Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Peter E. Clark
Department of Chemical Engineering
August 3, 2007
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Density . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Specific Gravity . . . . .
1.1.3 Specific Weight . . . . .
1.2 Newtonian Fluids . . . . . . . .
1.3 Non-Newtonian Fluids . . . . .
1.3.1 Power Law Fluids . . . .
1.3.2 Bingham Plastic . . . . .
1.3.3 Herschel-Bulkley Fluids
1.3.4 Dilatant Fluids . . . . .
1.3.5 Time Dependent Fluids .
1.4 Kinematic Viscosity . . . . . . .
1.5 Surface Tension . . . . . . . . .
1.6 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 Fluid Statics
2.1 Basic Equation of Fluid Statics .
2.2 Pressure - Depth Relationships .
2.2.1 Constant Density Fluids
2.2.2 Variable Density Fluids .
2.3 Pressure Forces . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Pressure Measurement . . . . .
2.5.1 Manometers . . . . . . .
2.5.2 Bourdon Tube . . . . . .
2.5.3 Pressure Transducers . .
2.6 Accelerated Rigid-Body Motion
2
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3
4
4
4
4
5
6
6
7
8
9
9
9
10
10
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11
12
12
12
13
14
15
16
16
19
20
20
3 Balance Equations
3.0.1 Equation of Continuity . . .
3.1 Control Volume . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Fluid Velocity in a Confined Region
3.2.1 Flow Regimes . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Plug or Creeping Flow . . .
3.2.3 Laminar Flow . . . . . . . .
3.2.4 Turbulent Flow . . . . . . .
3.3 Unsteady-State Mass Balances . . .
3.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 The First Law of Thermodynamics
4.1 Energy Transfer . . . . . . .
4.2 Energy Balance . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Sign Conventions . .
4.2.2 Potential Energy . .
4.2.3 Kinetic Energy . . .
4.3 Internal Energy . . . . . . .
4.4 Work . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . .
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5 Bernoulli Equation
5.1 Applying the Bernoulli Equation
5.2 Bernoulli Equation With Friction
5.3 Gas Flows . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Non-Flow Work . . . . . . . . .
5.5 Flow Measurement . . . . . . .
5.5.1 Pitot Tube . . . . . . . .
5.5.2 Static Pitot Tube . . . .
5.5.3 Venturi Meter . . . . . .
5.5.4 Orifice Meter . . . . . .
5.5.5 Rotameters . . . . . . .
5.6 Unsteady Flows . . . . . . . . .
5.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . .
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23
24
25
26
27
28
28
29
29
31
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33
33
34
35
35
36
36
36
37
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39
40
43
44
46
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
56
57
7 Momentum Balance
59
3
Contents
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
Newtons Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Control Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Forces on a Control Volume . . . . . . . . .
Steady Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum
7.5.1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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59
59
61
62
69
69
Introduction
Outline
1. Review
a) Density
b) Specific gravity
c) Specific weight
2. Newtonian Fluids
a) Stress
b) Strain
c) Strain rate or shear rate
d) Viscosity
3. Non-Newtonian Fluids
a) Pseudoplastic
b) Bingham Plastic
c) Yield pseudoplastic or Herschel-Bulkly Fluid
d) Dilatant
e) Time dependent
i. Rheopetic
ii. Thixotropic
4. Kinematic Viscosity
5. Surface Tension
5
1. Introduction
6. Pressure
7. Computer Problems
1.1 Review
There are a few concepts that need to be reviewed to aid in
understanding the text.
