths.
Spectra of Light
Spectra are curves drawn as a continuous function of relative reflectance or

absorbance data with respect to wavelengths. Since light is the basic stimulus of
colors, it is important to consider the electromagnetic spectrum (Fig. 4). Several
optical methods have been developed based on radiation from different regions of this
spectrum.
Radiation is one of the basic physical processes by which energy is transferred from
one place to another. Propagation of radiation through free space is the same for the
entire electromagnetic spectrum, i.e., radiation of all wavelengths-from the shortest
gamma rays to the longest radio waves-travels with the same speed in vacuum.
234
Visible light forms only a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum, with a spectral
range from approximately 390 nm (violet) to 750 nm (red). The sensitivity of the eye
varies even within this narrow visible range. Under conditions of moderate-to-strong
illumination, the eye is most sensitive to yellow-green light of about 550 nm.
Fig. 4. Classification of electromagnetic spectrum of light
If the spectral distribution throughout the visible region is unequal, then the
sensation of color is evoked by radiant energy reaching the eye's retina. An equal
spectral distribution makes the light appear as white. The unequal distribution
responsible for color sensation may be characteristic of the source itself; such as
flame spectra composed of one or more monochromatic wavelengths, or may result
from selective absorption by the system, which appears colored. The latter includes
several systems that show selective absorption for light and exhibit color as a result of
reflection or transmission of unabsorbed incident radiant energy (Fig. 5). The three
basic factors required in color sensation include the radiator or illuminant, the object,
and the observer. The radiant energy emitted by the radiator is characterized by its
spectral quality, angular distribution, and intensity.
The following material properties and lighting of the scene as affecting the total
appearance of the object:
Material properties:
Optical properties (spectral, reflectance, transmission)

Physical form (shape, size, surface texture)
Temporal aspects (movement, gesture, rhythm)
Lighting of the scene:
Illumination type (primary, secondary, tertiary)
235
Spectral and intensity properties; directions and distributions

Color-rendering properties
Fig. 5 Schematic representation of interaction of light with matter, 1= angle of incidence, R = angle of reflectance, T = angle of transmittance, n1 n2 = refractive index
of medium 1 and 2, respectively.
Interaction of Light with Matter
Physical Laws
When light falls on an object, it may be reflected, transmitted, or absorbed

(Fig. 5.) Reflected light is the part of the incident energy that is bounced off the object
surface, transmitted light passes through the object, and absorbed light constitutes the
part of the incident radiant energy absorbed within the material. The degree to which
these phenomena take place depends on the nature of the material and on the
particular wavelength of the electromagnetic spectrum being used. Commonly, optical
properties of a material can be defined by the relative magnitudes of reflected,
transmitted, and absorbed energy at each wavelength. Conservation of energy requires
that sum of the reflected (IR), transmitted (IT), and absorbed (IA) radiation equals the
total incident radiation (I). Thus,
I = IR + IT + IA
(8)
236
According to its transmittance properties, an object may be transparent,

opaque, or translucent. Almost all food and biological products may be considered to
be opaque, although most transmit light to some extent at certain wavelengths. The
direction of a transmitted ray after meeting a plane interface between any two
nonabsorbing media can be predicted based on Snells law:
n 2 sin T - n 1 sin
(9)
The attenuation of the transmitted ray in a homogeneous, nondiffusing,
absorbing medium is defined by Beer-Lamberts law:
log (I T /I) = abc
(10)
The ratio IT/I is known as the transmittance T and is related to absorbance A

as:
A = log(I/T)
(11)
From Eqs. (10) and (11), absorbance A can also be written as:
A = abc
(12)
where a is called the absorptivity. [if c is expressed in mol/L and b in cm, a is replaced
by the molar absorptivity, (L/mol.cm).]
Various constituents of food products can absorb a certain amount of this
radiation. Absorption varies with the constituents, wavelength, and path length of the
light. Reflection is a complex action involving several physical phenomena.
Depending on how light is reflected back after striking an object, reflection may be
defined as regular or specular reflection and diffused reflection (Fig. 5.). Reflection
from a smooth, polished surface is called specular or regular. It mainly produces
the gloss or shine of the material. The basic law of specular reflection states that the
angle at which a ray is incident to a surface must equal the angle at which it is
reflected off the surface. Fresnel equations define the phenomenon of specular
reflection. The intensity of parallel Rpl and perpendicular Rpr components of the
reflected light are:
(n 2 /n 1 ) 2 cos 1 [(n 2 /n 1 ) 2 sin 2 1 ]1/2
R pl =
2
2
2
1/2
(n 2 /n 1 ) cos 1 + [(n 2 /n 1 ) sin 1 ]
R pr
cos 1 [(n 2 /n 1 ) 2 sin 2 1 ]1/2

=
2
2
1/2
cos 1 + [(n 2 /n 1 ) sin 1 ]
(13)
(14)
237
The regular reflectance R = Rpl2 + Rpr2 and for normal incidence ( = 0o), Rpl = Rpr,
and hence.
n n1
R= 2
n 2 + n1
(15)
where n1 and n2 are reflective index of the medium and object, respectively : and 1 is
the incident angle (Fig. 5.). If the material is absorbing, the reflective index is a
complex number n (1-ik), where n is the real part of the complex number and k is an
absorption constant, and the regular reflectance is written as:
(n 2 n 1 ) 2 + (n 2 k) 2
R=
2
2
(n 2 + n 1 ) + (n 2 k)
(16)
When the incident light is reflected from a surface evenly at all angles, the
object appears to have a flat or dull finish termed diffuse reflection No rigorous
theory has been developed for diffuse reflectance, but several phenomenological
theories have been proposed, the most popular being the Kubelka-Munk theory. The
Kubelka-Munk model relates sample concentration to the way Beer-Lamberts law
relates band intensities to concentration to the intensity of the measured spectrum in a
manner analogous to the way Beer-Lamberts law relates band intensities to
concentration for transmission measurements. The Kubelka-Munk function f(R ) is
generally expressed as:
f ( R ) =
(1 R ) 2 k
=
2 R
s
(17)
where R = absolute reflectance of an infinitely thick layer, k = absorption

coefficient, and
s = scattering coefficient.
Kubelka-Munk theory predicts a linear relationship between spectral data and

sample concentration under conditions of constant scattering coefficient and infinite
sample dilution in a nonabsorbing matrix such as KBr (potassium bromide). Hence,
238
the relationship can only be applied to highly diluted samples in a nonabsorbing

matrix. In addition, the scattering coefficient is a function of particle size, so samples
must be prepared to a uniform fine size of quantitatively valid measurements are
desired.
It is not easy to quantify diffuse reflectance measurements since sample

transmission, scattering, absorption, and reflection all contribute to the overall effect.
By reducing particle size and dilution in appropriate matrices, surface reflection that
can give strong inverted bands is reduced and the spectra more closely resemble
transmission measurements. Typically, quantitative diffuse reflectance measurements
are presented in log (I/R) units, analogous to absorbance log (I/T) units for
transmission measurements. Bands increase logarithmically with changes in the
reflectance values. By comparison, bands in spectra displayed in Kubelka-Munk units
vary as a function of the square of reflectance. This difference emplasizes strong
absorbance bands relative to weaker bands.
The diffuse reflectance may be measured with respect to a nonabsorbing

standards and converted to produce a nearly relationship with concentration c as
follows:
log(R' /R) = log(I/R) + log(R' ) ac/s
(18)
where R' and R reflectance of the standard and the sample ( R' > R), a =
absorptivity, c = concentration, and s = scattering coefficient. For monochromatic
radiation, log R' is constant and may be ignored, and Eq. (18) may be writes as (17):
c = k + (s/a)log(I/R)
(19)
where k = absorption coefficient. It should be noted that s is not a constant but

depends on a number of properties of the sample such as particle size (s is inversely
proportional to particle size) and moisture content. In food materials, the primary
factors that influences light reflection is a phenomenon known as scattering or
diffusion. If the surface of incidence is rough, incident light will be scattered in all
directions. Since the incident rays strike a rough surface more than once before being
reflected, they would be expected to have a lower total reflectance than those reflected
from a smooth surface.
In classical optics, diffuse reflection was thought to be responsible for color. It
was also commonly believed that colour of natural objects, such as foods and plant
239
foliage, are seen by means of light reflected off their surfaces. It is also known that the
light must be transmitted through pigment within the cells in order to produce a
colored appearance. Since most food materials are optically nonhomogeneous, light
entering such material is scattered in all directions. Only about 4-5% of the incident
radiation is reflected off the surface of these materials as regular reflectance. The
remaining radiation transmits through the surface and encounters small interfaces
radiation from within the material is scattered back to the surface through the initial
interface. This type of reflection is termed as body reflectance. The body
reflectance is nearly always diffuse and is the most significant orom of reflectance is
nearly always diffuse and is the most significant form of reflectance for foods. Some
part of the transmitted light diffuse deeper in to the material and may eventually reach
the surface some distance away from the incident point.
Factors Affecting Diffuse Reflectance Spectral Data
Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy offers exceptional versatility in sample

analysis. This versatility results from both its sensitivity and optical characteristics.
Classically, diffuse reflectance has been used to analyze powered solids in a
nonabsorbing matrix of an alkali halide such as KBr. The sample is typically analysed
at low concentrations, permitting quantitative presentation of the data in KubelkaMunk units. This technique yields spectra that are qualitatively similar to those
produced by conventional transmittance or pellet methods. However, they exhibit
higher sensitivity for quantification and are less subject to scattering effects the cause
slopping baselines in pellet measurements.
Several factors determine band shape and relative/absolute intensity in diffuse
reflectance spectroscopy through their effect on the reflection/absorbance phenomena
specific to the sample. These include:
Refractive index of the sample
Particle size
Sample homogeneity
Concentration
1.
Refractive index
Refractive index affects the results via specular reflectance contributions to
diffuse reflectance spectra. With organic samples, the spectra display pronounced
changes in band shape and relative peak intensities, resulting in nonlinearity in the
relationship between band intensity and sample concentration. For some inorganic
samples, strong specular reflection contributions can even result in complete band
inversions. Diluting the sample in nonabsorbing matrix can minimize this overlay of
diffuse reflectance and specular reflectance spectra, as well as the resulting spectral
240
distortions. In addition, accessory design can help reduce specular reflectance

contributions.
2.
Particle size
Particle size is a major consideration when performing diffuse reflectance

measurements of solids. The bandwidth is decreased and relative intensities are
dramatically altered as particle size decreases. These effects are even more
pronounced in spectra of highly absorbing inorganic materials with high refractive
indices. For these samples, specular contributions can dominate the final spectra if the
particle size is too large. To acquire a true diffuse reflectance spectrum, it is necessary
to uniformly grind the sample and dilute it in a fine, nonabsorbing matrix. Similar
preparation must be applied to the nonabsorbing matrix material in order to provide
and ideal diffuse reflector for background analysis and as a support matrix for the
samples.
3.
Sample homogeneity
The Kubelka- Munk model for diffuse reflectance is derived for a

homogeneous sample of infinite thickness. However, some sample analysis methods,
especially those designed for liquid sample (e.g., deposition of sample onto a
powdered supporting matrix) can result in a higher concentration of sample near the
analysis surface. In these circumstances, variations in relative peak intensities may be
noticed. In particular, more weakly absorbing wavelengths tend to be attenuated at
higher sample concentrations. To avoid these peak intensity variations it is necessary
to distribute the analyte as uniformly possible within the nonabsorbing background
matrix.
4.
Concentration
One particularly important advantage of diffuse reflectance spectroscopy,

especially in comparison to transmittance measures, is its extremely broad sampleanalyzing range. While it is theoretically possible to acquire usable diffuse reflectance
spectra on samples of wide-ranging concentrations, practical considerations often
complicate the analysis process. With high concentration samples, especially those
with a high refractive index, one can expect a dramatic increase in the specular
contribution to the spectral data. As a result, some sample data may be uninterpretable
without adequate sample dilution. Even when samples can be measured satisfactorily
at high concentrations, it is advisable to grind the sample to a very uniform and fine
particle size to minimize both specular reflectance and sample scattering effects,
which adversely affect quantitative precision.
Sampling for measurement of colour and prediction of internal attributes
affecting quality of materials requires considerable attention towards the factors
described above.
241
Samples and Sample Preparation
Availability of wide range of techniques for measurement of quality

parameters, necessitates to know the suitability of characteristics of samples, i.e.
whether it is liquid, solid, paste, semisolid, transparent, opaque or translucent etc
for a particular technique to be employed. Complete history of the source of
sample and a careful attention to proper instrument operation and consistent
sample handling is required particularly for colour measurement.
Preparing samples for measurement
When measuring samples it is important to select samples appropriately, use an

established measurement method, and handle all samples in a consistent manner.
Selecting samples
Samples representative of the entire batch should be selected for measurement.

Always one should try to collect as number of varied materials as possible from
different sources whose colour is to be measured and
1. Choose samples that are truly representative of those materials collected from
various sources,
2. Prepare samples in exactly the same manner each time they are measured.
Follow standard method, if they exist such as ASTM, BIS etc, and
3. Present the samples to the instrument in a standard, repeatable manner. Results
obtained depend on the condition of the samples and their presentation. For
established procedure, make a checklist so that laboratory personnel may
simply check each step. The checklist will also help in training of new
workers.
The sample must also be representative of attributes that are of interest. If
samples are non-representative of the batch or are spoiled, damaged, or irregular,
then the sample may be biased. When choosing a sample, select in random fashion
and examine the sample to avoid biased results. If sampling procedures are
adequate, a different sample selected from the same batch should result in
comparable measured values.
Sample handling and measurement methods
If method of measurement is established so that same procedure is used

each time for specific samples or types of samples, results may be validated for
comparison purposes. This also insures repeatability of results when measuring
the same sample.
242
There are a variety of techniques that can be used in handling various

forms of objects and materials so that the most valid and repeatable measurement
of their appearance results. Consideration must be given to the conditions for
sample preparation that are dependent upon the type of measurement to be made.
For example, when measuring the colour of sample that might pillow into the
viewing aperture, one should hold the surface flat by using a cover glass taped
over the aperture window. Other materials being measured for colour may be
chopped up and placed in a glass specimen cell or made into paste and applied to a
glass plate. Sheets and films should be flattened by tension or by a vacuum, if
necessary.
Directional samples
Averaging several measurements with rotation of the sample between

readings can minimize directionality. Examination of the standard deviation
displayed with the average function can guide in selecting the appropriate number
of readings to average.
Non-opaque samples
Non-opaque samples must have a consistent backing. A white uncalibrated tile

is recommended. If the sample is such that it can be folded to give multiple layers,
such as fruit leather, the number of layers for each sample should be noted.
Translucent samples
Light trapped in a translucent sample can distort the colour. The thickness of
the sample presented should be chosen to maximize the haze or colour difference.
Granular, powdery and liquid samples
These foods in required quantity may be taken into a petty dish of known
composition and characteristics and covered by other complete transparent and
flat petty dish of known properties. Thickness or depth of the sample should be so
maintained that it presents an opaque mass. Colour readings may be taken keeping
the flat portion of nosecone of the colourmeter on the surface of the top petty dish
ensuring that light thrown by the instrument neither goes out of the nosecone nor
passes through the sample. Part of the light is absorbed by the sample and
remaining portion (reflected from the sample) again comes back to the nosecone
of the instrument for measurement and interpretation. If samples cannot be
prepared to make it opaque (in case of transparent liquid sample) instruments such
as tintometer, photospectrometer etc should be used in visual range of wavelength.
243
REFERENCES
Birth G. S. (1978). The light scattering properties of foods. J. Food Sci 43:915.
Hutchings J. B. (1999). Food colour and Appearance. 2nd edition, Gaithersburg. MD:
Aspen Publishers Inc.
Jha, S. N. (2004). Non-destructive methods for quality evaluation of foods. Indian
Food Industries, 23(5): 21 26.
Jha, S.N. (1999). Physical and hygroscopic properties of makhana. J. Agric. Eng.
Res., 72 , 145-150.
Jha, S.N. and Prasad, S. (1993). Physical and thermal properties of gorgon nut. J.
Food Process Eng., 16, 237-245.
Jha, S.N. and Prasad, S. (1996). Determination of processing conditions of gorgon nut
(Euryale ferox). J. Agric. Engg. Res., 63, 103-112.
Jha, S.N. Matsuoka T. (2000). Review: Nondestructive Techniques for quality
evaluation of intact fruits and vegetables. Food Science and Technology Research Review, 6(4), 248 251.
Jha. S. N. and Kachru, R.P. (1998). Physical and aerodynamic properties of makhana.
J. Food Process Eng., 79, 301-316.
Kortum G (1969). Reflectance spectroscopy: Principles, Methods, Applications. New
York:Springer-Verlag.
Osborne B G, Fearn T (1986). Near-Infrared spectroscopy in Food Analysis.
Longman Scientific and Technical Avon, England
244
SENSORY EVALUATION OF RIPENED VARIETIES