1.1.1 Density
=
mass
kg g
lbm
Units : 3 ;
:
3
volume
m cm
f t3
(1.1)
kg
g
lbm
lbm
g
N dyne lb f
Units : 3 ;
;
gc
m cm3 f t 3
(1.3)
Newtonian Fluids
Figure 1.2: Fluid element after the application of a force acting tangentially on the top of the element.
shear stress( or ) =
f orce
N dyne lb f lb f
Units : 2 ;
;
;
area
m cm2 f t 2 in2
(1.4)
x
displacement
=
(1.5)
element height y
Since a fluid is continuously deformed by a force acting on it, strain
is important.
doesnt mean much, but the rate of strain or shear rate ()
strain () =
d xy
d
1
=
strain rate or shear rate ()
=
Units :
dt
dt
time
(1.6)
Newton first proposed that the shear stress could be related to the
shear rate by
= Constant
7
1. Introduction
F t dyne s N s
;
; 2 or Pa s
Units :
area cm2
m
(1.7)
lb f s
N s
= 47.88 2 = 478.8 Poise = 47880 centipoise
2
ft
m
Non-Newtonian Fluids
=
a ()
= mn
(1.8)
m n
m
=
= 1n
(1.9)
1. Introduction
(1.10)
Where 0 is the yield stress (the stress that must be exceeded before
flow begins) and p is the plastic viscosity.
(1.11)
= = mn
= =
= = 0 + p
PowerLaw
Newtonian
BinghamPlastic
Kinematic Viscosity
1. Introduction
area f t 2 cm2
time ( s , s ,
etc).
1.6 Pressure
Pressure is defined as force divided by the area that the force acts over
and therefore has units of FA . It can be a result of an applied force (for
example pumping) or hydrostatic (weight of a column of fluid). The
total pressure is the sum of the applied and hydrostatic pressure.
P = Papplied + Phydrostatic
12
Fluid Statics
Outline
1. Basic Equation of Fluid Statics
2. Pressure - Depth Relationships
a) Constant density fluids
b) Ideal gases
3. Pressure
4. Pressure Vessels and Piping
5. Buoyancy
6. Pressure Measurement
a) Manometers
b) Pressure gages
c) Pressure transducers
7. Static Pressure Head
8. Acceleration
13
2. Fluid Statics
(2.2)
dP =
g dz
P = g z = z
(2.3)
Equation 2.3 is one of the most important and useful equations in fluid
statics.
dP
= g
dz
dP
PM
=
g
dz
RT
(2.4)
15
2. Fluid Statics
dp
gM
=
dz
P
RT
Z P2
1
P1
dP =
gM
dz
RT
(2.5)
Which yields
ln(
gM
P2
)=
(z2 z1 )
P1
RT
gM
P2 = P1 e R T z
(2.6)
k
RT1
k 1 gMz
T2 = T1 1
k
RT
(2.7)
(2.8)
dF = PdA
dF =
PdA
F=
PdA
16
lb f
(8 in)2 = 877334 lb f
in2 4
(2.9)
Buoyancy
Example 2.3. You are the proud possessor of a 200 f t tall water
tower. At the base of the tower (1 f oot above the ground) is a
seven foot tall by two foot wide access panel that is held in place
by bolts. What is the force on the plate?
F = (7 f t)(2 f t)
Z 192 f t
199 f t
w dh
F = 170789 lb f
Since the panel is rectangular, the average pressure can be used.
P=
F=
lb f
192 f t + 199 f t
w = 12199 2
2
ft
12199 lb f 7 f t 2 f t
|
= 170789 lb f
|
f t2
2.4 Buoyancy
Remembering that in a liquid at rest the pressure at a point is the same
in all directions, a body submerged in the liquid will experience a
force on the top and bottom of the body. Because the body is finite in
length, the force on the bottom will be greater than the force on the
top. The easy way to think about the magnitude of the buoyant force
is that it is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced. It is probably
better to consider it as a force balance. To see how this works we will
use a length of pipe suspended in a well.
17
2. Fluid Statics
Example 2.4.
A 5000 f t well is filled with a drilling mud that has a specific
lb
weight of 11.2 galf . A 1000 f t piece of pipe (od = 8 in, id = 7 in)
is submerged at the surface with only the top of the pipe exposed.