OF CHEESE
Dr. Shivashraya Singh

Emeritus Scientist, Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal
Introduction
It has long been recognized that enjoyment of food is essential for good health.
Enjoyment would mean choice and acceptance and not always nutrition and
wholesomeness. The consumers appreciation of food quality is, thus, all-important.
For consumers, the perceivable sensory attributes, colour, appearance, feel, aroma,
taste and texture are the deciding factors in food acceptance. The sensory evaluation
may be defined as a scientific discipline used to evoke, measure, analyze and interpret
results of those characteristics of foods and materials as they are perceived by the
senses of light, smell, taste, touch and hearing. The definition makes clear that
sensory evaluations encompass all the senses, and not taste testing alone. As the
definition implies, sensory evaluation involves the measurement and evaluation of the
sensory properties of the foods and other materials. Therefore, sensory evaluation
helps in ensuring that the consumers get consistent, non-defective and enjoyable
foods.
Of all the foods which mankind has created for eating pleasure, cheese is
unique in many ways. No other group of foods possesses such variations in flavour,
consistency, appearance or number of categories. Perhaps, no other form of food is
more universally known and enjoyed around the world.
Cheese is one of the oldest foods of mankind. It seems that the cheese
originated accidentally as a result of the activities of nomadic tribes. Since animal
skin bags were a convenient way of storing liquids for nomadic people, these were
used for storing surplus milk. Fermentation of the milk sugars in the warm climate
prevailing would cause the milk to curdle in the bags. The swaying animals would
have broken up the acid curd during journeys, to produce curds and whey. The whey
provided a refreshing drink on hot journeys, while the curds, preserved by the acid of
fermentation and a handful of salt, became a source of high protein food
supplementing the meager meat supply.
Until the 18th century, cheese making was essentially a farmhouse industry,
but towards the end of the century scientific findings began to provide guidelines,
which were to have an impact on the process of making and ripening cheese. Thus
cheese making became an Art with Science. Now the mechanization and automation
245
has been taken to such a high level that tones and tones of cheese can be produced
without a touch of hand.
Definition
The word cheese is derived from the Old English cese which in turn was
derived from the Latin caseus which means correct or perfect thing. A complete
definition is as follows:
Cheese is the curd or substance formed by the coagulation of milk of certain
mammals by rennet or similar enzymes in the presence of lactic acid produced by
added or adventititious microorganisms, from which part of moisture has been
removed by cutting, warming and pressing, which has been shaped in mould and then
ripened (also unripened) by holding for sometime at suitable temperatures and
humidities.
According to the PFA Rules (1976), cheese (hard) means the product obtained
by draining after the coagulation of milk with a harmless milk-coagulating agent,
under the influence of harmless bacterial cultures. It shall not contain any ingredient
not found in milk, except coagulating agent, sodium chloride, calcium chloride
(anhydrous salt) not exceeding 0.02% by weight, annatto or carotene colour and may
contain emulsifiers and/or stabilizers, namely citric acid, sodium citrate or sodium
salts of orthophosphoric acid and polyphosphoric acid not exceeding beyond 0.2% by
weight; wax used for covering the outer surface should not contain any thing harmful
to the health. In case wax is colored only permitted food colours may be used. Hard
cheese shall contain not more than 43% moisture and not less than 42% of milk fat of
the dry matter. Hard cheese may contain 0.1% of sorbic acid or its sodium, potassium
or calcium salts or 0.1% of nisin.
Essential Steps of Cheese Making
The conversion of milk into finished cheese can generally be divided into several
distinct steps. Numerous variations and sub-routines within each of these general
steps make possible the hundreds of cheese varieties. Five essential steps in cheese
making are:
1. Preparing and inoculating the milk with lactic acid bacteria.
2. Curdling the milk (forming a coagulum or gel)
3. Shrinking the gel (curd) and pressing the curd into forms.
4. Salting the curd or formed cheese.
5. Ripening or curing the cheese (optional).
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Cheese Properties
Moisture content and acidity are regarded as the two most important factors in
the control of cheese properties (characteristics). Given a constant milk fat-to-casein
ratio, the hard ness of a given cheese is a function of moisture content. Generally the
firmer a cheese (due to low moisture), the slower the rate of ripening, the more
selective the microflora, the milder the flavour, and the longer the product keeping
quality. On the basis of moisture content, cheese may be classified as: (1) very hard;
(2) hard; (3) semi hard (also known as semisoft) and (4) soft. The extent of protein
hydrolysis, salt content, and the relative amounts of milk fat in cheese also help
determine the extent of softness or harness. Cheese may be: (1) unripened; (2)
internally ripened by the action of bacteria, molds, and /or enzymes; or (3) externally
ripened as the result of surface growth of bacteria, yeasts and/or molds.
Classification
There are about 2000 names of cheeses. It is very difficult to classify the
different cheese satisfactorily in groups. There are probably only about 18 types of
natural cheeses. These are: Cheddar, Gouda, Edam, Swiss, Brick, Herve, Camembert,
Limburger, Parmesan, Provolone, Romano, Roquefort, Sapsago, Cottage, Neufchatel,
Trappist, and Cream and whey cheeses.
These can also be classified on the basis of their rheology (the science of the
deformation and flow of matter) and according to the manner of ripening as shown
below. From the point of view of cheese, it may be considered as the study of how
hard and how elastic a cheese may be and the reasons for these particular properties:
1. Very hard (grating) Moisture <35% on matured ripened by bacteria, e.g.
Parmesan, Romano.
2. Hard Moisture <40%
Ripened by bacteria, without eyes: Cheddar
Ripened by bacteria, with eyes: Swiss
3. Semi hard-Moisture 40-47%
Ripened principally by bacteria: Brick
Ripened by bacteria and surface microorganisms: Limburger
Ripened principally by blue mould:
a) External Camembert
b) Internal Gorgonzola, Blue, Roquefort
4. Soft- Moisture > 47%
Unripened Cottage
Ripened Neufchatel (as made in France)
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Cheese Grading
A Cheese judge is often called upon to evaluate one or more varieties or types
of cheese. To be proficient, the evaluator should be knowledge-able in the sensory
characteristics and the desirable and undesirable qualities of each cheese type under
consideration.
The relative amounts of various milk components and the amount of whey
retained in the curd have much to do with the flavour and body characteristics of the
finished cheese. Chemical changes that result from the controlled growth of various
microorganisms and associated enzymatic activity during manufacturing and ripening
processes help develop desired sensory characteristics in matured cheese. Hence, a
combination of factors is responsible for yielding the many kinds of cheese.
Certain soft cheese such as cream cheese or cottage cheese, which primarily
derive their flavour from added lactic cultures and/or a cream dressing, are generally
consumed while fresh. Hard or semi-hard cheese varieties are generally made from
whole or part-skim milks coagulated by rennet or other milk-coagulating enzymes and
are usually ripened or aged before they are consumed. Cheese properties such as an
intense aroma or piquant taste can also be a function of the bacteriological or
enzymatic treatment of cheese milk before coagulation. The addition of proteolytic
and lipolytic microbial culture (usually mold) to curd before pressing can also
determine cheese characteristics.
Cheddar Cheese
Cheddar cheese is most common type of cheese produced in the U.S. and is
sometimes referred to as American Cheese. It is a hard, ripened cheese made from
raw, flash-heated, or pasteurized whole milk to which about 0.5-1.0% lactic starter
culture has been added. The curd formed by the addition of milk-coagulating
enzyme(s) is firmed by heating (cooking) and stirring to about 38oC (100oF). The curd
may be pressed in several different styles of hoops or in large barrel forms.
Degree of Ripening
Much pasteurized milk Cheddar cheese is marketed shortly after manufacture
(<90 days), as a mild cheese or for use in producing processed cheese. The ripening or
curing of Cheddar cheese to develop characteristic Cheddar cheese flavour is a slow,
complex, bacteriological, chemical and enzymatic process which requires months
(sometimes years, for extra-sharp cheese flavour).
Unripened Cheddar cheese if often referred to as fresh or green cheese.
Cheese at this stage is characterized as having a flat or weak flavour and a relatively
tough, curdy, or corky body. Good-quality Cheddar cheese that has been properly
248
cured for at least three months or longer, has a moderate, slightly nutty, Cheddar
flavour, and is generally referred to as a young or mild cheese. At six to eight
months of age, more of the distinct, aromatic Cheddar flavor should be evident; such
cheese is considered as semi or medium-aged. Generally, a year or longer is
required to develop the fully aromatic or robust cheddar cheese flavor desired in an
aged, sharp, or matured cheese. Extra-sharp Cheddar cheese is usually aged
in excess of one and one-half to two years.
Tempering Cheese
Before evaluation, cheese samples should be tempered at 10oC to 15.5oC (50oF
to 60oF) for a sufficient length of time to ensure a uniform temperature throughout the
cheese. Generally, a cheese plug taken from a warm (overtempered) cheese appears
weak-bodied; by contrast, a cold plug may appear brittle or corky. Actual body and
texture characteristics cannot be determined readily unless cheese samples are
properly tempered before evaluation.
Preparing for Evaluation
Appropriate facilities for cheese tempering, sampling, proper disposal of waste
cheese and cleaning of triers should be provided for evaluators. Prior to sampling,
ones hands should be washed and dried, since they directly contact exposed cheese
surfaces. As soon as the cheese samples to be evaluated are arranged in order and
numbered or coded for proper identification, the sensory evaluation process may
begin.
SEQUENCE OF SENSORY OBSERVATIONS
Appearance
Typically, the first procedure in grading Cheddar cheese is visual examination
of surface finish or packaging material. The judge should note the physical
appearance of the sample surface. Next, the evaluator should look more closely the
coating of plastic film (or paraffin) is smooth and free form holes, tears, or wrinkles.
Finally, a close examination of the surface for possible mold growth should be
undertaken by the judge.
Sampling
Cheese samples are usually obtained with a double-edged curved blade
instrument known as a cheese (or butter) trier. For best service, the edges of a cheese
trier need to be sharp. A trier that cuts a larger plug has an advantage over one of a
smaller diameter since the extent of openness and possible color defects are easier
to detect with a large plug.
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The trier should be inserted into the top surface of the cheese, preferably about
half way between the center and the outer edge of the cheese sample. After insertion,
the trier should be turned one-half way around to cut a sample core. The plug is
withdrawn, which produces a long tapered cylinder of cheese. The upper 1inch (2.54
cm) of the cheese plug is immediately broken off and replaced, flush with the surface
of the original hole. This partially protects the cheese from developing mold
contamination and retards drying and cracking of the cheese surface surrounding the
hole.
The evaluator should carefully examine the cheese plug and note whether the
plug has a clean-cut surface (with no loose particles) or whether it is rough (with a
feather-like edge) as though the cheese had been cut with a dull knife. The evaluator
should make a mental note of these observations.
Color
The evaluator should observe the color of the cheese and determine whether
the appearance is bright and clear or dull and lifeless. It should be noted whether the
colour is uniform (free from mottled or light and dark portions) or whether there are
curd seams or faded areas. The cheese judge should reexamine the plug and observe
whether the cheese appears to be; (1) translucent, which is desirable, or (2) opaque,
wherein it is difficult for the eyes to observe beyond the surface. The evaluator should
especially note whether the color is uniform throughout the sample. Normally
consumers seem to prefer an intense deep-orange color for Cheddar cheese.
Openness
The judge should observe the nature and extent of the mechanical openings in
the cheese. Their shape or configuration should be examined closely to see whether
they are regular, angular, rounded, large and/or small. It is also helpful the luster or
sheen of the inner surfaces of these openings and note whether the surfaces appear dry
(preferable) or wet.
Body and Texture
The evaluator should take the ends of the cheese plug by the forefingers and
thumbs of both hands and bend the plug slowly into a semicircle, and observe when
the sample breaks, as well as the nature of the break. It should be determined whether
the cheese plug: (1) shows a definite resistance toward any bending and finally breaks
abruptly (short); (2) bends until the plug ends nearly touch (weak), if it breaks apart at
all; (3) bends into approximately one third to one half of a full circle before it
breaks apart (preferred elasticity)
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Next, the judge should take one of the broken pieces of cheese between the
thumb and the forefingers and attempt to manipulate it into a uniform mass. The
relative resistance (or lack of resistance) offered by the cheese to applied pressure
from the thumb and fingers should be ascertained. The worked cheese should
remain smooth, waxy and somewhat pliable for an ideal Cheddar cheese. The
tempered sample should exhibit a tendency to remain as a solid mass upon gentle
finger manipulation.
Aroma
By the time the sample has been worked into a semi-soft ball, the temperature
of the cheese mass should have increased from combined pressure and hand warmth
and thus enable easier detection of any aroma. The evaluator should then place the
tempered cheese sample directly under the nose and observe the aroma a second time.
The judge should compare the aroma with that noted when the sample first was
removed from the cheese.
It can be helpful to rinse the mouth occasionally with a lukewarm saline
solution to cleanse the mouth of previous cheese flavors (or off-flavors). A Pinch of
common table salt placed into the mouth and rinsed out with tepid water can be
equally effective. An experienced cheese judge can often grade cheese without
actually tasting, on the basis of the color and appearance, amount and nature of
openness, body and texture and the perceived aroma of the worked sample mass. The
experienced judge may taste an occasional sample simply to verify judgments
ascertained by means of other sensory observations.
Smelling and testing the cheese samples generally completes the evaluation
process. All sensory observations should be recorded on a designated cheese
scorecard or a form provided for this purpose.
Color Evaluation
The color of Cheddar cheese, regardless of the chosen intensity, should always
be uniform throughout the cheese. American cheese may be uncolored, light to
medium colored, or high in color. For uncolored cheese, the most desired color is a
light cream shade; for medium intensity colored cheese a deep cream color or a
pleasant yellow-orange hue is acceptable. The cheese surface color should be slightly
translucent; that is, it should appear as if one could actually see into the cheese
interior for a short distance. The translucent quality of Cheddar cheese is closely
associated with desirable body and texture.
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Body and Texture Attributes