What is the buoyant force on the pipe?
h = z = 0 f t 1000 f t
Pb =
lb f
1000 f t 12 in 11.2 lb f 7.48 gal
f t3
|
|
|
|
=
582
3
ft
gal
f t 3 (12 in)
in2
FB = Pb
(8 in)2 (7 in)2 = 5940 lb f
4
Pb =
Pt =
lb f
3500 f t 12 in 11.2 lb f 7.48 gal
f t3
= 2036 2
|
|
|
|
3
3
ft
gal
ft
in
(12 in)
lb f
2500 f t 12 in 11.2 lb f 7.48 gal
f t3
= 1454 2
|
|
|
|
3
3
ft
gal
ft
in
(12 in)
Pressure Measurement
19
2. Fluid Statics
Applying these rules is simple. In Figure 2.4, the tank and tube form a
simple manometer. To find the pressure at point A, we start by writing
the pressure at point A as PA . Appling rule 3, we move from point A
to point B. Since both points are at the same level, the pressures are
equal.
PA h = Patm
20
Pressure Measurement
2. Fluid Statics
(2.12)
23
2. Fluid Statics
24
Balance Equations
Almost all of engineering comes down to balances mass,
momentum, and/or energy. We have already seen in developing the
manometer equation that it is nothing more than a pressure balance.
In the beginning chemical engineering course, the general balance
equation was presented. Evaluating the various components of the
equation is the challenge in various aspects of chemical engineering.
(3.1)
25
(3.2)
3. Balance Equations
(3.3)
(3.4)
vA = 0
(3.5)
or
The equation of continuity can also be written in terms of the specific
weight.
Control Volume
Solution
1. Calculate the mass flow rates in using m = v A
m 1 m 2 m 3 = m tank
v1 A1 v2 A2 v3 A3 = vtank Atank
It is clear that the value of is the same on both sides of the equation
so it can be eliminated. Since area = 4 d 2 and the area term is on both
sides of the equation, the 4 term cancels.
20 f t
s
3 in
ft
|
12 in
2
8 ft
2 in
ft
|
12 in
2
10 f t
2.5 in
ft
|
12 in
2
ft
s
3. Balance Equations
Q
A
(3.6)
In reality, unless the fluid is flowing very fast or very slow, there is a
significant velocity distribution that for flow of a Newtonian fluid in a
pipe is parabolic (Figure 3.4). One of the basic assumptions of fluid
mechanics is that the fluid velocity at the wall is zero i.e. no slip.
With the velocity equal to zero at the wall, the fluid velocity is at a
maximum at or near the centerline of the flow (depends upon the
geometry of the flow channel).
3. Balance Equations
NRe =
dv
Figure 3.5: Velocity distribution for a Newtonian fluid in plug flow and
laminar flow.
dm
dt
dm
dt
31
3. Balance Equations
dsystem
Qout
=
dt
system
V system
Integrating the equation yields
32
Summary
system f
ln
systemi
=
Qout
t
V system
Remembering that
gas =
PM
RT
3.4 Summary
Mass balances are extremely important in fluid flow. Missing mass
usually means that there is a leak. Using the equation of continuity
seems
difficult
at first and dealing with the dot product of velocity and
area v ~A appears to add an unnecessary complication, learning
how to set up problems using this formulation will help to minimize
mistakes in the long run. In Chemical Engineering, unsteady state
mass balances are important. It is worth spending some time to try to
understand them.
33
Work =
f orce d(distance) =
F dx
Figure 4.1: Energy input from flow, shaft work, and heat transfer
So the overall energy balance for the system becomes
d[m(u+ pe+ke)]sys = [(u+ pe+ke)in dmin +dQin +dWin [(u+ pe+ke)out dmout +dQout +
36
Energy Balance
37
v2
2
or
KE = m ke = m
v2
2
2
2
4.4 Work
Work on a compressible system is given by
dW = Fdx = PAdx = PdV
Since the volume decreases, the sign is negative. Injection work is the
work required to inject a mass across system boundaries. Rather than
38
Summary
deal with the injection work and the internal energy, the enthalpy
(h = u + PV ) is used. So that the energy balance equation becomes
v2
d m h + gz +
=
2
sys
v2
h + gz +
dmin
(4.2)
2 in
2
v
dmout
h + gz +
2 out
+ dQ + dW
4.5 Summary
The first law can be used to analyze energy flow into and out of a
system. Equation 4.2 provides the basis for the Bernoulli equation
discussed in the next chapter.
39
Bernoulli Equation
One of the most useful equations in fluid mechanics is the Bernoulli
equation (BE). Your book presents it in the differential form
P
v2
+ gz +
=0
2
where P is Pout Pin . Looking at the units we find
F l3
l l l2
|
| + 2|
+
l 2 mass t 2
t 2
In order to straighten this mess out, it is necessary to divide bygc or
to express force in terms of mass acceleration. Either way yields
2
units of tl 2 .
F l 3 mass l
l l l2
|
|
+ 2| + 2|
l 2 mass t 2 F
t
t 2
There is a better way to think about the Bernoulli equation. Normally,
the BE is written between two points in the flow.
v2 P2
v2
P1
+ g z 1 + 1 = + g z2 + 2
(5.1)
2g
2g
(5.2)
41
5. Bernoulli Equation
0 + 0 + 0 = 0 + (h) +
v22
2g
Solving for v2
v2 =
p
2gh
(5.3)
2g
2g
canceling the elevation terms and rearranging the equation we get
43
5. Bernoulli Equation
P1 P2
=
v22
v2
1
2g 2g
v1 A1
A2
P1 P2
v21
2g
=
=
2
v1 AA21
2g
P1
P2
2
v21
2g
A1
A2
v
u
P1
P2
u
V1 = u
t2 g 2
A1
A2
2g
2g
g
(5.4)
2
The friction term F takes the form of a constant times 2v g .
Frictional forces arise from simple flow, flow through valves, elbows,
orifices, etc. Values for the constant can be obtained from tables or
from the friction factor charts.
Example 5.2. Fluid flowing through the pipe and elbow shown
below exhibits frictional losses both in the pipe and the elbow.
The pipe friction will be treated in Chapter 6 and will be neglected in this example.
2g
2g
g
45
5. Bernoulli Equation
g
which simplifies to
P1 P2
g = Fb
v2
2
Gas Flows
47
5. Bernoulli Equation
2g
g
2g
g
(5.5)
The work term consists of all of the non-flow work. It includes work
done on the system by stirrers, mixers, pumps, etc. or work done by
the system turning turbines, shafts, or other rotating machinery. We
will return to non-flow work in Chapter 6.
Flow Measurement
5. Bernoulli Equation
2g
2g
and zeroing out z1 , z2 , and v2 we get
P2
P1 v2
+
=
2g
2g
2g
2g
solving for v1
s
v1 =
50
P
2g
=
s
2
(5.7)
Flow Measurement
2g
2g
If the diameter of the tube at 1 is d1 and the diameter at 2 is d2 , the
velocity at point 1 can be expressed in terms of the velocity at point 2
by solving v1 A1 = v2 A2 for v1 . Furthermore, the area ratio can be
expressed as the ratio of the squares of the diameters. This leads to
the expression of the Bernoulli equation
51
5. Bernoulli Equation
2 2
d
v2 d22
P2 v2
P1
1
+
= + 2
2g
2g
This equation can be solved for v2
v
u 2 (P P )
1
2
u
v2 = t
d22
1 d2
(5.8)
Flow Measurement
eleven thousand dollars per year at the current price of natural gas. For
a field that produces a billion cubic feet per day (there are fields that
produce this much) the difference is in excess of two million dollars!