Cheddar cheese with the most desirable body and texture displays a full, solid,
close-knit plug that possesses smoothness, meatiness, waxiness and silkiness, and is
entirely free from gas holes or mechanical openings. Cheddar cheese with the abovedescribed quality attributes lends itself to uniform slicing into thin, intact pieces.
The term body, as applied to cheese, usually refers to various physical
attributes which primarily affect the relative firmness or softness of the cheese. By
contrast, the term texture refers particularly to the structure and arrangement of the
various parts which make up the whole (the cheese unit). Thus, texture in cheese is
observed visually by the quantity, size, shape, and distribution of openings and by the
sense of touch (as in mealy/grainy) to uncover internal particles.
Body Defects
Many duplicate terms are used in an effort to characterize undesirable body
and texture defects of Cheddar cheese. The more common descriptors of cheese body
defects are listed as follows:
Corky (dry, hard, tough)
Crumbly (friable)
Curdy (rubbery)
Greasy
Pasty (smeary, sticky, wet)

Short (flaky)
Spongy
Weak (soft).
Texture Defects
The texture defects of Cheddar cheese may be listed as follows:Mealy/Grainy (Gritty)
Slits (fish eyes, yeast holes)
Gassy (pin holes)
Sweet-curd holes (swiss holes,

shot holes)
Fissures
Open (mechanical holes)
Evaluating the Flavour of Cheddar Cheese

High-quality Cheddar cheese should possess the characteristic Cheddar
flavor, which is best described as clean, moderately aromatic, nutty-like and
pleasantly acidic. While the same general flavor qualities are desired in fresh,
medium-cured and aged cheese, the intensity of the characteristic Cheddar flavor will
primarily depends upon the extent of curing and actual curing conditions. Usually,
aged cheese has a sharp, aromatic, intense flavor that is entirely lacking in young
cheese.
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Flavor Defects and Their Characteristics

Off-flavors in Cheddar cheese show wide variation and may be listed as follows:
High acid (sour)
Bitter
Fruity/fermented
Flat (lacking flavour)
Garlic/onion (weedy)
Heated (cooked)
Malty (Grape Nuts)
Metallic (oxidized)
Moldy (musty)
Rancid (lipase)
Sulfide (skunky)
Unclean (dirty aftertaste)
Whey taint (sour whey)
Yeasty.
Gouda Cheese
Gouda is one of the most important Dutch type varieties of cheese produced in
the world. It belongs to semi-hard to hard varieties of cheese with few or no eyeholes.
It is a mild variety, ready to be consumed within 3 4 months of ripening. It is a
waxy and firm body and is characterized by the presence of shiny eyes. The
consistency varies from rather firm and smooth to semi-soft and changes during
natural ripening to a firmer and more brittle structure. The flavor also changes from
mild to strong during such long ripening times. The interior of the main cheese types
shows some round eyes about the size of a pea.
Swiss Cheese
Swiss Cheese, also known as Emmental, Emmentaler, Schweizer, or Sweitzer
cheese, is a type of hard cheese made from clean, fresh, whole milk. Specific
processes of manufacture are use, which differ widely from those for Cheddar cheese.
The utilization of thermophilic lactic bacteria and Propionibacterium shermanii for
milk fermentation results in a cheese having flavor, body, texture and appearance
characteristics peculiar unto itself.
High-quality Swiss cheese is characterized by: (1) a cream-yellow color; (2) a
solid, compact, slightly translucent body, interspersed with large, shiny-surfaced gas
holes that are evenly distributed (preferably) throughout the center, but become less
numerous near the edge of the cheese; (3) a characteristic sweet-hazelnut flavor.
253
STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR ANALYSIS OF

SENSORY DATA
Ravinder Malhotra
Senior Scientist (Agri. Statistics)
DES&M Division, NDRI, Karnal-132001
Introduction
Dairy and food processing as also other sciences consist of understanding the
living world. Statistics promises carefully controlled acquisition of information for this
understanding. Generally research is a complex process, but it typically consists of the
following key steps which involve extensive use of statistical techniques:
Formulate hypothesis and propose experiments;

Identify appropriate experimental designs;
Carry out the proposed experiments and collect data;
Summarize the data and conduct appropriate statistical analysis;
Evaluate the proposed hypothesis and draw conclusions.
Thus statistics plays an important role in food technology, biological and agricultural
research.
What is statistics?
In the narrow sense, statistics means an accumulation of facts and figures,
graphs and charts, that is, any kind of factual information given in numbers. However,
in the broad sense, statistics is the branch of applied mathematics that deals with databased decision making. Therefore, statistics has two essential parts:
a)
Descriptive statistics: Collecting, organizing, presenting and analyzing
data without drawing any conclusion or inference (e.g., drawing histograms from
grouped data, computing mean, standard deviation, median and mode, etc.);
b)
Inferential statistics: This is the science of decision-making in the face
of uncertainty, i.e., making the best decision on the basis of incomplete information
available from sample data or experimental data. Inevitably, uncertainty arises when
we have only a sample taken from a population about which inferences are to be made.
Thus, probability is important in the statistical decision-making.
When the dairy/food scientist designs an experiment or organizes a sampling
his main aim is to use the information contained in a partial set of data to understand
the phenomena or to take a useful decision. The main problem in this respect is the
variability of the responses. Overcoming this difficulty requires the use of statistical
techniques both in a descriptive way and in an inferential way. To bring out the
information we use measure of central tendency and dispersion. It appears that such
analysis lose part of the information due to links between the variables.
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Experiments are fundamental to the progress of science. They are the means
by which theories are developed, tested or refuted. Steel and Torrie (1980) have
defined the term experiment as a planned inquiry to obtain new facts or to confirm or
deny the results of previous experiments, where such inquiry will aid in an
administrative decision, such as recommending a variety, procedure, or pesticide.
What is sensorial analysis and sensometrics ?
Sensory methods are used to measure quality characteristics of goods that
cannot be assessed directly by physical or chemical tests. They imply the set up and
training of a group of panellists and the use of various techniques to organise sensory
analysis sessions. Statistical methods take an important place in this process namely in
the design of sensory experiments and in the statistical modelling of sensory data. The
use of statistical methods in sensory and consumer science is called Sensometrics.
Which Statistical tool should be used?
Exactly which statistical method(s) should be used? The answer to this
question requires an examination of (i) whether the variables in the experiment are
dependent (measurement) variables or independent (treatment) variables and (ii)
whether the variables are continuous or discrete. With such examination, it is relatively
straightforward to identify appropriate statistical methods to be used for analyzing the
experimental data at hand. The following section summarizes the matching of
statistical methods with the types of data:
a)
Correlation and regression: In all areas of dairying and food research,
experimenters are interested in the relationships between quantitative response
variables y and quantitative stimulus variables x1, x2, x3, ----, xk in the sense that y is
determined by some function of the stimulus variables. Correlation is a statistical
method used to determine if a relationship exists between variables. The correlation
coefficient measures the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two
variables. The symbol for the sample correlation coefficient is r and for the entire
population is (Greek letter rho).
r xy =
( X X )( Y Y )
(X X )
2 (Y Y ) 2
b)
Spearmans Rank Correlation Coefficient: This method is based on the
ranks of the items rather than their actual values. The advantage of this method over
the others is that it can be used even when the actual values of items are unknown, e.g.,
to determine correlation between the degrees of agreement between the scores given
by two judges. The formula is:
255
2
n
6 d i
i = 1
n (n 2 1)
where R = rank correlation coefficient

di = difference between the ranks of two items
n = the number of observations.
c)
Regression is a statistical method use to describe the nature of the relationship
between variables. It maybe positive, negative, linear, etc.
Linear Regression: Correlation gives us the idea of the measure of magnitude and
direction between correlated variables. Regression helps us in estimating the value of
one variable when the other is known. A statistical procedure called regression is
concerned with causation in a relationship among variables. It assesses the
contribution of one or more variable called causing variable or independent variable or
one, which is being caused (dependent variable). When there is only one independent
variable then the relationship is expressed by a straight line. This procedure is called
simple linear regression.
The term regression can be defined as a method that estimates the value of
one variable when that of other variable is known, provided the variables are
correlated. The dictionary meaning of regression is "to go backward." Sir Francis
Galton used it for the first time in his research paper "Regression towards mediocrity
in hereditary stature."
Lines of Regression: In scatter plot, we have seen that if the variables are highly
correlated then the points (dots) lie in a narrow strip. If the strip is nearly straight, we
can draw a straight line, such that all points are close to it from both sides. Such a line
can be taken as an ideal representation of variation. This line is called the line of best
fit if it minimizes the distances of all data points from it.
This line is called the line of regression. Now
prediction is easy because now all we need to do is to
extend the line and read the value. Thus to obtain a
line of regression, we need to have a line of best fit.
But statisticians dont measure the distances by
dropping perpendiculars from points on to the line.
They measure deviations (or errors or residuals as
they are called) (i) vertically and (ii) horizontally.
Thus we get two lines of regressions as shown in the
adjacent figures (1) and (2).
256
(1) Line of regression of y on x

Its form is y = a + b x
It is used to estimate y when x is given
(2) Line of regression of x on y
Its form is x = a + b y
It is used to estimate x when y is given.
They are obtained by i) graphically - by Scatter plot; ii) Mathematically - by the
method of least squares.
Some useful probability distributions
a)
Binomial Distribution. The binomial distribution is useful for describing
distributions of binomial events, such as the number of panel members giving the
correct response in a taste test. The binomial distribution is defined as:
f(x) = [n!/(x!*(n-x)!)]*px * qn-x,
for x = 0,1,2,...,n
where
p is the probability that the respective event will occur
q is equal to 1-p
n is the maximum number of independent trials.
b)
Poisson Distribution. The Poisson distribution is also sometimes referred to as
the distribution of rare events. Examples of Poisson distributed variables are number of
accidents in a milk plant , the number of catastrophic defects found in a production
process. It is defined as:
x
f(x) =
x!,
e
for x = 0,1,2...,
where
Is the expected value of x (the mean)
The base of the natural logarithm, sometimes called Euler's e (2.71...)
c)
Normal Distribution. The normal distribution (the "bell-shaped curve" which
is symmetrical about the mean) is a theoretical function commonly used in inferential
statistics as an approximation to sampling distributions. The normal distribution
developed by Gauss is a continuous distribution of maximum utility.
Definition: If we know a curve such that the area under the curve from x = a to
x = b is equal to the probability that x will take a value between a and b and that the
total area under the curve is unity, then the curve is called the probability curve.
Among all the probability curves, the normal curve is the most important one.
The corresponding function is called the normal probability function and the
probability distribution is called the normal distribution. The normal distribution can
257
be considered as the limiting form of the Binomial Distribution, however n, the

number of trials, is very large and neither P nor q is very small.
The normal distribution is given by
where y = ordinate, x = abscissa of a point on the curve, = the mean of x, = S.D.

of x. = a constant = 3.1416 and e = a constant = 2.7183
Testing Statistical Hypothesis

Every research is carried out to test one or more hypotheses but not all
hypotheses are statistical hypotheses. To be a statistical hypothesis, an assumption
needs to be made about one or more parameters of a population (i.e., assigning a value
to one or more parameters of the population). For example, the following statement is
NOT a statistical hypothesis: Mars is inhabited by living beings, because it makes no
assumption about one or more parameters of a population. However, the statement that
the average copper contents of the tomato ketchup are 15 ppm is a statistical
hypothesis.
The test of statistical hypothesis consists of the following steps:
1 Clearly state the null hypothesis (the hypothesis of "no difference") (H0).
An alternative hypothesis (HA) must also be specified;
2 Identify the test statistic, the value of which will be used to test whether to
accept or reject H0. If H0 is rejected, we are left with the choice of
accepting HA. NOTE: While we accept or reject a hypothesis, we have not
proved or disproved it.
258
3 Specify the decision-making rule. The null hypothesis is considered to be

true if the calculated probability (based on the test statistic) is greater than
the desired level of significance ( ); it is considered to be false if the
calculated probability is less than or equal to the significance level, and the
result is termed significant. One has to make an arbitrary decision about the
level of significance. It is commonly accepted that a result is considered to
be significant if the calculated probability is less than 0.05.
When we make a decision to accept or reject a hypothesis based on the results
of an experiment (sample data), it is possible that we will make one of two types of
wrong decisions:
True Situation
H0 is accepted
H0 is true
Correct decision
H0 is rejected
Type I error ( )
H0 is false
Type II error ( )
Correct decision
Clearly, Type I error equals to the level of significance ( ). The power of

testing a statistical hypothesis is the probability that H0 is rejected given that HA is
true, which is one minus the probability of Type II error = 1 - . However, the
relationship between Type I error and Type II error is such that decreasing the
probability of Type I error increases the probability of Type II error; decreasing the
probability of Type II error increases the probability of Type I error. (i) Increasing
sample size or (ii) using more efficient experimental designs or both can solve this
dilemma. Thus, the experimenter has the direct or indirect control of both errors.
Goodness of Fit
Experiments often produce data which can be grouped into a number of classes
or categories and in many situations we wish to test whether the differences between
the frequencies observed in these classes or categories and the frequencies predicted or
expected under some hypothesis can be attributed to chance (i.e. random sampling
effects) or whether these differences are so large that the hypothesis should be
abandoned.
The question to be asked is whether the observed frequencies deviate
significantly from the expected frequencies if the null hypothesis (that the die is fair)
were true.
The following calculation, of a statistic called CHI-SQUARE, is used as a
measure of how far a sample distribution deviates from a theoretical distribution.
259
n (O E )2
2
i
i
=
Ei
i= 1
Here Oi represents the observed frequency in class or category i and Ei the
corresponding expected frequency, if the null hypothesis is true, and the summation is
performed over all n categories.
t-test for Differences of Means
The main purpose of an unpaired t-test is to decide if two independent normally
distributed populations are likely to have the same mean, based on samples taken from
the population. However, the test is only really valid if the populations have equal
variances (although there are ways of dealing with the case when they are not equal).
Suppose we want to test two independent samples Xi (i=1,2, ---, n1) and Yj (j=1,2, ---,
n2) of sizes n1 and n2 have been drawn from two normal populations with means
and
respectively.
Under the null hypothesis (H0) that the samples have been drawn from the
normal population with means x and y and under the assumption that the
population variances are equal then the statistics
_
_
(x y)
t =
1
1
S2 (
)
n1
n2
where
_ 2
2
1
[ ( X X ) + (Y j Y ) ]
i
n + n 2 i
j
1
2
2
is an unbiased estimate of population variance , follows t-distribution with (n1+n2 2) d .f.
S2 =
Comparison of Variances (F-test)

Suppose independent samples of sizes
two populations, X and Y of unknown variances
these variances are
with
and
respectively are drawn from

and
. Unbiased estimates of
degrees of freedom
260
and
with
degrees of freedom.
Consider the ratio
.
If these samples have been drawn from populations having the same variance we
would expect the numerical value of this ratio to be near the value 1. Obviously we
would not expect to get exactly 1 but if a very large value or a very small value were
observed we might conclude that
In fact repeated sampling from populations having the same variance will
produce values for this ratio, which form a distribution called the F - distribution.
Analysis of Variance
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a family of methods that can be used to
design and analyze the results from both simple and complex experiments. It is one of
the most important statistical techniques available to biologists and provides a link
between the design of experiments and the analysis of experimental data. ANOVA has
its origins in biology, or at least agriculture, since the methods were specifically
developed to deal with the type of variable response that is common in field trials; it
now has a much wider application.
Two key considerations in designing an experiment are (i) simplicity and (ii)
efficiency. By simplicity, we mean that the simplest experimental design be chosen
among many possible candidates to achieve the same proposed objective(s). By
efficiency, we mean that the investigation should be conducted as efficiently as
possible; that is, every effort should be made to save time, money, personnel and
experimental materials.. Fortunately, most simple designs are also efficient (both
statistically and economically).
To achieve optimal levels of simplicity and efficiency in designing an
experiment, three basic principles should always be considered: replication,
randomization and local control (blocking).
Replication means the repetition of treatments in an experiment. There are two reasons
why we need replications:
If a treatment appears only once in an experiment (i.e., n = 1), there is no
replication of the treatment and the error associated with the estimate of the
treatment effect cannot be estimated. Experimental error occurs when two
or more identically treated experimental units fail to yield identical results.
Thus, replication of treatments provides an estimate of experimental error;
261
Replication also enables us to obtain a more precise estimate of the main