5.5.5 Rotameters
A rotameter is a simple device that is used when a high degree of
accuracy is not needed. The gas or liquid flow is used to levitate a ball
of known diameter and density. Usually the rotameter is calibrated so
that a measured position of the ball corresponds to a flow rate. Care
must be exercised when using rotameters. They are most accurate
when the ball is located in about the middle two-thirds of the meter.
53
5. Bernoulli Equation
54
dh A2 p
=
2 g, h
dt
A1
dh
dt
. Rearrange
(5.10)
Unsteady Flows
A p
dh = 2 2g
A1
h
Z t2
dt
(5.11)
t1
When the tank has parallel sides this problem is relatively easy,
however, if the tank is cone shape the area of the surface becomes a
function of height. Finding the functional form of the diameter is first
problem and integrating it is the second. For the cone-shaped tank
shown in Figure 5.14 as the level in the tank drops, the cross-sectional
area A1 decreases.
tan =
o
h
55
5. Bernoulli Equation
Combining the numeric value for tan with any value for the height
yields the length of o at the selected height. The diameter, d1 at any
height between h0 and h can now be expressed by
d1 (h) = 2 (tan ) (h) + d2
Integrating Equation 5.11 becomes a bit more difficult because A1 is
now a function of height. The A1 terms now looks like
A1 =
(2 (tan ) (h) + d2 )2
4
Z h2
(2 (tan ) (h) + d2 )2
h1
A2 p
dh =
2g
4
Z t2
dt
(5.12)
t1
56
Unsteady Flows
(2 (tan ) (h) + d2 )2
4
The integral that must be solved is
A1 =
Z 15
A1
0
dh = A2
h
Z t2
dt
2g
t1
0
tan = =
h
A1 =
d2 d1
2
2 f t0.5 f t
2
15 f t
= 0.05
5. Bernoulli Equation
Z 15
(0.1 h + 0.5)2
0
s
Z t
2
ft
2
dt
2 32.2 2
dh = 0.196 f t
s
t1
R 15 (0.1 h+0.5)2
t =
dh
rh
0.196 f t 2 2 32.2 sf2t
0
5.7 Summary
The Bernoulli equation describes the relationship between velocity
and pressure. It is useful in a wide variety of flow problems. Care
must be taken in choosing the start and end points. In general, the
points should be selected to minimize the number of variables that
must be evaluated. In the next chapter we will see how the Bernoulli
equation can be extended to more complex flow systems where
friction is important and work is done on or by the system.
58
59
Momentum Balance
dv d (mv)
=
dt
dt
(7.1)
7. Momentum Balance
makes the process easier. If the subject of the analysis is moving, then
it is usually better to let the control volume move. For a fixed flow
system, the control volume should be fixed. For example, the system
shown in 7.1 should have a control volume that encompasses the
nozzle and the plate. For a jet exiting a moving airplane, the velocity
(7.2)
(7.3)
Fbody =
CV
g d V = mCV g
(7.4)
(7.5)
gd V +
CV
~n dA
(7.6)
CV
63
7. Momentum Balance
in
Which reduces to
F = m (~vout ~vin)
(7.7)
10kg 20m N s2
= 200 N
|
|
s
s kg m
| {z }
gc
Steady Flow
in
s
360
s
The y-component of the velocity is given by
50 f t
70 2
ft
v2,y = v2 sin =
|
| sin
= 46.98
s
360
s
Calculating the mass flow rate
m = q where q = v1 A
q=
m =
50 f t 0.0491 f t 2
f t3
|
= 2.455
s
s
7. Momentum Balance
s
360
s
70 2
35 f t
ft
v2,y = v2 sin =
| sin
|
= 32.89
s
360
s
153.19 lbm 1
ft ft
Fx =
| | 11.97 35
= -76.7 lb f
s
gc
s
s
66
Steady Flow
32.89 f t
153.19 lbm 1
ft
Fy =
= 109.5 lb f
| |
0
s
gc
s
s
Since the vane is moving away from the jet, the forces will decrease as
the jet lengthens (the distance between the jet and the vane increases).