2
effect of any factor since the standard deviation of the mean = / n ,
2
where represents the true experimental error and n the number of
replications.
Randomization legitimatizes the statistical test of significance of observed
differences between the treatments. The process of randomization involves random
allocation of treatments to the experimental units. Thus the process makes the law of
chance applicable to our experimental data and ensures that the data are free from any
systematic error. Randomization tends to make experimental errors independent of
each other and provides an unbiased estimate of the experimental error and treatment
means. Thus, it allows an objective comparison among treatment means.
Local control refers to grouping of the experimental units in such a way that
the units within a group (i.e., block) are more homogeneous than are units in different
groups. The experimental materials or conditions are more alike within a group. Thus,
the variation among experimental units within a group is less than the variation would
have been without grouping. This leads to the comparison of treatment effects under
more uniform conditions or on the more uniform materials. For example, the total
variation in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) is partitioned into variation
due to two assignable causes, blocks and treatments, and variation due to a nonassignable cause or experimental error. This latter source of variation is reduced as the
variation due to block is removed:
Experimental error = Total variation - Treatment variation - Block variation.
Relationship of Three basic
Principles of Experimental design
REPLICATION
RANDOMISATION
LOCAL CNTROL
Blocking or Stratification
Validity of estimated
Experimental Error
Reduction of
Experimental Error
Efficiency
Some definitions:
262
1.
Experimental Design: is the complete sequence of steps involving
randomization, assignment and application of treatments, collection of data, etc.
2.
Experimental Unit: is the smallest unit of experimental material to which a
treatment is assigned by a single act of randomization.
3.
Sampling Unit: is the unit of experimental material on which the observation
(s) is recorded is referred to as the sampling unit. The sampling unit may be the same
as the experimental units; the entire experimental unit may be divided into sampling
units; or one or a few (less than the total) sampling units may be randomly sampled
experimental from the experimental unit. The sampling unit is some times also referred
to as the observation unit.
4
Experimental error is a measure of the variation between experimental units
treated alike. The variation is due to both the inherent variability of the experimental
material and failure of the experimental units to be handled (processed, measured,
analyzed, etc.) identically, in spite of our best efforts.
Experimental error may in some experiments be directly computable, while in
other design only an indirect measurement will be possible. In those analyses where
experimental error has been measured directly, it is commonly termed the "within"
variation. The term "within" refers to the variation between experimental units"
within" treatments. When no direct calculation is possible, the experimental error is
estimated by computing all assignable sources of variation and assuming that any
variation left over represents experimental error. For these analyses, the experimental
error is frequently termed "residual" or "remainder"
5.
Treatment: Treatment refers to a set of experimental conditions which will be
applied (or associated with) the experimental units. One particular set may be, for
example, a "control" set. The particular set used a varies in a certain way from
treatment to treatment, and it is the effect of these varying conditions in which we are
interested. A certain condition, when allowed to take on a number of possible levels, is
called a factor. When an experiment contains more than one factor, each assigned
more than one level, the treatment combinations form a factorial experiment. Factorial
experiments are probably the most important sets of treatments in biological research.
The Completely Randomized Design (CRD)
The CRD is the simplest of all designs. It is equivalent to a t-test when only
two treatments are examined. t uses two principles of experimental designs into
consideration.
Field marks:
1 Replications of treatments are assigned completely at random to
independent experimental subjects.
2 Adjacent subjects could potentially have the same treatment.
263
Sample Layout:
Different alphabets represent different treatments. There are 4 (A-D) treatments
with 4 replication (1-4) each.
A1 B1 C1 A2
D1 A3 D2 C2
B2 D3 C3 B3
C4 A4 B4 D4
Sources of Variation
Treatments (Tr)
Error (E)
ANOVA Table Format

Degree of
Sum of Squares
Freedom#
(SSQ)
t-1
SSQTr
t*(r-1)
SSQE
Mean Square
(MS)
SSQTr/(t-1)
SSQE/(t*(r1))
F
MSTr/MSE
Total (Tot)
t*r-1
SSQTot
#
where t = number of treatments and r=number of replications per treatment.
Two-way Factorial arrangement on a CRD

Field marks:
1 Treatments are combinations of two factors, such as chemical compositions
and methods of applying chemicals. This is an arrangement of treatments
within a CRD design.
2 Replications of treatments are assigned completely at random to
independent experimental subjects.
3 Adjacent subjects could potentially have the same combination of
treatments.
Sample layout:
Different big and small alphabets represent different combinations of treatments; each
horizontal row represents a block. There are 4 replications (1-4) and 4 treatment
combinations (Aa, Ba, Ab and Bb) in this example.
Aa1 Ba1 Ab1 Aa2
Bb1 Aa3 Bb2 Ab2
Ba2 Bb3 Ab3 Ba3
Ab4 Aa4 Ba4 Bb4
264
Sources of
Variation
ANOVA Table Format

Degree of
Sum of
Mean Square (MS)
Freedom# Squares (SSQ)
First factor (F1)
f-1
SSQF1
SSQF1/(f-1)
MSF1/MSE
Second factor (F2)
s-1
SSQF2
SSQF2/(s-1)
MSF2/MSE
Interaction
First X Second
(FxS)
(f-1)*(s-1)
SSQFxS
SSQFxS/((f-1)*(s1))
MSFxS/MSE
Error (E)
f*s*(r-1)
SSQE
SSQE/(f*s*(r-1))
Total (Tot)
f*s*r-1
SSQTot
where f=number of treatments in the first factor, s=number of treatments in the second
factor and r=number of replications.
Randomized Complete Block Design
This is the most commonly used experimental design. In sensory comparisons
where several judges at a single sitting taste and score each of various samples of a
food product, the arrangement of scores in known as a randomized complete-block
design. Each score (measurement) is fixed in the design; it belongs to one of the
samples (treatments) and to one of the judges (blocks). It is therefore classified
according to two criteria. The analysis of such a design is similar to that fore the onecriterion case. The only modification necessary is to take account of the variations
between the (means of scores of) judges. This sum of squares as well as that between
samples must be subtracted from the total to obtain the error (sometimes called
interaction) sum of squares. In completely randomized design in which the different
treatments are assigned to the experimental units in a purely random manner.
For example consider an experiment to compare the effects of five treatments
on the moisture contents of Paneer .If four observations on each treatment were
required, the test area would be divided into twenty experimental plots and each
treatment randomly assigned to four of these plots a typical arrangement might be
C
B
D
B
A
B
C
E
B
E
D
E
E
A
D
D
A
C
A
C
where A, B, C, D, E are the 5 treatments.
265
A better design would be to divide the 20 plots into 4 sets of 5 so that the
fertility is approximately the same in each set (or BLOCK), and then randomize the
order of treatments within each block so that each treatment occurs once in each block.
This is called the randomized complete block design.
A typical arrangement might then be
Blocks
1
2
3
4
A
B
C
D
D
E
B
C
C
D
A
B
E
A
D
E
D
C
E
A
The objective in using the randomized complete block design is to isolate and remove
from the error term the variation attributable to the blocks while assuming that
treatment means will be free from block effects. This increases the precision of the
analysis.
ANOVA Table Format
Sources of
Degree of Sum of Squares
Mean Square
F
Variation
Freedom#
(SSQ)
(MS)
Replication (r)
r-1
SSQr
SSQr/(r-1)
MSr/MSEl
Treatments (Tr)
t-1
SSQTr
SSQTr/(t-1)
MSTr/MSE
Error (E)
(t-1)*(r-1)
SSQE
SSQE/ (t-1)*(r-1))
Total (Tot)
r*t 1
SSQTot
#
where, t=number of treatments and r=number of blocks or replications.
References :
Steel , R.G.D. and Torrie, J.H. (1980) Principles and Procedures of Statistics- A
Biometrical Approach ,McGraw-Hill International Book company.
Piggott , J.R.(Ed.) (1986) Statistical Procedures in Food Research ,Elsevier Applied
Science Publishers, London
266
DESCRIPTIVE SENSORY ANALYSIS

Dr. Ashish Kumar Singh*, Ms. Rekha Chawla**
*Senior Scientist, **Ph. D. Scholar
Dairy Technology Division, NDRI, Karnal.
Introduction
Quality evaluation of every foodstuff is an important parameter. Grading and
judging are used extensively by every industry for quality evaluation on all products.
For grading and judging, a product is evaluated based on the presence or absence of
specific defects and then an overall quality score is given. These quality scores are
usually based on the opinions of one individual and the quality score is subjective
rather than specifically defined. These scores due to nonlinearity are unsuitable to be
used in statistical analysis and also they do not describe all of the attributes and
intensities of flavor attributes, texture, colour, and many more. This information would
be useful in market niche identification and end product application.
Sensory evaluation comprises a set of techniques for accurate measurement of
human responses to foods, and has been defined as a scientific method used to evoke,
measure, analyze and interpret those responses to products as perceived through the
senses of smell, sight, hearing, taste and touch. Foods are submitted to sensory
evaluation to provide information that can lead to product improvement, quality
maintenance, development of new products, or analysis of the market. Three primary
kinds of sensory tests focus on the overall differences among products (discrimination
tests), specificity of attributes (descriptive analysis) and measuring consumer likes or
dislikes (affective or hedonic testing). Sensory tests provide useful information about
the human perception of product.
Descriptive Sensory Analysis (DSA)
Descriptive sensory analysis is the most comprehensive and important tool in
the arsenal of the sensory, which allows the scientist to obtain complete sensory
description of products, help identifying underlying ingredient and process variables.
These techniques can provide complete sensory descriptions of products, determine
how ingredient or process changes affect product characteristics, and identify key
sensory attributes that promote product acceptance. It is desirable where a detailed
specification of the sensory attributes of a product is desired but associated with
certain drawbacks like for daily to daily base analysis descriptive analysis would be
costlier and also for this test, the panelist should be familiar and very much clear
regarding the associated terms to avoid Jargon. Descriptive analysis can be further
divided into various sub- components like:
267
Components of descriptive sensory analysis:

Sensory Characteristics- (Qualitative)
It expresses the perceived sensory parameters which define the product. It is
denoted by various items as attributes, characteristics, character- notes, descriptive
terms, descriptors or terminology. It defines the sensory profile or represents the
picture thumb nails of the sample.
Appearance- colour, surface texture, size, shape, interactions among

particles/ pieces
Aroma characteristics- olfactory sensations, nasal feeling factors
Flavour characteristics- olfactory sensations, taste sensations, oral feeling

factors
Oral texture characteristics- mechanical

parameters, fat/ moisture parameters
Skinfull characteristics- mechanical, geometrical, fat/ moisture and

appearance parameters
Texture/ Touch
parameters,
geometrical
Training of panelists should be related the real chemical and physical properties of the
product and their ability to familiarize themselves on characterization of production for
various identified attributes. A sound background in the subject matter help in
understanding of underlying mechanisms responsible for development of desirable
attributes.
Intensity- (Quantitative) expresses the degree in which each of the characteristics is
present and usually expressed by assignment of some value along a measurement
scale.
Three types of scales are normally used:
Category scale: Yield ordinal or interval data. Category scale 0-9 is most
common.
Line scale: Intensity can be more accurately measured, 15 cm scale.
Magnitude estimation (ME): Used where a single attribute has to be measured.
Validity and reliability of intensity measurement depends on selection of scaling

techniques, thorough training of panelists and use of reference scales for intensity of
different properties.
268
Order of Appearance
Related to detection of differences among products in the order in which
certain parameters manifest themselves and complete picture of the product requires
perception of all attributes, their rating for intensity. After taste or after feel is also part
of order of appearance, since it affects the perception of the foods.
Overall impression- Describes the Integrated assessment of the product properties.

There are 4 different ways by which we can integrate the overall impression of a
product and are: total intensity of aroma, balance/ blend amplitude, overall
difference, and hedonic ratings.
A range of tests are available to classify attributes quantitatively as well as
qualitatively but commonly detailed descriptive assay can be done using flavour
profile analysis, or texture profile analysis. Preference mapping refers to a group of
statistical techniques used to understand consumer preferences in terms of sensory
attributes and assists in understanding the descriptive sensory attributes that influence
consumer acceptance. The procedure requires an objective characterization of product
sensory attributes, achieved by descriptive analysis, which is then related to preference
ratings for the product obtained from a representative sample of consumers. The two
main areas of preference mapping techniques are internal preference mapping and
external preference mapping. A consumer panel would be the most appropriate tool to
determine when a food product reaches the end of its shelf life. Although the primary
objective of most of the textural studies is to measure sensory properties, sensory
evaluation is time consuming and costly. Therefore, many researchers choose
instrumental methods and relate those measurements to sensory evaluation.
Flavor profile
Flavour is widely recognized as a significant factor of any food product.
Extensive research has been conducted in understanding flavor in different products
through analytical and sensory analysis methods. Flavour profile was first used to
describe complex flavor systems measuring the effect of monosodium glutamate
(MSG). The FP considers the overall flavor and the individual detectable flavor
components of a food system. The profile describes the overall flavor and the flavor
notes and estimates the intensity and amplitude of theses descriptors. The food samples
are tested and all perceived notes are recorded for aroma, flavour, mouthfeel and
aftertaste. The panel is exposed to a wide range of food products within the food
category. After this exposure, the panelists review and refine then descriptors used.
The vocabulary used to describe a product and the product evaluation itself is achieved
269
by reaching agreement among the panel members. The following table defines some of
the main flavor defects with respect to cheese.
Table: List of cheese flavor defects used with judging cheese flavor.
Flavor defect
Definition
High acid
Excessive acid or sour taste
Bitter
Bitter taste resembling caffeine or quinine
Fruity/Fermented
Aroma of fermenting or overripe fruit
Flat
Devoid of flavor
Garlic/Onion
Flavor resembling garlic, onion, or leeks
Heated
Not the clean cooked flavor of pasteurized milk but a flavor resembling the
odor of old or spoiled milk
Malty
Flavor similar to grape nut cereal
Metallic
A flat metal-like taste and a lingering puckery mouthfeel
Moldy
Musty, reminiscent of a damp cellar
Rancid
Also called lipase, caused by short-chain fatty acids, flavor described as bitter,
soapy, disagreeable
Sulfide
Also called skunky. Similar to water eith high sulfer content.
Unclean
Dirty aftertaste that fails to clean-up after the cheese is expectorated
Whey taint
Also called sour whey. The dirty sweet acidic taste and odor characteristic of
fermented whey
Yeasty
Sour, bread-dough, earthy aroma characteristic of yeast.
Adapted from Bodyfelt and others (1988)
The Table depicts some of the flavor associated with cheddar cheese and also the
various references that are used to familiarize the panelist.
Table: The basic Cheddar cheese flavor lexicon
Descriptor
Definition
Reference
Cooked/milky
Aromatics associated with cooked milk
Skim milk heated to 85C for

30 min
Whey
Aromatics associated with fresh cheddar cheese
Fresh Cheddar cheese whey
whey
Diacetyl
Aromatics associated with diacetyl
Diacetyl 20 ppm
Milk fat/lactone
Aromatics associated with milk fat
Fresh coconut meat, heavy
270
cream, dodecalactone,
40ppm
Fruity
Sulfur
Sweet aromatics associated with different fruits,
Fresh pineapple Ethyl
primarily pineapple
hexanoate, 20 ppm
Aromatics associated with sulfurous compounds
Boiled mashed egg

H2S bubbled through water
Brothy
Aromatics associated with boiled meat or vegetable
Canned potatoes
soup stock
Low sodium beef broth cubes

Methional, 20 ppm
Free fatty acid
Aromatics associated with short-chain free fatty
Butyric acid, 20 ppm
acids
Nutty
Nutty Aromatics associated with various nuts
Roasted peanut oil extract

Light toasted unsalted nuts
Catty
Aromatics associated with tomcat urine
2-mercapto 2- methylpentan-4-one, 20 ppm
Cowy/barny
Aromatics associated with barns and stock trailers,
A mixture of p-cresol (160
indicative of animal sweat and waste
ppm) + isovaleric acid (320

ppm)
Sweet
Fundamental taste sensation elicited by caffeine
Sucrose (5 % in water)
Sour
Fundamental taste sensation
Citric acid (0.08 % in water)
Salty
Sodium chloride (0.5% in

water)
Bitter
Caffeine (0.08% in water)
Umami
Chemical feeling factor elicited by certain peptides
Mono sodium glutamate (1%
and nucleotides
in water)
Chemical references prepared in 95% ethanol, then blotted onto filter paper into jars for sniffing. Adopted from
Drake and others (2001).
Quantitative Descriptive Analysis:

Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) is a comprehensive system covering
sample selection, assessor screening, vocabulary development, testing and data
analysis. Variants of the original QDA procedures are probably used more than any
other profiling procedure. This particular technique uses small numbers of highly
trained assessors. Typically, 6 to 12 people are screened for sensory acuity and trained
to perform the descriptive task of evaluating the product. The results are analyzed
statistically and further data is represented in the form of Spider web.
The Spectrum Method:
This more recent method provides a tool with which to design a descriptive
procedure for a given product category. The method resembles QDA in many respects:
for example: the panel must be trained to fully define all product sensory attributes, to
271
rate the intensity of each, and includes all other relevant characterizing aspects.
The spectrum method is based on an extensive use of reference points. The scale to be
used is chosen with respect to available facilities and on need for sophisticated data
analysis but care should be taken that while choosing a scale, it must have at least two
or preferably, five reference points distributed across a range.
Texture Profile Method
Based on the similar principles of flavor profile method, the texture profile was
developed by the product evaluation and texture technology groups at general foods
corp. to define the textural parameters of foods. Panelists are selected on the basis of
ability to discriminate known textural differences in the specific product application
for which panel is to be trained. In addition, panelists are introduced to the underlying
textural principles involved in the structure of the products under study. Samples are
evaluated by panelist independently, using one of the scaling techniques. Depending
upon the type of scale used by the panel and on the way data to be treated, the panel
verdicts may be derived by group consensus, as with the flavor profile method, or by
statistical analysis of the data. Bourne (1982) classification on textural characteristics1
Critical : Texture dominant characteristics ex: meat, potato chips, celery
Important: Foods in which texture makes a significant but not dominant

contribution in comparison with other attributes. Ex: sugar, confectionary,
fruits, bread etc.
Minor: Foods in which texture made a negligible contribution to overall quality
Mechanical Properties: Related to reaction of food to stress