There is another way to think about
the momentum equation. If we write the equation as
F = vvA
(7.8)
F = vvA
The x-component of the velocity is given by
50 f t
70 2
ft
v2,x = v2 cos =
| cos
|
= 17.1
s
360
s
The y-component of the velocity is given by
50 f t
70 2
ft
v2,y = v2 sin =
|
| sin
=
46.98
s
360
s
The reactive force in the x-direction is given by
Fx =
v1,x v1 A + v2,x v1 A
gc
gc
lb f s2
62.4 lbm
50 f t 50 f t cos (180) 0.0491 f t 2
|
|
|
|
|
f t3
32.2lbm f t s
s
62.4 lbm 32.2lb f s2 17.1 f t 50 f t cos (0) 0.0491 f t 2
+
|
|
|
|
f t3
lbm f t
s
s
Fx =
= -156.5 lb f
67
7. Momentum Balance
v1,y v1 A + v2,y v1 A
gc
gc
lb f s2
0 f t 50 f t cos (180) 0.0491 f t 2
62.4 lbm
|
|
|
|
Fy =
|
f t3
32.2lbm f t s
s
62.4 lbm 32.2lb f s2 46.98 f t 50 f t cos (0) 0.0491 f t 2
+
|
|
|
|
f t3
lbm f t
s
s
= 223.5 lb f
F = vvA
A1 =
68
2
d = 0.071 m3
4 1
A2 =
2
d = 0.0177 m3
4 2
Steady Flow
m
m
q
q
= 3.54
= 14.15
v2 =
A1
s
A2
s
Using the Bernoulli equation to evaluate the missing pressure.
v1 =
P1 = 150 kPa
v2
v2
P2
P1
+ z1 + 1 = + z2 + 2
2g
2g
d1
d2
z1 = 0 m
z2 =
= 0.325 m
+ 0.1 m +
2
2
Solving for P2
P2 = 59.37 kPa
Returning to the momentum equation we can write
Fx + P1 A1 + P2 A2 =
v1 v1 A1 + (v2 ) v2 A2
gc
gc
g
0.1 m3 1000kg 9.81m N s2
|
= 500 N +
| 2 |
gc
m3
s
1 kg m
Fy = 1.48 kN
7. Momentum Balance
F = v vA
m
2
q
= 2.55
d = 0.785m2 v1 =
4
A1
s
The velocity at the exit, v2,x , is not equal to v1 , but is equal to
2
m
= 2.205
v2,x = v1 cos 30
360
s
A1 = A2 =
The force in the z direction results from the weight of the bend and
the weight of the fluid enclosed within it.
1.2m (0.94) 1000kg 9.81m N s2
Fz = WB +W f = 4 kN +
|
| 2 |
m3
s
1 kg m
Fz = 15.1kN
M=
Z
r dm =
|
r dm = I
{z }
I
71
7. Momentum Balance
n
Angular velocity = 2
60 yields rad/s.
In vector form, the momentum force equation becomes
~ =~r ~F
M
Where the magnitude of the moment of force is given by
M = Fr sin
The moment of momentum in vector form becomes
~ =~r m~v
H
For a differential mass dm
72
dm = (~r ~v) dV
Integration yields
~ sys =
H
(~r ~v) dV
sys
in
M = rmv
out
in
kg
1000 kg 0.02 m3
|
=
20
m3
s
s
73
7. Momentum Balance
m
vnozzle = r = (0.6m) 42 = 18.85
s
s
Calculate the relative velocity
vrel = vn vr = 63.66 18.85 = 44.81
m
s
Tsha f t
0.6 m 20 kg 44.81 m N s2
= rm total vr =
|
|
|
= 537.7N m
s
s
kg m
74
kW s
31.42 537.7N m
|
|
= 16.9 kW
s
1000 N m