Primary parameters: Hardness, cohesiveness, viscosity, elasticity,
adhesiveness.
Secondary parameters: Brittleness, chewiness, gumminess.
Geometrical Characteristics
Relating to the size, shape and orientation of particles, within the food. .Ex:
powdery, gritty, lumpy, flacky, fibrous, cellular, aerated, crystalline.
Other characteristics are related to perception of the moisture and fat contents of the
food. Ex: dry, moist, oily, greasy wet.
Sherman (1969) has given following classification of the foods based on their textural
characteristics:1 Primary: basic properties of food, geometric characteristics such as particle
size, air content, size distribution, cell size, cell shape.
2 Secondary: derived by combination of two/ more attributes in unknown
proportion, rheological properties such as viscosity, adhesion.
3 Tertiary: Sub divided according to the type of the process involved.
Success of descriptive analysis depends on
272
Better understanding of the technical and physiological principles of sensory

attributes
Proper training of all panelists
Use of references of terminology
Descriptor
Sweet
Sour
Salt
Scale value
2.0
2 % sucrose solution
4.0
Ritz cracker
7.0
Lemonade
9.0
Coca cola classic
12.5
Bordeaux cookies
15.0
16 % sucrose solution
2.0
0.05 % citric acid- water solution
4.0
Natural apple sauce
5.0
Reconstituted frozen orange juice
8.0
Sweet pickle
10.0
Kosher dill pickle
15.0
0.20 % citric acid- water solution
5.0
0.2 % sodium chloride- water

solution
Salted soda cracker
7.0
American cheese
8.0
Mayonnaise
9.5
Salted potato chips
2.0
2.0
1.5 % sodium chloride- water

solution
Bottled grapefruit juice
4.0
Chocolate bar
5.0
0.08 % caffeine water solution
7.0
Raw endive
15.0
Bitter
Product
9.0
Celery seed
273
10.0
0.15 % caffeine- water solution
15.0
0.20 % caffeine- water solution
Conclusion:
Opportunities for sensory evaluation continue to develop primarily as a result
of significant changes in the marketplace and to a much greater extent then changes in
sensory evaluation.
274
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
Sr.
No
.
Name of the
Participants
Address
Email
Mobile
Dr. Pradyuman Kumar
Dept. of Food Engg. &

Tech., SLIET, Longowal
148106 Distt: Sangrur
(Punjab)
pradyuman2002
@hotmail.com
09417321580
Er. Sandeep .G.M. Prasad
Department of Dairy
Technology Allahabad
Agricultural Institute
(Deemed University)
Allahabad 211007
sandeep_gm_pra
sad@yahoo.com,
09415630377
Department of post Harvest

process and food
Engineering College of
technologyGBPUA&T
sanjeevkgarg@g
mail.com
09997706926
Department of Natural
Recourse Management
Mahatma Gandhi
Chitrakoot Gramodaya
Vishvavidyaly Satna (MP)
485331
jbs@rediffmail.c
om
09451676707
Dept of Food Technology

Islamic University of
Science & Technology
Awantipora Kashmir (J&K)
waniabas@gmail
.com
9858420721
Department of Dairy
Deemed University
Allahabad -211007
avinash_singhdai
rytech@yahoo.c
o.in
9453460756
Department of Dairy
Technology, Sanjay Gandhi
Institute of Dairy Tech.
(RAU, Bihar), Jagdeo path,
BVC, Campus ,Patna
(Bihar)
sanju_kvk@yaho
o.co.in
Department of A.H &

Dairying CSA University
of Agri. & Tech. Kanpur 208 002 (UP)
mps.yadav9@gm
ail.com
09935526634
University Research Farm,

Tamilnadu Veterinary and
Animal Science University
Madhavaram Milk Colony
Chennai - 600051
ritanarayanan@y
ahoo.com
09841390169
Dr Sanjeev Kr. Garg

Assistant Professor
0532-2684594
sandeepprasad@
rediffmail.com
Pantnagar 263145
4
Dr J B Singh
Lecturer
Dr A. A. Wani
Lecturer
Er.Avinash singh
Mr. Sanjeev Kumar

Assistant Professor
Dr. M.P.S. Yadav

Associate Professor
Dr. Rita Narayanan
05198-233720
0532-2695295
avinash_singhdai
rytech@rediffma
il.com
09931230858
09896965771
0612-2348482
10
Dr. B. S. Jadhav
Associate Professor
11
Dr. D.D. Patange

Assistant Professor
12
Sr. Shrikant D Kalyankar

Assistant Professor
13
Dr. S.U. Suryawanshi

Associate Professor
14
Dr. G. Sashidevi
Associate Professor,
College of Agriculture,
Kolhapur (MS)
09420352216
College of Agriculture,
Kolhapur (MS)
patange1@rediff
mail.com
09421800941
College of Dairy
Technology, Pusad,
Maharashtra Animal and
Fishery Sciences
University, Nagpur
(Maharashtra)
sdkalyankar@g
mail.com
09423435757
College of Vet. and AS,

Pusad, Maharashtra Animal
and Fishery Sciences
University, Nagpur
(Maharashtra)
shrivet@yahoo.c
om
09423154646
Dept of Family Resource

Management
sashidevig@gma
il.com
09443821090
Vijimurugan_15
@yahoo.co.in
09442879422
mallikach2@redi
ffmail.com
09986984641
singharchana14
@gmail.com
09916250347
Home Science College and

Research Institute,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University
Madurai 625 104.
15
Dr. R.Vijayalakshmi
Dept. of Apparel Designing

and Fashion Technology
Home Science College and
Research Institute,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University
Madurai 625 104.
16.
Ms. Mallika Manral
Scientist B
Defence Food Research
Laboratory, Siddarthanagar,
Mysore 570011
17.
Dr. Archana Singh
Scientist B, CPT Division

Defence Food Research
Laboratory, Siddarthanagar,
Mysore 570011
18
Mr. Shajanand Thakur
Department of Dairy
Deemed University
Allahabad 211007
09889500703
19
Mr. Manoj Chauhan
Institute of Food
Technology, Bundelkhand
University, Jhansi (UP)
09935663199

Sensory 2008

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Sensory 2008

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Course Compendium

Sensory and Related Techniques for Evaluation of

17th June, 2008 to 7th July, 2008

Editing and Compilation

All Right Reserved

Cover Design and Page Layout

Committees for the Course Organization

Dr A. A. Patel (Director, CAS)

Dr. V. K. Gupta (Chairman)

10.:00 AM- 10.15 AM

Dr. Ashish Kumar

Dr. Dharam Pal

Sensory Methods and their Applications in

10.45 AM- 1.00 PM

Sensory Evaluation of Milk (Theory & Dr. Dharam Pal

1.00 PM- 2.00 PM

Dr. Dharam Pal

9:45 AM- 1.00 PM

9:45 AM- 10.45 AM

9:45 AM- 10.45 AM

Dr. Rajan Sharma

Dr. Ashish Kumar

Dr. Rajesh Bajaj

9:45 AM- 1.00 PM

9:45 AM- 10.45 AM

9:45 AM- 1.00 PM

9:45 AM- 10.45 AM

Dr. (Mrs.) Latha

Dr. Ashish Kumar

9:45 AM- 10.45 AM

9:45 AM- 1.00 PM

9:45 AM- 1.00 PM

10.45 AM- 1.00 PM

Concept of Colour Measurement and

Dr. A.K. Srivastava

Committees for Course the Course

Requirements for Sensory Evaluation of Dr. Dharam Pal

Sensory Methods and their Applications Dr. Dharam Pal

Sensory Evaluation of Milk

Dr. A.K. Singh

Sensory Characteristics of Fresh Cheese

Dr. S.K. Kanawjia

Sensory Attributes of Ice Cream

Mr. F.C. Garg

Sensory Evaluation of Dairy Products V. Pathak & Z.F. Bhat

Sensory Attributes of Concentrated Milk Dr. R.R.B. Singh

Sensory Attributes of Fermented Milk Dr. Latha Sabikhi

Application of e-tongue in monitoring

Dr. S.K. Kanawjia

Sensory quality of foods

Role of Packaging Materials In Enhancing Dr. G.K. Goyal

Consumer Acceptance Studies

Chemistry of Flavour Development In Dr. Sumit Arora

Protein Dr. Vijay Kumar Gupta

Sensory Evaluation of Dried Milk and Dr. Vijay Kumar Gupta

Application of Rheology in Quality Dr. Dalbir Singh Sogi

Dr. Latha Sabikhi

Nondestructive Methods for Quality Dr. S. N. Jha

Good Laboratory Practices Genesis & Dr. Rajan Sharma

Chemistry of Quality Attributes in Heat Dr. (Mrs.) Bimlesh

Determination of Sorption Isotherms and Dr. R. R. B. Singh

with Dr. A. K. Sharma

Dairy Dr. Sudhir Tomar